1

Indira Gandhi National Open University MPY – 001

School of Interdisciplinary and
Trans-disciplinary Studies
Indian Philosophy

Block 1

INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

UNIT 1
Nature of Philosophy and the Characteristics of Indian Philosophy

UNIT 2
Introduction to Vedas and Upanishads

UNIT 3
Introduction to Tirukkural

UNIT 4
Introduction to Epics, Puranas and Bhagavadgita
 2

Expert Committee
Prof. Gracious Thomas Aligarh Muslim
University
Director, School of Prof. Y.S. Gowramma
Social Work Aligarh Principal,
IGNOU College of Fine Arts,
Dr. Bhuvaneswari Manasagangotri
Prof. Renu Bharadwaj Lavanya Flats Mysore – 570 001
School of Humanities Gangai Amman Koil
St.
IGNOU
Thiruvanmiyur
Chennai – 600 041
Prof. George
Panthanmackel,
Senior Consultant, Dr. Alok Nag
IGNOU Vishwa Jyoti Gurukul
Varanasi
Dr. M. R. Nandan
Govt. College for Dr. Jose Kuruvachira
Women
Salesian College &
Mandya - Mysore IGNOU Study Centre
Dimapur, Nagaland
Dr. Kuruvila
Pandikattu
Jnana-deepa
Vidyapeeth
Ramwadi, Dr. Sathya Sundar
Sethy
Pune
Dept of Humanities
IIT, Chennai.

Dr. Joseph Martis

St. Joseph’s College
Jeppu, Mangalore – 2
Dr Babu Joseph
CBCI Centre Dr. Jaswinder Kaur
New Delhi Dhillon
147, Kabir park
Prof. Tasadduq Husain Opp. GND University
Amristar – 143 002
 3

Block Preparation

Units 1 & 3 Prof. R. Gopalakrishnan

Formerly Head, Dept of Philosophy
University of Madras.

Unit 2 Dr. S. Bhuvaneshwari

Tiruvanmiyur, Chennai.

Unit 4 Dr. V. John Peter

IGNOU, New Delhi.

Content Editor
Dr. V. John Peter
IGNOU, New Delhi

Format Editor
Prof. Gracious Thomas
IGNOU, New Delhi.

Programme Coordinator
Prof. Gracious Thomas
IGNOU, New Delhi.
 1

BLOCK INTRODUCTION

Philosophy develops a fascination for wisdom which is different from knowledge. Philosophical
wisdom manifests in several ways – mainly theoretical and applied. The former is explanatory
while the latter is the combination of both theory and practice. Rational discussions emanate
mainly from four perspectives; metaphysical, epistemological, ethical and religious. Vedas or the
source of knowledge, is also referred to as the Sruti. The content of the Vedas that has come
down to us for centuries is said to have been heard by the sages in deep meditation and these
sages are therefore known as ‘mantra drastas’ or the ‘seer of the mantras’. The Upanisads reveal
the Absolute Truth, which provides the means to liberation and is popularly known as the
‘Vedanta.’ The Vedic Literature is vast with several branches and sections. The Upanisads
uniformly present the triple means to a seeker of truth, they are, shravana, manana and
nididhyasana. Mostly, the Upanishads are set in a dialogue between a teacher and a disciple and
the teaching is gradual and progressive. The epics, puranas and Bhagavat Gita are also
influential literatures as far as philosophical thoughts are concerned. The great Tamil classical,
Tirukkural is the comprehensive treatise on morality, polity and social integrity.

Unit 1 introduces to the students the basics of the concerns of the philosophy with its different
branches and the second part of the unit specifies the features of philosophy in relation to Indian
thought process from the ancient times onwards. Through this unit students would understand the
nature of philosophy in relation to its different branches and the characteristic features of Indian
philosophical systems.

Unit 2 presents the gamut of Vedic literature and briefly mentions its contents. It analyses its
portions, that is, the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanisads. Some basic
doctrines as found in the Vedas and in the Upanisads that continue to influence the modern
thought and paved way for a philosophical growth are detailed in the unit.

Unit 3 introduces to the students one of the greatest philosophical treatises of India from the
Tamil tradition. Tirukkural by Tiruvalluvar of Tamil sangam period is a classical text on
practical philosophy of life with its three division on aram (righteousness), porul (wealth), ibam
(happiness). The unit expounds the moral, social and political philosophy of Tirukkural.

Unit 4 gives a general outlook of the popular scriptures of Indian tradition namely the epics,
puranas and the Gita. The popularity of them is due to their narrative style with illustrations,
mythological stories and dialogical forms. They do contain high philosophical notions, but given
in a popular language. Philosophy of devotion is the focal point in these smrti literature.
 1

UNIT 1 NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN

PHILOSOPHY
Contents
1.0. Objectives
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Metaphysics
1.3. Logic and Epistemology
1.4. Ethics or Moral Philosophy
1.5. Religion
1.6. Characteristics of Indian Philosophy
1.7. Special Features of Indian Philosophy
1.8. Let us Sum Up
1.9. Key Words
1.10. Further Readings and References

1.0 OBJECTIVES

The literal meaning of the world ‘philosophy’ is ‘love of wisdom,’ which has been split into
‘philo’ and ‘sophia.’ Since the term ‘philosophy’ is fascinating, but elusive, there are several
definitions for this term. All the definitions centre on the intellectual exercise concerned with the
nature of reality from human perspective. Mainly philosophy deals with the perennial problems
of life. As life is a complex and complicated phenomenon, the role of philosophy is immense in
making an enquiry into the issues emerging in human life. Issues concerning with social,
political, moral, religious, racial, cultural, linguistic and economic spheres, confront human
beings; the impact of philosophical investigation gains significance in explicating the real
meaning or goal of life. Through this unit students would understand the nature of philosophy in
relation to its different branches and the characteristic features of Indian philosophical systems.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Philosophy develops a fascination for wisdom which is different from knowledge. Knowledge is
acquired through the sense organs and mind while wisdom is obtained through the influence of
the spirit called the self or soul. The former is fallible, conditioned, limited and alterable
whereas the latter is infallible, unconditional, unlimited and unalterable. Though philosophy
initially commences with knowledge, it culminates in wisdom. Only the men of wisdom are
called ‘wise men’ or ‘philosophers’ in the genuine sense of the term. The root element for both
of these exercises is ‘thinking.’ An ordinary human being thinks casually, but a philosopher
thinks sincerely, seriously and systematically especially for the annihilation of the afflictions
 2

arising in human life. In this process a philosopher hesitates to accept any fixed explanations,
beliefs or principles; rather it engages in dedicated persistent and systematic inquiry into the
prevailing assumptions, methods, as well as criteria by which critical distinctions are made.

It is a well known fact that life is full of mysteries, containing lot of miseries. Life is generally
and characteristically defined as the span of existence from cradle to grave. A child is born,
grows, marries, brings forth offspring and dies. The doubt remains as to what happens to the soul
after death, how does a soul enter into the body before birth? Why are we born? Why should we
live? Why are there so many hurdles in life? How are we to overcome sufferings? What is the
importance of material life? Is spiritual life superior to material life? What are permanence and
change? Why are they caused? What is the problem of one and many? How was the world
created? What is the stuff out of which it has been created? Will the universe exist for ever? Is
there any super power called God? How is God related to the soul and the world? Is the soul one
or many? What are appearance and reality?

Philosophy endeavours to explain through speculative reasoning the possible answers to these
varieties of questions. Since each philosopher develops his own answer in accordance to his
intellectual calibre, we have variegated philosophical truths. One thinker refutes the other and
comes forward with his own viewpoints which are subsequently refuted by successive
philosophers. This attitude is based on the historical situation of the philosopher. Metaphorically
speaking, a philosopher inhales much before he exhales, i.e., he studies the environment in which
he lives, the philosophical predicaments pronounced by his predecessors, the scriptures or
literature available during his times, and develops dialogue, discussion, argument etc., with his
rival thinkers so that he sharpens his intellect before exhibiting his philosophical doctrines. The
method of refuting the alien view and the presentation of one’s own view results in the
enrichment as well as enhancement of wisdom to the ardent admirers of philosophy. New vistas
of knowledge open the floodgates of wisdom thereby eliminating ignorance. Almost all
philosophers both in the occident and the orient have unanimously declared that ignorance
causes misery and the remedy for all maladies is acquiring wisdom.

Philosophical wisdom manifests in several ways – mainly theoretical and applied. The former is
explanatory while the latter is the combination of both theory and practice. Rational discussions
emanate mainly from four perspectives; metaphysical, epistemological, ethical and religious.

1.2 METAPHYSICS

The etymological meaning of this term is that which transcends the physical realm. In physics
we have direct accessibility to the material world and experience its manifestations in actual life.
Metaphysical issues are deeply concerned with the intellectual analysis of the deep intricacies of
the reality. In fact the truth about the ‘reality’ cannot be demonstrated or substantiated, but
cannot be denied also. The facts about reality are conceptualized and described. Hence we have
both positive and negative approaches to reality. Further the multifarious reflections of reality
 3

enabled the philosophers to contemplate on an ultimate reality and elucidate its nature and
characteristic features variously. Thus the idea of God gains more significance as the ultimate
reality. Philosophers who have theistic bent of mind have attempted to prove the existence of
God logically and then only they exemplify the nature and functions of God based on certain
religious scriptures. The interpretation of the scriptures has made the contemporary thinkers coin
the term and explain it in terms of ‘hermeneutics.’ The belief in one God is known as monism,
two Gods, dualism and many gods, pluralism. Some philosophers develop counter-arguments to
the proofs and show their inadequacy or invalidity. Some other thinkers bluntly reject the
existence of God with atheistic temperament and clinching arguments as well. The ontological,
cosmological, moral, teleological and design are some of the titles on which the proofs for the
existence of God are based. God and other associated activities like rituals, festivals etc. are
extensive studies on religion.

Another important metaphysical concept is soul or self, the sustaining force in all human and
other living species, responsible for consciousness. Like God, the existence of the soul also has
been established through logical arguments. The materialists deny the existence of a permanent
abiding substance in the body. That substance which is responsible for all subjective phenomena
is termed as the real and the realization of this self will pave the way for freedom from all
sufferings. The ancient Greek philosophers had pronounced the famous slogan ‘know thyself.’
The idea of the self has a tinge with God of religion that it is the citadel for God to dwell in. As
usual the atheists deny the existence of both of them and according to them death is the end of
life. None can ‘see’ or ‘feel’ the so-called self. Only the mind and the sense organs both outer
and inner are responsible for human experience. Further the terms like ‘causality,’ ‘time,’
‘space,’ ‘universals,’ ‘particulars,’ ‘matter,’ ‘form,’ ‘mind,’ ‘body,’ ‘idealism,’ ‘rationalism,’
‘free will,’ ‘determinism,’ ‘naturalism,’ ‘solipsism’ etc., are some of the metaphysical concepts
which have been promulgated with arguments and equally rejected logically.

The logical positivists and the linguistic analysts have attempted to eliminate the very notion of
metaphysics from the purview of philosophy based on the principle of verification. All verifiable
statements are sensible and the non-verifiable statements are non-sensical and hence metaphysics
is impossible. However, there are certain statements pertaining to future like the ‘can’ statements
are neither verifiable nor non-verifiable. Hence the notion of verifiability has been bifurcated as
‘strong’ and ‘weak’ verifiabilities. In spite of the opposition to metaphysics, the study of
metaphysics still retains its importance.

1.3 LOGIC AND EPISTEMOLOGY

Since thinking process and the ‘thought content’ form the basis of all philosophical
investigations, the role of logic and epistemology becomes very significant and immense. Logic
has been derived from the root ‘logos’ which means ‘thinking.’ It has been succinctly defined as
the normative science of correct thinking. It is a scientific study or systematic analysis of our
thinking methodology and its product viz., ‘thought.’ The thought process takes place thus: A
unit of thought is judgement; when a judgement is expressed in a language, it becomes a
sentence. All sentences are to be converted into the logical structure viz., propositions have
 4

subject-predicate formula with a copula which should be always in the present tense. Only in this
structure the linguistic expressions are considered true or false or doubtful. Aristotle is
considered the father of traditional logic. Again, logic is treated as a normative science and not as
a positive science. A positive science is one whose subject matter are studied ‘as they are.’ All
natural sciences, a few human sciences such as sociology, geography, anthropology, political
science, economics etc., are studied systematically whose contents are viewed from an existential
point of view. No norms are prescribed for the study.

Logic, ethics and aesthetics are the normative sciences whose subject matter are studied from the
‘ought to be’ point of view. Logic insists on how one ought to think rather than how one is
actually thinking. After a statement is made we pass judgements whether the statement is true or
false and then we determine how that statement ought to have been uttered or written. There are
two kinds of logic., viz., traditional and modern. The former is also known as Aristotlelian logic
which consists of two sections, deduction and induction. Deductive logic is seriously concerned
with the formal nature or structure of statements or propositions so that their validity or
invalidity is ascertained. From a given proposition we proceed to a conclusion through some
common expressions, instantly or through a medium. Also we proceed from statement to
conclusion or vice-versa. In induction the very validity of the given premise is questioned. It is a
method through which the major proposition which is generally a universal one is obtained.
Based on certain postulates the induction method proceeds from a few particular cases to
universal truth. It has been established based on observation, experiment, hypothesis, analogy,
enumeration etc. Universal statements are discovered which are supplied to deductive reasoning
for the application of particular instances so that the conclusion is made beyond doubt. All
scientific inventions and discoveries are based on this method.

The modern logic has obtained a new dimension wherein symbols are used instead of statements
and like mathematics, based on certain formulae, the arguments are proved as valid or invalid.
Propositional calculus, predicate calculus and axiomatic principles are dimensions of modern
logic. All the defects and deficiencies of traditional logic are rectified through formal doctrines
and authentic proofs and verifications. The modern logic is also known as mathematical logic.
Symbols are used for conjunctive, disjunctive, implicative and negative propositions and
arguments are verified through conjunctive normal forms and certain rules of inference etc.

Epistemology or theory of knowledge envisages the messages about the methods and techniques
involved in knowledge itself. It is a deep study about the origin of knowledge, nature of
knowledge, relevance of knowledge and validity of knowledge. The relationship between human
mind and the phenomenal world which culminates in knowledge is analysed in epistemology.
Theories of truth such as correspondence theory, coherence theory and pragmatic theory form an
important subject matter in this subject.

1.4. ETHICS OR MORAL PHILOSOPHY

 5

Another branch of philosophy is ethics which has been derived from the root ‘ethos’ which
literally means conduct. Hence ethics is a normative science of human conduct in relation to
human environment. The term ‘moral’ has been derived from the root ‘mores’ which means
behaviour. Ethics is seriously concerned with perfect human living with certain codes or
principles pertaining to conduct and character. All human beings have critical situations to deal
with; the reflection or reaction to such situations will determine the moral attitude of men.
Morality commenced with the habits of individuals and when large number of people develop
similar habits they become customs thus constituting customary morality or conventional
morality. This process involves also instinct. We pass moral judgements on the instinctive
behaviour of individuals whether good or bad or right or wrong. Good and bad are concerned
with value while right and wrong are attributed to the established regulations or laws of the
society or state. The herd instinct, the prudence, thirst, appetite, sex etc., are some of the instincts
and how they are satisfied will pave the way for estimating the validity of behaviour. In the
development of ethical codes, the role of reflective morality is immense. All the human activities
are analysed from the perspectives of motivation, intention, consequence, etc. resulting in several
theories of morality.

The fundamental question to which moral thinkers come forward to respond is: what is the
standard of morality? What is the basis on which the human conduct is examined? What is the
criterion by which the actions are judged to be good or bad, right or wrong? How are the norms
or standards formed? As a normative science of human conduct ethics helps us in suggesting
several criteria to judge human actions. They are classified as historical or classical and modern.
The first one starts from Plato. Plato insists on knowledge and lack of knowledge will lead to
evil. Leading a good life according to him is similar to the discovery of mathematical truth
through mental power or ability. Aristotle promotes the idea of golden mean that perfect virtue
lies between two extremes and a life of moderate action will bring forth happiness.

We come across several standards of morality such as hedonism (both psychological and ethical)
that all human actions are oriented towards happiness; Epicureanism and cynicism come under
hedonism; stoicism is a theory which advocates individual’s perfection by learning to be
indifferent to external influences; utilitarianism of Bentham and Mill proposes that the greatest
happiness of the greatest number is the standard of moral judgement. The former advocates gross
utilitarianism while the latter subtle; Intuitionism, evolutionism, Marxism, Kant’s critique of
practical reason providing good will are some of the traditional theories of morality.

In the realm of modern ethics we have precise theories based on philosophical analysis to moral
theories in connection with necessary and sufficient conditions. There are three different
classifications of modern theories; i) either subjective or objective, ii) as naturalistic, non-
naturalistic or emotive and iii) as motivist, deontological or consequence theories. All these
theories are primarily concerned with the analysis of the language of morals. Any theory which
is non-subjective is objectivistic. Ethical judgements become subjective when they depend on
the psychology of the person who alters them. If a moral judgement is reduced to natural science
(especially psychology) with true or false formula then that is naturalistic. If they are not
reducible to natural science then they are non-naturalistic. If any moral judgement is neither true
 6

nor false, but consists of the expressions of feelings or emotions, and then it is emotive. If a
moral theory is based on motive to determine its rightness or wrongness, then that is motivist.
Deontological theory does not depend upon motive or consequence but upon the obligation or
duty. If the rightness or wrongness of an action is determined based on the effect, then that is
known as a consequence theory. All the theories whether classical or modern are having critical
estimation which really enriches our knowledge of ethics.

1.5. RELIGION

Another important branch of philosophy is religion which deals with the establishing of an
intimate rapport with the Supreme Being or Reality or God. It has been generally claimed that
philosophy without religion will lead to dogmatism or dry intellectualism. Similarly religion
without philosophy will culminate in superstition or blind observances. Hence both philosophy
and religion are complementary in clarifying the subtle implications of all rituals. The origin of
religion is wonder or fear. Ancient people wondered the wonderful structure of the world and
postulated that a wonderful superpower must exist to create such a magnificent universe. Some
people were terrified over the terrors and horrors of the natural phenomena. As the scientific
knowledge of such events was absent in those days, they were afraid of them and each force had
been personified as a deity and oblations were offered; prayer songs arose; treatises on adoring
such deities also emerged. A few religious people with metaphysical bent of mind wrote
commentaries to such religious texts. This attitude enhanced and enriched the glory of that
religious tradition. The idea of God has been introduced as a postulate and any religion with a
God Supreme is based on belief, faith, love, hope and harmony.

The existence of God has been proved from three angles; i) logical, ii) scriptural and iii)
experiential. Logically there are five proofs such as ontological, cosmological, moral,
teleological and design. Scriptures vouchsafe for the existence of God revealed by eminent sages
and saints. Experience of God in the bottom of the heart and soul is the best proof for the
existence of god. The all-pervasive, all–knowing and all-powerful God is essentially required for
human life mainly for expressing love or technically known as devotion or bhakti. For, God is
personified as the very embodiment of love and this love of God towards mankind is expressed
through creation, preservation, destruction and bestowal of grace. It is God’s grace that sustains
human beings at every moment. There are a few religions which deny the existence of a Supreme
God, like Jainism and Buddhism, but they convey the idea that man can be elevated to the level
of God through virtuous and compassionate living. The dwelling places for God have been
constructed such as temple, church, mosque, gurudwara etc., and a few days are designated as
auspicious and special rituals, festivals, prayers, worships etc. are offered to the presiding God in
the dwelling spot. The firm belief is that God will redeem the afflicted souls and bring them
ashore from the onslaught of transmigratory existence.

It is the human soul which has been tantalised between the sacred and the profane. The luring
phenomenal world has an admixture of suffering and happiness; but the engrossment in divine
ecstasy will engender self illumination and lead to divine communion which is characteristically
 7

termed as the ‘path of no return.’ The existence of the soul also has been proved logically and
intuitively as well. Self-realization becomes an inevitable prelude to God-realization. It is the
soul which knows with the help of the mind and sense organs, but relinquishes the empirical
entanglements so that it can move towards God and enjoy His perennial bliss eternally.

Philosophy of Religion also analyses deeply the problem of evil. Some religions declare that man
has invited evils due to baser temperaments and baseless temptations; some other religions
emphatically hold that it is God who has caused evil so that only after the experience of the
torture of evil forces, mankind will engage in overcoming them for which the holy scriptures and
discourses of enlightened personalities serve as the guiding spirit. But still the question remains.
If god is benevolent and merciful, evil should not exist; but evil persists. Therefore God is not
omniscient and evil is a thorn in the gracious nature of God. Religious scholars endeavour to
appropriately settle the issue of evil. Most of the religions are mainly concerned with the notions
of bondage and liberation. Once again the idea of soul and the conception of God are involved in
this process. The soul before embodiment was pure and free, but after entering into the body it
becomes bound due to self-centredness, selfish activities and attachment towards the peripheral
worldly objects. Through serious involvement in religious engagements and systematic adoration
with sincere devotion, the devotees believe staunchly that they can overcome bondage and attain
liberation. Becoming recipients of God’s grace is the only remedy to all human maladies. The
everlasting solace from the worries of the world is the objective of religious life.

Another interesting factor in the religious philosophy is religious language especially found in
the revelatory texts. When the saints are soaked in divinity they undergo some peak, but unique
experiences which cannot be expressed at that time. Afterwards they recollect the past events
and reveal them for posterity and for the betterment of the world. While doing so they refer to
God’s nature, soul’s movements and the pernicious aspects of the world which fall under the
legitimate province of the philosophers. The revealed texts contain perfect semantics, syntax and
pragmatics. This phenomenon has been attributed to divine mystery.

Besides metaphysics, logic, ethics and religion, philosophy has a few applied avenues like
philosophy of beauty dealing with the delightful joyous enjoyment or aversion due to ugly nature
of objects of beauty. Technically this subject is known as aesthetics. Linguistic philosophy deals
with the role of language in philosophical explanations, words, sentences, meaning and their
interpretations are well analysed in developing sensible expressions. Political philosophy gives a
fairly good account of origin of states, forms of government, social contract theories, the role of
rulers and citizens in political settings etc. Social philosophy develops the views about human
relationship in social aspects, such as group formation, social conflicts, social change etc.
Check Your Progress I
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. How do you understand ‘Philosophy’? and Explain.
.............. .................... ............................... ............................. .......................... ............
 8

.............. .................... ............................... ............................. ..........................

.............. .................... ............................... ............................. ..........................
2. Relate philosophy with other disciplines.
.............. .................... ............................... ............................. ..........................
.............. .................... ............................... ............................. ..........................
.............. .................... ............................... ............................. ..........................

1.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

By ‘Indian Philosophy’ we mean the philosophical systems emerged from the Indian soil. Some
scholars call it Hindu philosophy. It is not so, since a few non-Hindu systems are included such
as Carvaka, Jainism and Buddhism which are really critical of Hindu doctrines. Indian
philosophy has been designated as ‘darsana’ which is generally translated as philosophy, but it is
really means intutive vision. ‘philosophy’ is accepted as the nearest equivalent term to darsana.
A few saints of the highest order develop certain unique or mystic experiences and reveal them
for the benefit of posterity. The spiritual heritage commences with such revelations and they are
testified by reason by a few sages who have developed metaphysical bent of mind. The intuitive
vision consists of the wisdom about reality and the secrets of human life both inner and outer.
The interpretations of such wisdom form the basis of philosophical inquiry pertaining to
metaphysical doctrines, logical truths, ethical codes and religious practices.

The book sarva darsana samgraha written by Sri Madhavacariya contains the quintessence of a
few systems of thought evolved in ancient India. A large number of scholars, taking into account
the contents of this work as the basis, have written volumes of work of Indian philosophy from
the historical, conceptual, textual, evaluative and descriptive perspectives. It has been proclaimed
that Indian Philosophy is scripture-based. The revelations of the saints have been codified and
they are classified as having broadly the ritualistic sections and the section on wisdom or jnana.
The general name given to the holy text is ‘veda’ which has been derived from the root, ‘vid’
which means to know. The Vedic scripture is the ancient treasure trove which exemplifies the
cultural heritage as well as religio-philosophical aspects of the Vedic systems. It contained both
ritualistic and philosophical materials. Philosophical system like Purva Mimamsa directly
developed its doctrines from the ritualistic portion and other schools of Vedanta built up their
philosophical system from the upanisdas, the philosophical portion of the Vedas. Generally
Indian systems are classified as orthodox and heterodox systems, astika and nastika systems, on
the basis of acceptance or rejection of the Vedic authority. The philosophical schools that accept
the vedic authority are the following; Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and
Vedanta. Carvaka, Jainism and Buddhism do not accept the vedic authority.

1.7 SPECIAL FEATURES OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

 9

1. Almost all the schools of Indian thought emphatically declare that moksa or liberation is or
should be the ultimate goal of life. Only the puranas describe the life after death pointing out the
existence of hell and heaven with popular anecdotes. Intellectually it implies that one must free
oneself from the cycle of births and deaths by putting an end once for all to the strife-torn life. To
achieve this ambitious goal, the Indian philosophers suggest certain means starting from lower
values to reach higher and the highest values. Wealth and sensuous enjoyment are considered as
having lower values, while dharma or righteousness is regarded as the higher value. Obviously
moksha is the highest value. These four values are obligatory in the life of everyone on this earth
and hence they are called as purusarthas, the human values.

2. Indian Philosophy expects the seekers after truth and release to lead a life of renunciation.
The life of attachment will engender suffering while the life of detachment will result in eternal
solace. In the Bhagavad Gita, Lord Krishna categorically asserts that a life of renunciation alone
will enable the aspirants to reach the domain of God. So all the schools of thought have treated
‘suffering’ as one of the motivating factors for philosophical thinking. Only when the mind is
purified through non-attachment, it will have pure and perfect wisdom and rest on self-
illumination, the real prelude to moksha. In fact, suffering or painful experience in life give the
motivating force to promote new vistas of thinking and acting. Buddha built up philosophical
doctrines on the edifice of suffering and all his noble truths centred around this concept only.
The only difference that is noticed among the schools of philosophy is that according to the
theistic thinkers only by the grace of God one can overcome suffering, while others insist upon
individual efforts through moral, physical, psychological and spiritual means.

3. The commencement of Indian philosophy based on suffering prompted a few critics to

label Indian thought as pessimistic. Even though Indian philosophy looks at the darker side of
life in elucidating the issues emerging in life, the mission with which one has to overcome
suffering overcomes the criticism too, i.e. Indian thinking though starts with pessimism passes
through optimism and culminates in eternal pragmatism. The Indian thinkers have realised the
truth that a vision without a mission is blind; a mission without a vision is drudgery and a healthy
combination of both vision and mission will make human life prosperous. The pleasure which
we enjoy is mixed with pain is engendered in painful situation. The seers assert that it is possible
to eliminate pain alltogether and enjoy a life of bliss, ananda. Hence they are seriously
concerned with sat, existence which is the truth also, cit (consciousness), and ananda
(everlasting happiness).
4. In the hierarchy of values, Indian thinkers have classified as lower values, higher value
and the highest value. The axiological approach in human life becomes immense in this analysis.
Carvaka system considers kama, sensuous pleasure as the only human value, purusartha, while
artha or wealth serves as the means to achieve such ambitious aims. But the orthodox schools
treat both kama and artha as the lowest and lower values respectively. They cannot annihilate the
human afflictions thoroughly. They are to be checked and continued as to regularise normal
human existence. On the other hand they consider dharma, righteousness, as the higher value
and moksa as the highest value. Only men of virtuous living can aspire for a blissful life where
there is no iota of pain. While explaining the state of liberation, mukti¸some thinkers advocate
jivan mukti, liberation while alive and videha mukti¸ liberation after the disintegration of body
 10

and soul. As salvation becomes the salient feature of Indian philosophy it is more optimistic and
treats life as having a brighter side.

5. Another important characteristic feature of Indian philosophy is the law of karma, which
is based on the scientific law that all actions have equal and opposite reactions and the famous
adage, ‘As you sow, so you reap.’ All the actions will yield the results and the efficacy of the
fruits is known as ‘karma’ which has been derived from the root kr, which means action. The
karmas which cause us to take birth and store up while we are born is known as sancita
karma.The karmas which have started yielding the fruits are known as prarbdha karma and the
karmas which we accumulate through our volitional behaviour are known as agamic karmas.
Even those systems which do not accept God, believe in the doctrine of karma which is the sole
reason for the cycle of births and deaths. Due to the grace of God along with human dharmic
endeavours the enforcement of karmic forces may be annulled. The Sancita karma would be
totally burnt due to the grace of God through the guru or preceptor. But prarabdha karma which
has started fructifying like the arrow sent out of the bow will affect the body and annihilate it.
For it cannot harm the soul since it is spiritually strengthened and illumined. All the systems of
Indian philosophy, in one way or the other insist upon the moral training as a prelude to
metaphysical understanding and religious experience. Only the Carvaka system is rigorous and
gives much importance to sensuous pleasure by ignoring righteousness, dharma, and all the
cherished norms. The other schools though not explicitly elucidate the significant role of moral
codes in human life, they emphasise the necessity of ethical principles to be adapted to actual life
leading to virtues and resulting in happiness. Yoga system in the means for attaining Samadhi
places yama, the five principles to be refrained from and niyama, the five practices to be adhered
to, in the beginning itself. It is generally proclaimed that it will seldom lead to immortality.

6. Religion, an important branch of philosophy, also plays a vital role in Indian thought.
Vedic religion is the starting point of philosophy in India. Vedantic thought, especially
visistadvaita and Dvaita are directly based on vaishnava religious tradition. Saiva Siddhanta has
Saivism and worship of Siva as the religious basis. Advaita at the empirical level does not deny
the concept of Isvara and resorting to religious practices. In fact, Sankara has composed several
devotional songs on Lord Siva, Sakti, Vishnu and Muruga. Though we have several religious
sects with these religions constituting Hinduism, each religious sect has developed its own
speculative metaphysics as well as means for redemption.
7. On par with Western philosophy, Indian philosophy also has dealt deeply with political
ideologies, social doctrines, linguistic analysis, aesthetic explanations, cultural heritage and
encompasses all the basic features of life. It builds up a fundamental structure with scriptural
edifice and rational construction with spiritual super structure.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer

 11

1. What are the general characteristics of Indian Philosophy?

.............. .................... ............................... ............................. .......................... ............
.............. .................... ............................... ............................. ..........................
.............. .................... ............................... ............................. ..........................
2. Spell out some of the specific features of Indian Philosophy?
.............. ................... ............................... ............................. ..........................
.............. .................... ............................... ............................. ..........................
.............. .................... ............................... ............................. ..........................

1.8 LET US SUM UP

Mainly philosophy deals with the perennial problems of life. As life is a complex and
complicated phenomenon, the role of philosophy is immense in making an enquiry into the
issues emerging in human life. Issues concerning with social, political, moral, religious, racial,
cultural, linguistic and economic spheres, confront human beings, the impact of philosophical
investigation gains significance in explicating the real meaning or goal of life. The unit has
deliberated on the nature of philosophy in relation to its different branches and the characteristic
features of Indian philosophical systems. Philosophy develops a fascination for wisdom which is
different from knowledge. Philosophical wisdom manifests in several ways – mainly theoretical
and applied. The former is explanatory while the latter is the combination of both theory and
practice. Rational discussions emanate mainly from four perspectives; metaphysical,
epistemological, ethical and religious.

By ‘Indian Philosophy’ we mean the philosophical systems which emerged in the Indian soil.
Some scholars call it Hindu philosophy. It is not so, since a few non-Hindu systems are included
such as Carvaka, Jainism and Buddhism which are really critical about Hindu doctrines. Indian
philosophy has been designated as ‘darsana’ which is generally translated as philosophy, but it
really means intutitve vision. ‘Philosophy’ is accepted as the nearest equivalent term to darsana.
Indian philosophy spells out supreme goals of human life as purusarthas. Indian Philosophy
expects the seekers after truth to lead a life of renunciation. The seers assert that it is possible to
eliminate pain all together and enjoy a life of bliss, ananda. Hence they are seriously concerned
with sat, existence which is the truth also, cit (consciousness), and ananda (everlasting
happiness). While explaining the state of liberation, mukti¸some thinkers advocate jivan mukti,
liberation while alive and videha mukti¸ liberation after the disintegration of body and soul. As
salvation becomes the salient feature of Indian philosophy it is more optimistic and treats life as
having a brighter side. The law of karma, is based on the scientific law that all actions have equal
and opposite reactions and on the famous adage, ‘As you sow, so you reap.’ Religion, an
important branch of philosophy, also plays a vital role in Indian thought. On par with Western
philosophy, Indian philosophy also has dealt deeply with political ideologies, social doctrines,
 12

linguistic analysis, aesthetic explanations, cultural heritage and encompasses all the basic
features of life.

1.9 KEY WORDS

Metaphysics: Branch of Philosophy dealing with ‘being.’

Epistemology: Theory of knowledge, dealing with meaning of knowledge, process of attaining
valid knowledge and certitude of knowledge
Darsana: Indian term used generally to mean ‘Philosophy.’ Literally it means ‘seeing’ or
‘having a glimpse’ of truth.
Purusarthas: Supreme goals of human life, like wealth, pleasure, righteousness and liberation.

1.10 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Burtt, Edwin A. In Search of Philosophic Understanding. Indiapolis: Hackett Publishing

Company, 1980.
Emmet, E.R. Learning to Philosophize. New York: Penguin Books, 1978.
Lachs, John & Charles Scott. Ed. The Human Search: An Introduction to Philosophy. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1981.
Hiriyanna, M. Outlines of Indian Philosophy. London: Unwin Publishers, 1973.
Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. 2 Vols. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1977.
 1

UNIT 2 INTRODUCTION TO VEDAS AND UPANISADS

Contents
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Vedas and Its Contents
2.2 A General Survey of the Vedic Literature
2.3 Some Important Vedic Concepts - I
2.4 Some Important Vedic Concepts - II
2.5 Upanisads
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.7 Key Words
2.8 Further Readings and References

2.0 OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this Unit – is to present a general outline of the origin and development of
Vedic literature and its epistemological position in the different philosophical schools of India.
Vedas have been held as the primary source of a structured society that is believed to pave way
for a religious growth and induce a philosophical quest. The various concepts and doctrines of
the Vedas can find its relevance in today’s world. In this unit, we shall briefly analyze the Vedic
literature and its concepts.

By the end of this unit you should be able:

 to gain a general idea of the vast Vedic literature and their content
 to understand the historical growth of religious practices in the Vedic background
 to learn the important concepts that led to the rise of Indian Philosophical systems
 to grasp the relevant concepts of the Vedas and appreciate its relevance in the modern
world.

2.1 VEDAS AND ITS CONTENTS

Vedas or the source of knowledge, is also referred to as the Sruti or that which is heard,
Apauruseya or that which is not authored by a human, and Shastra or that which serves as a
guide through its teaching. The words ‘Agama’ and ‘Amnaya’ are synonyms of the Veda. Since
 2

Veda is considered as a revelation it is termed as the ‘primary’ source of knowledge. The content
of the Vedas that has come down to us for centuries is said to have been heard by the sages in
deep meditation and these sages are therefore known as ‘mantradrastas’ or the ‘seer of the
mantras’. They transmitted this received knowledge orally to the next generation. Thus, in a
generation of oral transmission, the Vedas are preserved. Though we have lost many of the
Vedic mantras, we have managed to preserve this tradition to some extent. Moreover, the orally
transmitted vedic mantras were made available in writing too and the oldest available written
literature is considered to be the Rig Veda. Even though the written or printed material is not
considered as the preservation of the Vedic tradition, since oral practise alone is the method to
preserve the Vedas, however, the written records give a wider scope for analyasis of the
historical development of the Vedic tradition. Let us now briefly see the content of the Vedas.

The word ‘Veda’ generally refers to ‘Mantras’ and ‘Brahmanas’. Mantras are hymns in praise of
gods who are invoked in a ritual and Brahmanas are those portions which give various
instructions on the performance of rituals. Based on this, Veda is said to be of two kinds,
Mantras and Brahmanas. An anthology of mantras is known as ‘Samhitas’ and the Brahmana
portions are an elaboration and are treated as the commentary to the Samhita portions. The
Brahmana portions are further divided into three, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the
Upanisads. The Brahmana portions primarily teach the nature of ritual (yaga) and thus the word
Brahmana also means ‘yajna’ (ritual). The Aranyakas are so named because it deals with
meditation which are generally taken up while living in forest (aranya). The Upanisads reveal
the Absolute Truth, which provides the means to liberation and is popularly known as the
‘Vedanta’. Primarily the source with the four portions, namely, Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka
and the Upanisad is known as the Veda. But popularly the ritualistic and meditative portions (or
at times only the ritualistic portions) came to be known as Veda and the philosophical discovery
in the Upanisads got a distinct identity. Therefore, we say, the Veda and Upanisads. (But
upanisads are also part of the Vedas.)

As to the historical data of the origin and development of the Vedas, we have many divided
views among the historians and researchers, however here we provide a particular view.

1. Age of the Rig Veda Samhita (2500 to 1500 B.C)

2. Age of the Later Samhitas, Brahmanas and Upanisads (1500 to 500 B.C)

Veda is one source with three forms and this is often referred to as ‘Veda Trayi’ or Three Vedas.
The Rig, the Yajur and the Sama – are the three Vedas. In such references, the meaning of the
Veda refers to the ‘creation’ and the three Vedas means the threefold creation of Agni or Fire
(Rig), Vayu or Air (Yajur) and Aditya or Sun (Sama). The ‘Atharva’ refers to the ‘soma’ or the
essence without which the above three cannot survive. The popular view is that the Sage Vyasa
segregated the Vedic hymns, that is, the mantra-samhitas into four, viz., Rig Samhita, Yajur-
Samhita, Sama-Samhita and Atharva-Samhita and thus we say there are four Vedas.
 3

For a Vedic ritual to take place, it requires four Rtviks (roughly translated as Priests). They are:
i) Hota – one who invokes the deity of a particular ritual by employing the invocatory
hymns as found in the Rig-Samhitas and the collections of such hymns is referred to
as Rig Veda. This is said to have been taught by Vyasa to Pela.
ii) Adhvaryu – one who performs the rituals as enjoined and the relevant mantras are in
the Yajur-Samhita and the collection of this is known as Yajurveda which was taught
to Vaimshampayana by Vyasa.
iii) Udgatha – one who sings in high intonation and maintains the rhythm of chanting as
given in Samaveda and this is taught by Vyasa to Jaimini.
iv) Brahma – one who takes care of the entire proceedings of the ritual and suggests
compensatory acts in case of omissions and commissions and this was taught to
Sumantu by Vyasa.

Thus, the four Vedas were propagated through these four disciples of Vyasa.

2.2 A GENERAL SURVEY OF THE VEDIC LITERATURE

We shall briefly deal with the Vedic literature and their contents beginning from the Rig Veda.
Each Veda, as we had already mentioned, consists of four portions, namely, Samhita,
Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanisads. Here, we shall deal with these four portions of each Veda
in a nutshell.

Rig Veda:
The word ‘Rig’ means praise or eulogy. The collection of Rig is known as Rig Veda. It is set in
metrical form. The Rig is considered as the oldest record of revelations and the language of the
Rig is considered as the most ancient.
There are five branches of Rig-Samhita and they are:
1. Shakala
2. Vaskala
3. Ashvalayana
4. Samkhya and
5. Mandakayana

Rig-Samhita contains Suktas and Mandalas. Sukta means that which has been received from a
reliable source and it is of four types:
a. Richi Sukta: a collection of hymns revealed through the Sages
b. Devata Sukta: a collection of hymns in praise of gods
 4

c. Chanda Sukta: a collection of hymns in the same metrical form and

d. Artha Sukta: a collection of hymns, wherein the meaning of the mantras gets concluded.
The Mandalas are the sections of the Rig-Samhita. There are ten Mandalas with fifty anuvakas or
sub-sections which contain suktas. The suktas in turn contain the mantras.The two Brahmanas
and Aranyakas of the Rig that are available are: Aitareya Brahmana and Shankyayana
Brahmana; Aitareya Aranyaka and Shankyayana Aranyaka. The popular Upanisads of the Rig
are Kausitaki and Aitareya upanisads.

Yajurveda:
It is widely popular with varied descriptions of the yajna or rituals and is found in prose form.
There are two divisions of Yajur, namely Krishna Yajurveda and Shukla Yajurveda. The Krishna
Yajur is a combination of mantras and brahmanas, whereas, the Shukla Yajur is predominantly
mantra portions. Of the fifty branches of Krishna Yajur, we have today only four branches
(Taittiriya, Maitrayani, Katha and Kapilashthakatha). The Shukla Yajur is further divided into
Madhyandina branch and Kanva branch. There is only a slight difference in the rendering of the
contents of these two branches of Shukla Yajurveda. The famous available brahmana of the
Krishna Yajurveda is the Taittiriya Brahmana and that of Shukla Yajur is Shatapatha Brahmana.
The main Aranyaka portions of the Yajurveda are Taittiriya Aranyaka and Brihadaranyaka (also
contains upanisadic portions). The widely read Upanisads of the Krishna Yajurveda are
Kathopanisad and Taittiriyopanisad. The upanisads of the Shukla Yajurveda are Brihadaranayka
and the Ishopanisad.

Samaveda:
The Samaveda is the Rig Veda set in musical form. The Samaveda consists of two predominant
parts, viz., the Archika part and the Ganam part. The Archika part is that which consists of
meanings of the words and it is a collection of Rks. It is further divided into Purva Archika and
Uttara Archika. The Purva Archika consists of six chapters and is divided into four parts as:
1. Agneya parva (consists of mantras related to Agni)
2. Aindra parva (consists of mantras related to Indra)
3. Pavamana parva (with mantras related to Soma) and
4. Aranyakas (on meditations)
The Uttara Archika is with nine chapters with various divisions that primarily deals with the
practice of various rituals. The three main branches of Samaveda are Kauthuma branch,
Ranayaniya branch and Jaiminiya branch.
The various intonations and method of singing in different pitches are mentioned in detail
in the Samaveda. The musical form is broadly divided into four kinds:
a. Veyaganam – the first five chapters of Purva-Archika are sung in Veyaganam.
b. Aranyakaganam – The mantras of the Aranyaka portion are sung in Aranyakaganam.
c. Oohaganam and d. Oohyaganam are the musical pattern of the Uttara-Archika portions.
 5

Some of the important Sama-Brahmanas are Daivatam, Vamshabrahmanam, Tandyam etc. The
available one Aranyaka of Samaveda is the Talavakara-Aranyaka. At the end of the Talavakara
we find the Kenopanisad. The Chandogyopanisad also belongs to Samaveda.

Atharvaveda:
The Atharvaveda consists of nine branches and we have only two such branches available,
namely, the Shaunaka branch and the Pippalada branch. There are three Samhitas of the Atharva,
namely, Aashi, Acharya and Vidhiprayoga Samhitas. The only available Brahmana of the
Atharvaveda is the Gopatha Brahmanam. It consists of two parts, Purvagopatha and
Uttaragopatha. So far, we have not found any Aranyaka of the Atharvaveda. The three prominent
upanisads of the Atharva are Prashnopanisad, Mundakopanisad and Mandukyopanisad.

Commentators of the Vedas:

The celebrated commentator of the Vedas, especially, the Brahmana portions is Sayana. Some of
the other important commentators to various portions of the Veda like, Samhita, Aranyakas etc.,
are Skandasvami, Narayana, Madhavabhatta, Venkatamadhava, Anandatirtha, Uvvata,
Halayudha, Ananta and others. The commentaries help us in understanding the import of the
Vedic words. The commentators reveal the changing conditions in their interpretative
commentaries.

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.

1) Give a brief outline of the Vedas and its Contents.

………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….
2) Give an account of the Vedic Literature and Its Commentators.
…………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………
 6

2.3. SOME IMPORTANT VEDIC CONCEPTS - I

Now, we shall briefly embark upon the varied topics found in the four portions of the Vedas and
then derive certain important concepts that serve as the foundation of Vedic Religion and
Philosophy.

Samhitas:
In the Rig-Mandalas, we find mention of many worldly affairs especially related to human life.
Various aspects like the earliest mention on marriage and ancestral worship is seen in the Rig.
The importance of charity (dana) is highlighted in the Rig-Suktas. Some of the thought-
provoking and paradoxical suktas of the Rig Veda are Nasadiya Sukta (10-129), Purushasukta
(10-90), Hiranyagarbha Sukta (10-121) etc. The Yajur-Samhitas prescribes the procedures for
performance of daily and occasional duties of an individual. The Atharva-Samhitas mark the
beginning of ancient ruling and administration. There are descriptions of many actions like
conquering an enemy, gaining wealth etc. We find discussion on Science especially on medicine,
disease and cure. The Ayushya-Sukta of Atharva is quite well-known for it is the prayer for long
healthy life.

Brahmanas:
By the time the Brahmana part of the Vedas developed the society has undergone a well-defined
stratification with a common goal. In this period, performance of rituals for the individual and
total benefit dominated the scene that was based on the Vedic designation in the form of varna
(class) and ashrama (stage of life). The ritual or the yajna symbolises an integrated personality
for a harmonious life. In a ritual, there are two types of oblations, one is the thought at the mental
level and the other is the speech. The thought alone is expressed as the speech in a ritual and the
same holds good in life too which aids in a harmonious living.

Aranyakas:
In the development of Aranyaka portions, we find well-defined concepts of Time. There is the
mention of the transcendental and the empirical time, where the empirical time slot is compared
to the perennial flow of waters. There is a description of various seasons and their effects on the
health of living beings. The importance of study of one’s own scripture and fivefold compulsory
acts (pancha-mahayajna) are found in this portion. The fivefold compulsory acts are: worship of
gods, worship of lineage of teachers, worship of ancestors, service to humanity and service to the
animal and plant kingdom. We find here the description of meditation on prana or vital breath.
Since this portion primarily concentrates on bringing about a serene mind, varieties of vratas or
vows are prescribed. The Upanisads deal with the philosophical enquiry into the nature of the
ultimate truth and reveal the liberating knowledge. We shall deal with the Upanisads a little later
in this unit.

Vedic gods:
 7

The hymns in praise of various deities have given rise to polytheism, henotheism and gradually
to monotheism. The gods are presiding deities of various powers of natural forces. The primary
gods mentioned in the Vedas are 33 gods, that is, 8 Vasus, 11 Rudras, 12 Adityas and 2 Ashvinis.
The presiding deity of all gods is said to be Indra. The importance of all the gods led to
polytheistic tendency. But, gradually, there rose the need to provide importance to one deity and
thus lord of all beings was described as PrajaPati. Later, in the Upanisads we find the one
absolute termed as Brahman.

2.4. SOME IMPORTANT VEDIC CONCEPTS - II

Here, we shall analyze some five specific important concepts that we derive from the above
mentioned varied topics of the Vedas. The following concepts have served as the strong
foundation for Indian Thinking and have highly influenced the religious and philosophical
domains.

Sat and Asat

The fundamental quest of any thinking mind is to arrive at the prime cause of this vast
multifarious creation. The Vedic seers had tried to find answers and have presented them in a
riddled language. In this connection, the concept of Sat (Existent principle) and Asat (Non-
existent principle) are described. We find statements in the Veda that say, ‘there was Sat prior to
the creation’ and there is another statement that says ‘there was Asat prior to the creation’. Such
statements have given rise to various theories on the cause of creation. For instance, some
consider that prior to creation there must be a sat principle, an existent principle since from an
existing thing alone something can originate. Others hold the view that if there had been sat prior
to creation, there will be the difficulty in stating the cause of that sat, hence it is said ‘nothing’
(asat) was there before creation. Now, these two fundamental concepts of ‘Sat’ and ‘Asat’ gave
rise to divided opinions which formed the foundation of Indian Philosophical systems in later
period.

Mutual Triad
Another important concept is the mutual triad that has been derived in the Vedas based on the
observation of Nature and its reaction. The simple concept derived from nature is the cyclic
process in a chain and disturbance in any part of the chain ruins the entire process gradually or
immediately. Based on this vital observation, the Vedas present the mutual triads, that is, the
adhyatmika (individual), adhibhautika (the universe) and adhidaivika (the presiding principle).
For instance let us take the five sense organs of knowledge and understand them at these three
levels.

Adhyatmika Adhibhautika Adhidaivika

Eye (sense of sight) Sense objects of colour Surya (Sun)
Ear (sense of sound) Sense objects of sound Dik (God of Directions)
 8

Skin (sense of touch) Sense objects of touch, like Vayu (Air)

hard, soft etc.
Tongue (sense of taste) Sense objects of taste, like Varuna (Waters)
sweet, sour etc
Nose (sense of smell) Sense objects of smell, like Asvinis (Twin-gods)
fragrance of rose etc.

For knowledge to take place, we need a functioning sense organs at the individual level, there
must be the sense objects available in the external world, and also the need for the grace of the
presiding deities. Only when this triad mutually functions, the knowledge of the world is gained.
This concept of triad forms the basis of religious faith and practices.

Law of Karma
Another vital doctrine that evolved from the Vedas is the Law of Karma. It is initially referred to
as ‘Rta’ or the cosmic order and later termed as ‘Satya’ or the invariable Truth. Further, it came
to be widely known by the word ‘Karma’. Karma refers to both action and result of action. It
works on certain universal principles, according to the Vedas. That is, every action gives result
and every result is reaped through various experiences. The concept of Dharma is the primary
determinant of karma. Hence, we find lot of importance given to dharma in the Vedas. The
Karma and Dharma are inseparable factors of the rhythmic flow of the universe and all its
beings. The ethical and moral codes come under dharma and the performance of the moral codes
(as prescribed or its violation, that is, dharma and adharma) comes under karma. Here too a
cyclic process is indicated wherein one performs karma, reaps karma phala (result) and that
again leads to performance of karma. This chain, is said to continue not only in the present birth
but is a chain with countless past births and future births. Thus, we have the theory of
transmigration.

Theory of Transmigration
According to this theory, an individual being under the law of karma, assumes different physical
bodies, that is, takes several births. This concept of the Vedas is imbedded in every religious act
and ritual. An individual constantly tries to remove the past accumulated adharma (demerit) and
seeks to nourish dharma (merit) in the present birth, which is believed to determine the future
birth. The religion focuses on a dharmic living to ensure a safe future birth, whereas, the
philosophers seek to exit from the cycle of births and deaths.

Vedic Designation
Apart from the religious and philosophical fervour, the Vedic society is also designed with a
hope for a harmonious living. In this view, the Veda suggests the classification of a society based
on the aptitude (guna) and profession (karma) of an individual, which is known as Varna. The
 9

other classification is based on the stage of life an individual passes through and it is known as
Ashrama.

Vedas visualises the aptitude of the individuals broadly as four: knowledge-oriented, action-
oriented (which is again in three ways, action for protection and administration and action for
trading and commerce) service-oriented with skilled and semi-skilled actions. These four broad
aptitudes are essential for any society and these aptitudes when designed into a profession, their
functioning would take care of the individual interest and the interest of the society at large. The
Vedas groups this as varna and names them as Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra
respectively. But, unfortunately in the fading of the Vedas, the vision of the Vedas too
diminished and took the cruel form of caste system by which we are unable to free ourselves
even in this 21st century.

From the stand of the different stages of life, again the Vedas classifies them into four, as the
student-life (Brahmacharyam), married-life (Grhastham), retired-life (Vanaprastham) and
mendicant-life (Sanyasam). These four are known as Ashramas. The four stages need not be
compulsory; depending on the aptitude of an individual one may move from the first ashrama to
the third or at times to the fourth. The dharma and karma prescribed in the varna-ashrama
scheme vary which take care of the general duties and the specific duties, thus making the
concept of dharma more complex and complicated.

2.5 UPANISADS

The Upanisads are the prime source of many philosophical conclusions. The word Upanisad can
be split as upa+ni+sat; to mean ‘upa’ – approaching a teacher; ‘ni’ – for knowledge; ‘sat’ – to
attain liberation. Of more than 1180 upanisads, the popular and widely studied are the ten
Upanisads, namely, Isa, Kena, Katha, Prashna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Taittiriya, Aitareya,
Chandogya and Brihdaranyaka. We shall briefly see the important doctrines as found in these
upanisads.

The Upanisads present Brahman as the absolute reality and the substratum of the universe.
Brahman is revealed as both the material and intelligent cause of the universe. Upanisads employ
two ways of defining Brahman, one in its own nature (svarupa lakshana), that is, Brahman as the
Consciousness, Existent and Bliss principle. The second definition is from its accidental
attributes (tatastha lakshana) wherein Brahman is shown as the substratum of origination,
sustenance and resolution of the universe. Various methodologies are used by the Upanisads to
arrive at the absolute reality and one such method we find in the Aitareya Upanisad is known as
superimposition and negation (adhyaropa and apavada). The world and its objects are
superimposed initially and after the revelation of the non-difference between the effect and its
material cause, the world is negated as non-existent in the substratum. Further, there is the
description of the world, the individual self and the creator of the universe in the Upanisads. The
method of moving from the gross to the subtle is employed in the Taittiriya Upanisad. Here, the
nature of self is analysed beginning from the gross physical body leading to the subtlest
Consciousness. Some important images like the chariot and bow-arrow, are presented in
 10

Kathopanisad and Mundakopanisad respectively. The Upanisads uniformly present the triple
means to a seeker of truth, they are, listening to the scriptures (shravana), pondering on the
teaching so as to remove doubts and misconceptions (manana) and dwelling on the teaching
(nididhyasana). Mostly, the Upanisads are set in a dialogue between a teacher and a disciple and
the teaching is gradual and progressive. The various Upanisads consistently deal with one
subject-matter of that absolute truth.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer

1) Examine some of the Basic Concepts of the Vedas that influenced the religious and
philosophical thinking of India.
………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….
2) What is the role of the Upanisads? Give an outline of the contents of the Upanisads.
…………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………

2.6 LET US SUM UP

Vedas or the source of knowledge, is also referred to as the Sruti. The content of the Vedas that
has come down to us for centuries is said to have been heard by the sages in deep meditation and
these sages are therefore known as ‘mantradrastas’ or the ‘seer of the mantras’. The word
‘Veda’ generally refers to ‘Mantras’ and ‘Brahmanas’. Mantras are hymns in praise of gods who
are invoked in a ritual and Brahmanas are those portions which give various instructions on the
performance of rituals. The Aranyakas deals with meditation which is generally taken up while
living in forest (aranya). The Upanisads reveal the Absolute Truth, which provides the means to
liberation and is popularly known as the ‘Vedanta.’ The Vedic Literature is vast with several
branches and sections. The Vedic concepts and doctrines have highly influenced the religious
and philosophical thinking of India. Some of the concepts are the definition of Sat and Asat. The
most influential concepts are the law of karma and the concept of dharma that reflect the social
condition of Vedic period.

The Upanisads employ two ways of defining Brahman, one in its own nature (svarupa lakshana),
that is, Brahman as the Consciousness, Existent and Bliss principle. The second definition is
 11

from its accidental attributes (tatastha lakshana) wherein Brahman is shown as the substratum of
origination, sustenance and resolution of the universe. The Upanisads uniformly present the
triple means to a seeker of truth; they are, shravana, manana and nididhyasana. Mostly, the
Upanisads are set in a dialogue between a teacher and a disciple and the teaching is gradual and
progressive.

2.7 KEY WORDS

Veda: source of knowledge

Samhita: a collection of mantras or suktas
Brahmana: that portion which prescribes rules and regulations for rituals
Aranyaka: it gives the detail of meditations
Upanisad: it conducts a philosophical quest

2.8 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Dasgupta, S. N., A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol.I, Motilal Banarasidass, New Delhi, 1988.
Hiriyanna, M., Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarasidass, New Delhi, 2005.
Vaidya, C. V., History of Vedic Literature, Sahitya Academy, Kolkata, 1992.
 1

UNIT 3 INTRODUCTION TO TIRUKKURAL

Contents

3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Philosophical Insights of Tirukkural
3.3 Moral Philosophy of Tiruvalluvar
3.4 Social Philosophy of Tiruvalluvar
3.5 Political Philosophy of Tiruvalluvar
3.6 Let us Sum up
3.7 Key Words
3.8 Further Readings and References

3.0 OBJECTIVES

As objective scholars on Indian philosophy would vouche for a fact that Indian culture is not
built upon only one tradition. Neither monopoly of one religious tradition within India nor of one
linguistic tradition would be acceptable in the plurality of Indian traditions. Sources of Indian
philosophy are spread about many religious, philosophical and moral treatises, both written and
oral, in various ancient languages like Pali, Prakrit, Sanskrit and Tamil. Apart from the
stereotyped treatment on dwelling only on Sanskrit tradition for Indian philosophical thoughts,
this unit emphatically proclaims the deep philosophical insights embedded in classical Tamil text
called Tirukkural. The objective of this unit is to bring out the moral, social and political
philosophy of Tirukkural. The unit would mostly avoid the introductory details about the text
and concentrate fully on its philosophical insights for want of space. Such a brief introduction on
Tirukkural could be found in the unit on ancient Dalit thinkers in one of the elective courses of
IGNOU MA philosophy under the title, Dalit philosophy. The numbers given within bracket in
the sentences of this unit refer to the number of couplet of Tirukkural.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

‘Tirukkural’ etymologically means the ‘holy couplets,’ i.e. a text having two lines with seven
words each in the Tamil poetic ‘venba’ metre. It has 1330 couplets with 133 chapters each
containing 10 couplets. Tiruvalluvar did not write autobiography nor any authentic biographies
are available there is no perfect life-sketch of Tiruvalluvar. A few information about his life are
passed on orally. He lived at Mylapore, Chennai, engaged in weaving as his profession, married
to a maid known as Vasuki. Certain events that are purported to have taken place in his life seem
to be unbelievable. Tirukkural is a moral compendium which has been classified under three
major headings; aram (righteousness), porul (wealth), ibam (enjoyment). The ideological
implication of these titles is that one must earn wealth through righteous means and enjoyment
becomes imminent through that which leads to enlightenment. This view is similar to the
Sanskrit tradition of dharma, artha, kama and moksa.
 2

3.2 PHILOSOPHICAL INSIGHTS OF TIRUKKURAL

Tiruvalluvar’s philosophy is that of common man and hence he developed his ideals in such a
manner that man ought to live as a true human being and cherish all the human values, promote
earthly virtues, establish social harmony, engage in domestic life, follow political ideologies,
develop mutual assistance, adhere to the life of renunciation, enjoy all kinds of pleasures,
contemplate deeply on a few metaphysical issues etc.

In the invocatory chapter known as ‘the Praise of God,’ Tiruvalluvar glorifies the significant
features of God: He is the ancient Lord or the Supreme Being; Lord with perfect intelligence;
Flower decked God; He who has transcended likes and dislikes; Iraivan – the protector of the
universe; unparalleled Lord; the embodiment of righteousness; Lord endowed with Eight
attributes; He who has annihilated the onslaught of the senses; the great controller of the living
beings.

Nowhere does the author mention the Lord with his specific name, probably to teach mankind
about the relationship between God, human beings and the world. Had he mentioned the name of
God, then people would think that the moral philosophy of Tiruvalluvar is based on the
preachings of that particular religion whose God’s name has been mentioned. Since Tiruvalluvar
wanted to establish a society where people belonging to all religious sects should lead a peaceful
and harmonious life, he had explicated the need of monotheistic divinity. Still scholars taking
into consideration few religious expressions found in the couplets proclaim that such expressions
unequivocally indicate their God and therefore Tiruvalluvar belongs to their religious cult and
his moral thought are pertaining to their religion. If Tiruvalluvar is confined to a particular
religion, then the universalistic outlook of his moral ideologies would be misnomer.

In the chapter on “The Dread of Beggary,’ he explaines: If the Supreme Lord who has created
this world has destined that man should continue to live through begging, then let that Lord
wander about the world and perish.”(1062). In this verse Tiruvalluvar links the life of penury and
poverty leading to the act of begging and the person who is responsible for this degradation and
curses Him to go away from this world. Thus Tiruvalluvar wants to behold that mankind should
have a self-contained life. Tiruvalluvar has mentioned the fact that the universe has been created
by God.

Tiruvalluvar deliberately did not write anything about moksa or liberation. Probably, he might
have thought that life on this earth is to be lived perfectly and honestly than contemplating upon
life beyond death. According to the commentators, since moksa is concerned with a blissful state
of experience, it cannot be explained in adequate terms. As such there are no authentic reports
about the state of liberation, but many theoretical accounts are available through revelations of
the mystic saints. Hence Tiruvalluvar might have thought that any one who is virtuous in his
domestic, social, political and moral spheres, he will certainly experience abundant joy in every
aspect of life, veedu peru. The kama or inbam (pleasure) described by Tiruvalluvar in the third
section is to be understood in terms of leading to the everlasting and increasing bliss. At the
worldly level we have physical pleasure and mental happiness, but at the spiritual plane, which is
mystic in nature and essence, the rapture is to be experienced rather than explained. Hence
 3

,Tiruvalluvar wants every human being to concentrate on the life on earth than contemplating on
a heavenly life.

Another interesting feature of this famous text is that its author has not used anywhere the terms
such as Tamil language, Tamilian, Tamil country, though all the 1330 couplets are in chaste
Tamil language. There are totally 9310 Tamil words used in this work. In the first couplet itself
Tiruvalluvar resorts to his intention of spreading his message for mankind: “The world of sound
commences with the letter ‘A’. Similarly all that exists in the world commence from the Prime
Mover.”

In several places the author uses the expressions like ‘ulaku’ ‘ulakam’ ‘vaiyam’ ‘jnalam’ etc., to
refer to the world. His love for mankind and fascination to find out man as living as a genuine
human, without social discrimination, linguistic fanaticism, racial inequealities, political
turmoils, religious fundamentalism, moral disturbances, mental imbalances, regional
dissimilarities, national prejudices, economic upheavel, geographical divisions etc., are found in
every couplet. He delves deeply on almost all the aspects of human life. At several places he
indicates that man should not live through the senses which is nothing but the life of brutish
beasts. He expects man to use his sixth sense viz., mind to sort out all human issues and lead a
life of spirituality which will bring forth a life of tranquility and solace to all human woes. In
preface to his translation of Tirukkural VVS Aiyar states, “Tiruvalluvar has given to the world a
work to which, in perfection of form, profoundity of thought, nobleness of sentiment, and
earnestness of moral purpose…”

The last section of this grand work deals exclusively with the various aspects of domestic life
especially the inner part of it known as conjugal love, He divides this section into two divisions,
first speaks about pre-marital love and the second about married life. This shows that the ancient
Tamils have developed grammar not only for the external life of human beings, but also for the
internal living.

3.3 MORAL PHILOSOPHY OF TIRUVALLUVAR

Very cleverly Tiruvalluvar refers to virtue in two different but similar terms, viz., aram and
aran. The title of the chapter is emphasis on aran which means the glorification of righteousness.
The subtle difference between these two terms is that aram means the definition of virtue. For
instance, avoidance of jealously, greediness, wrath and abusive language is the best way to
acquire aram (35). As contrast he reiterates that domestic life is exclusively that is practiced as
aran: life not blamed by others but earning good name (49). When abundant love and aran
prevail at home, they are the quality and benefit of family life (45). Promoting purity of heart
without any blemish whatsoever is the best way of living; the other so called aran are nothing
but empty display (34). However both these terms viz., aram and aran indicate virtue, the former
is used to refer to the definition of righteousness, while the former its fulfillment or utlity.
However, one can notice the difficulty of the author is not giving a positive meaning or
definition of righteousness. The Absence of certain ignorable traits such as anger, jealously etc.,
is to be understood as aram.
 4

In the life of a man his individual life, socio-political life, romantic life are playing a vital life.
The first section is pertaining to individual ethics, with the sub-divisions such as domestic virtue,
ascetic virtue and fate. The second section is concerned with political ethics which ahs the true
meaning, poral of life. It has the headings of royalty, ministers of state and appendix. The third
section pertains to conjugal love with the pre-marital love and wedded love as the divisions. The
first section ends with the chapter on fate. Man has to llive in accordance to his destiny.
‘Although a man may study the most polished treatises, the knowledge which fate has decreed to
him will still prevail.’ (373). There are through fate two different nature in the world, hence the
difference observable in men in their acquisition of wealth in their attainment of knowledge.
There seems to be a contradiction in the conception of fate by Tiruvalluvar. In this chapter he
holds that ‘what is stronger than fate? If we think of an expedient to avert it, it will itself be with
us before the th ought. (380). However in the chapter on manly effort he maintains that ‘they
will labour on, without fear and without fainting will see even fate out behind their back.’ (620).
In the first one the author gives a generic truth that fate is more powerful and difficult to over
come. In the other couplet he gives a specific truth that if one strive with undismayed and
unfaltering mind that person will curtail the impact of fate. Hence one should not keep inactive
leaving everything to destiny.

The second section ends with the chapter on baseness, kayamai. The contents of this chapter
reveal the truth that even during the time of Tiruvalluvar the society has been degraded. In any
social setting if there the vile people with malevolent attitude and highly despicable character
predominate, then naturally that society would lose respect. Tiruvalluvar uses highly
contemptuous language to describe the attitude of the degenerates. It would be very difficult to
distinguish between the men of base and honest people since the base resemble the celestials; for
they act as they like. The principle of behavior in the mean is chiefly fear; if not, hope of gain, to
some extent. The great bestow their alms as soon as they are informed; but the mean, like the
sugar-cane, only when they are tortured to death. The base will hasten to sell themselves as soon
as a calamity has befallen them. For what else are they gifted? Thus it is clear that the
individuals have to promote all noble traits so that the socio-political organizations would be free
from the highly despicable men.

Though Tiruvalluvar’s primary concern is to make mankind perfect and virtuous through various
means, he seems tobe a lover of nature. In the chapter of the excellence of Rain, he glorifies the
importance of rain, water, sky, celestials, food, ploughing, clouds, annual festivals, daily
worship, penance, almsgiving, duties of life which are basically related with water. The method
of water management formulated by Tiruvalluvar shows his human concern. ‘By the
continuance of rain, the world is preserved in existence; it is therefore worthy to be called
ambrosia.(11). Further, if it be said that the duties of life cannot be discharged by anyone
without water, so also without rain no flowing water is possible. (20).

One such famous chapter in the Tirukkural is ‘the greatness of the Ascetics’ wherein the author
asserts the ultimate goal of life through ethical discipline mingled with renunciation. All
treatises in the world uniformly emphasise the greatness of those who abide by the code of
conduct unique to their state of existence who have relinguished all desires. It is not possible to
describe the measure of those who hasve renounced. If done so, it would b e like counting the
dead. Those who have realized the importance of the two-fold nature of existence will excel
 5

others. He who controls his five senses by the look of wisdom will be a seed in the world of
heaven.

Indiran, the Lord of the celestial is the best example for strengthening his will by way of
controlling the five senses. Only the men of wisdom can achieve greatness, while the men of
mean mindedness can seldom achieve. He who knows the qualities of taste, sight, touch,
audition and smell alone can abide by the intricacies of the world. The greatness of the men of
efficient knowledge through hidden language can be revealed by their insipiriting utterances. It
would be impossible to resist the wrath even for a moment of those who have scaled themountain
of goodness. The Andhanars are none other than the men of virtues since they show kindness to
all living species.

The moral philosophy of Tiruvalluvar is found in all the sections such as domestic virtues,
ascetic virtues, fate, royal virtues, appendix etc. The individual virtues which are essentially
ethical are associated with social and political morality since both these institutions are meant for
promoting the welfare of the individuals. Life starts with love. As a nessential feature of all
aspects of life is love. Since love is related to virtue, Tiruvalluvar maintains that virtue will burn
up the human person whichis devoid of love even as the Sun burns up the creature which is
without bones, (worms). (77) Most of the problems emerge due to the usage of abusive language.
Tiruvalluvar insists that one should always utter pleasant words and should refrain from using
filthy language. Here also Tiruvalluvar combines the notion of virtue. The sins of a man will
vanish and the virtues in crease provided he cultivates the habit of speaking sweet words (88).
We should also not forget the favour received from some one since gratitude is related to the
knowledge of benefits conferred. He who has annihilated every virtue may yet survive; there is
no redemption for him who has killed a benefit. (110).

Impartiality is a moral virtue which expects all human beings to treat others like themselves
which is especially applicable to the merchants. The ornament of the wise is not to devitate from
impartiality and maintain balance like the ever-fixed scale. (119). One must possess self-
restriction to lead a peaceful life. Like the tortoise one must control the five senses; the role of a
man with self-restriction is greater than mountain. All problems emerge due to the non-control of
tongue and hence one must guard his tongue. Disciplilne and decorum are very essential for a
human being since they are treated greater than life. Propriety of conduct is the seed of virtue;
impropriety will ever cause sorrow (138). Not coveting another’s wife, the possession of
patience or forbearance, not envying, not coveting, not back biting, the not speaking of profitless
words, the dread of evil deeds, the knowing of what is suitable for a man’s status, offering, fame
are some of the virtues associated with family life.

In the ascetic virtues we have the following chapters; The possession of benevolence, the
relinquishing of meat, penance, inconsistent conduct, the absence of fraud, veracity, the not
being angry, non-indulgence of evil, non-killing, instability, renunciation, knowledge of the true,
the extirpation of desire and fate. Among the above topics, the term ‘vaymai’ is significant in the
sense that it is equated with truth commonly. But Tiruvalluvar gives a unique definition of ‘
vaymai’ thus; ‘veracity’ is nothing but non-utterance of words causing evil to other. (291). Purity
of the external body is caused by water and inner purity is caused by veracity. Now it is clear that
unless a person develops inner purity he cannot but resist the usage of abusive words. Only a
 6

man of internal purification will speak in a perfect manner without offending any body. Even
falsehood has the nature of veracity, if it brings forth faultless benefit. He who promotes
deceitless conductin in his mind certainly dwell in the minds of all. In this context Tiruvalluvar
points out the avoidance of falsehood. The faultlesslamp of wisdom caused by veracity is the true
lamp of the world. To those who eat meat Tiruvalluvar first asks people not to eat meat so that
the butchers will not kill animals for the sake of eating meat.

3.4 SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY OF TIRUVALLUVAR

As it is generally known social ideologies cannot exist and survive without being followed and
patronized by individuals. Tiruvalluvar’s message for the social well-being of people is found in
several couplets. In the chapter on cherishing guests. It is not proper to keep the guests outside
his residence even though he were eating the food of immortality. (82). He who having
entertained the guests who have visited him, looks out for other guests to visit, will certainly be a
welcome guest to the celestial beings. (86). In the sectionon wealth in association with political
thought Tiruvalluvar speaks of social virtues. The processof getting education, non-learning,
listening to others, the possession of knowledge, the correction of faults, seeking the guidance of
great people, avoidance of mean minded people, acting after realization, knowing the power,
knowing the place, knowing the time, clarification with enlightenement, engagement after-
realization, cherishing one’s kindred, unforgetfulness, unsluggishness, personality endeavours,
withstanding in trouble, method of acquiring wealth, friendship, investigation in making
friendship, familiarity, evil friendship, unwanted friendship, folly, ignorance, hostitlity, themight
of hatred, knowing the efficiency of enmity, internal enmity, non offending the great, being led
by women, wanton women, non drinking of toddy, gambling, medicine, nobility, honour,
greatness, perfectness, noble qualities, wealth without benefaction, shamefulness, the way of
maintaining the family, agriculture, poverty, mendicancy, the dread of mendicancy and baseness.

The literal meaning of the word ‘porul’ is wealth. But it also indicates the meaning of life.
Tiruvalluvar expects that human beings must live with fellowmen amicably and peacefully. The
first and foremost requirement for executing this ideal is education which is themanifestation of
perfection already in men. Every one should learn the subject matter without any blemish, and
learn selectively, but ultimately his conduct should be worthy of his learning (291). Water will
emerge from the sand-well in proportion to the depth to which is dug; likewise knowledge will
flow from a man in proportion to his learning. According to Tiruvalluvar illiteracy leads to
ignorance and it is a sin. As beasts by the side of men, so are other men by the side of those who
are learned in celebrated works. (410). As a method of learning and acquiring knowledge
Tiruvalluvar emphasizes the process of listening. In his opinion the wealth of wealth is that
which is heard by the ear; that wealth is the major wealth. (411). He condemns the people who
tastes the food seriously than tasting the message heard throught he ear. (420).

The culmination of education, listening etc, is nothing but the possession of knowledge, leading
to wisdom. The frequeent55ly quoted verse (423) declares thus; To discover the truth, uttered by
any person, listened to by any person, is real wisdom. Most of fear what ought to be feared is
folly; it is the work of the wise to fear what should be feared. (428). The noble gesture of the
men of wisdom is to correct the faults of fellowmen, as well as in themselves. Those who fear
guilt, if they commit a faulty small as a millet seed, will considered it to be as large as a palmyra
 7

tree (433). In a society none can decide anything individually. Seeking the aid of great men is
essentially required for guidance and decision making. This quality is to be preferred by the
rulers. So to act as to make those men, his own, who are greater than himself is of all powers the
highest (444). To achieve this welcome virtue one must avoid the company of the mean minded
fellows. This is no greater help than the company of the good. There is no greater source of
sorrow than the company of the wicked. (460)
No action should be performed in haste but after due considerationof the pros and cons of that
action. Tiruvalluvar insists that before engaging inan action one should contemplate seriously
and then proceed. After having undertaken it, to say, “we will consider’ is a stupid way of
talking, (467), one must realize his power and ability before executing an action. Even if the
peacock feathers are loaded excessively, the axle of that vehicle will break (475). Equally one
must realize the appropriate time while performing an act. If a person acts in the right time and at
the right place, he can conquer the world and acoomplish it (484). Similarly is the case in
knowing the right place for action. Tiruvalluvar substantiates this vies: Wide chariots with
mighty wheels willnot turn on the ocean; neither will the ships that traverse ocean, move on the
earth (496). One must know and realize the conditions of life whichi are based on righteousness,
wealth, pleasure and fear of life (death). For trusting a fellow without examination and oubting a
fellow after choosing for the assignment, both will create irremediable sorrow. (510). Similarly
one should realize and employ right person for right action. After having considered, ‘this man
can accomplish this, by these means,’ let the master leave with im the discharge of that duty.
There is a famous proverb in Tamil – ‘living with kith and kin will fetch crores of benefits.’
Tiruvalluvar in a decade extols the greatness of cherishing one’s kindred. Even when a man’s
property is lost, his relatives will move with him with their accustomed kindness. Though people
consider forgetting as a boon, Tiruvalluvar on the contrary wants the people not to develop the
habit of forgetting. For forgetfulness will destroy one’s name and fame, even as constant
poeverty destroys knowledge, (532).

Benignity is a grand virtue. For kind loons are the ornaments of the eyes. Those who devise to
cultivate that degree of civilization which all shall prefer, even after swallowing the posion
served to them by their friends; such persons will be friendly even with them. (580). Tiruvalluvar
also insists upon developing strength and energy to fulfill one’s mission on earth. With an
analogy he elucidates this concept. Even as the flower stretches asper the depth of water, the
greatness of human beings will be determined by their mental strength. (588). This virtues is
followed by unsluggishness. People are expected to give up idelenss and be brisk always. Those
who through idelenss and do not engage themselves in dignified extension, will subject
themselves to troubles and reproaches. (608). Promoting power and untiring activities will
culminate in personality development. To encourage people Tiruvalluvar brings in divinity.
Even if something could not be achieved by divine sources, one can triumph and obtain the
reward through constant labour and continued bodily extentions. (618). Even if fate confronts a
man with suffering one should not give up hope. In troubles too one should develop steadfastness
and try to wipe out troubles. Such people will give sorrow to sorrow itself who in sorrow do not
suffer in sorrows.

3.5 POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY OF TIRUVALLUVAR

 8

Man is a political animal; for peaceful living in a social good governance is a pre-requiste. To
protect people from external dangers and internal threats, people need a good state with all
equipments. Tiruvalluvar devotes several decades of verses to highlight the salient features of
political ideologies.

The section on wealth commences with the significant features of royal personality especially the
greatness of a king or ruler. A king has to possess an army, citizens, wealth, ministers, friends
asnd a fortress. Such a king will be treated as a lion among kings. This is the grammar of
politics. (381). A ruler must promote the quality of manly modesty and should not swerve from
virtue but refrain from Vice (384). The ruler who spends his time and energy with duty
consciousness in protecting his subjects will be adored as a God among men. (388). The other
virtues elucidated for social well being of people are equally applicable for the king and
ministers too. While seeking the guidance of great men, a king must be always in the company
of noble men selected by him for the prosperity of his domain. Otherwise, he will perish even
though there be no one to defeat or destroy him. (448).

A ruler must be vigilant and always be aware of the poer of his army, his enemy etc, before
ventuiring into any act. There is nothing which may not be accomplished by those whol, beofer
they attack an enemy, make thmesleves aquainted with their own ability, and with whatever else
is needful to be known, and apply themselves wholly to their goal. (472). Equally is important
the intend of knowing the appropriate time. Valluvur explains this virtue with an analogy. A
crow will conquer an owl in the day time; thus aking has to analyse the suitable time before
conquering his enermies. ( 481). While selecting the ministers the ruler must be very conscious
of their skill and bility. According to Tiruvalluvar, let a minister be chosen, after he has been
tried by means of the following four qualities, virtue, attachement towards money, indulgence in
sexual pleasure and fear of losing life. ( 501).

In the chapter on the Right scepter Tiruvalluvar gives a vivid picture about the method of ruling
the country. Even as the living beings live happily6 when there is good down-pouring, the
citizens will live happily when the king rules his domain justly. (542). Again for a king to
punish the criminals with severe punishements, is like the pulling up of the weeds in the green
field. (550). Similarly a king is to avoid the quality of the cruel scepter. The country of the king
who does not dailyl examine into the wrongs done and distribute justice, will daily fall to runit.
(553). Again when the people shed tears unable to bear the torture from a cruel king, on that day
itself the wealth of the king will vanich. (555). Another important duty of the ruler is to protect
his domain from terrosrism. If he could not control and contain the onslaught of the terrorists,
Tiruvalluvar warns that peace will be out of focus from his terroritory. The king should engage
detectives to check the activities of the unruly masses and bring forth peace in his country. He is
a spy who watches all men, to wit those who are in the king’s employment, his relatives and his
enemies. (584).

In the sub section on Ministers of state, Tiruvalluvar emphatically asserts the office of the
minister of state to assist the smoth administration of the kingdom in association with the king.
He is one who is able to comprehend the whole nature of an undertaking, execute it in the best
manner possible and offer assuring advice in time of necessity. (634). A minister must hasve the
ability to communicate powerfully so that he can win over the confidence of his matter and
 9

fellowmen. It is impossible for any one to conquer him by intriguing who does posses power of
oratory asnd is neither faulty nor timid. (647). Tiruvalluvar elucidates the purity of action, the
power of action and the method of acting.

The ruler is expected to maintain good relationship with the neighbouring countries and mutual
friendship and territorial integhretiy are to preserved. For this purpose the role of the envoy
becomes inevitable. Since Tiruvalluvar has realized this necessity in ten couplets he describes the
feature of sending emissaries to the neighbouring countries for peaceful co existence. The
qualifications of an ambassador are love of fellowmen, a fitting birth and the possession of
abilities being acceptable to royalty. (681). A person who does possess the following virtues
alone is eligible to be sent on a mission to foreign countries: an embodiment of wisdom, natural
temperament for investigation and excellent learning. (684) The minister is always expected to
be in the companyof the king and advise him during the time of crisis. An excellent comparison
is made by Tiruvalluvar regarding the relationship between the king and the minister. Minsiters
who serve iunder the fickle-minded monarchs should be neither too far nor too near like those
who warn themselves at the fix. (691). While in the presence of the sovereign, ministers should
neither whisper to nor smile at others. (694).

Another essential requirement of a minister is to know through indication. Accordingl to

Tiruvalluvar, the minister who by looking at the king understands his mind without being told of
it will be a perpetual ornament to the world which is surrounded by never drying ocean. (701).
The minister also should have a thorough knowledge about the movements of his subordinates.
This kind of understanding will enable him to be cautitious about the spies and internal dangers.
For a to blunder in the presence of those who hasve acquired a vast store of learning and know
the value thereof is like a good man stumbling and failing away from the path of virtue. (781).
Also the minister is not expected to exhibit any kind of dread before the council. In order to
reply fearlessly before a foreign court, ministers should learn the logical method according to the
rules of grammar. (725).

In the sub-division of the essentials of a state Tiruvalluvar first defines what is a state. A state is
constituted of perfect cultivation, virtuous persons and merchants with inexhaustible wealth. All
these must be good together always. (731). Again, freedom from epidemics, wealth, produce,
happiness and protection to subjects are the fine jewels for a country. (738). Tiruvalluvar also
portrays the nature of a fort. A fort is that which has an extensive space within, but only small
places tobe guarded and such as can destroy the courage of the besieging foes. (744). The
minister should also know the technique of accumulating wealth. The chief wealth of the king is
an well equipped army which completes its mission in the battle field without fear of wounds.
(761). The kingdom should fee proud about its military spiritu. It is more pleasant to hold the
dart that has missed an elephant that which has hit a hare in the forest. (772).

Tiruvalluvar brings to light the deep intricacies of masking friendship after propoer investigation
whom we have to consider as our friends. He wants people to give up evil friendship which may
drive people to untold sufferings. He also distinguishes between genuine friendship and unreal
friendship. In several couplets he describes various facts about familiarity. Intimate friendship
is that which cannot in the least be injured by things done through the right of long standing
intimacy. (801). He also elucidates the significant features of folly, ignorance, hostility, the
 10

might of hatred, knowing the ability of hatredness, enmity withing, not offending the great, being
led by women, wanton women, not drinking toddy, not indulging in gambling and medicine. In
the last chapter the author suggests various means to avoid diseases, the method of treatment,
diet etc. Let the physician enquire first into thenature of the discease, its cause and its method of
cure and treat a patient faithfully according to methical rules. (848)

In the section on appendix Tiruvalluvar discusses about the general issues whicha re to be
realized by the citizens for a comfortable and peaceful living such as nobility. The high born
will never deviate from these three virtues; good manners, truthfulness and modesty (952),
honour, greatness, perfectness, courtesy, wealth without benediction, shamefulness, the way of
maintain the family, agriculture, poevery, mendicancy, the dread of mendicancy, and basensess.
The whol ambit of this work is to make people perfect int heir endeavours and free freom base
mentality. He contemptuously scolds the mean-minded fellows. In contrast to the perfect ones,
he holds (1078). The great people willbestow their alms as soon as they are informed; but the
mean, like the sugar cane, only when they are tortured to death.

3.6 LET US SUM UP

Tirukkural reflects the genius of the Tamils in a remarkable way. It is at once ideal and practical,
of the earthy as well as highly imaginative, simple as well as subtle, prosaic, matter of fact,
earnest and forthright as well as highly poetic and emotional as is apparent in the third book
dealing with love. Tiruvalluvar’s moral philosophy is anthropo-centric exclusively since its focus
is on life on this earth rather than aspiring for heavenly abode. Tiruvalluvar is more concerned
with the problems of life and ideal solutions of for socio-political and moral issues. He was
totally opposed to absolutizing and idealizing the problems and making it a other worldy affairs.

3.7 KEY WORDS

Aram: Righteousness
Porul: Wealth
Inbam: Happiness
Veedu: Release or Liberation

3.8 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Thiruvalluvar. Thirukkural, trans. W. H. Drew and John Lazarus. New Delhi: Asian Educational
Services, 2007.

Thiruvalluvar. Thirukkural: Pearls of Inspiration, trans. M. Rajaram. New Delhi: Rupa and Co.,
2009.

Diaz, S.M. Trans. Tirukkural, Vol.1-2. Coimbatore: Ramanandha Adigalar Foundation, 2005.

Drew, W. H. and John Lazarus. Thirukkural. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 2007.
 11

Gopalan, S. The Social Philosophy of Tirukkural. Madras: Affliated East-West Press Pvt. Ltd.,
1935.

Krishnaswami, O. R. The Wisdom of Thirukkural: A Guide to living. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya

Bhavan, 2004.

Mahapatra, Ranganayaki, P. Bhanumathi, and Sukla Chakrabarti. Studies in Tirukkural. Calcutta:

Tamil Department, Calcutta University, 1996.

Meenakshisundaram, T. P. “Philosophy of Tiruvalluvar” in Thirumathi Sornammal Endowment

Lectures on Tirukkural, ed. M. V. Venugopala Pillai, 211-322. Madras: University of
Madras, 1971.

Narayanasamy, J. Thirukkural (Transliteration). Chennai: Sura Pathippagam, 2008.

Perumal, V. Educational Philosophy of Thiruvalluvar. Bangalore: Panpagam, 1989.

Pillai, Rao Sahib K. Kothandapani Pillai. “Thirukkural – Kamathuppal” in Thirumathi

Sornammal Endowment Lectures on Tirukkural, ed. M. V. Venugopala Pillai, 107-210.
Madras: University of Madras, 1971.

Radhakrishnan, K. R. “Thirukkural and the Philosophy of Thiruvalluvar” in Kalai Malar, ed. S.

Annamalai, 25-37. Howrah: Thiruvalluvar Kalai Manram, 1963.

Rajagopalachari, C. “The Tiru-k-kural” in The Cultural Heritage of India, vol. 2, 530-535.

Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, 1975.

Rajagopalachari, C. Kural: The Great Book of Tiruvalluvar. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan,
1970.

Rajaram, M. Thirukkural: Pearls of Inspiration. New Delhi: Rupa and Co., 2009.

Reddiar, N. Collected Papers. Madras: Paari Nilayam, 1985.

Sreenivasan, Kasthuri. Tirukkural: An Ancient Tamil Classic. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan,
1969.
Munisami, V. Thirkural Thelivuorai. Chennai: Thirunavukarasu, 1989.Parimelalager. Thirukkural –
Thirukkural (in Tamil). Chennai: Thirunavukarasu, 1986.
 1

UNIT 4 INTRODUCTION TO EPICS, PURANAS AND BHAGAVAT GITA

Contents

4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Itihasas - Epics
4.3 Ethical Insights of Epics
4.4 Political Thought in Epics
4.5 Eighteen Puranas
4.6 Bhagavat Gita
4.7 Idea of God in Gita
4.8 Three Margas in Gita
4.9 Path of Bhakti as means to Liberation
4.10 Let us Sum up
4.11 Key Words
4.12 Further Readings and References

4.0 OBJECTIVES

The unit attempts to give a general outlook of the popular scriptures of Indian tradition namely
the epics, puranas and the Gita. The popularity of them is due to their narrative style with
illustrations, mythological stories and dialogical forms. They do contain high philosophical
notions, but given in a popular language. Emotional attachment and devotion towards personal
deities and God are the general outcome of this sort of literature.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

In Sanskrit tradition, scriptures are divided into two types: Revealed Texts (Sruti – what is
heard) and Remembered Texts (Smrti – what is remembered). The four Vedas and 108
Upanishads come under the Sruti category and Bhagavat Gita, 18 Puranas, Sastras, Tantras,
Agamas and many others, come under Smrti category. Smrti literally means recollection or
memory. It is a secondary authority; it derives its authority form sruti. Its object is to expand and
exemplify the principles of sruti or the Vedas. The smriti consist of Gita, Brahma Sutra, Itihasas
(epics), Puranas (chronicles and legends), Sastras (codes of law), Agamas and Tantras (manuals
of worship). The distinction between sruti and smrti is important for two following reasons; 1. In
case of conflicting views, Sruti’s views will hold good. 2. Without requiring any change in the
sruti, the smrtis preserve the authority admitting changes in it.

Agamas

Agamas are that which has been handed down as a tradition. These are the scriptures dealing
with the worship of a particular aspect of God. They prescribe detailed courses of discipline for
the worshipper. Each agama consists of four sections. They are philosophy, mental discipline,
rules for the construction of temples and images, religious practices. The agamas are divided into
 2

three according to the deity that is worshipped. The Vaisnava agamas (also called the pancaratra
and vaikhanasa agamas) for Vishnu, the Saiva Agamas for siva and the sakta agamas (tantras)
for sakti. Each glorifies its particular deity.

Sastras
These are codified laws regulating the society from time to time. The important law givers are:
Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara. Their codes of law are known as Sastras. Dharmasastra
constitutes another very important source of Indian ethics and philosophy in which detailed rules
of conduct and practical moral instructions are given. Manusmrti: according to Manu by
following dharma one attains perfection. Manu prescribes duties for all the four stages of life and
four different categories of persons in the society. This book of Manu comprises the laws of
Manu which has become Aryan laws. Manu is considered to be great law giver in Vedic period.
The code of conduct has three divisions; rituals, discharge of social responsibility and atonement
for sins. They contain ‘prescription and proscription.’ They are like constitution and penal code.
They emphasize two aspects of life; ‘dharmic’ and social. The role of ritual is restricted to
individual life; household work to be precise. These codes have some rigidity imposed in their
interpretation and implementation. Fixation of duties and emphasis upon duties resemble, to
great extent, the directive principles enshrined in the constitution. While four-fold division of
society is one type, fourfold division of individual life is another. Smriti is very clear about not
only four classes, but also four stages (brahmacharya, garhastya, vaanaprastha and samnyasa)
in the life of an individual. There is no scope for switching from one position to another in a
random manner. This will help us to infer the kind of political system which smriti supported.
Surely, smriti did not support democratic system, though during Vedic age democratic system
flourished.

4.2 ITIHASAS - EPICS

Itihasa is epics. The two well-known and popular epics from Sanskrit tradition are the Ramayana
by Valmiki, and the Mahabharata by Vyasa. Though the Ramayana and the Mahabharata are
two epics which have influenced literature for several centuries in all parts of India. The
Ramayana accepts the principles of Sanatana Dharma and duties of ruler in particular. The aim
of the epics is to drive home to all the laws of the smrtis and the principles of the sruti by means
of the exploits of their great national heroes – Rama and Krisna. The Ramayana is the account of
the deeds of a divinely great hero who set an example for the entire human race. It deals with
ideal conditions of humanness a sense of brotherhood obedience to moral law firmness of
character, honesty, sacrifice and unbounded goodness. Mahabharatha has a more profound theme
which involves history, mythology, ethics and metaphysics. It is the history of Bharadas, a royal
family of North Indian which divided into 2 parties, pandavas and Gauravas, and so the war
breaks out between them. It is an encyclopedia of Hindu dharma.

The epics are essentially different from the early Vedic literatures. They arose not among the
priestly classes but among traditional bards called sutas. These also served as charioteers who
witnessed the actual battle-scenes and described them at first-hand in their ballads. They are
martial poetry, concerned not with the praise of deities but of kings and nobles, not connected
with the details of sacrifices, but with events like wars, and imbued not with higher philosophical
motives, but with the practical purpose of gaining some reward from the audience before whom
 3

they were recited. We do not have them in their original and untampered form. They are added to
by different hands at different periods. To the nucleus many pieces of the ancient bardic poetry
containing legends connected or unconnected with the life of the epic heroes, of sacred poetry
dealing with numerous myths and legends of brahmanical origin. And large sections devoted to
philosophy and ethics, cosmologies and genealogies in the fashion of puranas, legends, fables
and parables. These additions indicate the great popularity which this epic has enjoyed at all
times. The zealous spirit of compliers to bring together all that could be collected in it.

The three dimensional view of Mahabharata – on mundane plane, the story deals with the
realistic account of a fierce war or annihilation with its interest centred on the epic characters.
The meaning on the ethical plan views the war as a conflict between the principles of dharma
and adharma, between good and evil, between justice and injustice, in which the contending
parties are regarded as incarnations of devas and asuras and the war ends in the victory of
dharma. On the ethico-pyschological plane, the epic aims at impressing upon the reader, the
paramount of moral values. On the transcendental plane, which takes us beyond dharma and
adharma, the war is fought not only in the kuruksetra but also in our own minds; this perpetual
battle between the higher self and the lower self of man for establishing mastery over the body is
symbolized by the fight between the cousins for sovereignty. Here we are face to face with the
deep mysteries of life. The self under the guidance of the super self emerges successful in this
conflict, after he has destroyed with the sword of knowledge ignorance embodied in his
illegitimate desires and passions symbolized by his relatives, teachers, elders and friends ranged
on the other side. Individual self, jivatman is Arjuna; absolute self is Krishna. Dhrtarastra is a
symbol of the vacillating ego-centric self, while his sons ‘symbolize in their aggregate the brood
of ego-centric desires and passions. Vidura strands for ‘buddhi,’ the one pointed reason, and
Bhisma is tradition, the time bound element in human life and society. Though symbolism is not
applied to all characters, the metaphysical interpretation leads us to the deeper meaning of the
epic. The epic poets, ‘are using every means in their power to expound, illustrate, and popularize,
what the philosophy of the self, a lofty philosophy of ethical autonomy, with emphasis on the
application of these principles to the problems of daily life.”

It will serve our purpose if we concentrate on philosophical component of the Mahabharata. We

can trace two philosophical issues in this work; one is expounded in the Bhagavad-Gita, rather in
a very unsatisfactory manner, because it is mainly a work in theistic tradition. Second one is
morality and polity expounded by two prominent characters; Vidura and Bhisma. But these
philosophical issues in this work suffer from a serious drawback – draw back from philosophical
point of view. Nowhere in this work do we find discussion, or criticism which is the hallmark of
philosophy. More than anything else, what we find is only a sermon.

4.3 ETHICAL INSIGHTS OF EPICS

From the point of view of ethics, it is desirable to regard some characters as personification of
virtue. Vidura and Bhisma belong to this category. In contrast to these characters in the
Mahabharata, we have other characters which are regarded as personification of evil. Why
should any epic portray evil characters? This is one question. Are they in a broader perspective,
really evil forces? This is another question. The second question is much deeper philosophically
and cannot be answered easily. First one is slightly easier to handle. An epic must be vast.
 4

Hence it ought to include all facts of world and all aspects of life. So evil characters ought to find
place in any epic worth the name.

Vidura’s exposition of moral principles begins with a clear distinction between shreyas
(desirable) and preyas (pleasing). He compares shreyas with medicine which is not palatable. It
is immediately followed by a second analogy to demonstrate the status of pleasure which is
invariably accompanied by evil. To make this concomitant relation explicit, Vidura compares
pleasure with honey, pleasure seeker with one who collects honey and evil with abyss and says
that the pleasure hunter is busy only in seeking honey unmindful of impending danger of falling
into the abyss. In the Mahabharata, Vidura plays his role on three occasions. On second
occasion, Vidura plays the role of a counselor. His counseling has moral base. He makes an
explicit distinction between two states of mind; those of wise man and ignorant. While Plato
speaks of four cardinal virtues, Vidura speaks of six cardinal vices. Greed is one among them.
He makes out a case for wise man by listing the remaining vices - lust, anger, irrational
attachment, arrogance and jealousy – which he does not possess. There is no need to describe the
personality of one who is free from these vices. Dharma according to Vidura consists in
everyman doing his own duty and this is the cardinal principle of welfare state. Vidura talks of
death and the need to accept the same. Death and fear are nearly inseparable if man does not
accept that death is inevitable. In this context Vidura accepts reality, i.e., human nature and
maintains that man hardly follows wisdom.

4.4 POLITICAL THOUGHT IN EPICS

Bhisma’s advice to Dharmaraya, specifies only the duties and responsibilities of ruler with no
mention of the duties of citizen. Against this backdrop, it becomes obvious that in real sense,
citizen is the king and ruler is his guardian. Bhisma’s lecture not only explicitly mentions king’s
qualities and duties but also it is first ever treatise on public administration. King should be
proactive, truthful and straightforward. According to Bhisma, theses are the most important
qualities of king. He should be compassionate but not too soft. The essence of ‘rajadharma’ is
safe-guarding the interests of citizens. In fact, Bhisma lists thirty-six qualities in an ideal king
which are necessary to follow rajadharma without which the citizens do not receive protection
from the king. Foreign policy is another aspect of public administration. Foreign policy involves
two forces, enemies and friends. The role of friends is not much highlighted. But he emphasizes
that king should know how to deal with enemy. Prudence is always the guiding force. Bhisma
makes it very clear that war is not the solution. Nor did he mean that enemy can be spared.
Constant vigil, concealing one’s own weakness and proper judgment only can ensure safety and
security. All these descriptions apply under normal circumstances, whereas in distress even
enemy should enjoy compassion because a humanitarian treatment may destroy enmity.
Ultimately, humane outlook scores over other considerations.

4.5 EIGHTEEN PURANAS

Purana is a ‘story of the old days’ and is more than a ‘myth.’ It is a record of stories of antiquity.
Having no parallel in western literatures, these are meant for the celebration of religion, the
glorification of saints and kings, and the edification of readers, whose faith is to be strengthened.
They are prolix, flowery, repetitive, derivative from earlier models, with a good deal of
 5

borrowing, and conflation and lacking even the slender thread of history. Although we cannot
date puranas by its character of repeating the stories of the old days, one can trace their
composition from 300 CE to 1000 CE. They speak of ascendancy of this or that main god in the
evolving pantheon, they tend to dedicate to that god, around whom the old stories are retold.

Puranas is devotional material from the bhakti tradition; the stories about the gods who are the
objects of people’s loyalty, and practices of various kinds appropriate to the worship of those
gods. These consist of chronicles and legends and genealogy of kings. They are treatises of
history, of cosmology, with various symbolical illustrations of philosophical principles and so
forth. According to tradition there are 18 puranas. These are the scriptures dealing with the
worship of a particular aspect of God. They prescribe detailed courses of discipline of the
worshipper. Each agama consists of four sections. They are philosophy, mental discipline, rules
for the construction of temples and images, religious practices. The agamas are divided into
three according to the deity that is worshipped. The Vaisnava agamas (also called the
pancaratra and vaikhanasa agamas) for Vishnu, he Saiva Agamas for siva and the sakta agamas
(tantras) for Sakti. Each glorifies its particular deity. People’s reponse to their gods is in terms
of religious practices of bhakti, prayers, ceremonial hymns, gifts given to Brahmins and gods,
vows to service, sraddhas or ritual practices and tirtahas.

The doctrine of avatar (divine incarnation) is fully developed in the epics and the puranas. The
purpose of an avatar is; 1. for protection of the virtuous, 2. for destruction of the wicked and for
the establishment of dharma (moral order). According to the puranas there 10 avatars of visnu.
Matsya –fish, Kurma –tortoise, Varaha – boar, Narasimha – the man-lion, Vamana – dwarf,
Parasurama –Rama with the axe, Ramacandra – hero of the Ramayana, Krisna – the god of
Bhagavad gita, Balarama – Warrior Rama, Kalki - the hero on a white horse who is to come at
the end of the kali-yuga.

The gods are stratified, for there appear both vedic and post vedic deities together. Of the vedic
gods, indra, agni, soma, vayu and surya reappear in puranic lore, but they are no longer central,
as they were to vedic ritual and some of their functions have changed. It is as if they have been
demoted in favour of the famous Hindu ‘triad’ of Brahma, the creator, Visnu the preserver, and
Siva the destroyer, who dominate puranic literature. Each of the three has a goddess as consort;
Brahma’s wife is Sarasvati, patroness of music and learning; Visnu’s wife is Laksmi, goddess of
fortune, sometimes beneficent and sometimes not; and Siva’s wife is Parvati, daughter of the
Himalaya mountain. Notable exception is found in Devimahatmya, section of the Markandeya
purana, in which the ferocious Durga and the black Kali created spouseless out of the combined
energy of the gods, become manifest to do combat with demons. Though other minor deities
appear, the three major gods play an important role. The divine population includes a host of
supernatural beings, like pitrs, dead ancestors, gandharvas, apsarases, devas, asuras, raksasas.

They are the instruments of popular education. Dharma or social duty reflects the same Hindu
law codes basically Brahminical, and is given in illustrative stories, and in lecture form. The
puranas, “…afford us far greater insight into all aspects of phases of Hinduism – its mythology,
its idol-worship, its theism and pantheism, its love of God, its philosophy and its superstitions, its
festivals and ceremonies, and its ethics, than any other works.”(M. A. Mehenlele, “The Purans,”
in History and Culture, vol.3. the Classical Age, 1954, p.296.)
 6

‘Purana’ word has two slightly differing etymological meanings; pura (past), ateetam (Lost),
anaagatam (about to happen) – is one meaning. pura (past), bhavam (happened) is another. In
terms of structure purana consists of five components. They are; Description of nation or
nations and their history, History of creation, History of re-creation, Description of dynasties,
Story of each Manu (Manvantara) First and fourth components do incorporate elements of
history. However, there is a vital difference between history and mythology. History follows a
certain method and therefore, at some point to time or the other, it is possible to dispute what a
historian claims, because history tries to gather as many evidences (not facts) as possible.
Puranas, however, are altogether different. The relevance of evidences is totally alien to puranas.
It is, therefore, impossible to refute what puranas claim. Nor can we defend the same. In addition
to five components mentioned earlier, many puranas deal with cosmology. Perhaps this is the
only topic common to philosophy and puranas. Interestingly, one purana, viz., vayu-purana
attempts at geography, music, etc. Apart from the neglect of evidence, puranas suffer from one
more defect. All puranas combine legends related to gods and demons, life after death, etc.
which disqualify mythology from becoming worthy of serious philosophical study. In defence of
puranas, it can be said that though puranas are related to mainly theological issues, they include
almost all activities of life and hence they ought to occupy an important position in the list of
disciplines. But this all inclusiveness itself is a serious defect.

4.6 BHAGAVAT GITA

In Sanskrit tradition there are many gita literature. One that got popularity as it is attributed to
Krishna and formed part of the famous Mahabharata, is Bhagavat Gita. The term‘bhagavad’
means Lord, gita means song, and so the meaning of Bhagavat gita is literally, ‘Song of the
Lord.’ This is the literature written in poetic form that must have been complied around 200
BCE. In the battle of kurusetra Lord Krishna urges Arjuna to do his duty, good or evil without
any attachment for the fruit of actions (niskama karma). Gita is short beautifully harmonizes the
philosophy of action, devotion and knowledge. Three gunas satva (principle of light), rajas
(source of activity), tamas (responsible to resist the actions) are explained well. There are two
possible approaches to the Gita. One is regarding it as a sacred text in conformity with tradition;
second, regarding it as a philosophical text. The first alternative is irrelevant to us. The second
one is disappointing, because we cannot find much philosophy in it. Whatever little philosophy
that can be traced in the Gita is of minor importance only. Generally, we expect consistency in
any philosophical argument. But this is totally alien to the Gita. If so, what is the position of the
Gita within the framework of philosophy and what are its virtues, if it has any?

Three features are prominent in the Gita; knowledge, social obligation and devotion. The
confluence of these principal features constitute what is popularly known as YOGA. There is no
need to consider its role in life which the Gita has explained.What is important is its position in
philosophy. But there is no reference to its philosophical foundation anywhere in the Gita. For
example, consider ‘devotion’ (bhakti). Devotion is sensible only when ‘Bhakta’ is distinct from
Paramatma; not otherwise. In other words the refutation of the Advaita is a prerequisite to
accept the relevance of bhakti. But nowhere do we find any reference to Dvaita or Advaita in the
work. On the contrary, the Gita concludes by merging obligation or karma and knowledge in
 7

Bhakti. It shows that religion receives precedence over philosophy. This becomes a stumbling
block in studying the Gita from a philosophical perspective.

4.7 IDEA OF GOD IN GITA

In Gita, God is more personal. He is identified with Krishnavatara. He is named as

purusothama. Purusothama means one who is a supreme being and intelligent with the mystical
mind. He becomes a ground for mutable an immutable aspects of the universe that is he is
purusothama in whom the whole world is grounded. Everything works by his divine intelligence
and he is the creator of everything he is the ultimate cause principle of everything and has power
of everything. And so, he is both transcendent and immanent. Wherever dharma is on decline the
supreme being purusothama embodies himself to protect the upright and to punish the wicked
and to establish dharma. Though he is unborn and imperishable lord of beings, yet comes into
the world in his own images to maintain dharma in the universe. (Gita 4:6). Verse 14:27 says, “I
am he upholder of immortal and imperishable. Brahman of absolute bliss” Purusothama is an
embodiment of karma (actions). He is ceaselessly busy in maintaining the cosmic model.
Avidhya should be overcome by the right knowledge. So we should unite our will and
intelligence with God without expecting any fruits of our actions. Thus, he becomes the object
of faith and devotion, source of mercy and love. (Gita 9:31).

The concept of avatar is prevalent even from the time of Vedas. Upanishads speak of
amsavatara (partial manifestation of God or avatar is full conscious descent of god, yet into
phenomenal world accepting the conditions of becoming. Wherever dharma is on decline the
Supreme Being Purusothama embodies himself to protect the upright and to punish the wicked
and to establish dharma. 7:24. Though he is unborn and imperishable lord of beings. Yet comes
into the world in his own images to maintain Dharma in the universe 4:6. Thus, we find in Gita,
God is of love and grace who evokes faith, love and devotion.

4.8 THREE MARGAS IN GITA

Karma, jnana, bhakti are three paths proposed as spiritual disciplines by Gita for the betterment
of one’s wealth. Karma Yoga: according to Gita every individual is expected o be karma-yogin
ethically and intellectually virtuous. A karma yogi is the one in whom there is an absence of
pride, conceit, vanity, egoism and presence of forgiveness, sincerity, purity, steadfastness, self
control, renunciation, strong devotion to the Lord, reverence to the master and love for the
scriptures. So if one does his duty, by his very duty, he becomes karma-yogin (niskama karma).
Jnana Yoga: one should be jnana yogi also. Jnana of Brahman or purusothama refers to his
wisdom and so for the jnana-yogin this jnana is an essential quality for his liberation. Bhakti
Yoga: It insists on devotion. In this devotion a devotee should be a sincere and continuous
seeker of truth. And so, he should try to get the jnana about the supreme being by loving the
sacred scriptures. One of the means to do so is saranagathi which means total self-surrender of
oneself to God.

One point becomes clear from the Gita; no one can attain moksha if he or she renounces this
world. Renouncing the world is tantamount to renouncing obligations. Hence in defence of the
Gita one assertion can be unhesitatingly made, that the Gita does not prioritize spirituality at the
 8

expense of worldly life. However, neither the charge that it does so, nor the countercharge that it
does not, is philosophically insignificant. But this point is mentioned because attainment of
moksha in relation to karma has primary importance in the Gita.

While Jnana stands for realization at highest level, Karma assumes a very different meaning.
During the Vedic age, Karma meant only performing Yajna. But in the Gita it has come to mean
social obligation. Yoga came to be understood as dedication. Hence, Karma Yoga may be
understood as discharging duty with a sense of commitment.

The most important element in the Gita is the doctrine of nishkama karma which consists in
discharging obligations in an impersonal manner. This attitude literally debars yagas because
one performs it with selfish motive. The Gita however, never advocated that karma should be
renounced. What it clearly asserts is that ‘Karma Phala’ should be renounced. It only sidelines
personal interest and upholds societal interest. Thus individual becomes the means and society
the end. An impersonal approach to duty does not affect the performer in any manner, i.e.,
neither success nor failure affects him or her. This attitude is ‘Samatva manobhava– equanimity
of mind.

It is necessary to clarify the relation between the meaning of karma and varna. At this stage,
chaturvarnya (four-fold classification) becomes relevant. Translated to ordinary language, it
means commitment to profession. ‘chaturvarnyam mayasrishtva gunakarma vibhagshcha’. It
means guna (quality) and karma (profession) determine Varna. To this statement we can add
another, quality determines profession. Commitment to profession is what Dharma is.

The Gita makes a clear distinction between commitment and interest. Commitment is
impersonal, whereas interest is personal. Vested interest is well-known. But there is noting like
vested commitment. When vested interest affects an individual, he may resort to prohibited
means. But impersonal commitment does not result in this sort of selection. The maxim, ‘ends
do not justify the means’ is implicit in the Gita.

One more aspect remains to be mentioned. There is a mistaken notion that there is hierarchy in
profession. It is not the case as far as the Gita is concerned. But there is a distinction between
‘good’ and ‘bad’ or ‘constructive’ and ‘destructive’. It is good to discharge duty which is in
conformity with one’s own nature. Otherwise, it is bad. Clearly, there is division of labour, and
it is in the interest of society that such division is made mandatory. Therefore qualitative
distinction in profession is strongly disapproved.

4.9 PATH OF BHAKTI AS MEANS TO LIBERATION

The term bhakti is defined as “devotion,” or passionate love for the Divine. Moksha, or liberation
from rebirth was not in the following of rules, regulations or societal ordering but it was through
simple devotion to the Divine. Within the movement at large, useful distinctions have been made
by contemporary scholars between those poet-saints who composed verses extolling God with
attributes or form, namely, “saguna” bhaktas, and, those extolling God without and beyond all
attributes or form, “nirguna.” While the differences between these two branches are indeed
 9

important, their overarching similarities cannot be minimized; both focused on singular devotion,
mystical love for God, and had a particular focus on a personal relationship with the Divine.

A clearer expression of Bhakti began to be formed during the Epic and the Puranic periods.
Texts such as the Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana clearly explore Bhakti Yoga or the
Path of Devotion as a means to salvation. In the Bhavat Gita, Lord Krishna preached the
message of devotion to a personal God. Bhakti (love of God) not only leads the religious man to
liberation, for this is a grace God is willing to bestow on all who seek to know him and love him,
but is the goal itself, uniting man to God in eternal and dependent state of being. The God of
Bhakti is gracious to men and has compassion for all. He is specially benevolent to those who
love Him. His devotees are dear to Him. It is thus man’s loving response to this divine
graciousness on which he acknowledges himself utterly dependent for his salvation.

Bhakti is a very important topic found in the scriptures and with various shades of meanings in
different contexts. The word bhakti is used in the scriptures in two different meanings. Bhakti
means devotion towards God. Devotion is love directed towards a higher principle. Reverential
love can be defined as devotion. We talk about matr bhakti and pitr bhakti. In our tradition, we
look upon the parents as of worship. Similarly, we talk about guru bhakti, desa bhakti and isvara
bhakti. Therefore, in general, bhakti is love towards a higher principle, especially love towards
God. Three forms of love are ‘means- love, end-love and self-love. Scriptures point out that all
forms of love that a human being entertains are directed towards only three things. The first one
is love of goal, wanting to achieve some end. Secondly, it is because we love them that we want
to acquire them. Since the means are useful to accomplish the ends, we love the means also. The
third object of love is oneself. Everyone loves himself or herself. The scriptures point out that
there is a gradation in the intensity of these three forms of love. Love of the means is the least in
its intensity. Love of the end is medium and love of oneself is the highest form of love, wherein
the love has got the highest intensity. Most of the time love for people is purely the love for the
means to accomplish the end. And often money is the end. Therefore the love for the end is
superior to the love for the means. I love various ends hoping that they will give me comfort,
security, happiness. It is for my benefit, my comfort, my security, my happiness, I love various
ends.

Three grades of devotion

Scriptures point out that the intensity of love depends upon how you look upon God, because
different people see God in different ways. The way you look upon God will determine the
intensity of love. Majority of people look upon God only as the means for various worldly ends.
As long as you look upon God as a means, that love is called mandabhakti (inferior devotion).
The next set of people is still rare. They don’t look upon God as means for various ends. They
are mature enough. Their understanding of God is clearer. They are able to choose God as the
end of life. The end of life means the goal of life. They know god represents security. God
represents peace. God represents happiness. They know that everyone is seeking security, peace
and happiness alone. Naturally their love of God is as the end and therefore it is more intense
than the previous one. Therefore, this bhakti is madhyama bhakti. Uttama bhakti is third and
rarest form of love which is the most intense form of love. It is a love in which I look upon God
neither as the means nor even as the end. The lord and the self being identical, God-love is equal
to self-love. Since self-love is the most intense love, that form of love is called uttama bhakti.
 10

For manda bhakti god is dear. For madhyama bhakti god is dearer and for the uttama bhakta
god is the dearest. Krisna beautifully elaborates this in the seventh and the twelfth chapters of
the Gita. There are nine forms of bhakti. First three are, manda, madhyama and uttama bhakti,
where in bhakti is the love of God. The next three are: kara rupa, upasana rupa and jnana rupa
bhakti, wherein bhakti means spiritual discipline. The last there are eka, aneka and arupa bhakti,
depending upon our understanding of God.

4.10 LET US SUM UP

Generally, Philosophy is meant by ‘searching for’ ‘finding out,’ inquiry into’ what is truth or
reality. Search for meaning has been a human activity from time immemorial, when first human
beings started questioning. The possible explanations and the conclusions of their quest for truth,
become philosophical thoughts. From the primitive to contemporary human being, this quest for
truth is continuous. Time and again, Human society checks with its conclusions and definitions
of reality, in the time of contemporary issues and questions. When encountered with irrelevant
answers from the previous conceptions, they try for new answers for the new questions or even
for the same old questions. In our present endeavour, we understand that the thoughts of the
people of that time are ancient. As the quest for truth is an on going process, we consider the
thoughts of people at the ancient times are not totally ‘antiquated.’ If they deserve only to be
beautiful antiques, they would lose the significance and relevance to us today. The philosophical
quest and the conclusions of the ancient times are ever fresh in our contemporary period too.
They are ancient but never antiquated, out dated. ‘Ancient’ also brings to our mind, the concept
of history. We fix the period in the past and look into what went on in that period in the minds of
our ancestors. In India, we do not have strict linear understanding of history. Indian history is
most shaped by circular notion of history. It is more of kairological than chronological.
Therefore, we take care of thoughts being recorded in oral or written form. Often, something is
considered to be philosophical, only when they are presented in a written form. In India, more
than the written forms, ideologies are recorded in various other means of communication, such as
oral transmission, art, architectures, dance, songs cultural customs and traditions.

The puranas, itihasas and gita emphasize on the necessity of ethics and advocates deep
contemplation on moral virtues and self-control. It deals with cosmic & moral order maintaining
peace, harmony and order in society and cosmos. In them, epistemology, metaphysics, ethics and
aesthetics are intricately interrelated that it is very difficult to understand any of them in
isolation. It is cosmic and spiritualistic, synthetic and integral. A clearer expression of Bhakti
began to be formed during the Epic and the Puranic periods. Texts such as the Bhagavad Gita
and the Bhagavata Purana clearly explore Bhakti Yoga or the Path of Devotion as a means to
salvation.

4.11 KEY WORDS

Puranas : Ancient legends or histories of heroes and gods.

Bhakti : Devotion or love towards Personal God.

 11

Nishkama karma : Doing action without any attachment to the fruits of them.

4.12 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Pandit, M.P. Germs from the Gita. Madras: Ganesh and Co., 1977.

Painadath, S. Sebastin. “Bhagavad Gita’s Contribution to the Future of India.” in Jnanadeepa.

Vol.1/1 (January 1988). 20-26.

Mehenlele, M. A. “The Purans,” in History and Culture. Vol.3. The Classical Age. 1954. 296ff
 1

Indira Gandhi National Open University MPY – 001

School of Interdisciplinary and
Trans-disciplinary Studies
Indian Philosophy

Block 2

HETERODOX SYSTEMS

UNIT 1
Carvaka

UNIT 2
Buddhism - 1

UNIT 3
Buddhism -2

UNIT 4
Jainism

Expert Committee
 2

Manasagangotri
Dr. Bhuvaneswari Mysore – 570 001
Prof. Gracious Thomas
Lavanya Flats
Director, School of
Social Work Gangai Amman Koil
St.
IGNOU
Thiruvanmiyur
Chennai – 600 041
Prof. Renu Bharadwaj
School of Humanities
Dr. Alok Nag
IGNOU
Vishwa Jyoti Gurukul
Varanasi
Prof. George
Panthanmackel,
Senior Consultant, Dr. Jose Kuruvachira
IGNOU Salesian College &
IGNOU Study Centre
Dr. M. R. Nandan Dimapur, Nagaland
Govt. College for
Women
Mandya - Mysore

Dr. Sathya Sundar

Dr. Kuruvila Sethy
Pandikattu Dept of Humanities
Jnana-deepa IIT, Chennai.
Vidyapeeth
Ramwadi,
Dr. Joseph Martis
Pune
St. Joseph’s College
Jeppu, Mangalore – 2

Dr. Jaswinder Kaur

Dr Babu Joseph Dhillon
CBCI Centre 147, Kabir park
New Delhi Opp. GND University
Amristar – 143 002
Prof. Tasadduq Husain
Aligarh Muslim Prof. Y.S. Gowramma
University Principal,
Aligarh College of Fine Arts,
 3

Block Preparation

Unit 1 Dr. James Ponniah

Jnana-Deepa Vidyapeeth, Pune.

Units 2 & 3 Kurian Alumkal

Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi.

Unit 4 Dr. T.K. Badrinath

Vivekananda College, Chennai.

Content Editor
Dr. V. John Peter
IGNOU, New Delhi

Format Editor
Prof. Gracious Thomas
IGNOU, New Delhi.

Programme Coordinator
Prof. Gracious Thomas
IGNOU, New Delhi.
 4

BLOCK INTRODUCTION

This block introduces the students to the teachings, philosophy and arguments of Carvaka,
Buddhism and Jainism who are known for their unique contribution in terms of materialism,
realism, nihilism and non-absolutism. These schools are called heterodox as they are
diametrically opposed to those of orthodox schools of philosophy in India. Together they form a
group of systems that opposed to the excess of ritualism, spiritualism, world-negating idealism,
oppressive clericalism and inhuman casteism. Carvaka philosophy or Indian materialism is one
of the oldest doctrines in India. Buddha was a very sensitive man who looked into solutions that
were available at his time for human predicaments. Middle way proposed by him is rejection of
extremes, be it rejection of extreme austerity or extreme indulgence in worldly pleasures (in his
practical life) or rejection of ‘eternalism’ of Upanishads (there is one unchanging, permanent
principle).

Unit 1 on Carvaka deals with the Indian materialist school called as carvakas or lokayata. The
unit begins with the name given to this system as carvaka, analyzes the sources available on this
school and exposes the fundamental doctrines and philosophical positions of the Carvaka system.

Unit 2 introduces the historical background of Buddha and the emergence of Buddhism as a
philosophical and religious system in India. The basic teachings of Buddhism such as four noble
truths, the theory of no soul, theory of dependent origination are elaborately dealt in this unit.
Buddhism has given birth to various schools and sects; division into sects is on the basis of
differences in discipline and division into schools is on the basis of metaphysical &
epistemological distinctions. Unit 3 enumerates the basic philosophical positions of few
prominent schools of Buddhism such as Vaibhasika, Sautrantika, Madhyamika and Yogacara.
Unit 4 gives a small historical background of the school of Jainism with its development and
different sects, namely Svetambaras and the Digambaras. A detailed analysis into the various
concepts like Syadvada, Anekantavada, Saptabhanginaya, and Jaina ethics found place in this
unit.
 1

UNIT 1 CARVAKA

Contents
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Origin of the School
1.3 The literary sources of Carvakas/Lokayatas
1.4 Epistemology
1.5 Metaphysics of Carvakas
1.6 Carvakas views on God and Religion
1.7 Ethics of Carvakas
1.8 Let us Sum up
1.9 Keywords
1.10 Further Readings and References

1.0 OBJECTIVES

One of the important counter-movements in India that challenged the authority of Vedas and
questioned its teachings is Caravaka philosophy. It sought to unsettle most of the traditionally
held views and beliefs such the existence of God, soul and life after death. That is why it was
called heterodox school of philosophy. The aim of this unit is to introduce the students to the
teachings, philosophy and arguments of this school which were diametrically opposed to those of
orthodox schools of philosophy in India.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Carvaka is a non-vedic Indian materialistic school of philosophy named after a sage called
Carvaka, the founder of this system, according to a popular view. But some think that Carvaka
was a prominent disciple of Brhaspati, the actual founder of the school. Carvaka etymologically
means ‘sweet-tongued’ (caru+vak). Carvakas have sweet words. They are votaries of pleasing
ideas if only you choose to follow their ways. Some hold that ‘carvaka’ has its etymology in
‘carva’ which means to chew or eat. It is an allusion to their doctrine of ‘eat, drink and make
merry.’ According to Gunaratana of eight century C.E., 'carva' stands for chewing, grinding with
the teeth, eating and swallowing virtues and vices. Carvakas are those who take no notice of
virtues and vices. Carvaka was also called 'Lokayatya' which is the combination of the two
words 'loka' (The world) and 'ayata' (basis). It accepts only the reality of the material world. In
other words, Carvakas are the people who care only about the earth and not about the heaven.

1.2 ORIGIN OF THE SCHOOL

 2

According to the scholars, the origin of the school can be traced back to post-upanishadic period.
The school would have been born between 600-400 B.C.E. The Buddhist texts of this period
mentions several heterodox teachers such as Sanjaya, the skeptic, Ajita, the materialist, Purana
Kasyapa the indifferentist and Kosala, the fatalist and Katyayana whose ideas in someway or the
other come closer to the views of Carvakas. It is probably in this ambience of skepticism,
materialism and nihilism that Carvaka philosophy would have originated. It must be noted that it
is around the same time that the Atomists and the Sophists became popular in Greece. Though it
is a remote possibility that the Atomists, the Sophists and the Carvakas would have influenced
one another, it is evident that all these shared certain common views.

But Chattopadhyaya who has written extensively on Lokayata and Carvaka schools holds that
already in pre-Buddhist text of Chandogya Upanishad (vii 7-9) of seventh century BCE there is
a reference to a view identifying body with the self, the philosophical position of
Lokayata/Carvakas. But it must be noted that the text does not mention the word 'Lokayatas' or
'Carvakas' and attributes the view to the Asuras. According to T.M.P. Mahadevan, even in the
earliest text of Rg-veda, there are references to heretics, non-conformists, skeptics, agnostics and
critics of Vedas.

But Kautilya in the fourth century B.C. speaks of the Lokyatas though only once, but in the
context in which he speaks of them seems to indicate that they had an established system
already that time like that of the Samkhya and Yoga. In the second century B.C. Patanjali speaks
of the Lokyatas and of the Bhaguri as their supporter. The texts of second century C.E., namely,
the Kamasutra of Vatsayana and the Nyayasutra of Gautama—one of earliest texts of Nyaya
system contain the views of Lokyata Sutras and have an extensive discussion mainly on two
topics, very commonly attributed to Lokayatas'/'Carvakas': i) the denial of inference as a source
of knowledge and ii) the denial of self distinct from the body. Besides this, the Buddhist sources
such as Payasi Suttanta and Samanna-Phala-Sutta written around 4th-5th Cent CE speak about
the views of materialism and the later text speaks of 'heretics' of Buddha's time including Ajita
Kesakambali who is a representative of extreme materialism and regarded as a follower of
Carvaka school. Hiriyanna considers Carvaka philosophy as a form of accidentalism namely
yadrccha-vada or animitta-vada because, for all of them, world is basically a chaos and
whatever order is seen in this world is the outcome of mere chance.

1.3 THE LITERARY SOURCES OF CARVAKAS/LOKAYATAS

The original writings of Carvakas, if any, are no longer extant. Most of what we know about
Carvakas and their philosophy is through the Purvapaksha (refutations) as provided by the
opponents. The chief among them are Madvacharya's Sarva-darsana-samgraha, Samkara's
Sarva Siddanta-samgraha and Krishn Misra's Prabodha-chandrodaya (an eleventh century C.E.
allegorical drama intended to popularize the Advaita view by ridiculing specifically the Carvaka
view), Only exception to this is Jayasiri Bhatta's Tattvo-paplava-simgha, (which literally means
'the lion that throws overboard all categories), a treatise in defense of Carvaka philosophy. The
work edited by Sanghvi and Parikh claim that the actual text of the only original work of
Carvakas roughly belong to the eight century CE. Since the text holds that no pramana
 3

whatsoever is possible, many scholars think that it represents extreme skepticism, and it defends
neither materialism nor perception as the only source of valid knowledge.

Apart from these, one more text needs to be mentioned in connection with Carvakas and it is
called Lokayata-sutra or Carvaka-sutra which was only referred to by many writers but never
available as a text. It is generally attributed to BrihasPati, who is traditionally regarded as the
founder of this school. Yet the existence of another work known as Brhaspati-sutra (a work on
political economy) attributed to the same author brings in more ambiguity. But Misra's
Prabodha-chandrodaya says that the Lokayata Sutras were initially formulated by BrihasPati
and later handed over to Carvaka who popularised them through his pupils.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. What is the meaning of the term 'Carvaka'? What is the other name for this school?
…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................
2. Who is believed to be the founder of the school? What is his major work (attributed to him)
that forms of the basis of Carvaka philosophy?
…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
.......................................
3. What are some of the non-carvaka literary sources that speak about the philosophy of
Carvakas?
…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................

1.4 EPISTEMOLOGY

According to Carvakas, perception (Pratyaksa) is the only source of valid knowledge and they
hold that nothing exists except what is perceived by five senses. Accordingly, they refuted
inference (anumana) and testimony (sabdha), which are accepted by almost all other schools of
Indian philosophy as valid and reliable. For them, perception is of two kinds, namely, external
and internal, the former kind involving the operation of the five senses while the latter involves
 4

the operation of the mind. Knowledge is the outcome of contact between an external object and
one of the five senses, although further knowledge may be acquired through the process of the
mind operating with the sense knowledge. Ultimately, then, all knowledge is derived from the
senses.

For them inference is not a valid means of knowledge because universal relation which should
serve as its ground is impossible. For instance let us take the following example:

“whatever has smoke has fire

The hill has smoke
therefore the hill has fire.”
Here a universal and necessary relation is assumed between the smoke and the fire. Carvakas
questions this. They would ask 'How did you get this knowledge? From the kitchen where you
have seen fire and smoke? But it cannot give you necessary relation between fire and smoke?
Have you observed all kitchens to affirm their (smoke and fire) co-presence. What about the past
and the future instances. So no one can be certain about any relation. In inference we proceed
from the known to the unknown and there is no certainty in this, though some inferences may
turn out to be accidentally true.” Just because certain things are sometimes true in some
instances, they need not be true at all times in all instances. Consider a causal relation between
A and B in which A causes B. What you observe is A is followed by B. This induces a belief in
you that this will be the case in the future too. Therefore causation is a belief, nothing more.
From the observed case, we cannot infer anything about the observed. Inference is impossible
and it is utmost “a merer leap into the dark.” Thus inference is not a valid means of knowledge.

Carvakas brought several other objections against the possibility of a valid inference. They are 1.
Impressions created by inferential knowledge are not as vivid (aspastavat) as those made by
perception. 2. Inference always depends on other things for the determination of its objects. 3.
Inference has to depend on perceptual statements. 4. Inferential knowledge is not directly
produced by the objects. 5. Inference is not concrete (avastu-vishayatvat) 6. Inference is often
contradicted (badhyamanatvat) and 7. there is no proof which may establish that every case of
the presence of the reason (hetu) should also be a case of the presence of probandum (sadhya)
i.e. there is no proof establishing the invariable and unconditional concomitance between the
middle and the major terms.

Carvaka's views on inference has been criticised by many thinkers and philosophical schools.
According to them, first of all, inference is inescapable for Carvaka himself. To refuse the
validity of inference is to refuse to think and discuss. All thoughts, all discussions, all doctrines,
all affirmations and denials, all proofs and disproofs are made possible by inference. It is through
inference, not through sense-perception that the Carvaka knows what the other doctrines are, and
it is through inference that the Carvaka hopes to convince others of the soundness of his
argument. Secondly, the rejection of inference itself is self-contradictory. That all inferences are
invalid is itself an inference, which the Carvaka must admit. Some historians of philosophy think
 5

that Carvakas did not reject inference altogether. They did not favour the use of inference only
for metaphysical categories, i.e as regards things that have never been perceived.
\They also do not accept testimony (sabda). Madvacharya in his Sarva-darsana-samgraha
quotes their position as follows: “Nor can testimony be the means thereof, since we may either
allege in reply....that this is included in the topic of inference; or else we may hold that this fresh
proof of testimony is unable to leap over the old barrier that stopped the progress of inference,
since it depends itself on the recognition of a sign in the form of the language used in the child's
presence by the old man; and, moreover, there is no more reason for our believing another's word
that smoke and fire are invariably connected than for our receiving the ipse dixit of Manu
(which, of course, we Carvakas reject).”
Thus it is clear that testimony does not have any value for the Carvakas and accordingly Vedas
are not authoritative and they are meaningless and misleading. Those who composed them aimed
to confound and confuse the common people in order to achieve their own selfish purpose.

1.5 METAPHYSICS OF CARVAKAS

Carvaka Metaphysics, which is directly and logically derived from their epistemology, is “an
unqualified materialistic monism.” They hold a philosophy of the matter whcih means 'Matter is
all.' Since perception is the only reliable source of knowledge, whatever is known through it
alone is real and matter becomes the only reality. Sense-perception does not reveal any
metaphysical entity. What it can perceive is only matter in its fourfold form; earth, water, fire
and air. Carvakas do not accept ether (akash), because it is not an object of perception. The four
elements are real not as subtle forms but in their gross particle forms. There is no reality other
than these four elements and their combinations.

If so, what is consciousness? How do you account for it? How do you explain the capacity of
human beings for reasoning, reflecting and imagining? Carvakas do not deny consciousness but
deny only that it can be independent of the body. They regard consciousness as a mere product of
matter. It does not 'inhere in particles of matter' but when the latter come to be organized in a
specific form, they are found to show signs of life. It is always found associated with the body
and is destroyed with the body's disintegration. When the four elements of matter come together
in a particular mode to form the living organisms, the animal and human consciousness appear in
it. It is the result of an “emergent and dialectical evolution, an epiphenomenon, a by-product of
matter.” Consciousness is an after-glow of matter. They would say “Matter secretes mind as liver
secretes bile”. If none of the elements of physical body possesses consciousness, is it not that
consciousness is independent of physical body? Their answer would be no. When physical
elements come together to form an organic pattern, consciousness emerges. It does not inhere in
any particular part of the body. It is just like certain tastes and intoxicating qualities are got out
of certain combinations of ingredients, though none, taken separately, possesses it. Red is got out
the betel leaf and lime, but none of it apparently seems to posses red.
The soul therefore is nothing other than the conscious living body. They say that there is no soul
or no consciousness apart from body which is evidenced by the fact that consciousness perishes
with the body. Therefore body is the self and the body is the product of material elements.
Sankara in his Sarva Siddanta-samgraha describes their understanding of the soul as follows:
 6

“The soul is but the body characterized by the attributes signified in the expressions, “I am
stout,” “I am youthful,” “I am grown up,” “I am old” etc. It is not something other than that
body. The consciousness that is found in the modifications of non-intelligent elements (ie in
organisms formed out of matter) is produced in the manner of the red colour out of the
combination of betel, areca-nut and lime. There is no world other than this; there is no heaven
and no hell; the realm of Siva and like regions are invented by stupid imposters of other schools
of thought.”

The Carvaka thus denies soul or Atman as a surviving or transmitting entity, but it does not
mean, according to Hiriyanna, that the Carvaka denies a conscious or spiritual principle but
refuses to regard it as ultimate and independent.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. What are the means of knowledge that Carvakas accept? What do they reject explicitly?
…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................
2. Do Carvakas believe in the five elements of the material world? What do they deny? Why?
…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
.......................................
3. Do Carvakas accept consciousness? How do they understand it?
…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................

1.6 CARVAKAS VIEWS ON GOD AND RELIGION

Since Carvakas do not believe in any metaphysical reality beyond matter, it logically follows that
they out rightly consider that traditional concepts of God, religion and life-after death are “pure
fictions, sheer imaginations of fevered brains”. There is nothing existent beyond this material
world. Hence there is no survival of anything, no other world, and no God as unmoved mover,
the first cause and the creator of the universe. Since all that exists is only matter, God who is
 7

supposed to be a supernatural and transcendental being does not exist as it cannot be the object
of perception, the only valid means of knowledge. Thus Carvakas summarily deny the existence
of God and dethrone God who is supposed to indwell in the human beings as antaryamin. They
also de-recognise conscience, the voice of God, which guides man. Subsequently, they rule out
the possibility of religion as the realm of faith and belief systems that assume human beings'
innate thirst for spirituality and structure their consciousness towards a destiny beyond this world
has no basis in the true nature of reality (i.e.materialistic) according to their scheme of things.

1.7 ETHICS OF CARVAKAS

The Carvaka ethics is based on the assumption that the human beings get annihilated at the point
of death. She or he begins life with birth and ends it with death. Carvakas do not believe in the
theory of karma and accordingly they reject the notion of re-birth after death. Since this is the
only life for the individual, their exhortation is: “make the best use of it.” To get the best out of
this only life, one has to enjoy this life and to seek the utmost pleasure. The basic desire of every
being/creature is to gain pleasure and avoid pain. Pleasure in this life is the sole end of man.
Pleasure goes with pain. But on account of this, you should not run away from pleasure. The fact
that there is pain in life should not deter the human beings from pursuing pleasure. Some of the
sayings of Carvakas encourage us not to be bogged down by the presence of pain in the process
of seeking pleasure: “The wise man does not reject the kernel because of the husk;” “None gives
up eating fish because there are bones and scales;” “Roses are not discarded because they have
thorns;” “we do not cease to grow crops because the animals destroy them; we do not stop
cooking our food, because beggars ask for it;” In all of these sayings the Carvakas call upon the
people to enjoy pleasure at all times. Thus pleasure is the natural ethical principle. One should
take efforts to minimize pain and maximize pleasure. Whatever action minimizes pain and
maximizes pleasure is a good action.” A Carvaka lives in the moment for the moment. They
exhort the human beings not to ignore a present pleasure in the hope of gaining some greater
pleasure later. They invoke the following proverbs in support of their position: “Make hay while
the sun shines;” “A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush;” “A pigeon today is worth more
than a peacock of tomorrow.” They debunk all religious practices and rituals. One of the reasons
for their rejection is that they falsely promise people a good future life but in reality the religious
rituals are mechanisms of priests to exploit others and make a living out of it. Vatsayana in his
kamasutra quotes some of the Lokyata Sutras. In this connection let us see one of their
aphorisms:

1. Religious rites should not be practiced,

2. because their fruition depends upon the future,
3. And is doubtful.
4. Who, unless he is a fool, gives away to others what belongs to him?
5. A pigeon to-day is better than a peacock tomorrow.
6. A sure kaudi is better than a doubtful gold coin.
 8

These Lokyata Sutras thus appeal to people not to ignore the present at the cost of the future. In a
spirit of cynicism, one Carvaka asks a priest why he sacrifices a poor animal. The priest replies
that the animal sacrificed goes direct to heaven. Then the Carvaka tells the priest “If so, you can
jolly well put yourself in that inevitable position.”

The Carvakas do not believe in heaven or hell and for them paradise could only be on this earth.
Sankara's Sarva-siddhanta-samgraha speaks of what has been repeatedly called the Carvaka
philosophy of hedonism:
The enjoyment of heaven lies in eating delicious food, keeping company of young women, using
fine clothes, perfumes, garlands, sandal paste, etc.
The pain of hell lies in the troubles that arise from enemies, weapons, diseases; while liberation
(moksha) is death which is the cessation of life-breath.
The wise therefore ought not to take pains on account of that (liberation); it is only the fool who
wears himself out by penances, fasts, etc.
Chastity and other such ordinances are laid down by clever weaklings. Gifts of gold and land, the
pleasure of invitations to dinner are devised by indigent people with stomachs lean with hunger.
The construction of temples, houses for water-supply, tanks, wells, resting places, and the like, is
praised only by travelers, not by others.
The Agnihotra ritual, the three Vedas, the triple staff carried by the priests, the ash-smearing, are
the ways of gaining a livelihood for those who are lacking in intellect and energy ….
The wise should enjoy the pleasures of this world through the proper visible means of
agriculture, keeping cattle, trade, political administration, etc.

From the above passage it is clear that the Carvaka's emphasis is on the individual, rather than
any collective, good; accordingly, the Carvakas accept only two of the four purusarthas or
traditional human values, namely, attainment of worldly pleasure (kama) and the means of
securing it (artha = wealth), thus rejecting religious merit (dharma) and liberation (moksha). The
Carvakas do not make any qualitative distinction among pleasures, nor do they try to distinguish
the pleasures of the body from the pleasures of the mind. Except in the case of activities like
trade and agriculture they accept immediately available pleasures rather than any promised ones
of the future as they would say “A pigeon today is better than a peacock tomorrow,” and “a
certain copper is better than a doubtful gold.”

Check Your Progress III

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. Why do you think that Carvakas do not accept God? Give reasons.
…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
 9

............................................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................
2. Why should I 'make the best use of life' according to Carvakas? How?
…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
.......................................
3. Why do Carvakas reject religious rituals?
…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................

1.8 LET US SUM UP

Carvaka philosophy or Indian materialism, one of the oldest doctrines in India already quite
noted in the earliest text of Rig Veda, an anti-hegemonic counter-movement, has continued to
influence Indian academia even into our modern times as we see in the philosophy of modern
and contemporary Indian thinkers like Devatman and M.N. Roy. Some view Carvaka philosophy
less as a constructive philosophy than as a reaction to the excess of ritualism, spiritualism,
world-negating idealism, oppressive clericalism and inhuman casteism. However this is not to
state that the Carvaka system is philosophically insignificant and unsound as Dale Riepe
observes that Carvaka's epistemological outlook is empirical, their metaphysics materialistic and
ethics hedonistic.

Carvaka etymologically means ‘sweet-tongued’ (caru+vak). Carvaka was also called 'Lokayatya'
which accepts only the material world as real. Brhaspati is the founder of the school. Some of
the texts that refer to the philosophy of Carvakas are Madvacharya's Sarva-darsana-samgraha,
Sankara's Sarva Siddanta-samgraha, Krishn Misra's Prabodha-chandrodaya, the Kamasutra of
Vatsayana, the Nyayasutra of Gautama—one of the earliest texts of Nyaya system and the
Buddhist sources such as Payasi Suttanta and Samanna-Phala-Sutta.

The only means of knowledge the Carvakas accept is perception. And they openly question and
deny the validity of means of knowledge such as inference and testimony. Carvakas do not
believe in all the five elements of the material world. They deny the existence of Ether because it
cannot be perceived. Carvakas do not deny consciousness but only its existence independent of
the body. It is always found associated with the body and is destroyed with the body's
disintegration. For them, consciousness is as a mere product of matter arising out of the
combination of the four elements of matter under certain favourable conditions. Carvakas do not
 10

believe in God because they deny the existence of anything which is not material. Hence God
who is supposed to be a supernatural and transcendental being is not a reality as God cannot be
the object of perception, the only valid means of knowledge. Since this is the only life for me, I
must make the best use of it. To get the best out of this only life, I have to enjoy this life and to
seek the utmost pleasure. Carvakas reject religious rituals because they falsely promise people a
good future life but in reality they are mechanisms of priests to exploit others and make a living
out of it.

1.9 KEY WORDS

Carvaka: etymologically it means ‘sweet-tongued’ (caru+vak). Some hold that ‘carvaka’ has its
etymology in ‘carva’ which means to chew or eat. 'carva' allegorically stands for chewing,
grinding with the teeth, eating and swallowing virtues and vices.

Lokayatya: It is the combination of the two words 'loka' (The world) and 'ayata' (basis). This
word expressed the belief of the 'Carvakas that accepts only the reality of the material world.

BrihasPati: He is traditionally regarded as the founder of Carvaka school. Lokayata-sutra or

Carvaka-sutra which was only referred to by many writers but never available as a text is
generally attributed to him.

1.10 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad, Lokayata: A Study in Ancient Indian Materialism, New Delhi,

People's Publishing House, 1959.

Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad (ed.,), Carvaka-Lokayata: An Anthology of Source Materials and

Some Recent Studies, New Delhi, Indian Council of Philosophical Research, 2006 (1990, 1994).

Das Gupta, (abridged by R. R. Agarwal & S. K. Jain) History of Indian Philosophy, Allahabad,
Kitab Mahal, 1969.

Hiriyanna M., Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1994(93).

Mahadevan, TMP, Invitation to Indian Philosophy, New Delhi, Arnold-Heinemann, 1974.

 11

Mishra, Umesha, History of Indian Philosophy, vol 1, Allahabad, Tirabhukti Publications 1957.

Padhi B. & Padhi M. Indian Philosophy and Religion: A Reader's Guide, New Delhi, D.K.
Printworld(p) Ltd., 1990.
Rao Nagaraja P, Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, New Delhi, Indian Book Company, Year
of Publication (not found).
 1

UNIT 2 BUDDHISM - 1

Contents

2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Four Noble Truths
2.3 Philosophical pre-suppositions
2.4 Let Us Sum Up
2.8 Key Words
2.9 Further Readings and References

2.0 OBJECTIVES

This unit tries to make the students acquainted with the basic philosophical position of Buddhism
in general. It enables them also to make comparative studies and answer the criticism raised by
rival systems, as they expose the basic tenets of the system under survey. In this unit we will give
the historical setting of Buddha, His teachings, its metaphysical pre-suppositions and its far-
reaching implications.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In the history of the world, 8th century B.C. to 1st century A.D is known as ‘Axial Era’, a period
of great ‘Spiritual Quest’ where we get almost all lasting answers to life’s perennial questions.
India gave her contribution to the genuine thoughts of Axial Era in the form of Upanishadic
enquiry, religions of Jainism and Buddhism and all other systems of thought. We generally
divide them as orthodox and heterodox contributions. Buddha is one fine product of this era as a
new pathfinder. From him comes a religio-philosophical system which is a whole in itself with
its diverse developments and spread in course of time.

Every person will be influenced by his age, but what will influence him and how, depends on his
sensitivities too. Buddha was a very sensitive man. The story of four sights that made him a
wanderer (old man, disease, dead body and recluse) bears witness to this. We also see these
sights, but they are like speck of dust fallen on hand. In the case of Buddha they were like speck
of dust fallen on eye which is very sensitive and could not rest at ease until a solution was
reached. They worked like immediate catalysts that caused an awareness of the basic realities of
life. What do these four sights symbolise? The first three; old man, diseased man and dead body
speak about the common plight of human beings. This brings Buddha to the first noble truth
‘Sarvam Dukkam.’ Recluse or state of being a renouncer was the way of that age for dedicating
 2

oneself for full time enquiry. Thus he leaves his palace and throne and begins his search for the
reasons and remedies for the plight of man.

Buddha due to his sensitivity looked into solutions that were available at his time. After taking
the life of a wanderer he visited many learned and rigorous practising ascetics. But he was not
satisfied fully with any of them. After six years of search he came to his own discipline which he
calls middle way and dharma. Middle way for him is rejection of extremes, be it rejection of
extreme austerity or extreme indulgence in worldly pleasures (in his practical life) or rejection of
‘eternalism’ of Upanishads (there is one unchanging, permanent principle) or nihilism of
Carvaka (there is no permanent, unchanging principle, life ends with physical death). Thus for
his teachings the philosophical foundation becomes a new position that he reached through his
enlightenment. This middle way is the theory of dependent origination, that everything is
conditional, momentary and without essence. When one forgets this and considers something as
unconditional, eternal and with essence, then suffering begins. This was a radical finding which
begins with basic position which is opposite to the one that was accepted at that time.

Let us be aware of the complications in understanding what Buddha actually taught. Historically
he is so remote and he didnot write down anything. He taught orally for 45 years and his
teaching fell on the ears of people from various cultures and traditions. So from his part he must
have adapted himself to their culture (paryaya), and from the hearer’s part they got only
according to their capacity of reception (adhikari bheda). He taught in the language of the
ordinary people and there were many, and the philosophical language was Sanskrit. In all these
languages the disciples of Buddha later recorded his words. Buddha was a teacher who taught
‘be light unto thyself’ (atta dipo bhava). It means do not take anything true without your rational
scrutiny. He also repudiated human authority as the final word in his society of monks (Sangha)
and taught, “let the dharma be your guide, no human authority”. All these caused lot of practical
disciplinary problems as so many teachings came up as Buddha’s teachings. Thus the need for a
canon came up and 30 years after Buddha’s parinirvana (death), the first council was conducted.
Within a century in the next council strong disagreement between traditionalists (Teravadins)
and progressivists (Mahasangikas) came up. Human emotional imbalance in the form of putting
down and condemning the other as low and vile (hina) happened in the course of time. These all
contributed to the growth of sects and sub-sects and many schools and many canons.

Today we have Pali Canon, Chinese Canon, Tibetan Canon and Sanskrit Canon with their own
special emphasis. To the question ‘which among this is really Buddha’s teaching (buddha
vachana), nobody dared to negate the other canon, rather emphasised their own among others:
“all these are ‘buddha vachanas’, but ‘this is His, ‘the teaching,’ is the trend of Buddhist sects.
So each one will present Buddha’s teaching from his angle. This doesn’t mean that they all
disagree in everything. In some basic teachings they all agree. They are the practical teachings of
Buddha (the four noble truths), No-soul theory, conditioned origination, and the law of
impermanence. To these basics each sect adds its own special emphasis as Buddha vachana. We
don’t go into special emphasis of sects in this unit. But we only expose those teachings that
normally all agree as real Buddha teaching. In unit ‘Buddhism – II’ we will discuss some
distinguishing marks of some schools.
 3

This unit is divided into two parts. First is the most known teaching of Buddha, (four noble
truths) which is very much practical though deep understanding of it exposes metaphysical pre-
suppositions. In the second part we will expose metaphysical pre-suppositions. But water tight
compartmentalisation is not possible, for they go together always. Thus student will see
repetitions in both parts. This is unavoidable as they always go together. This separation is for
clarity sake only.

2.2 FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS

Everyone who accepts Buddha agrees on one thing that his basic teaching is four noble truths
(chatvari arya satyani). They are ‘sarvam dukkam’, ‘dukka samudaya’, ‘dukka nirodha’, ‘dukka
nirodha marga’. This is actually ethico-religious teaching. This is exposed in the first discourse
the ‘Dhammacakkapavattana-sutta’. All agree that Buddha was against hair splitting
metaphysical speculations that are useless from the perspective of life’s goal. He has a classical
simile to explain it. He says if a man is struck by a poisonous arrow and is in immediate need of
medication but says, ‘I will not allow you to remove this arrow and put medication until I know
who shot, this arrow, what it is made of, how far away he was standing, what type of bow he
used etc, then, by the time you collect all answers the man will die. Thus, these answers are
useless at the moment. The fact is in front of us and the means for saving his life too. Let us do
that.

Buddha was taken up by the plight of humans. He named it ‘dukkham’ (suffering), searched the
cause of it and presented remedies like a doctor who diagnoses disease and prescribes medicine
for cure. The goal is religious as life without ‘suffering,’is a stage beyond ‘this present life
situation’. And the means are purely ethical and meditational. Only difference in this matter
between him and the other religious thinkers was rejection of metaphysical speculations, be it on
God or soul or the beginning and end of life, etc. Buddha saw it as not only useless but also
detrimental to remove suffering. According to Buddha, suffering is caused by ignorance and this
ignorance is ignorance about real nature of reality which is anatma, anitya and dukkha. This
ignorance causes attachment, craving and all its evil effects. The goal for us is removal of this
ignorance by removing attachment and craving. That is termed as ‘Nirvana’ and the means for
this is prajna, sila and samadhi (awareness, moral precepts and meditation). They are elaborated
into ‘noble eightfold path’.

Sarvam Dukkham: (everything is suffering)

Indian Philosophy in general begins at a realization of this human predicament; the unfortunate
existential situation in which one finds oneself, that his life is ‘brutish and short’. It begets
frustration, unhappiness and pain. Some scriptures say “life is a vale of tears”; “vanity of
vanities, everything is vanity”. This is a pessimistic way of looking at life. Buddha also shares in
it. According to him, “Birth is suffering, old age is suffering, sickness is suffering, death is
 4

suffering, to be united with what is unpleasant is suffering, if one wants something and does not
get it, that also is suffering; in brief, the life as we see it is suffering (it is the aggregate of five
skandhas with thirst for existence and clinging)”. If we ask the question why it is suffering we
must say it is suffering because it is impermanent. Though this initial pessimism is there in
Buddha, it does not make him inactive; rather, it energises him to search for answers. One
general answer was already there in the form of law of karma, i.e., the source of this unfortunate
situation is of our own making. It is our own deeds that breed the karmic residue which is stored
up and activated later and makes our life like this. And the future will be conditioned by the
present deeds. This situation is called karmic circle, samskara. Buddha shared in this worldview
and within this context arrived at his enlightenment; having been dissatisfied of the already given
explanation and he proposes his own.

If we ask the question ‘What was Buddha’s enlightenment?’ we must say it was the realization,
‘sarvam dukkham’. Ordinary man, at one time speaks of life as vale of tears, in the next moment,
strives for pleasure and clings to some soul. Even when he fails to attain pleasure he is under the
impulse, the thirst for pleasure and appeasing of soul. For the ordinary man things are not
consistently impermanent. The distinction of Buddha is that for him even those strivings for
pleasure are painful and the attainment of the so-called pleasures too. Clinging to a permanent
soul is the root delusion. Thus everything is pain, and this realisation is the first criteria for
enlightenment. Thus this is the first noble truth, and this realization is the first criteria for
following Buddha way.

One who realizes consistently that everything is suffering, he will strive with the whole heart to
end it. In order to end it, first he must know how it originates and how it can be removed. An
expert doctor will not only consider the symptoms of disease but also will find out the root cause
of it, in order to root it out. Buddha did the same. If every action leads to suffering, can we
escape from suffering by desisting from action? Here comes Buddha’s moral consciousness, that
it is not action that is important, but the attitude behind it. Action before being done externally,
happens internally or in the mind. As every action has its cause and brings out its fruits, every
mental action too has its cause and effect. This cause-effect examination of all actions within the
person through a psychological analysis is his second noble truth.

Dukkha Samudaya (cause of suffering)

Second noble truth says, our suffering has a cause. That which is caused can come to an end if
the causal condition is removed. Something that is uncaused cannot be removed. (this is the
foundation for Buddha’s rejection of Upanishadic uncaused and permanent soul). Thus the
second noble truth is the message of hope that comes from Buddha. Since bondage is caused,
there is possibility of removing it by controlling causes and eventually eliminating them.

What is it that causes suffering? In the first sermon at Benaras (Dhammacakkapavattana-sutta)

Buddha said, it is the thirst (trishna) that leads to rebirth, which is accompanied by delight and
passion. Later this thirst is further elaborated as aroused by sense-objects (kamatrishna) and it is
directed towards one’s worldly existence (bhavatrishna). When senses come in contact with their
objects, sensations arise and these awaken desire. In this way the so-called thirst for objects of
desire (kamatrshna) arises. The second type of trishna arises when one takes worldly personality
 5

(five skandhas) as the self (atma) and clings to it. This is the ignorance that entangles one in the
cycle of existence. When all these joined together in cause effect chain (dependent origination -
pratitya samutpada), the famous theory of 12 spokes of bhavachakra of Buddhism originated.
They explain it both in forward order and reverse order.

Let us see the twelve-membered chain of causes and effects:

Ignorance (avidya)
Impression (samskara)
Initial Consciousness in the embryo (vijnana)
Mind-body embryonic organism (nama rupa)
The six fields viz., the five senses and the mind together with their objects (sadayatana)
Contact between the senses and the objects (sparsa)
Sense experience (vedana)
Strong Desire (trishna)
Clinging to existence (upadana)
Will to be born (bhava)
Re-birth (jati)
Pain, old age and death (jara-marana)

In the general presentation of cause of suffering in the twelve-membered chain of causes and
effects, the root cause of entanglement in causal chain is ignorance which is the absence of
liberating cognition, the four noble truths. In such a person craving for worldly objects and
worldly personality come into being (kama trishna and bhavatrishna). The impressions that are
like a subtle body is the bearer of rebirth; it enters into a new womb after death, driven by these
impressions. This necessitates formation of body-mind organism and in turn the formation of
senses and mind as six organs of cognition. Due to that, contact with objects occurs. And that
causes sensations of various kinds leading to the passions (raga, dvesa and moha), foremost
being the thirst that clings to sense-pleasure and to the supposed self that grasps them, thereby
leading to renewed bondage and new existence. Once again, birth and entanglement in the
suffering of existence come about, and so it goes, in the endless chain, till the liberating
cognition and annihilation of thirst put an end to the cycle of existence. When one strikes at the
root of this endless chain by removing the basic ignorance which is the wrong view of atma,
permanence and pleasure, one prepares the way for third noble truth.

Dukka Nirodha (cessation of suffering)

 6

It is the third noble truth about cessation of suffering, nirvana. Negatively if we speak of nirvana
it is cessation of all suffering; annihilation of all that binds; complete vanishing of thirst,
abandoning of all afflictions (upadhi). Positively it is attainment of freedom. The question is
freedom from what and freedom to what. Nirvana is a freedom from all the three types of acts
that bind mental, vocal and physical. This can happen only when one’s actions do not create
craving (raga), aversion (dvesa) and delusion (moha). Again Nirvana is a freedom to a life with
full of good will (metta), compassion (karuna), sympathetic appreciation (mudita) and
equanimity (upekkha). Its outward expressions include politeness, good manners, cleanliness of
habits and the like. Buddha himself stands as a beacon with his personality.

Buddha when he started teaching was a man of harmonious, self-contained personality with great
magnetism. This comes from self-confidence resulting from his enlightenment, the attainment of
the right view. This is liberation. He had a contemplative temperament and kind-heartedness
towards all mankind, even towards one who came to kill him. The majesty of his appearance and
his courtesy towards people even of lower status and his noble manners converted many even
Angulimala and impressed even those who rejected his teaching.

What is the nature of Nirvana, if we take it as the permanent state after death? It is a
controversial issue. For Buddhism teaches anatma and anitya. If no permanent agent to
experience freedom, then who attains liberation? Or what will be that after right view dawned
and aggregate of skandhas are no more which we normally call death? Rightly Buddha kept
these questions in the inexpressible (avyakrtas), for they are beyond our categories of linguistic
expression. Later schools explained it in their own way.

Dukkha Nirodha Marga (path for cessation of suffering)

The fourth noble truth is about the path to liberation. This is the path that Buddha followed and
attained enlightenment. So anyone who wishes to follow Buddha and attain enlightenment can
follow this and attain enlightenment. In fact, it is path to moral perfection, through practice of
morality or virtues. Morality in Buddhism has a deeper understanding than popular
understanding. Normally we judge rightness or wrongness on the basis of actions externally
seen, but in Buddhism emphasis is on what is going on in the mind. Again popularly morality
means following moral precepts i.e., emphasis on actions performed. In Buddhism emphasis is
on ‘being moral’ than following precepts. Being moral emphasises total personality. It is not one
action that decides morality but the moral culture of the person.
Fourth noble truth is generally described as the noble eightfold path. Some books divide them
into three groups. They are wisdom (prajna), morality (sila) and meditation (samadhi). Among
the eight first two are classified in the group of wisdom, next three are in the group of morality
and last three are in the group of meditation. They are
i) Right View (samyak drsti)
ii) Right Conception (samyak samkalpa)
iii) Right Speech (samyak vak)
 7

iv) Right Conduct (samyak karmanta)

v) Right Livelihood (samyak ajiva)
vi) Right Effort (samyak vyayama)
vii) Right Mindfulness (samyak smriti)
viii) Right Concentration (samyak samadhi)

i) Right View (samyak drsti)

‘Right view’ here refers to comprehensive understanding. Its opposite wrong view then refers to
one sided or excessively bent to one extreme, be it about self or about world, and that is the root
cause of suffering. Thus if we want to be free from suffering we must come out of our one
sidedness. Buddha came out of both extremes of ‘it is’ (sasvatavada) and ‘it is not’
(uchedavada). He gave the truth as middle way, which is the right view, claim his disciples. This
truth is exposed in the form of four noble truths and their pre-suppositions, which are dependent
origination as becoming (pratitya samutpada), no permenant soul (anatma) and law of
impermanence (anitya).

ii) Right Conception (samyak samkalpa)

Right conception is the decision in the mind of what is to be practically followed. As far as
practice is concerned, the right view remains impractical, for it doesn’t become part of the active
mind. It is duty of right conception to make mind active in that way. If that is not there, wrong
conception may carry the mind away. Wrong conceptions are associated with lust (kama-
samkalpa), conception of ill-will (byapada-samkalpa) and conception of harm (vihimsa-
samkalpa). The right conceptions are conceptions of renunciation (nishkama-samkalpa),
conceptions of good will (abyapada-samkalpa), and conceptions of compassion (ahimsa-
samkalpa).

iii) Right Speech (samyak vak)

When right view and right conception start to regulate life, they bring qualitative change in the
way of speaking, behaviour and life style. Right speech is that speech which does not consist of
lies, gossip, abuse and idle talk. This rule asks for restraint of speech and practice of virtues with
one’s speech.

iv) Right Conduct (samyak karmanta)

This noble truth asks the practitioner (sadhaka) to abstain from wrong actions. This contains
famous “Pancha-Sila” – the five vows for desisting from killing, stealing, sensuality, lying and
intoxication. Killing refers to destruction of the life of any being. He who takes away life or
 8

instigates another to do so is guilty of this crime. Stealing is taking away of that which is not
given. Sensuality or adultery is the holding of carnal intercourse with the female that belongs to
another. Lying is one among the four sins of the speech. Others are slander, abuse and
unprofitable conversation. Intoxication refers to intentional drinking of any liquor. This is
forbidden because it is the root cause of all other sins. For liquor takes away the rationality and
morality of the one who is under the grip of liquor, and he commits all types of sins.

v) Right Livelihood (samyak ajiva)

Right Livelihood refers to earning one’s everyday living by honest means. This rule tells the
practitioner (sadhaka) that even for the sake of maintaining one’s life one should not take to
forbidden means, but work in consistency with good determination.

vi) Right Effort (samyak vyayama)

Right effort refers to mind control. Mind is the root where all types of tendencies reside, whether
they are good or wicked passions. Sometimes undesirable ideas may haunt the mind, and hence
mind control is needed. Sins of the mind are covetousness, malice and scepticism. They need to
be controlled. One cannot progress steadily unless he maintains a constant effort to root out old
evil thoughts and prevent new evil thoughts from arising. Again since mind cannot be kept
empty, he should constantly endeavour to fill the mind with good ideas and retain such ideas in
the mind. These four are the right efforts.

vii) Right Mindfulness (samyak smrti)

This rule further stress constant vigilance, constantly keeping in mind the good things he has
already learned. He should constantly remember and contemplate the body as body, sensations as
sensations, mind as mind, mental states as mental states and contemplate on the frail, loathsome
and perishable nature of things. These help us remain free from attachment and grief.

viii) Right Concentration (samyak samadhi)

Buddhism speaks of four stages of concentration. The first stage is dhyana or meditation on four
noble truths. Here mind makes its reasoning and investigation about truths. At the second stage
of concentration there is no reasoning and investigation, but an unaffected contemplation. Here
still the practitioner enjoys an experience of joy, peace and internal tranquillity. At the third stage
one detaches himself even from joy of concentration, attitude of indifference increases, still
conscious of the ease and equanimity he experiences. At the last stage one puts away even the
ease and equanimity and all senses of joy and happiness he earlier had. This is a stage of perfect
 9

equanimity, indifference and self-possession. Here he attains the desired goal of nirvana, the
right view in its perfection.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.

1. What are the noble truths of Buddha? Explain.

…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................
2. Elaborate the ways of cessation of suffering.
…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
.......................................

2.3 PHILOSOPHICAL IMPLICATIONS OF BUDDHA’S TEACHING

We know Buddha as an ethical teacher and founder of religion who gave the eightfold path. Can
one be a founder of a religion without being a philosopher or without having philosophical ideas
as the foundation for these teachings? It is not possible. For religion is moulding of life in the
light of reality as one sees it and knowledge of the nature of that reality shapes ideals of life.
Thus philosophy is pre-supposition of religion. Sometimes religious teachers will grow from the
existing philosophy of the time, without questioning it. But Buddha was not satisfied with the
philosophy of the times. He questioned theory and practice of Vedic sacrifice, theory and
practice of ‘soul-realization’ and theory and practice of ‘this-life-alone’ holders. He comes to a
new vision, accepting the spiritual, accepting morality, but rejecting ‘permanence’ and ‘soul’ or
‘substantiality’. That which is ‘not-permanent’ breeds suffering. Everything is not-permanent.
Hence, ‘sarvam dukkam’. His vision springs from awareness of the causal genesis of things and
ideas (pratitya samutpada), their impermanence and insubstantiality.

Theory of dependent origination (pratitya samutpada)

This is the central conception of the system of Buddha. This is the Buddhist theory of causation.
This explains the nature of existence. He said “leave aside the questions of the beginning and
end. I will instruct you in the Law (dharma of Buddhism). If ‘that’ is, ‘this’ comes to be; on the
springing up of ‘that’, ‘this’ springs up. If ‘that’ is not, ‘this’ does not come to be; on the
cessation of ‘that’, ‘this’ ceases”. This is the common description of dependent origination. This
 10

exposes most salient features of Buddha’s conception of the principle of dependent origination.
There is a temporal relation between the ‘that’ and ‘this’. ‘This’ is an experiential component.
For ‘this’ refers to the effect that is experienced rather than inferred. And ‘that’ refers to the
cause that has already been experienced. Formulating the principle of dependent origination in
this manner, the Buddha attempts to avoid the search for any mysterious entity or substance in
the explanation of phenomena. Avoiding mysterious entity or substance does not mean
abandoning all enquiry and go to absolute scepticism. Rather it represents the acceptance of a
middle standpoint and he calls it right view. In Kaccayanagotta-sutta, when question asked
about ‘right view’ Buddha said; .... “this world, is generally inclined toward two views: existence
and non-existence. To him who perceives with right wisdom the uprising of the world as it has
come to be, the notion of non-existence in the world does not occur. To him who perceives with
right wisdom the ceasing of the world as it has come to be, the notion of existence in the world
does not occur.

The world for the most part, is bound by approach, grasping and inclination. And he who does
not follow that approach and grasping, that determination of the mind, that inclination and
disposition, who does not cling to or adhere to a view, “this is my self”, who thinks “suffering
that is subject to arising arises; suffering that is subject to ceasing, ceases” such a person does not
doubt, is not perplexed ..... there is “right view” (that leads to liberation).

“Everything exists” is one extreme. “Everything does not exist” is the other extreme. Without
approaching either extreme, the Tathagata teaches you a doctrine of the middle....(then follows
exposition of 12 factors of bhava chakra as causes of suffering). This we already saw in the
second noble truth, where he applied this theory of causation (pratitya samutpada) in the origin
of suffering. Like that in other fields too his disciples apply it. In the field of Logic it is law of
identity. Something is, is; is not, is and is not. When it is applied in metaphysics it becomes
theory of momentariness (everything in constant flux, changing from cause to effect). And when
applied in ethics it becomes law of karma as every action leaves its effect. This principle of
dependent arising is an alternative to the Brahminical notion of eternal self (atman) as well as to
the Carvaka rejection of spirituality. As an alternative Buddha explains phenomena as a state of
being in constant arising and ceasing. What is it that arises and ceases, they say ‘dharmas’. It
does justice to the need of both permanence and change to explain our experience and ethics.

Doctrine of Universal change or impermanence (Sarvam anitya)

The metaphysical application of law of dependent arising arrived by investigation and analysis of
the empirical, is the doctrine of universal change. All things are combination of ‘dharmas’ and
subject to change and decay. Since they all originate from some condition, it disappears when the
condition ceases to be. Whatever has a beginning has an end. Buddha therefore says “know that
whatever exists arises from causes and conditions and is in every respect impermanent. That
which seems everlasting perishes, that which is high will be laid low; where meeting is, parting
will be; where birth is, death will come”. This is doctrine of impermanence. When this is brought
to its logical conclusion, by asking the question, how one thing can become another if it is not
continuously changing. If not changing it will remain as it is, if it remains as it is, it will never
change combination of dharmas too become impossible. If there is no change, we cannot explain
our experience, morality cannot be explained, for morality in order to be meaningful actions
 11

should bear fruit, no fruit without change. If change, change must be at all moments. If at one
moment it is permanent, then it will go on like that for ever. For Buddhism does not accept of an
external mover.

No-soul theory (anatma)

From the beginning of human reflection up to now, one prominent theme is ‘soul’. But it is
known by different names. To the primitive man inside him or in any animal that lives and
moves there is a living principle, a man inside a man or an animal inside an animal that we call
‘soul’. This is animism. As religion becomes refined soul concept also becomes refined. But in
one form or another we see it in living religions of Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity and Islam.
They teach a man’s personality or self is his soul, known by different names like ‘atman’,
pudgala, pneuma, or psyche which enters body at birth and quits at death. The common element
is, it is the invisible, immaterial ego, the ‘I’ that is unchangeable amidst everything that is
changing, the ‘Lord’ of the body and mind. Those who hold that, there is a soul that exists say,
without a soul there could be no immortality, without immortality life would not be worth living.
The existence of a soul alone could ensure to each individual the fruit of his actions; without soul
there could be no reward in heaven or punishment in hell and without it transmigration could not
be explained, and so also we cannot explain differences between man and man in character,
position, peculiarities and fate.

For Buddha such a permanent soul, a permanent self is the most deceitful of illusions, the basic
wrong view that leads man into the pit of sorrow and suffering. In order to be a Buddhist
practitioner first thing that is to be rejected is such a belief in permanent self. The reason given is
– self naturally produces attachment, and attachment to it leads to egoism, craving for pleasure
and aversion to pain on earth and then beyond in heaven. So search for soul is a wrong start, and
wrong start will lead in false direction. “Some say that the ‘I’ endures after death, others say it
perishes, both have fallen into a grievous error. For if the ‘I’ is perishable the fruit people strive
for will perish too, and then deliverance will be without merit. If, as the others say, the ‘I’ does
not perish, it must be always identical and unchanging, then moral aims and salvation would be
unnecessary”. Because of this logical difficulty, Buddha kept that matter in the ‘inexplicable’.
This silence of Buddha was explained differently by different schools, though all agree ‘soul’
does not exist. First systematic exposition of that we have in the book “The Questions of King
Menandros” (Milindapancha). Here Nagasena the monk convinces the king with the example of
chariot, there is no permanent personality, but only name and form, i.e. the five groups
(skandas), which continuously cease and arise anew.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. How does Buddhism understand the reality as dependent?
…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................
 12

2. Describe the Buddhist notion of ‘self’.

…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
.......................................

2.4 LET US SUM UP

Buddhism as we see today is a big forest with such a lot of variety of trees in it. Though the
schools and sects keep up their uniqueness, they all claim that they give the Master’s teaching.
Modern times when study of Buddhism was rejuvenated in Europe, a fresh scientific enquiry into
what is later and what is the core was taken up. All unanimously agree on the so-called four
noble truths (catur aryasatyani) as Buddha’s own words and contains a summary of his teaching
and gives theoretical framework of philosophy for Buddhists everywhere. Among these truths,
the first, the truth of suffering is the basis of Buddhist ontology. The second, the truth of the
Origin of Suffering is the basis of Buddhist psychology or the ontology of the mental. The third,
the truth of the cessation of suffering is the basis of Buddhism as a religion. The fourth, the truth
of the path leading to cessation of suffering, is the basis of Buddhism as a moral and meditational
practice. All the later developments in any of these fields have this same fundamental heritage –
the vision of Buddha. It is presented as ‘sarvam dukkam’, ‘sarvam anatmam’ and ‘sarvam
anityam’. If we ask the question why everything is suffering? The answer is because it is
impermanent. Why is it impermanent? Because it is dependently originated. Why is it
dependently originated? The answer is, it is like that. We experience it like that.

2.5 KEY WORDS

Dharmas (dhamma in Pali): in Buddhism are the elements of existence. These are grouped into 5
Skandhas, 18 dhatus and 12 ayatanas and their subdivisions. They explain Buddhist ontology.

Reality: It means the sum total of elements (dharmas) with which everything is made of, and
with in which we comprehend everything.

Religion: In Buddhism refers to spirituality, not to worship of personal God. In a broader sense it
refers to a belief that liberation from a frustrating and painful existence or from eternally
repeated existence is possible and can be achieved through appropriate mental and moral
practices.

2.6 FURTHER READING AND REFERENCES

 13

Chaterjee, S.C & D.M. Datta. An Introduction To Indian Philosophy. Calcutta: University Of
Calcutta, 1984.

Dutt, Nalinaksha. Early Monastic Buddhism. Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukopadhyay, 1971.

Edward, Thomas J. The History Of Buddhist Thought. New York: Dover Publications, 2002.

Frauwallner, Erich. The Philosophy Of Buddhism (Die Philosophie Des Buddhismus), Trans.
Gelong Lodro Sangpo. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 2010.

Kalupahana, David J. A History Of Buddhist Philosophy; Continuities And Discontinuities.

Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas, 1994.

Nakamura, Hajme. Indian Buddhism, A Survey With Bibliographical Notes. Delhi: Motilal
Banarasidass Publishers, 2007.
 1

UNIT 3 BUDDHISM – II
Contents
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Main Schools In Hinayana (Early) Tradition
3.3 Vaibhasika (Sarvastivada) School
3.4 Sautrantika School
3.5 Main Schools In Mahayana Tradition
3.6 Madhyamaka (Sunyavada) School
3.7 Yogacara (Vijnanavada) School
3.8 Let Us Sum Up
3.9 Key Words
3.10 Further Readings And References

3.0 OBJECTIVES

In the 20th and 21st century so many Eastern and Western scholars wrote volumes and volumes
on Buddhism. Still if you ask what is Buddhism it is not easy to give an all agreeing and all
comprehensive answer. This is because of its vastness and complexity. To know Buddhism in its
varied developments is a Herculean task. For it extends in so many lands and languages. Again it
has a history of 2500 years. From the simple practical teachings for liberation by Buddha, his
disciples went so far, especially by explaining the inexplicable (avyakrtas). Thus we have lot of
sects and sub-sects and schools and sub-schools (Division into sects is on the basis of differences
in discipline and division into schools is on the basis of metaphysical & epistemological
distinctions). To study the distinctions of each sect and school spoken of in different scriptures of
Buddhism is not easy; Katavattu, one canonical early 2nd century B.C.E text speaks of some 18
sects. Some modern texts on Buddhism enumerate as many as 65 sects and some others speak of
more. Here for our study we take up the traditionally accepted four schools in India. They are
Vaibhasika, Sautrantika, Madhyamika and Yogacara. Each school claims they hold the ‘middle
way’ of Buddha. The first two belong to Hinayana tradition (Early Buddhism, Abhidharma
Buddhism, Staviravada, Philosophy of the Elders, Theravada Buddhism, Sarvastivada Buddhism,
Southern Buddhism, Exoteric Buddhism – all these names emphasise one or the other aspect of
this tradition) and the last two belong to Mahayana tradition (Later Buddhism, Developed
Buddhism, Northern Buddhism, Esoteric Buddhism) within Buddhism. We expose the main
metaphysical views of these schools and their distinctions.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
 2

Philosophy always fascinated man, for he needs answers to all ‘why’s and ‘how’s of all that we
are and what we come in contact with. Wise men begin their enquiry by critically examining the
answers already given and evaluate their merits and demerits. Some will go that far to ask the
question of ‘why’ about the multiplicity of those answers. Buddha was such a man, and he got
enlightenment about their basic ‘problem!’, that they are all ‘dristis’, (ways of looking at reality),
which is basically limited because of human predicament of conceptual limitation. He
understood not only the limitation of those ‘dristis’, but also the harm that it can do, if we cling
to it. Thus from practical angle he said, let us put aside these enquires, and be practical. We
already referred to his classical simile of man struck by poisonous arrow (Refer previous unit).

A charismatic personality like Buddha could manage like that, but not his disciples after his
demise. They were forced to give reasons for their interpretation, not only to outsiders, but also
to insiders. Most important reason for this is the potential within his teaching for diverse
interpretation. The immediate followers of Buddha even had their difference of opinion about
Buddha’s teaching. Within a century after the parinirvana of Buddha there came a clear cult
division in his ‘Sangha’. Orthodox group or traditionalists or conservatives is known as Staviras
or Theras or Elders and Progressives known as Mahasangikas. Elders claimed to represent the
original teaching of Buddha. Others said Buddha taught something more than what these elders
say. Elders called them as ‘papabhikkus’ or ‘adhamavadins’ (those who practice and teach
wrong things). According to elders Buddha was a historical man. He was born, lived and died
among them as a human being. But for the other group Buddha was more than a man. He is a
God. The moral goal of Staviras is attainment of each one’s nirvana. The other group said this is
egoistic. Buddha’s goal was not that. Bodhisattva should be the ideal; they do not care about
one’s nirvana until all attain nirvana. Again for elders the ideal was attainment of Arhathood.
But Mahasangikas claimed an arhat can go wrong and that cannot be the ideal state, rather it
must be realization of Buddhahood. About empirical knowledge too there was distinction
between the two as Staviras (elders) were realists, but mahasangikas were more idealistic in their
leanings. Staviras denied a soul or substance in everything, but they believed in dharmas or
elements of existence as really existing. But mahasangikas denied substantiality for both.
Everything is unsubstanial (sunya) was their position and this becomes ripe and fully grown into
Mahayana.

3.2 MAIN HINAYANA SCHOOLS

The philosophy of Staviras or Elders we can call as Abhidharma. Abhidharma is actually

philosophical reflections by realistic and pluralistic philosophers of Buddhism (Theravada or
Hinayana) on the basic teachings of Buddha. The literal meaning of the term ‘Abhi’ is ‘further’
or ‘about’. Thus Abhidharma means the higher, further or special Dharma, or ‘the discourse on
Dharma’. Dharma here refers to all the elements with which everything is made of. If we
analyse everything we can reduce the whole of subject and object (whole reality) into 75
dharmas. These realistic philosophers were known as Sarvastivadins. ‘Sarvam asti’ means
 3

‘everything is’ (these are realistic pluralistic philosophers) but only as elements not having a
pudgal or soul. This is in fact the first philosophical development in Buddhism.

3.3 VAIBHASIKA SCHOOL

The word Vaibhasika has come from the main text Mahavibhasasastra, which was compiled
around 2nd century C.E; its main object was to expose Abhidharma philosophy. Another classical
text of this school is Vasabandhu’s (420-500 C.E.) Abhidharma-kosa. Actually Vaibhasika is the
later form of Sarvastivada.

These Sarvastivadin philosophers transformed Buddha’s ‘no soul’ into a consistent philosophy of
‘pudgal nairatmaya’ (non-substantiality of everything). Non-substantiality is not only in the case
of human beings, but is applied to the whole material world. ‘Things are without essence’. If we
say they are unsubstantial, then what are they? This group answers that they are collection of
dharmas. In the case of material things, there are four material atoms, and in the case of living
beings five skandas. We see exposition of this in both Milinda pancho, a second century C.E.
text and Abhidharmakosa of Vasabandhu of 4th century C.E.

Another view that is closely connected with this insubstantiality is the idea of momentariness of
all entities. Buddha’s ‘anityam’ (impermanence) had a limited application, in the case of
morality, but they applied it consistently on everything. Unlike Samkhya, who thought of a
permanent thing behind all change, exposed by the image of lump of clay that turns into pot still
doesn’t lose its ‘clayness’, Vaibhasika clung to Buddhist insubstantiality and impermanence and
exposed it with the example of wood being consumed. When wood is consumed by fire, only
ashes remain and it is completely different from wood. Still they accepted three moments in this
change; past, present and future; that which causes that which is destroyed and that which
endures.

They explained the whole of universe with 75 dharmas and enumerated them in detail. We see it
in Abhidhammakosa. First they divide dharmas into conditioned (samskrta) and unconditioned
(asamskrta). 72 are conditioned and 3 are unconditioned. The conditioned are again divided into
four classes:
I Form (11 dharmas) consisting of the five sense organs, five sense-objects, and
form with no manifestations. These are also known as rupa and they form all that we call matter.
II Consciousness (1 Dharma) sometimes divided into five dharmas corresponding
to the sense-organs. This is also known as citta.
III The concomitant mental functions (46 dharmas). They are also known as
caitasika. They are subdivided into four groups.
 4

i) The general mental elements are 10 universals (sarva-Dharma-sadharana). They

are contact, attention, sensation, ideation, will, desire to do, conviction, recollection,
concentration and insight.
ii) The general good functions are 10 moral universals (kusala-mahabhumika). They
are faith, shame, the root of good, absence of greed, absence of hatred, absence of delusion,
diligence, harmoniousness, attentiveness, equanimity and non-violence.
iii) The general foul functions are 6 defilements of mind that hinders one from
following the path. They are passion, hate, pride, ignorance, erroneous view and doubt.
iv) Minor foul functions are altogether 20 mental functions that are minor
defilements for the practice of eight fold path. They are anger, resentment, hypocrisy,
spitefulness, envy, miserliness, deceitfulness, dissimulation, wantonness, malevolence,
unrestraint, shamelessness, rigidity, agitation, lack of faith, laziness, negligence, forgetfulness,
distractedness and thoughtlessness.
IV 14 dharmas that have no connection with form or mind (citta-viprayukta-
sanskara) They are like acquisition, non-acquisition, communionship, effects of meditation,
power of longevity (vital power), the waves of becoming, words and sentences related to speech.

The remaining three are unconditioned elements. They are Space (akasa), extinction (nirvana)
caused by absence of productive cause (apratisamkhyanirodha) and extinction caused by
knowledge (pratisamkhyanirodha). That which provides ground to matter is space. In itself it has
no defilement and it is not caused. Again apratisamkhyanirodha is that Dharma, where no type
of defilement is present. In pratisamkyanirodha Dharma there is right view that occasions
nirvana. If we look into the above list, we see the importance they give to mental activities. In
fact they make a psychological analysis of everything. Their naive realism forced them to
dogmatically emphasise everything that are exposed above as existing independent of the
subject. The next school that we are going to speak of comes up in the context of logical and
rational questioning of above enumeration of dharmas as independently existing.

3.4. SAUTRANTIKA SCHOOL

The word sautrantika comes from ‘sutranta’ (scripture). They base themselves on ‘Sukta pitaka’
of the canon. This group came up against the naive realism and pluralism of Vaibhasikas. Main
teachers of this school are Kumaralat, a contemporary of Nagarjuna. Srilabha or Srilata was his
disciple. Then comes Yasomitra and Harivarman who wrote the book Tattvasiddhi (Proof of the
Truth). Another name notable is Vasubandhu (some say this is the same Vasubandu who wrote
Abhidharmakosa and some others say it is another one by the same name). It is a logico-
epistemological school. (there is a later logico-epistemological school having characteristics of
both Sautrantika and Yogacara. The main personalities are Dignaga and Dharmakirti (5th & 7th
century C.E.). The reason for this is universities like Nalanda and Takshashila where issues are
followed, not the sectarianism of schools, one becomes acharya, when he is proficient in
teachings of all schools, and it was very easy for them to form their own philosophy by taking
the logically fitting teachings). They said Abhidharma scholasticism is a deviation from the
 5

actual intent of the Master. They rejected independent existence of some of the dharmas and
reduced their number into 45 (43 Conditioned and 2 unconditioned). If we ask the question what
is it that forced them to reduce the number of dharmas, we must say it has both metaphysical and
epistemological reasons.

The realism of Vaibhasika forced them to treat Nirvana too as some ‘thing’. Sautrantika said this
is against the mind of the master. So they clung to ‘Sukta Pitaka’ and based their interpretation
on that and reason (for Buddha said ‘atta dipo bhava’). Logically, they said, the Vaibhasika
clinging to three moments is not possible, for if anything changing, it must happen at all
moments and one thing will last only a moment, where birth and death happens; so no past,
present and future, only present is existing. Past and future are imagination (sankalpas).

Epistemology (Pramanas) and Acceptance of external objects and mind

Sautrantika developed logic and defended itself against both Buddhistic and non-Buddhistic
criticisms. This logic was later developed and crystallized by the Yogacara (vijnanavada)
teachers. Dignaga and Dharmakirti are the two towering personalities. First they were
Sautrantika (both mind and external objects exist), later they were lenient to Yogacara (mind
only exists). Dignaga in his famous work Pramana Samuchaya speak of two valid means of
knowledge. They are Perception (pratyaksa) and Inference (anumana). Perception deals with
svalaksanas, (that which characterises itself, a unique particular singular and momentary). This
is ultimately real (paramarta sat) and inexpressible. To experience them means to experience
reality as it is. Inference, the other pramana consists of conceptualizations, verbalizations,
reflections and other products of mental constructions. (kalpana, vikalpa) Dignaga calls it
Samanyalaksana (a general characteristic applicable to many objects or distributed over many
instances). They are endurable and not subject to change, thus they are true only in relational
level (asamvrti sat).

Epistemologically Sautrantika goes a step further from Vaibhasika to answer the question, what
we really know. They say it is not objects that come into our consciousness (naive realism) but
an after-image of an object. Thus our knowledge is not through perception, but through
inference. Therefore there will be always some mental construction. Thus we call them
representative realists or critical realists.

Theory of Momentariness

Vaibhasika developed Buddha’s notion of ‘anitya’ into universal law of impermanence of

everything, but they accepted three moments as “a thing arises, remains constant and ceases to
exist”. But being logically minded, Sautrantika raised the question, if changing, how can there be
three moments, there can be only one moment. As it arises it must vanish. Thus things never
remain constant. What is there is an uninterrupted flow of causally connected momentary entities
of the same kind. The cessation takes place without cause. They call it Santana. If it were not so,
 6

then the dharmas would remain constant and changeless. They define moment (ksana) as the
smallest indivisible unit of time. This is 1/75th of a second. All aggregates of being are repeatedly
produced and destroyed in every moment. Since these elements succeed upon each other so fast,
as in cinematography were distinct pictures in a rapid projection, evokes illusion of continuous
action on the screen, we see them as continuous. Again earlier and later ones within one Santana
are almost alike we normally fail to discern the arising and destruction and perceive them like
flowing river or flame of a lamp. According to this doctrine, all objects of the world - our bodies,
ideas, emotions and all the external objects around us – are destroyed every moment and are
replaced by similar things generated at the succeeding moment, which again are replaced by
other similar things at the next moment and so on.

One important logical consequence of this theory is the rejection of past and future. Everything is
happening at the present time, past has ceased and future hasn’t arisen. Past is memory and
future is imagination. There is only just origination and cessation. This is the real truth
(paramarta sat). The other two are relative truths (samvrti sat). One question that naturally arises
is, how we explain ‘the knowing process’ then? They explain it with the theory of
svasamvedana (self-apperception). This theory says consciousness is able to be conscious of
itself and of other phenomena, just like a lamp is able to illumine clearly both itself as well as
other external objects.

Sautrantika classification of Dharma

They have a different classification of Dharma from that of Vaibhasika. While Vaibhasika
accepts 75 dharmas, Sautrantika reduces that number into 45. This includes 43 samkrta and 2
asmskrta. 43 samskrtas they divide into five skandas.
i) Form (rupa): consists of matter in its 4 primary forms (upadana) and 4 derived
(upadaya) forms. 4 primary forms are earth, water, fire and air. 4 derived forms are
solidity, humidity, heat and motion.
ii) Feeling (vedana): consists of 3 types of emotions- pleasure, pain and neutral.
iii) Perception (samjna): consists of grasping by 6 senses – five senses and mind. It
consists of colours etc by eyes, agreeable, disagreeable, friend, enemy, male female
etc.
iv) Consciousness (vijnana): consists of 6 sense consciousness. It is “row grasping of
visual, auditory, olfactory, taste, touch and mental consciousness.
v) Mental formation (samskara): consists of volitional factors that create and determine
the five skandas of future existence. Sautrantika speaks of 10 virtuous and 10 non-
virtuous dharmas.
vi) Unconditioned (asamskrta): consists of 2 uncaused dharmas - Nirvana and space.

Sautrantika is a transition thought on the way to full-fledged Mahayana. Later schools of

Madhyamaka and Yogacara develop in their own way the ‘Sautrantika germs’. Madhyamika
continues the logical pruning of dharmas that was started by Sautrantika and reduces them all
 7

into samvrti satya. Yogacara cling to Svasamvedana and give reason for it with their
Vijnaptimatrata.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1. What are the noble truths of Buddha? Explain.
…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................
2. Elaborate the ways of cessation of suffering.
…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
.......................................

3.5. MAIN SCHOOLS IN MAHAYANA TRADITION

Mahayana literally means ‘great vehicle’. This is a term coined by those members of the
Buddhism who believed in things that the early school considered as not the real teaching of
Buddha. But this group got so many adherents and they formed their own scriptures as taught by
Buddha. This group called the other group as old style conservative Buddhists, who were not
able to grasp the higher teaching, so Buddha did not reveal it to them. Now time is ripe for that
teaching of Buddha to make public.

3.6. MADHYAMAKA SCHOOL

Madhyamaka is the name of the school and one who follows the teaching of that school is known
as a Madhyamika. This is also known as Sunyavada and it is systematised by Nagarjuna (2nd
century A.D), whom they consider as the founder of this school. His famous work is
MulaMadhyamikaKarika. His disciple was Aryadeva who wrote Catush Shataka. The name of
this school comes from Buddha’s famous ‘middle position’ (madhyama pratipad). Hinayana
schools mostly took its ethical implication i.e., not going to the extremes of indulgence or
practice. But this school takes it in a metaphysical sense. Middle position is the rejection of the
extreme metaphysical positions of ‘is’ and ‘is not’ (Sasvatavada and Uchedavada). Thus it
becomes the no-position (transcendental and inexpressible) and they used the word ‘Sunyata’ to
explain it. In the later development of this school we see division into two: Svatantrika
 8

Madhyamaka and Prasangika Madhyamaka. A famous name connected with Svatantrika is

Bhavaviveka (6th Century A.D) who proposes independent argument for substantiating their
position. Prasangika School claims that Madhyamaka is a ‘no-position’ school, thus it does not
have any independent argument. What it has is its dialectics. It uses ‘prasanga’ (reducio ad
absurdum), in the argument of the opponent only to show the inconsistency within them. Main
champions of this trend are Buddhapalita and Chandrakirti (6th and 7th Century C.E.).

Use of ‘sunya’ and ‘sunyata’:

Sunyata is the most perplexing word in Buddhist philosophy. Non-Buddhists have interpreted it
only as nihilism. In Madhamaka philosophy this term becomes so important that the whole
system is known as Sunyavada. It has both ontological and soteriological implications.
a) Ontological implication
Here ‘sunya’ is used to characterize the whole reality. Reality they divide into two - samvrti sat
(relative reality) and paramarta sat (absolute reality). It was a common understanding that
everything has a ‘svabhava’ (own being, essential property - in orthodox systems, belief in
permanent soul). Madhyamaka rejects this as having any independent existence. Thus they speak
of both pudgal nairatmya and Dharma nairatmya. Earlier Abhidharma rejected whole (pudgal)
as construction, a name given without real existence. Now the same reason is applied by
Mahayanists to show dharmas too are construction (main argument is denial of atomism). They
understand pratityasamutpada as conditioned existence. They say ‘svabhava’ must be that
which is not produced by causes, which was not dependent upon anything else. There is nothing
like that in our experience, for everything is conditionally originated. Since they are
interdependent they are ‘sunya’ of ‘svabhava’, thus for them all dharmas are ‘svabhava sunya’.
Secondly they call the absolute reality too ‘sunya’ but here Prapancha-sunya or devoid of
prapancha or verbalization, thought-construction and plurality. (The meaning is - Reality that
which is not conditionally originated is beyond thought-construction, beyond any expression in
words.)

b) Soteriological implication (that which is concerned with salvation)

This comes from the practical aim of attaining ‘prajna paramita’. Here we understand sunyata as
means for attaining an end. (the state of Bodhisatva, the realization of tathata, tathagata or
tathagata-garbha, Dharma-kaya, bodhichitta, realization of sunyata, Nirvana - all these refer to
one or other aspect of prajna paramita in Madhyamaka which is also the Absolute). This comes
through meditation on ‘sunyata’. Sunyata tells us that all empirical things are devoid of
substantial reality, so they are worthless and because of our avidya we cling to insubstantial as
substantial and crave for it. Here happens the germination of all passions and desires. Once
sunyata of dharmas are realized, this mad rush after worldly things will go and detachment will
come. Meditation on sunyata will lead to ‘prajna’ (transcendental wisdom) which brings
emancipation of the practitioner from spiritual darkness. This is the attainment of status of
bodhisattva which consists in bodhicitta with its twofold aspects of Sunyata or pranja and
Karuna. Karuna here refers to compassion or universal love.
i) Samvrti satya (vyvaharika) and Paramartha satya (phenomena and absolute;
samsara and nirvana; appearance and reality). Like every rational, idealistic systems
Madhyamaka too accepts two levels of reality. The empirically cognisable, that which is
 9

conditioned, that which can be known through categories of thought, that which is causally
connected they call as samvrti satya or phenomena or samsara. That which is beyond the
categories of thought, that which is unconditioned, that which is inexpressible, they call
paramarta satya or absolute or nirvana (paramarto aryanam thusnibhava = to the saints, the
Absolute is just silence i.e. it is inexpressible says Chandrakirti). Now it is the question of their
relationship. Here Madyamaka brings out its ingenuity. They say actually there are no two. But
only one and when you look at it through relativity (thought-forms, categories of reason), then it
became empirical reality which is nissvabhavata, a covering over reality. But the same when you
look through the eye of sunyata i.e. by removing the veil of primal ignorance that makes it
relative to samvrti, then it is paramarta or absolute reality. Thus samvrti is like means (upaya)
for reaching Reality that is the goal (upeya). Thus there is no paramarta without samvrti and no
samvrti without paramarta.

ii) Madhayamaka Dialectic

In fact this is the original contribution of Nagarjuna to Buddhism and Indian Philosophy in
general. Buddha was silent about many questions. Now Nagarjuna asks the question, why he
kept silence at the so called ‘avyakrtas.’ Not because he did not know the answer, but because
he knew well that such speculations will lead only to dogmatism. All metaphysical positions are
one-sided. For reality is transcendent to thought constructions. To prove this he invents the
dialectic with four alternatives (catuskoti or tetralemma). They are i) a positive thesis, ii) a
negative counter-thesis; iii) they are conjunctively affirmed to form the third alternative and iv)
disjunctively denied to form the fourth. He reduced all metaphysical systems (drstis) into one of
these categories and applied rigorous logic to it and showed the inner inconsistencies within the
system. Yes-or-No answer to fundamental questions could not do justice to the truth and if we do
so, it becomes dogmatism is the basic line of thought of Nagarjuna.

Madhyamaka is not a ‘drsti’ (metaphysical system) but a critique of all philosophies – a meta-
philosophy, which helps one be aware of what he is doing, while philosophizing - checking of
pre-suppositions and assumptions unnoticed. In one sense Madhyamaka may seem the most
intolerant of systems, as it negates all possible views without exception. In another sense it can
accommodate and give significance to all systems and shades of views. For, he realizes sunyata
and it gives him inner harmony and peace.

3.7. YOGACARA (VIJNANAVADA) SCHOOL

Yogacara is the other Mahayana school that we study in this unit. Yogacara is also known as
Vijnanavada. It is the only idealistic school in Buddhism and Indian philosophy in the strict
sense. It is not only idealism, but also absolutism. As a metaphysical system it comes up against
the extreme nihilism of Madhyamika. If you say everything is sunya (illusory) having no
‘svabhava’, then that is against common-sense. So they said something that projects illusion is
real. What is it that projects illusion? It is ‘alaya-vijnana’ (the ground, the power that creates
material world and projects outside) says Yogacara. Madyamaka claimed, it has no metaphysical
position, it is only dialectics, but we cannot go far without metaphysics (some ground). Yogacara
says Pure Consciousness (Vijnaptimatrata) provides the ground and this alone is real, and
 10

everything else is its self-bifurcation. Thus Yogacara is an absolutistic system.

Epistemologically Yogacara idealism is the logical culmination of Buddhist ‘momentariness’.
Sautrantika analysis of knowledge exposed the contradiction inherent in perception, when we
explain it in the context of momentariness. The only way out is falling back to subjective and
idealism of Yogacara solves it. According to Yogacara its idealism is the ‘middle way’
(madhyama pratipad). The two extremes are realism and nihilism. The object is real and exists
like the subject is one extreme and it is represented in realistic Sarvastivada. The subject is
unreal and non-existent like object is the other extreme represented by Madhyamaka. The
middle position between the two is that the object is unreal and is a fiction of the subjective; the
subject is the real and the sole reality. The appearances are unreal; but that which appears is real.

Yogacara philosophy has two phases. The first phase is strictly idealistic. This is mainly 4th and
5th century A.D. Important persons and works related with this phase are Maitreya, his famous
work is Abhisamayalankara. His disciple Asanga, wrote Madhyanta Vibhaga Sutra and
Mahayana Sutralankara. Asanga’s younger brother Vasabandhu (who was first Sarvastivadin
and later converted into Mahayana by his elder brother) is one of the most prominent figures in
the history of Buddhism. He wrote the most complete and definitive text on the Yogacara
idealism known as Vijnaptimatratasiddhi. Stiramati was his disciple who wrote commentaries on
his works. With him the first phase of Yogacara idealism is over.

Most important persons in the second phase are Dignaga and Dharmakirti. They were not
interested in the constructive details of the idealistic metaphysics. The interest shifted from
metaphysics to logic and epistemology. Idealism was maintained from the standpoint of ultimate
reality; but, in order to supply a stable basis for the logic of empirical reality, the Sautrantika
conception of a thing-in-itself (svalaksana) was revived. This resulted in the formation of the
hybrid school of the Sautrantika-Yogacara, for which the name Vijnanavada can be reserved.
Famous work of Dignaga is Alambhanapariksa and Dharmakirti’s work is Pramanavarttika.

i) Idealism of Yogacara
Realism and Idealism are the two opposing epistemological positions. Realist will say the
content known and the cognition (consciousness of the object) are two independent realities. The
duty of consciousness is only to reveal the object not to create it. If it creates, then each time
when we perceive, object will be altered but this is not the case. But for Yogacara, consciousness
is the only reality. The so-called empirical world is only a system of ideas. The objective content
is only apparent, and is really identical with its cognition. These content and cognition are
invariably perceived together (sahopalambhaniyama) and are therefore identical. If the content
were different from cognition it should exist separately and must be perceived apart from the
latter but this is not the case. Yogacara concludes that knowledge is not a mere discovery of
something that is already there as realist says, but consciousness creates and projects its own
content when it knows.

Yogacara proves its conclusion both by disproving the claim of realism and by giving
independent arguments. If, as the realist says, consciousness only reveals the object then it must
be able to reveal at all times and each time it must be similar. But actually, how and under what
 11

circumstances we look at it, the colour, shape, size etc changes. Then how we decide whether
they exist in the object or in the consciousness? Positively they give the example of dreams
where consciousness creates and projects as objects. The theory that all our experiential world is
like a dream, without real content, and are creation and projection of consciousness, is rejection
of all objectivity. It goes against all our subject-object co-operation world experience. So they
must show that idealism does not do any violence to our everyday world of experience. They do
it with their theory of evolution of consciousness

ii) Theory of evolution of Consciousness

Here we expose Yogacara metaphysics proper. For according to them Vijnana only exists
(vinjaptimatrata). But they have to explain the whole panorama of empirical existence. They
explain it with diversification of vijnana, which is by nature creative. They speak of different
stages of this process. They are mainly three. This is caused by illusory idea of objectivity and
once it is eradicated, they revert to the pristine purity of Vijnaptimatrata. The main stages of
evolution are: a) storehouse consciousness (alaya-vijnana) – the place or receptor in which are
contained the seeds or impressions (vasanas) of all karmas, good, bad or indifferent. All
dharmas come out of it as effects or evolutes. So it is known as sarva-bijaka. Alaya serves two
functions. 1) Receptor of the impressions of past vijnanas 2) gives rise to further vijnanas by
maturing those impressions. This always goes on in alaya-vijnana, till true knowledge dawns.
The second stage in evolution of consciousness is known as Klista-manas (psyche governed by
klesas). It is in fact the mediator between first (alaya) and third (pravrti). In the alaya ‘bija’ is
indeterminate and in pravrti it is fully determinate, and the transition is done by the Klista-
manas, in the form categorisation. In Yogacara ‘manas’ is refered to as ‘klista’ (defiled). For
ignorance is without a beginning (anadi), but can be removed with practice (Yogacara). Klistas
in manas are four. They are a) the false notion of an ego (atmadrsti), b) ignorance about ego
(atmamoha), c) elation over it (atmamana), d) attachment to it (atmaprema). In fact what are to
be removed are these intellections and all practices are for that. The third stage of evolution of
consciousness is determinate awareness of the object. In the empirical discourse these only
matter. They are of six forms. The five external senses and one internal sense of mind (this mind
is different from klista-manas. Klista-manas is transcendental but this mind is internal sense
organ through which knowledge of the empirical ideas or dharmas happens). Thus altogether
there are eight vijnanas. Here comes up all other dharmas that other schools of Buddhism speak
of. This school speaks of 100 dharmas. These are the last bifurcation of vijnana.

iii) Doctrine of Three truths

Yogacara is not only idealism, but also absolutism, for; the logical culmination of idealism is
absolutism. Idealism says object does not exist; only subject exists. But the question is – can the
subject exist without object? If there is no object what will you call subject? For both of them
relatively exist. When object is negated, then the next logical step will be the receding of subject.
Thus we reach the sunyata of Madhyamaka. But as far as the relative existence of subject and
object are concerned, that is real for all practical purposes, as long as our ignorance (avidya) does
its work of objectification and falsification. Unlike Madhyamaka who makes a twofold division
of reality, Yogacara makes threefold. First is Parikalpita. That which has no authentic existence
is parikalpita. It is totally imagined to exist (kalpanamatra). It is an object projected by the
creative consciousness. Its existence is like barren woman’s son. Second is Paratantra. This too
is appearance, but it is caused by causes and conditions. That which causes it is eight types of
 12

consciousness. When the idea of the other goes, this appearance too will go, till then it will
remain. Thus it is a mid-way between Parikalpita and Parinispanna. When this will go what
remains is the third division of reality, known as Parinispanna. Thus it is the inner essence of all
reality (dharmanam dharmata). We can speak of it only in the negative, as what it is not.
Positively we can speak of it only as the consciousness freed from subject-object duality.

iv) Yogacara ideal and the way to attain it

The very name ‘Yogacara’ refers to ‘practice of yoga’. Yogacara contains a systematised path of
Buddhist practice. Buddhist goal is nirvana. This nirvana is understood in different ways in
different schools. In Yogacara nirvana is freedom of consciousness from duality of the subject
and the object which is the false idea or avidya. Though duality is avidya, the effect it generates
is real and we need strict disciple and practice for removing the false idea. They speak of six
paramita discipline. They are Dana, Sila, Ksanti, Virya, Dhyana and Prajna. Though the first
ones are ethical practices, the final one is purely intellectual. It consists in the understanding of
the real nature (Prajna). This is realization of Tathata (the essence of everything), the reality as it
is.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer
1. What are the noble truths of Buddha? Explain.
…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................
2. Elaborate the ways of cessation of suffering.
…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
.......................................

3.10 LET US SUM UP

The main Hinayana Mahayana distinctions:

In Metaphysics: Hinayanists are radical pluralists but Mahayanists are radical absolutists. (non-
dualistic advaya)
In Epistemology: Hinayanists are rationalists and realists. Mahayanists are mystical, super-
rationalists who use dialectical criticism.
 13

In Ethics: Hinayanists are egoistic individualistic aim at Arhathood. Mahayanists are Universal
Salvationists aiming at enlightenment for the sake of others (bodhisattva, tathagata)
In religion: Hinayana becomes an order of Monks emphasising human aspect of Buddha.
Mahayanists are more devotional, Buddha become object of worship on one side and on the
other side the absolute metaphysical reality.
These general trends that we noted here in this general division influence one way or other the
peculiarities of each of the school we examined above.

3.11 KEY WORDS

Dharma is a basic general term in Indian philosophy. Even in Buddhism it is used in four senses.
1) Dharma in the sense of one ultimate Reality (as it is used in the word Dharma-kaya). 2)
Dharma in the sense of scripture, doctrine, religion (as it is used in the word Buddhist Dharma).
3) Dharma in the sense of righteousness, virtue (as it is used in general sense). 4) Dharma in the
sense of “elements of existence”. (in this sense it is generally used in plural)

Scholasticism is generally used in two senses: 1) philosophy in the service of religion (angilla
philosophie), 2) excessive subtlety and artificiality in philosophical constructions. Scholasticism
in Buddhism is to be taken in the second sense. Vaibhasikas were scholastic in this sense with 75
dharmas. The Sautrantikas were in favour of simplification thus they reduced the number of
dharmas into 45.
Prajna Paramita refers to culmination of six spiritual qualities that help the practitioner for
seeing the truth face to face (vipasyana). They are dana (charity), sila (withdrawing from all evil
deeds), ksanti (forbearance), virya (enthusiasm), dhyana (concentration) and prajna
(transcendental insight).

‘Avyakrtas’ (inexpressible) are the questions about which Buddha kept silence. They are
traditionally enumerated as 14. They are
i) Whether the world is a) eternal, b) or non-eternal, c) or both eternal and non-eternal,
d) or neither eternal nor non-eternal.
ii) Whether the world is a) finite, b) or infinite, c) or both, d) or neither
iii) Whether the Tathagata a) exists after death, b) or does not, c) or both d) or neither
iv) Whether the soul is identical with the body or different from it.

Idealism we understand here in an epistemological sense. Not in a metaphysical sense where we

speak of reality as spiritual. According to A.K. Chaterjee, epistemologically this term connotes
three things. a) Knowledge is creative, b) there is nothing given in knowledge, and c) the creative
knowledge itself is real.
 14

Soteriological means that which is concerned with salvation.

3.11 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Thomas, Edward J. The History of Buddhist Thought. New York: Dover Publications, 2002.
Frauwallner, Erich. The Philosophy of Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal Banarisdas Publishers, 2010.
Murti, T.R.V. The Central Philosophy of Buddhism - A Study of Madhyamika System. Delhi:
Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 2003
Stcherbatsky, Theodre. The Conception of Buddhist Nirvana. Varanasi: Bharatiya Vidya
Prakashan, n.d.
Chatterjee, A.K. The Yogacara Idealism. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas Publishers, 1999.
 1

UNIT 4 JAINISM
Contents
4.0. Objectives
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Epistemology of Jainism
4.3. The Jaina Theory of Judgement or Syadvada
4.4. The Jaina Metaphysics or the Theory of Substance
4.5. Inanimate Substance or Ajiva
4.6. Jaina Ethics
4.7. Let us Sum Up
4.8. Key Words
4.9. Further Readings and References
4.0. OBJECTIVES
The main objective of this unit is to introduce students to the Jaina philosophical system in
general. This chapter gives a small historical background of the school of Jainism with its
development and different sects. It discusses the general characteristic features of Jainism and
also examines its epistemology, metaphysics and ethics. Key notions like syadvada,
saptabhanginaya and anekantavada are also analyzed in detail.
4.1. INTRODUCTION
The Jainas strongly believe in the teachings of the twenty four Tirthankaras. Rishabhadeva was
the first Tirthankara. The last teacher or the Tirthankara was Vardhamana who was given the
title Mahavira meaning ‘the great hero’. He is believed to have lived in the sixth century B.C.
during the time of Buddha. Vardhamana was preceded by Parsvanatha who lived in the ninth
century B.C. The remaining 22 teachers or the Tirthankaras are believed to have belonged to a
much earlier period. The word Jaina came from the root word Jina which etymologically means
a conqueror. It is the common name given to all the twenty four Tirthankaras since they all had
conquered passions and thereby attained liberation.
The Jainas did not believe in God. They are liberated souls who were once upon a time in
bondage but later through their own efforts became free, perfect, omniscient, omnipotent and
blissful. In due course of time the followers of Jainism got divided into two well known sects
namely Svetambaras and the Digambaras. Their basic distinction lies in the minor details of
faith and practice. While the Svetambaras are more accommodative and down to earth the
Digambaras are more strict and orthodox. The Digambaras hold that the followers of their sect
should renounce all attachments, possessions and even clothes for that matter. On the other hand
the Svetambaras insist that their followers should wear only white clothes.
The philosophical outlook of Jainism is based on a common sense type of realism and pluralism.
For them the objects in this world are many in number and are also real. The world consists of
 2

two kinds of substances namely jiva and ajiva. All living beings have a soul (Jiva). They give
extreme importance to the concept of Ahimsa, Syadvada and Anekantavada.
4.2. EPISTEMOLOGY OF JAINISM
Consciousness is the inseparable essence of every soul. It is like the sun’s light capable of
manifesting itself and also every other thing, unless it is obstructive. The reason is that
omniscience is a natural property of the soul. In an unobstructed state, the soul is in a position to
know things but when it is imprisoned in the body its nature of omniscience is obstructed. In
other words it can know things only through the apparatus of the senses. The obstacles are
created by the different karmas of the soul. These karmas obstruct the natural consciousness of
the soul in different degrees and that determines the type of knowledge that the soul can get.
The Jainas admit twofold classification of knowledge – namely mediate and immediate
knowledge. Under mediate knowledge they categorize inference and other such knowledge
which are derived through the medium of some other knowledge. On the other hand immediate
knowledge refers to perception. Perceptual knowledge is said to be immediate because we get
knowledge of both external and internal objects through the senses and mind. In some cases the
soul is also in a position to apprehend. In other words immediate knowledge is direct and
mediate knowledge is indirect. Under immediate knowledge we have again two kinds namely
ordinary immediate knowledge, extraordinary immediate knowledge; ordinary immediate
knowledge, is that type of knowledge which the soul gets when bound by the karma obstacles.
Under this type of knowledge we can classify mati jnana and sruta jnana. Mati Jnana includes
any kind of knowledge obtained through the senses and mind. It even includes memory,
recognition etc. On the other hand sruta jnana involves knowledge derived from an authoritative
person or text. One may argue that listening to a person or reading a text is also a part of
perceptual knowledge. Even sruta jnana can be brought under mati jnana but the Jainas reply
that sruta jnana is different from mati jnana because it involves the text of an authoritative
person, that is why it needs special mention.
Immediate knowledge is also classified as absolute or paramartika immediate knowledge or
extraordinary immediate knowledge. This knowledge is possible after the soul is purged of the
impurities namely the karma obstacles. In such a state the soul’s consciousness becomes
immediately related to objects without the medium of the senses. In the case of ordinary
immediate knowledge the soul is caged in the body and as a result, it can be related to objects
and thereby know them only through the senses. In that stage the soul’s knowledge is not only
obtained through the sense organs but is also guided by the karma obstacles. On the other hand,
the soul is said to obtain extraordinary knowledge directly. We can explain this with an example.
When a person is standing inside a room he can know the outside world only through the
openings in that room such as windows, and doorways. Once the four walls that surround him
are removed he can know much more about the world than what he knew earlier. In other words,
man is able to see everything around him provided he is free. Similarly soul’s consciousness is
capable of knowing everything directly but when it is inside the body it is limited, it is not in a
position to exercise its full power. When ones karma obstacles are removed he is in the path
towards extraordinary knowledge which of course is immediate par excellence. The Jainas talk
about this in stages because this immediate extraordinary knowledge is not to be got overnight. It
needs the gradual destruction of the karma obstacles. The Jainas mention three such stages as
(i) Avadhi
 3

(ii) Manah Paryaya

(iii) Kevala – Jnana
After the partial destruction of karmas one acquires the power of knowing objects which are too
for away and obscure for the normal sense organs. This stage of extraordinary knowledge is
avadhi. The second stage is manah paryaya wherein one has direct access to others mind. This
can happen only after that person overcomes hatred and jealousy. In other words, in the first
stage, we are able to know some distant gross objects with a form. In the second stage we are
able to know or probe deeper into subtle level. Finally when all karmas are destroyed
completely, then absolute knowledge or omniscience arises. That stage is kevala jnana. Only the
liberated souls possess this kind of extraordinary knowledge.
The Jainas accept three pramanas or sources of knowledge namely perception, inference, and
testimony. Perceptual knowledge is direct which involves the sense organs and therefore
acceptance of perception as an independent source of knowledge need not be elaborated. But
definitely we must examine the refutation of Carvaka’s position by the Jainas regarding
inference and testimony. The Jainas ask whether perception is a valid source of knowledge.
efinitely according to Carvaka, perception is a valid source of knowledge because it is
uncontradicted and at the same time not misleading. Now the Jainas point out that the reasons for
the validity of perception itself shows that the Carvaka resorts to inferential knowledge.
Furthermore even perceptual knowledge can at times be contradicted and misleading as in the
case of the perception of a mirage. So the Jainas point out that if perception can be contradicted
and misleading but still held as a source of knowledge why not inference and testimony be
regarded as independent sources of knowledge.
Therefore according to Jainism the only reasonable conclusion that we can draw is that any
source of knowledge, be it perception, inference or testimony, should be regarded as valid in so
far as it yields knowledge that does not prove misleading. Therefore the criterion of validity
should be the harmony of knowledge with the practical consequences to which that knowledge
leads.
4.3. THE JAINA THEORY OF JUDGMENT OR SYADVADA
It is the conception of reality as extremely indeterminate which is the basis of syadvada.
According to this theory every judgment is only partial or relative. The term “syat” is derived
from the Sanskrit root “as” which means “to be”. The present tense form of this verb ‘as’ is
‘asti’ which can be translated as “is”. The potential mood of this verb form is “syat” which
means “may be”. The Jainas use this theory to signify that the universe can be looked at from
many points of view and that each view yields a different conclusion. In other words they believe
that there can be a variety of doctrines depending upon the points of view. This is known as
anekantavada. This doctrine indicates an extreme caution and signifies an anxiety to avoid
absolute affirmation and absolute negation. Here one must see the conditions under which this
doctrine was passed in order to understand its significance. There were two important extreme
views concerning reality. At one point of time namely the Upanishadic view and at another point
the Buddhistic view. The Upanishadic view of reality upholds the concept of “Being”. On the
contrary the Buddhists deny such a “Being”. According to Jainism both these theories are only
partially true. So the Jainas consider reality to be so complex that every one of these theories is
true as far as it goes. But none is absolutely true. So the Jainas make out a series of partially true
statements without committing to any of these exclusively. This series is explained in seven steps
 4

or sevenfold formula called saptabhanginaya. “Naya” means partial knowledge about some
object while “bhangi” means different and “sapta” seven.
Judgment based on any partial knowledge is also called naya. When we consider every judgment
to be unconditionally true then it leads on to quarrel. In this way the various schools of
philosophy have come to quarrel with each other since they believe that their judgment of reality
is final; when they realize that their knowledge is partial the conflict is no longer there. In view
of this fact the Jainas insist that every judgment should be qualified by some words like
“somehow” or “may be” so that the limitation of every judgment as also the possibility of other
judgments is recognized. Thus syadvada is the theory which holds that every judgment is only
partially true. Thus we have the judgment “the elephant is like a pillar” is changed into “may be
or somehow the elephant is like a pillar”. On the basis of this theory the Jainas classify seven
kinds of judgments though logic recognizes only two namely affirmative and negative. The
seven types of judgments are as follows:
a) syat asti – ‘somehow S is P’. A jar is red
b) syat nasti – ‘ somehow S may not be P’. A jar may not be red.
c) syat avaktavyam – ‘somehow S may be indescribable’. The redness of jar cannot be
described adequately.
d) syat asti ca nasti ca – ‘somehow S may be or may not be P’. This argument does not
involve contradiction. Normally logic considers a judgment to be contradictory only when it
holds that ‘S’ is both ‘P’ and ‘not P’, because the same ‘S’ is ‘P’ from one angle and ‘not P’
from another angle. That is why this judgment is accepted by the Jainas.
e) syat asti ca avaktavyam ca – somehow ‘S’ is ‘P’ and is indescribable.
f) syat nasti ca avaktavyan ca- somehow ‘S’ is ‘not P’ and is indescribable.
g) syat asti ca nasti ca avaktavyam ca- somehow ‘S’ is ‘P’ ‘not P’ and indescribable. These
seven steps form a part of what is known as saptabhanginaya or the seven fold judgments.
According to this theory every judgment is only partial or relative.
4.4. THE JAINA METAPHYSICS OR THE THEORY OF SUBSTANCE
Every substance has got innumerable characters of which some are positive and others are
negative. As in common conversation so also in philosophy a distinction is made between the
characters and that which possesses these characters. We call that which possesses characters as
substance or dravya. The world consists of different substances. Each of these substances have
qualities which are essential along with qualities that are accidental. The essential quality is
called guna. The accidental quality is called paryaya. The essential qualities are those that
remain in the substance as long as the substance exists. In other words they are inseparable from
the substance. On the other hand the accidental qualities are those which come and go. In so for
as the essential characters of the ultimate substance are abiding, the world is permanent. In so far
as the accidental qualities undergo modifications, the substance also changes. According to
Jainas both change and permanence are real. When we apply syadvada the seeming contradiction
between change and permanence vanishes. The Jainas reject both kshanikavada (theory of
momentariness of Buddhists) and reject nityavada (theory of permanence of the vedantins).
Substances can be classified as both extended and non-extended. Among substances time alone
is devoid of extension. All other substances are considered to be extended. Extended substances
are innumerable and are referred to by the general name astikaya because every substance exists
like a body. Kaya means that which possesses extension. The word astikaya means anything that
 5

occupies space or has some pervasiveness. Such objects which are extended are classified by the
Jainas as animate (jiva) and inanimate (ajiva). We may call them as the living being or the non-
living matter. The Jainas consider soul or jiva as an extended substance. This is not without
reason. Normally we understand soul as being opposed to body; since body is extended we
conclude that its opposite namely the soul is non-extended. But according to Jainism souls also
expand and contract according to the dimensions of the body which they occupy. It is only in this
sense that the Jainas regard souls to be extended. Even among such souls the Jainas differentiate
between the emancipated and fettered souls. Once the souls are emancipated or liberated none of
the impurities attach to them. That is the highest state of jiva. But the jiva has to transcend
various levels before reaching this state. So the Jainas attribute such states to the souls in
bondage. Fettered souls are either moving or immobile.
Among the non-moving fettered souls the Jainas consider those living in bodies made of earth,
water, fire, and air or plants. All such non-moving substances (sthavara ) have one-sensed,
namely that of touch. On the contrary moving substances (trasa) are two-sensed namely worms,
three-sensed like ants, four-sensed like bees and five sensed like man. This distinction among
moving substances is based on the senses that are active. For instance in the case of worms the
sense of touch and taste alone are at work. In the case of ants the senses of touch, taste and smell.
That is why ants have been classified under three-sensed and similarly bees are four-sensed
because they also have sight. The immobile living substances have the most imperfect kind of
bodies when compared to the mobile living substances. The Jainas regard even the four elements
as being animated by souls, that is the particles of earth etc have soul in the sense that there is
consciousness present in them although this consciousness is not as differentiated as in the case
of a higher being. We may call such substances as elementary. They just live and die. Their
functions are not clearly demarcated, or well defined. These elementary lives are either gross or
subtle. Gross objects are distinguished from subtle on the basis of their visibility and
knowability. On the contrary the mobile living substances have bodies of different degrees of
perfection.
Soul or jiva – Generally jiva is a conscious substance. It is also extendable in space because souls
expand and contract according to the dimensions of the body. According to the Jainas the
essence of soul is consciousness or in other words consciousness is present in the soul
everywhere. The Jainas arrange the soul theoretically in a continuous series according to the
degree of consciousness. At the highest end of the scale would be the perfect soul that has
overcome all karmas and attained omniscience and at the lowest end would be the most
imperfect soul such as the single sensed souls. In this state consciousness is in the dormant form
due to the interference of karma obstacles.
The soul knows, performs, enjoys, suffers and illumines itself and other objects. Like a light it
has no form of itself but it takes the form of the body. It is in this sense that the soul is said to
occupy space in its pure states, the soul as infinite bliss and infinite power. Except a few souls all
other souls are in bondage because of karma or matter which has been accumulated in the past.
The Jainas view that consciousness or soul has extension and the soul primarily is a living being
which has consciousness in every part of the living body. Consciousness is the essential quality
of the soul.
Proofs for the existence of Soul :
 6

1. The existence of the soul is directly perceived by experiences such as “I feel pleasure,
pain” etc., when a quality is perceived we say that along with it a substance is also
perceived.
2. We can also prove the existence of the soul from inference. If we take a body as an
instrument there must be someone to control it and that which controls the body is the
soul.
3. The body also performs many actions that are guided; this enables us to infer the
existence of soul as the guiding factor.
4.5. INANIMATE SUBSTANCE (OR) AJIVA
Among the extended substances we have seen jiva and its various facts. Now let us take a look
into another category of extendable substance namely the inanimate substance or ajiva. Even
these substances occupy space and is referred to as astikaya . The Jainas classify this kind of
substance into four namely, Pudgalastikaya, Akasastikaya, Dharmastikaya, Adharmastikaya
Pudgalastikaya
The word “pudgala” means matter and since it occupies space it is astikaya. Etymologically it
means that which is liable to integration and disintegration. Material substances combine
together to form larger wholes and can also break up into smaller and smaller parts. The smallest
part of matter which cannot be further divided is called an atom (Anu). Pudgala is made up of
such atoms. The Jainas call atoms and combination of atoms by this single term pudgala. All
material substances are produced by the combination of atoms. Our bodies and objects of nature
are such compounds of material atoms. So even they are called as pudgala. Even mind, speech
and breath are products of matter. The atoms are eternal and possess qualities like touch, taste
smell and colour. Therefore we find these qualities in the compounds of atoms. Here according
to Jainas, sound is not an original quality. It is an accidental modification of matter.

Dharmastikaya and Adharmastikaya

The terms dharma and adharma should not mislead us into thinking about merits and demerits.
Instead these two terms are used to denote two kinds of inanimate substances which are known
and proved inferentially. They stand for mobility and immobility. The Jainas argue that the
movement of a fish in the water, though initiated by the fish, would not be possible without the
medium of water. Here water is a necessary condition. Similarly the movement of any soul or
material thing needs a necessary condition without which movement would not be possible. Such
a condition is dharma. Nevertheless, dharma cannot cause movement in a non-moving object. It
only favours the movement of objects in motion. On the other hand adharma is the substance
that helps in the immobility of objects or the restful state of objects, just as the shade of a tree
helps the traveler to take rest. However adharma cannot arrest the movement of any moving
object. These two are pervasive in nature. In other words these two are passive conditions for
movement and the state of rest respectively. Water cannot compel a fish to move nor can the
shade compel a person to take rest. Similarly dharma and adharma do not compel movement and
immobility actively but help objects to move or not to move passively. The necessity for
admitting these two categories seems probably to have been felt by the Jainas on account of their
notion that the inner activity of jiva or the atoms, require for its exterior realization the help of
 7

some other entity. Moreover since the jivas were regarded as having inherent activity they would
be found to be moving even at the time of liberation which is undesirable.
Akastikaya or Space
The function of akasa is to afford room for the existence of all extended substances. It is based
on this category that the Jainas classify substances as astikaya. Soul, matter, dharma and
adharma exist in space. The existence of space is inferred and not perceived because substances
which are extended can have extension only in space, and that space is called akasa. Here akasa
is a necessary condition. Likewise, if we say that substances are those that pervade, then there
must be something that is pervaded. That which pervades is called substance while that which is
pervaded is space. Jainas distinguish two kinds of space namely lokakasa and alokakasa.
Lokakasa stands for space containing the world and alokakasa stands for empty space that exists
beyond lokakasa.
Time or Kala
It is the only non-extendable substance according to the Jainas. Time makes possible continuity
modifications etc. Like space time is also inferred. It is inferred as the condition without which
we cannot speak about continued existence of things or modification of things. For instance
mango became ripe implies that mango was in an unripe state at one point of time which became
ripe at a later time. But time according to Jainas is non-extendable(anastikaya) because time is
an indivisible substance. It cannot be characterized by space. It is irreversable. The Jainas
distinguish between real time (i.e) paramartika kala and empirical time vyavaharika kala.
Continuity or duration is the measure of real time. But on the other hand, changes of all kinds
characterize empirical time. According to the Jainas empirical time is conventional i.e. divided
into hours, minutes and seconds. It is limited by a beginning and an end. Real time on the other
hand, is eternal and formless.
Check your Progress-I
1.What is meant by dravya, guna and paryaya?
……………………………………………….
……………………………………………….
2. .Write short notes on jiva.
……………………………………………….
……………………………………………….

4.6. JAINA ETHICS

This is the most important aspect of the Jaina philosophy. For them metaphysics or epistemology
is useful only in so far as it helps man to right conduct. What is meant by right conduct?
According to the Jainas right conduct enables man to liberate himself from bondage. Bondage in
Indian philosophy means the liability of the individual to birth and all consequent sufferings. But
the suffering individual is a conscious substance (jiva) who possesses infinite perception, infinite
knowledge, infinite power and infinite bliss. Despite these perceptions the soul suffers in birth
because of karma obstacles. If the soul has to regain its inherent qualities then these obstacles
 8

must be removed. This situation is like that of the sun’s light which becomes brighter and
brighter as soon as the clouds are cleared. In order to know how these obstacles can be cleared
let us analyze what these obstacles are in reality. The Jainas assert that the obstacles are
constituted by matter particles which infect the soul and overpower its natural qualities. In other
words we can say that body which is made up of matter particles (pudgala) is responsible for
limiting the soul. Each body is made up of a particular combination of matter particles which
depend on the soul’s passion. The karma or the sum of past life of the soul generates a craving
which attracts particular pudgala to the soul. The soul becomes the efficient cause and pudgala
becomes the material cause. It is our past karmas that determine the family in which we are born
as well as the nature of our body such as its colour, shape, longevity, the number and nature of
sense organs etc. For instance gotra–karma determines the family into which the soul is to be
born and ayush - karma determines the length of life.
Liberation
Bondage, we have seen is the association of soul with matter and liberation therefore should be
the complete dissociation of the two. This can be achieved by stopping the influx of new matter
into the soul as well as by complete elimination of the old matter with which the soul has become
already mingled. Passions of the soul lead to association. What is the cause of this passion?
Passions spring from our ignorance about the real nature of our soul. It is knowledge that alone
can remove ignorance. Therefore the Jainas stress the need for right knowledge of reality
(samyag – jnana). Right knowledge is the detailed cognition of the real nature of ego and non-
ego, which is free from doubt, error uncertainty etc. It can be obtained only by studying carefully
the teachings of the omniscient Tirthankaras or teachers who have already obtained liberation
and therefore are fit to lead others out of bondage. When do we accept a knowledge? Only
when we have a preliminary belief in that. Then that preliminary faith should be supported by
right knowledge again for having right faith based on general acquaintance (samyag- darsana) in
support of right knowledge. Right faith does not imply that one must blindly follow the
Tirthankaras. But one must have the right attitude of respect towards truth. Further by studying
the teachings of the Tirthankaras one can strengthen his belief. But these two are rendered
useless unless they are followed by rigorous practice. Right conduct is the third indispensable
(samyag-caritra) condition of liberation. It is this that enables one to stop the influx of new
karmas and also to eradicate old ones. It consists in the control of passions, senses, thought,
speech etc. Right conduct is therefore described as refraining from what is harmful and doing
what is good. The Jaina prescription for right conduct: One must follow the five great vows
namely the panca-maha-vrata for the perfection of right conduct. They are Ahimsa, Sathyam,
Asteyam, Brahamacaryam and Aparigraha.
Ahimsa
It denotes abstinence from all injuries to life – either trasa or sthavara. That is why a Jaina muni
breathes through a piece of cloth in order not to inhale or destroy any life in the air. It must be
followed in thought, word and deed. That is why they practice extreme caution in speaking,
walking or even in answering calls of nature so as to avoid injury to any life whatsoever.
Sathyam: It is abstinence from falsehood. It is speaking what is true, good and pleasant.
Otherwise truthfulness is of no use. To maintain this vow one must conquer greed, fear and
anger. Asteyam: It refers to abstinence from stealing. Human life requires some form of wealth
for their survival. Depriving another man of his wealth is morally wrong. By stealing his
belongings it deprives him of an essential condition of life. Brahmacaryam: This pertains to
 9

abstinence from sensual and casual pleasures. One must refrain himself from karma of any form
altogether either in speech, talk or action. Aparigraha: This means abstinence from all kinds of
attachments. It lies in giving up attachment for the objects of five senses.
Right faith, knowledge and conduct are inseparably bound up with one another and the progress
and degeneration of the one affects the other two. A person must harmoniously develop all these
three together. Only when the soul overcomes passions and karmas (both old and new) it
becomes completely free from bondage to all forms of matter and reaches its inherent
potentiality. It is finally here that the soul attains the fourfold path of perfection (Ananta
catustaya) as follows: Ananta Jnana (infinite knowledge), Ananta darsana (infinite faith),
Ananta virya (infinite power), Ananta sukha (infinite bliss). These three (right knowledge, right
faith and right conduct) are known as Triratnas – or the three gems of Jainism.
Check Your Progress-II
1.What is the cause of bondage according to Jainism?
--------------------
--------------------

2. Discuss the Jaina concept of liberation.

--------------------
--------------------

4.7. LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have tried to give a detailed historical account of Jainism and an analysis into the
various concepts of the Philosophy of the Jainism. We have discussed at first the Jaina
epistemology. We have also analysed key concepts like Syadvada, Anekantavada,
Saptabhanginaya, under the different kinds of judgments and finally have evaluated the concept
and importance of Ahimsa along with the role of Pancamahavrata, in attaining liberation.
4.8. KEY WORDS
Tirthankaras : One who has conquered all passions, raga and dvesa.
Consciousness : The inseparable essence of every soul.
Syadvada: The theory that every judgment is relative.
Suptabhanginaya: Seven different forms of judgment relating to nature of reality.
Substance: One which possesses of some essential characters (gunas) and also
changing modes (paryaya)
Astikaya: Substances having extension.
Anastikaya: Substances devoid of any extension.
Ahimsa: Non-violence or non-injury to any living beings.
 10

Anekantavada: The metaphysical theory of reality as many–faced.

Jiva : Soul
Ajiva: Matter
Triratna: Right faith, Right knowledge and Right conduct (Three gems of Jainism).

4.9. FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Hiriyanna M., Outlines of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private
Limited, Delhi. 1993.
Radhakrishnan S., Indian Philosophy. New Delhi: George Allen & Unwin publication, 1983.
Satischandra Chatterjee and Dhirendramohan Datta. An Introduction to Indian Philosophy.
Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1984.
 1

Indira Gandhi National Open University MPY – 001

School of Interdisciplinary and
Trans-disciplinary Studies
Indian Philosophy

Block 3

ORTHODOX SYSTEMS -1

UNIT 1
Nyaya-Vaiseshika

UNIT 2
Samkhya

UNIT 3
Yoga

UNIT 4
Mimamsa
 2

Expert Committee
Dr. Jose Kuruvachira
Prof. Gracious Thomas Salesian College &
Director, School of IGNOU Study Centre
Social Work Dimapur, Nagaland
IGNOU

Prof. Renu Bharadwaj

School of Humanities Dr. Sathya Sundar
IGNOU Sethy
Dept of Humanities
Prof. George IIT, Chennai.
Panthanmackel,
Senior Consultant, Dr. Joseph Martis
IGNOU St. Joseph’s College
Jeppu, Mangalore – 2
Dr. M. R. Nandan
Govt. College for Dr. Jaswinder Kaur
Women Dhillon
Mandya - Mysore 147, Kabir park
Opp. GND University
Dr. Kuruvila Amristar – 143 002
Pandikattu
Jnana-deepa Prof. Y.S. Gowramma
Vidyapeeth Principal,
Ramwadi, College of Fine Arts,
Pune Manasagangotri
Mysore – 570 001

Dr Babu Joseph
CBCI Centre
New Delhi

Prof. Tasadduq Husain

Aligarh Muslim
University
Aligarh

Dr. Bhuvaneswari
Lavanya Flats
Gangai Amman Koil
St.
Thiruvanmiyur
Chennai – 600 041

Dr. Alok Nag

Vishwa Jyoti Gurukul
Varanasi
 3

Block Preparation

Units 1 & 2 Dr. Chinnaiah

Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati.
Unit 3 Dr. Shyamala
Payannur, Kannur, Kerala.

Unit 4 Dr. Chandrasekar

Vivekananda College, Chennai.

Content Editor
Dr. V. John Peter
IGNOU, New Delhi

Format Editor
Prof. Gracious Thomas
IGNOU, New Delhi.

Programme Coordinator
Prof. Gracious Thomas
IGNOU, New Delhi.
 4

BLOCK INTRODUCTION

Indian logic, epistemology, metaphysics, ethics and philosophy of language are developed and
discussed in Nyaya-Vaisesika, Samkhya-Yoga and Mimamsa systems. Nyaya develops logic and
epistemology with its theory of knowledge and of causation; Vaisesika develops metaphysics
and ontology with categories. Samkhya upholds dualistic realism of Purusa and Prakrti, with its
famous theory of evolution of the world. Yoga system substantiates Samkhya with its ethical
path towards cessation of the modification of mind. Mimamsa is famous for its interpretative
theories leading to philosophy of language.

Unit 1 tries to give central concepts of Nyaya and Vaisesika. Nyaya is a system of logical
realism and atomistic pluralism. Nyaya develops logic and epistemology; Vaisesika develops
metaphysics and ontology. First part of the unit explains Nyaya theory of knowledge, causation,
physical world, God and the proofs for the existence of God. In the second part of this unit
relating to the orthodox system of Vaisesika, we have discussed Vaisesika categories, atoms,
creation, destruction, bondage and liberation.

In the Unit 2 we have clear ideas about the central concepts of Samkhya. The Samkhya
metaphysics speaks of two principle categories of prakrti and purusa. Their combination is
manifested as the whole world. Samkhya believes in satkaryavada, and parinamavada the basic
theory of causation that explains transformation of what is in the cause into the effect. Samkhya
theory of liberation is just the absolute and complete cessation of all pain without a possibility of
return, as purusa realizes itself dissociated with the prakrti.
Unit 3 on Yoga system gives a description of Yoga as a philosophy associated with the school of
Samkhya as the practical method for achieving the understanding of the self. An attempt is made
to give the meaning of Yoga as defined as the cessation of the modification of chitta. It also
covers chitta and its vrittis. Again, Yoga also advocates control over the body, the senses and the
mind, through eight stages called as ashtanga yoga. A brief note on the theism in Yoga is also
dealt.
Unit 4 on Mimamsa school of Indian Philosophy known for its theory of interpretation highlights
the contribution of Mimamsa to Indian philosophy. Mimamsa interpretative tradition can be
considered to be the first in India to have embarked on interpreting the Vedas as gems of
hermeneutic analysis. The Unit describes the some of the basic features of both Kumarila Bhatta
and Prabhakara schools of Mimamsa in interpreting the Vedas, theory of validity of knowledge,
theory of error, theory of reality (realism) and theory of God.
 1

UNIT 1 NYAYA – VAISESIKA

Contents
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Nyaya and Vaisesika
1.3 Nyaya theory of knowledge
1.4 Nyaya theory of causation
1.5 Nyaya theory of the Physical world
1.6 Nyaya concept of God
1.7 Vaisesika concept of padartha or Category
1.8 Vaisesika on Atoms and Creation
1.9 Bondage and Liberation
1.10 Let Us Sum Up
1.11 Key Words
1.12 Further Readings and References

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, the student should be able to:
• Understand the orthodox systems of the Nyaya and Vaisesika.
• Elucidate the Nyaya theory of knowledge.
• Discuss the Nyaya theory of causation.
• Recognize Nyaya conception of God and proofs for the existence of God.
• Be aware of the categories of Vaisesika.
• Appreciate the Vaisesika theory of Atomism.
• Comprehend the Vaisesika concept of Bondage and Liberation.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The Nyaya is the work of the great philosopher and sage Gautama. It is a realistic philosophy
based mainly on logical grounds. It admits four separate sources of true knowledge. Perception
(pratyaksa), inference (anumana), comparison (upamana) and testimony (sabda) are the sources
of true knowledge. Perception is the direct knowledge of objects produced by their relation to our
 2

senses. Inference is the knowledge of objects not through perception but through the
apprehension of some mark. Comparison is the knowledge of the relation between a name and
things so named on the basis of a given description of their similarity to some familiar object.
Testimony is the knowledge about anything derived from the statements of authoritative persons.
The objects of knowledge, according to the Nyaya, are the self, the body, the senses and their
objects, cognition (buddhi), mind (manas), activity (pravritti), mental defects (dosa) rebirth
(pretyabhava), the feeling of pleasure and pain (phala), suffering (dukkha), and freedom from
suffering (apavarga). The Nyaya seeks to deliver the self from its bondage to the body, the
senses and their objects. It says that the self is distinct from the body and the mind. The body is
only a composite substance made of matter. The mind is a subtle, indivisible and eternal
substance. It serves the soul as an instrument for the perception of psychic qualities like pleasure,
pain, etc; it is, therefore, called an internal sense. The self (atman) is another substance which is
quite distinct from the mind and the body. Liberation (apavarga) means the absolute cessation of
all pain and suffering brought about by the right knowledge of reality (tattva jnana). Liberation
is only release from pain. The existence of God is proved by the Nyaya by several arguments.
God is the ultimate cause of the creation, maintenance and destruction of the world. Nyaya did
not create the world out of nothing, but out of eternal atoms, space, time, ether, minds and souls.
The Vaisesika system was founded by the philosopher and the sage Kanada. The Vaisesika is
allied to the Nyaya system and has the same end view, namely, the liberation of the individual
self. It brings all objects of knowledge, the whole world, under the seven categories of substance
(dravya), quality (guna), action (karma), generality (samanya), particularity (visesa), the relation
of inherence (samavaya), and non-existence (abhava). A substance is the substratum of qualities
and activities, but is different from both. A quality is that which exists in a substance and has
itself no quality or activity. An action is a movement. Particularity is the ground of the ultimate
differences of things. Inherence is the permanent or eternal relation by which a whole is in its
parts; a quality or an action is in a substance; the universal is in the particulars. Non-existence
stands for all negative facts. With regard to God and liberation of the individual soul the
Vaisesika theory is substantially the same as that of the Nyaya.
1.2 NYAYA AND VAISESIKA
Nyaya is a system of atomic pluralism and logical realism. It is allied to the Vaisesika system
which is regarded as ‘Samanatantra or similar philosophy. Vaisesika develops metaphysics and
ontology. Nyaya develops logic and epistemology. Both agree in viewing the earthly life as full
of suffering, as bondage of the soul; liberation is absolute cessation of suffering as the supreme
end of life. Both agree that bondage is due to ignorance of reality and that liberation is due to
right knowledge of reality. Vaisesika takes up the exposition of reality and Nyaya mostly accepts
the Vaisesika metaphysics. But there are some important points of difference between them
which may be noted. Firstly, while the Vaisesika recognizes seven categories and classifies all
real under them, the Nyaya recognizes sixteen categories and includes all the seven categories of
the Vaisesikas in one of them called prameya or the knowable, the second in the sixteen. The
first category is pramana or the valid means of knowledge. This clearly brings out the
predominantly logical and epistemological character of the Nyaya system. Secondly, while the
Vaisesika recognizes only two pramanas, perception and inference and reduces comparison and
verbal authority to inference, the Nyaya recognizes all the four as separate – perception,
inference, comparison and verbal authority.
 3

1.3 NYAYA THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

Knowledge or Cognition is defined as apprehension or consciousness. Nyaya believes that
knowledge reveals both the subject and the object; they are quite distinct from knowledge. All
knowledge is a revelation or manifestation of objects. Just as a lamp manifests physical things
placed before it, so knowledge reveals all objects which come before it. Knowledge may be valid
or invalid. Valid knowledge is defined as the right apprehension of an object. It is the
manifestation of an object as it is. Nyaya maintains the theory of correspondence (paratah
pramanya). Knowledge in order to be valid, must correspond to reality. Valid knowledge is
produced by the four valid means of knowledge-perception, inference, comparison and
testimony. Invalid knowledge includes memory (smrti), doubt (samshaya), error (viparyaya) and
hypothetical reasoning (tarka). Memory is not valid because it is not present cognition but a
represented one. The object remembered is not directly presented to the soul, but only indirectly
recalled. Doubt is uncertainty in cognition. Error is misapprehension as it does not correspond to
the real object. Hypothetical reasoning is no real knowledge.
Perception, inference, comparison or analogy and verbal testimony are the four kinds of valid
knowledge. Let us consider them one by one. Sage Gotama defines perception as non-erroneous
cognition which is produced by the intercourse of the sense-organs with the objects; it is not
associated with a name and which is well-defined. Inference is defines as that cognition which
presupposes some other cognition. Inference is mediate and indirect. Comparison defined as the
knowledge of the relation between a word and its denotation. It is produce by the knowledge of
resemblance or similarity. Verbal testimony is defined as the statement of a trustworthy person
and consists in understanding its meaning.
1.4 NYAYA THEORY OF CAUSATION
Let us now consider the Nyaya theory of Causation. A cause is defined as an unconditional and
invariable antecedent of an effect. The same cause produces the same effect and the same effect
is produced by the same cause. Plurality of cause is ruled out. The first essential characteristic of
a cause is its antecedence; the fact that it should precede the effect. The second is its
invariability; it must invariably precede the effect. The third is its unconditionality or necessity;
it must unconditionally precede the effect. Nyaya recognizes five kinds of accidental antecedents
which are not real causes. Firstly, the qualities of a cause are mere accidental antecedents. The
color of a potter’s staff is not the cause of a pot. Secondly, the cause of a cause or a remote cause
is not unconditional. The potter’s father is not the cause of a pot. Thirdly, the co-effects of a
cause are themselves not causally related. The sound produced by the potter’s staff is not the
cause of a pot, though it may invariably precede the pot. Night and day are not causally related.
Fourthly, eternal substances like space are not unconditional antecedents. Fifthly, unnecessary
things like the potter’s ass are not unconditional antecedents; though the potter’s ass may be
invariably present when the potter is making a pot, yet it is not the cause of the pot. A cause must
be an unconditional and necessary antecedent. Nyaya emphasizes the sequence view of causality.
Cause and effect are never simultaneous. Plurality of causes is also wrong because causal
relation is reciprocal. The same effect cannot be produced by another cause. Each effect has its
distinctive features and has only one specific cause. An effect is defined as the counter-entity of
its own prior non-existence. It is the negation of its own prior negation. It comes into being and
destroys its prior non-existence. It was non-existent before its production. It did not pre-exist in
its cause. It is a fresh beginning, a new creation.
 4

1.5 NYAYA THEORY OF THE PHYSICAL WORLD

Now we come to the topic of the objects of knowledge. The physical world is constituted by the
four physical substances of earth, water, fire and air. The ultimate constituents of these four
substances are the eternal and unchanging atoms of earth, water, fire and air. Akasa or ether, kala
or time, and dik or space is eternal and infinite substances, each being one single whole. Thus the
physical world is the product of the four kinds of atoms of earth, water, fire and air. It contains
all the composite products of these atoms, and their qualities and relations, including organic
bodies, the senses, and the sensible qualities of things. According to Gautama the objects of
knowledge are the self, the body, the senses and their objects, knowledge, mind, activity, the
mental imperfections, rebirth, the feelings of pleasure and pain, suffering, absolute freedom from
all suffering. All of these knowable are not to be found in the physical world, because it includes
only those objects that either physical or somehow belong to the world of physical nature. Thus
the self, its attribute of knowledge and manas are not at all physical. Time and space are two
substances which although different from the physical substances, yet somehow belong to the
physical world. Akasa is a physical substance which is not a productive cause of anything.

1.6 NYAYA CONCEPT OF GOD

God is the ultimate cause of creation, maintenance and destruction of the world. God is the
eternal infinite self who creates, maintains and destroys the world. He does not create the world
out of nothing, but out of eternal atoms, space, time, ether, minds and souls. The creation of the
world means the ordering of the eternal entities, which are co-existent with God, into a moral
world, in which individual selves enjoy and suffer according to the merit and demerit of their
actions, and all physical objects serve as means to the moral and spiritual ends of our life. God is
thus the creator of the world in the sense of being the first efficient cause of the world and not its
material cause. He is also the preserver of the world in so far as the world is kept in existence by
the will of God. So also He is the destroyer who lets loose the forces of destruction when the
exigencies of the moral world require it. Then, God is one, infinite and eternal, since the world of
space and time, minds and souls does not limit him, but is related to Him as a body to the self
which resides in it. He is omnipotent, although He is guided in His activities by moral
considerations of the merit and demerit of human actions. He is omniscient in so far as He
possesses right knowledge of all things and events. He has eternal consciousness as a power of
direct and steadfast cognition of all objects. Eternal consciousness is only an inseparable attribute
of God, not His very essence, as maintained in the Advaita Vedanta. He possesses to the full all
the six perfections and is majestic, almighty, all glorious, infinitely beautiful and possessed of
infinite knowledge and perfect freedom from attachment.
Just as God is the efficient cause of the world, so He is the directive cause of the actions of all
living beings. Nyaya gives the following arguments to prove the existence of God:
1. The world is an effect and hence it must have an efficient cause. This intelligent agent is
God. The order, design, co-ordination between different phenomena comes from God.
2. The atoms being essentially inactive cannot form the different combinations unless God
gives motion to them. The Unseen Power, the Adrsta, requires the intelligence of God.
Without God it cannot supply motion to the atoms.
 5

3. The world is sustained by God’s will. Unintelligent Adrsta cannot do this. And the world
is destroyed by God’s will.
4. A word has a meaning and signifies an object. The power of words to signify their
objects comes from God.
5. God is the author of the infallible Veda.
6. The Veda testifies to the existence of God.
7. The Vedic sentences deal with moral injunctions and prohibitions. The Vedic commands
are the Divine commands. God is the creator and promulgator of the moral laws.
8. According to Nyaya the magnitude of a dyad is not produced by the infinitesimal
magnitude of the two atoms each, but by the number of the two atoms. Number ‘one’ is
directly perceived, but other numbers are conceptual creations. Numerical conception is
related to the mind of the perceiver. At the time of creation, the souls are unconscious.
And the atoms and the unseen Power and space, time, mind are all unconscious. Hence
the numerical conception depends upon the Divine Consciousness. So God must exist.
9. We reap the fruits of our own actions. Merit and demerit accrue from our actions and the
stock of merit and demerit is called Adrsta, the unseen power. But this Unseen Power,
being unintelligent, needs the guidance of a supremely intelligent God.
Check Your Progress I
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) How many sources of knowledge are accepted by Nyaya? Explain.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………….
2) Explain asatkarya vada of Nyaya.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………
3. State the arguments of Nyaya for proving the existence of God.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………

1.7 VAISESIKA CONCEPT OF PADARTHA OR CATEGORY

 6

The Vaisesika system is regarded as conducive to the study of all systems. Its main purpose is to
deal with the categories and to unfold its atomistic pluralism. A category is called padartha and
the entire universe is reduced to six or seven padarthas. Padartha literally means the meaning
of a word or the object signified by a word. All objects of knowledge or all reals come under
padartha. Padartha means an object which can be thought and named.
Originally the Vaisesika believed in the six categories and the seventh, that of abhava or
negation was added later on. Though Kanada himself speaks of abhava, yet he does not give it
the status of a category to which it was raised only by the later Vaisesikas. The Vaisesika divides
all existent reals which are all objects of knowledge into two classes; bhava or being and abhava
or non-being. Six categories come under bhava and the seventh is abhava. All knowledge
necessarily points to an object of knowledge and is called a padartha. The seven padarthas are:
1 substance (dravya), 2 quality (guna), 3 Activity (karma), 4 generality (samanya), 5
particularity (visesa), 6 inherence (samavaya), and 7. non-being (abhava).
1. Dravya Or Substance
Dravya or substance is defined as the substratum where actions and qualities in here and which is
the coexistent material cause of the composite things produce from it. Substance signifies the
self-subsistence, the absolute and independent nature of things. The category of substance is the
substratum of qualities and actions. The dravyas are nine and include material as well as spiritual
substances. The Vaisesika philosophy is pluralistic and realistic but not materialistic since it
admits spiritual substances. The nine substances are: 1) earth (prthivi), 2) Water (Ap), 3) Fire
(tejas), 4) Air (vayu), 5) ether (akasa), 6) time (kala), 7) space (dik), 8) spirit (atman) and 9)
mind (manas). Earth, water, fire and air really signify not compound transient objects made out
of them, but the ultimate elements, the supersensible eternal part less unique atoms which are
individual and infinitesimal. Earth, water, fire, air and ether are the five gross elements. These
and manas are physical. Soul is spiritual. Time and space are objective and not subjective forms
of experience. Ether, space, time and soul are all-pervading and eternal. Atoms, minds and souls
are infinite in number. Ether, space and time are one each.
2. Guna or Quality
The second category is guna or quality. Unlike substance, it cannot exist independently by itself
and possesses no quality or action. It inheres in a substance and depends for its existence on the
substance and is not a constitutive cause of anything. It is called an independent reality because it
can be conceived, thought and named independent of a substance where it inheres. The qualities
are therefore called objective entities. They are not necessarily eternal. They include both
material and mental qualities. They are a static and permanent feature of a substance, whole
action of a dynamic and transient feature of a substance. A quality, therefore, is different from
both substance and action. Qualities include material and spiritual properties. Smell is the quality
of earth; taste of water; color of fire; touch of air; and sound of ether. Cognition, pleasure, pain,
desire, aversion, volition are the mental qualities which inhere in the self.
3. Karma or Action
The third category is karma or action. Like quality, it belongs to and inheres in a substance and
cannot exist separately from it. But while a quality is a static and permanent feature of a
substance, an action is a dynamic and transient feature of it. Unlike a quality, an action is the
 7

cause of conjunction and disjunction. Action is said to be of five kinds:1) upward movement, 2)
downward movement, 3) contraction, 4) expansion, and 5) locomotion.
4. Samanya or Generality
The fourth category is samanya or generality. Samanya is generality. Generality is class-concept,
class-essence or universal. It is the common character of the things which fall under the same
class. The universals reside in substances, qualities and actions. They are of two kinds, higher
and lower. The higher generality is that of ‘being’. It includes everything and itself is not
included in anything. Every other generality is lower because it covers a limited number of
things and cannot cover all things. A universal cannot subsist in another universal; otherwise an
individual may be a man, a cow, and a horse at the same time.
5. Visesa or Particularity
The fifth category is Visesa or particularity. It enables us to perceive things as different from one
another. Every individual is a particular, a single and a unique thing different from all others. It
has got a unique of its own which constitutes its particularity. It is opposed to generality.
Generality is inclusive; particularly is exclusive. Generality forms the basis of assimilation;
particularity forms the basis of discrimination. It is very important to remember that the
composite objects of this world which we generally call ‘particular’ objects are not real
particular.
6. Samavaya or Inherence
The sixth category is Samavaya or inseparable relation called ‘inherence.’ It is different
conjunction or samyoga which is separable and transient relation and is a quality. Samavaya is an
independent category. Kanada calls it the relation between cause and effect. Samvaya is one and
eternal relationship subsisting between two things inseparably connected.
7. Abhava
The seventh category is Abhava or non-existence. Kanada does not mention it as a separate
category. Absence of an object and knowledge of its absence are different. The first six
categories are positive. This is negative. The other categories are regarded as absolute, but this
category is relative in its conception. Non-existence is of four kinds: 1) antecedent non-
existence, 2) subsequent non-existence, 3) mutual non-existence and 4) absolute non-existence.

1.9 VAISESIKA ON ATOMS AND CREATION

According to Vaisesika diversity and not unity is at the root of the universe. Vaisesika says that
atom is the minutest particle of matter which may not be further divisible. The indivisible,
partless and eternal particle of matter is called an atom (paramanu). All physical things are
produced by the combination of atoms. Therefore creation means the combination of atoms in
different proportions and destruction means the dissolution of such combination. The material
cause of the universe is neither produced nor destroyed. It is the eternal atoms.

The atoms are said to be of four kinds; of earth, water, fire and air. Ether or akasha is not atomic.
It is one and all-pervading and affords the medium for the combinations of the atoms. The atoms
 8

differ from one another both in quantity and in quality. Each has a particularity of its own and
exists as a separate reality. During dissolution, they remain inactive. Motion is imparted to them
by the unseen power (adrsta) of merit (dharma) and demerit (adharma) which resides in the
individual souls and wants to fructify in the form of enjoyment or suffering. Atoms are supra-
sensible. Atoms increase by multiplication and not by mere addition. When motion is imparted to
them by the unseen power, they begin to vibrate and immediately change into dyads. A dyad is
produced by the combination of two atoms. The atoms are its inherent cause; conjunction is its
non-inherent cause; and the Unseen power is its efficient cause. An atom is indivisible, spherical
and imperceptible. A dyad (dvyanuka) is minute (anu), short (hrasva) and imperceptible.

From the standpoint of ancient Indian philosophy the world including physical nature is a moral
stage for the education and emancipation of individual souls. The Vaisesika atomic theory of the
world is guided by spiritual outlook of ancient Indian philosophy.

The atomic theory of the Vaisesika explains that part of the world which is non-eternal subject to
origin and destruction in time. The eternal constituents of the universe, namely, the four kinds of
atoms, and the five substances of akasa, space, time, mind, and soul, do not come within the
purview of their atomic theory, because these can neither be created nor destroyed. On the other
hand, all composite objects, beginning with a dyad or the first compound of only two atoms
(dvyanuka) are non-eternal. So the atomic theory explains the order of creation and destruction
of these non-eternal objects. All composite objects are constituted by the combination of atoms
and destroyed through their separation. The first combination of two atoms is called a dvyanuka
or dyad, and a combination of three dyads (dvyanukas) is called a tryanuka or triad. The
Tryanuka is also called the trasarenu and it is the minimum perceptible object according to the
Vaisesika. The paramanu or atom and the dvyanuka or dyad, being smaller than the tryanuka or
triad, cannot be perceived, but are known through inference.

All the finite objects of the physical world and the physical world itself are composed of the four
kinds of atoms in the form of dyads, triads and other larger compounds arise out of these. The
world or the universe is a system of physical things and living beings having bodies with senses
and possessing mind, intellect and egoism. All these exist and interact with one another, in time,
space and akasa. Living beings are souls who enjoy or suffer in this world according to their
character; wise or ignorant, good or bad, virtuous or vicious. The order of the world is, on the
whole, a moral order in which the life and destiny of all individual selves are governed, not only
by the physical laws of time and space, but also by the universal moral law of karma. In the
simplest form this law means ’as you sow, so you reap,’ just as the physical law of causation, in
its most abstract form, means that there can be no effect without a cause.

Vaisesika admits the reality of the spiritual substances, souls and God, and also admits the law of
karma. The atoms are the material cause of the world of which God, assisted by the Unseen
power, is the efficient cause. The physical world presupposes the moral order. Evolution is due
to the Unseen Power consisting of merits and demerits of the individual souls which want to bear
fruits as enjoyments or sufferings to be experienced by the souls. Keeping in view this moral
 9

order of the universe, the Vaisesika explains the process of creation and destruction of the world
as follows: The starting-point of the process of creation or destruction is the will of the supreme
Lord (Mahesvara) who is the ruler of the whole universe. The Lord conceives the will to create a
universe in which individual beings may get their proper share of the experience of pleasure and
pain according to their deserts. The world being beginningless (anadi), we cannot speak of a first
creation of the world. In truth, every creation is preceded by some order of creation. To create is
to destroy an existing order of things and usher in a new order. Hence it is that God’s creative
will has reference to the stock of merit and demerit act with souls, endowed with the creative
function of adrsta that first sets in motion the atoms acquired by individual souls in a previous
life lived in some other world. When God thus wills to create a world, the unseen forces of moral
deserts in the eternal individual souls begin to function in the direction of creation and the active
life of experiences. And it is the content of air. Out of the combination of air-atoms, in the form
of dyads and triads, arises the gross physical element of air, and it exists as an incessantly
vibrating medium in the eternal akasa. Then, in a similar way, there is motion in the atoms of
water and the creation of the gross element of water which exists in the air and is moved by it.
Next, the atoms of earth are set in motion in a similar way and compose the gross element of
earth which exists in the vast expanse of the gross elemental water. Then from the atoms of light
arises in a similar way, the gross element of light and exists with its luminosity in the gross
water. After this and by the mere thought of God, there appears the embryo of a world out of the
atoms of light and earth. God animates that great embryo with Brahma, the world-soul, who is
endowed with supreme wisdom, detachment and excellence. To Brahma God entrusts the work
of creation in its concrete details and with proper adjustment between merit and demerit on the
one hand, and happiness and misery on the other.
The created world runs its course for many years. But it cannot continue to exist and endure for
all time to come. Just as after the stress and strain of the day’s work God allows us rest at night,
so after the trials and tribulations of many lives in one created world. God provides a way of
escape from suffering for all living beings for some time. This is done by him through the
destruction of the world. So the period of creation is followed by a state of destruction. The
process of the world’s dissolution is as follows: When in the course of time Brahma, the world-
soul, gives up his body like other souls, there appears in Mahesvara or the supreme Lord a desire
to destroy the world. With this, the creative adrsta or unseen moral agency in living beings is
counteracted by the corresponding destructive adrsta and ceases to function for the active life of
experience. It is in contact with such souls, in which the destructive adrsta begins to operate, that
there is motion in the constituent atoms of their body and senses. On account of this motion there
is disjunction of the atoms and consequent disintegration of the body and the senses. The body
with the senses being thus destroyed, what remain are only the atoms in their isolation. So also,
there is motion in the constituent atoms of the elemental earth, and its consequent destruction
through the cessation of their conjunction. In this way there is the destruction of the physical
elements of earth, water, light and air, one after the other. Thus these four physical elements and
all bodies and sense organs are disintegrated and destroyed. What remain are the four kinds of
atoms of earth, water, light and air in their isolation, and the eternal substances of akasa, time,
apace, minds and souls with their stock of merit, demerit and past impressions. It will be
observed here that while in the order of destruction, earth compounds come first, then those of
water, light and air in succession, in the order of creation, air compounds come first, water
compounds next, and then those of the great earth and light appear in succession.
 10

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) What are the seven categories?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2) Explain the Atomic theory of Vaisesika.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

1.10 VAISESIKA CONCEPT OF BONDAGE AND LIBERATION

The Vaisesika regards bondage as due to ignorance and liberation as due to knowledge. The soul,
due to ignorance, performs actions. Actions lead to merits or demerits. They are due to
attachment or aversion and aim at obtaining pleasure or avoiding pain. The merits and demerits
of the individual souls make up the unseen moral power, the adrsta. According to the law of
Karma, one has to reap the fruits of actions one has performed whether they are good or bad
according to the karmas one performed. This adrsta, guided by God, imparts motion to the atoms
and leads to creation for the sake of enjoyment or suffering of the individual souls. Liberation is
cessation of all life, all consciousness, all bliss, together with all pain and all qualities. It is
qualityless, indeterminate, pure nature of the individual soul as pure substance devoid of all
qualities.

1.11 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have tried to give central concepts of Nyaya and Vaisesesika. Nyaya is a system
of logical realism and atomistic pluralism. Nyaya develops logic and epistemology; Vaisesika
develops metaphysics and ontology. In this unit we have explained Nyaya theory of knowledge,
causation, physical world, God and the proofs for the existence of God. In this unit relating to the
orthodox system of Vaisesika, we have discussed Vaisesika categories, atoms, creation,
destruction, bondage and liberation. We conclude this unit with the Vaisesika conception that
liberation is the real state of the soul free from all qualities and it reduces the soul to a mere
nothing.

1.12 KEY WORDS

 11

Perception: Perception is a definite cognition which is produced by sense-object contact and is

true and unerring.
Inference: Inference is the cognition which presupposes some other cognition.
Comparison: Comparison is called upamana. Comparison is knowledge derived from
comparison and roughly corresponds to analogy.
Verbal Testimony: Verbal testimony is defined as the statement of trustworthy person and
consists in understanding its meaning.
Cause: Cause is defined as an unconditional and invariable antecedent of an effect and an
effect as an unconditional and invariable consequent of a cause.
Padartha: Padartha means an object which can be thought and named.
Dravya: Dravya is the substance. Substance signifies the self-subsistence, the absolute
and independent nature of things. Substance is the basis of qualities and actions, actual or
potential, present or future.

1.13 REFERENCE AND SOURCE BOOKS

Chatterjee, Satischandra & Dhirendramohan Datta. An Introduction to Indian Philosophy.

Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1968.
Hiriyanna, M. Outlines of Indian Philosophy. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1951.
Hiriyanna, M. Essentials of Indian Philosophy. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1952.
Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. New Delhi: George Allen & unwin publication, 1983.
Sharma, Chandradhar. A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
Publication, 1987.
 1

UNIT 2 SAMKHYA
Contents
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Theory of causation
2.3 Theory of knowledge
2.4 Prakrti
2.5 Purusa
2.6 Theory of Evolution
2.7 Bondage and Liberation
2.8 Let us Sum Up
2.9 Key Words
2.10 Further Readings and References

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• Understand the orthodox system of Samkhya
• Interpret the Samkhya theory of causation
• Explain the Samkhya concept of Prakrti
• Discuss the Samkhya concept of Purusa
• Know the Samkhya theory of knowledge
• Elucidate the Samkhya concept of bondage and liberation
• Comprehend the Conception of bondage and liberation

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The sage Kapila is the founder of the Samkhya system. The Samkhya must be a very old system
of thought. Its antiquity appears from the fact that the Samkhya tendency of thought pervades all
the literature of ancient India including the srutis, smrtis and puranas. According to tradition, the
first work of the Samkhya School is the Samkhya-sutra. Next to Kapila, his disciple Asuri, and
Asuri’s disciple Pancasikha wrote some books which aimed at a clear and elaborate exposition of
the Samkhya system. The Samkhya is a philosophy of dualistic realism. Samkhya admits two
ultimate realities namely, Purusa and Prakrti which are independent of each other in respect of
their existence. Purusa is an intelligent principle, of which consciousness (caitanya) is not an
attribute, but the very essence. It is the self which is quite distinct from the body, the senses and
 2

the mind (manas).It is beyond the whole world of objects, and is the eternal consciousness which
witnesses the changes and activities going on in the world, but does not itself act and change in
any way. Physical things like chairs, beds, etc, exist for the enjoyment of beings other than
themselves. Therefore, there must be the Purusa or the self which is distinct from Prakrti or
primary matter, but is the enjoyer of the products of Prakrti. There are many different selves
related to different bodies, for when some men are happy, others are unhappy, some die but
others live.
Prakrti is the ultimate cause of the world. It is an eternal unconscious principle which is always
changing and has no other end than the satisfaction of the selves. Sattva, rajas and tamas are
three constituents of Prakrti which holds them together in a state of rest or equilibrium. The
three are called gunas. But they are not qualities or attributes in any sense. Rather, they are three
substantial elements which constitute Prakrti like three cords making up a rope. The existence of
the gunas is referred from the qualities of pleasure, pain and indifference which we find in all
things of the world. The same sweet is liked or disliked or treated with indifference by the same
man in different conditions. The same salad is tasteful to one, distasteful to another and insipid to
a third. Now the cause and the effect are essentially identical. The effect is the manifested
condition of the cause, e.g. oil as an effect manifests what is already contained in the seeds. The
things of the world are effects which have the qualities of pleasure, pain and indifference.
Therefore, Prakrti which is their ultimate cause must have the three elements of Sattva, rajas and
tamas which respectively possess the natures of pleasure, pain and indifference, and cause
manifestation, activity and passivity.
The evolution of the world has its starting point in the association of the Purusa with Prakrti
which disturbs the original equilibrium of the latter and moves it to action. The Purusa or the self
is neither the cause nor the effect of anything. Prakrti is the uncaused cause of all objects. Once
we realize the distinction between the self and the non-self including the body and the senses, the
mind, the intellect and the ego, our self ceases to be affected by the joys and sorrows, the ups and
downs of life. It rests in itself as the dispassionate observer of the show of events in the world
without being implicated in them.

2.2 THEORY OF CAUSATION

The Samkhya metaphysics, especially its doctrine of Prakrti, rests mainly on its theory of
causation which is known as satkarya-vada. It is a theory as to the relation of an effect to its
material cause. The specific question discussed here is this: Does an effect originally exist in the
material cause prior to its production, i.e. appearance as an effect? The Buddhists and the Nyaya-
Vaisesikas answer this question in the negative. According to them, the effect cannot be said to
exist before it is produced by some cause. If the effect already existed in the material cause prior
to its production, there is no sense in our speaking of it as being caused or produced in any way.
Further, we cannot explain why the activity of any efficient cause is necessary for the production
of the effect. If the pot already existed in the clay, why should the potter exert himself and use
his implements to produce it? Moreover, if the effect were already in its material cause, it would
logically follow that the effect is indistinguishable from the cause, and that we should use the
same name for both the pot and the clay, and also that the same purpose would be served by a
pot and a lump of clay. It cannot be said that there is a distinction of form between the effect and
its material cause, for then we have to admit that there is something in the effect which is not to
 3

be found in its cause and, therefore the effect does not really exist in the cause. This theory that
the effect does not exist in the material cause prior to its production is known as asatkarya-vada
(i.e. the view that the karya or the effect is asat or non-existent before its production. It is also
called arambhavada, i.e. the theory of the beginning of the effect anew.
The Samkhyas repudiate this theory of causation and establish their view of satkarya-vada,
namely, that the effect exists in the material cause even before it is produced. This view is based
on the following grounds:
(1) if the affect were really non-existent in the material cause, then no amount of effort on the
part of any agent could bring it into existence. Can any man turn blue into red, or sugar into salt?
Hence, when an effect is produced from some material cause, we are to say that it pre-exists in
the cause and is only manifested by certain favorable conditions, as when oil is produced by
pressing seeds. The activity of efficient causes like the potter and his tools is necessary to
manifest the effect, pot, which exists implicitly in the clay.
(2) There is an invariable relation between a material cause and its effect. A material cause can
produce only that effect with which it is causally related. It cannot produce an effect which is in
no way related to it. But it cannot be related to what does not exist. Hence the effect must exist in
the material cause before it is actually produced.
(3) We see that only certain effects can be produced from certain causes. Curd can be got only
out of milk and a cloth only out of threads. This shows that the effect somehow exists in the
cause. Had it not been so, any effect could be produced from any cause; the potter would not
have taken clay to produce pots, instead of taking milk or threads or any other thing.
(4) The fact that only a potent cause can produce a desired effect goes to show that the effect
must be potentially contained in the cause. The potent cause of an effect is that which possesses
some power that is definitely related to the effect. But the power cannot be related to the effect, if
the latter does not exist in some form. This means that effect exists in the cause in an
unmanifested form before its production or manifestation.
(5) If the effect be really non-existent in the cause, then we have to say that, when it is produced,
the non-existent comes into existence, i.e. something comes out of nothing, which is absurd.
(6) We see that the effect is not different from, but essentially identical with, the material cause.
If, therefore, the cause exists, the effect also must exist. In fact, the effect and the cause are the
explicit and implicit states of the same substance. A cloth is not really different from the threads,
of which it is made; a statue is the same as its material cause, stone, with new shape and form;
the weight of a table is the same as that of the pieces of wood used in it. The conclusion drawn
by the Samkhya from all this is that the effect exists in the material cause even before its
production or appearance. This is the theory of satkarya-vada (i.e. the view that the effect is
existent before its appearance).
The theory of satkarya-vada has got two different forms, namely, parinama-vada and vivarta-
vada. According to the former, when an effect is produced, there is a real transformation
(parinama) of the cause into the effect, e.g. the production of a pot from clay, or of curd from
milk. The Samkhya is in favour of this view as a further specification of the theory of
satkaryavada. The vivarta-vada which is accepted by the Advaita Vedantins, holds that the
change of the cause into the effect is merely apparent. When we see a snake in a rope, it is not
the case that the rope is only transformed into a snake; what happens is that the rope only appears
 4

as, but is not really a snake. So also, God or Brahman does not become really transformed into
the world produced by him, but remains identically the same, while we may wrongly think that
He undergoes change and becomes the world.

2.3 THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

The Samkhya theory of knowledge follows in the main its dualistic metaphysics. It accepts only
three independent sources of valid knowledge (pramana). These are perception, inference and
scriptural testimony (sabda). The other source of knowledge, like comparison, postulation
(arthapatti) and non-cognition (anupalabdhi), are included under these, and not recognized as
separate sources of knowledge.
Valid knowledge (Prama) is a definite and an unerring cognition of some object through the
modification of buddhi or the intellect which reflects the consciousness of the self in it. What we
call the mind or the intellect is an unconscious material entity in the Samkhya hilosophy.
Consciousness or intelligence (caitanya) really belongs to the self. But the self cannot
immediately apprehend the objects of the world. If it could, we should always know all objects,
since the self in us is not finite and limited, but all pervading. The self knows objects through the
intellect, the manas, and the senses. We have a true knowledge of objects when, through the
activity of the senses and the manas, their forms are impressed on the intellect which, in its turn,
reflects the light or consciousness of the self.
In all valid knowledge there are three factors, namely, the subject (pramata), the object
(prameya), and the ground or source of knowledge (pramana). The subject being a conscious
principle is no other than the self as pure consciousness (suddha cetana). The modification (vrtti)
of the intellect, through which the self knows an object, is called pramana. The object presented
to the self through this modification is prameya. Prama or valid knowledge is the reflection of
the self in the intellect as modified into the form of the object, because without the self’s
consciousness the unconscious intellect cannot cognize anything.
Perception is the direct cognition of an object through its contact with some sense. When an
object like the table comes within the range of your vision, there is contact between the table and
your eyes. The table produces certain impressions or modifications in the sense organ, which are
analyzed and synthesized by manas or the mind. Through the activity of the senses and the mind,
buddhi or the intellect becomes modified and transformed into the shape of the table. The
intellect, however, being an unconscious material principle, cannot by itself know the object,
although the form of the object is present in it. But as the intellect has an excess of Sattva, it
reflects, like transparent mirror, the consciousness of the self (Purusa).With the reflection of the
self’s consciousness in it, the unconscious modification of the intellect into the form of the table
becomes illumined into a conscious state of perception. Just as mirror reflects the light of a lamp
and thereby manifests other things, so the material principle of buddhi, being transparent and
bright (sattvika), reflects the consciousness of the self and illuminates or cognizes the objects of
knowledge.
There are two kinds of perception, namely, nirvikalpaka or the indeterminate and savikalpaka or
the determinate. The first arises at the first moment of contact between a sense and its object, and
is antecedent to all mental analysis and synthesis of the sense-data.. It is accordingly called
alocana or a mere sensing of the object. The second kind of perception is the result of the
 5

analysis, synthesis and interpretation of sense-data by manas or the mind. So it is called vivecana
or a judgement of the object it is the determinate cognition of an object as a particular kind of
thing having certain qualities and standing in certain relations to other things.
Inference is the knowledge of one term of a relation, which is not perceived, through the other
which is perceived and known to be invariably related to the first. In it what is perceived leads us
on to the knowledge of what is unperceived through the knowledge of a universal relation
between two. Inference is first divided into two kinds, namely, vita and avita. It is called vita or
affirmative when it is based on a universal affirmative proposition, and avita or negative when
based on a universal negative proposition. The third pramana is sabda or testimony. It is
constituted by authoritative statements (aptavacana), and gives the knowledge of objects which
cannot be known by perception and inference.
Check Your Progress I
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) What is your understanding of theory of
causation?…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…..
2) What is the difference between parinama-vada and vivartha-vada?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………...........................
3) Differentiate between valid knowledge and invalid knowledge.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

2.4 PRAKRTI
 6

The theory that causation means a real transformation of the material cause leads to the concept
of Prakrti as the root cause of the world of objects. All worldly effects are latent in this uncaused
cause, because infinite regress has to be avoided. It is the potentiality of nature, ‘the receptacle
and nurse of all generation’. As the uncaused root-cause it is called Prakrti. As the first principle
of this Universe, it is called Pradhana. As the unmanifested state of all effects, it is known as
Avyakta. As the extremely subtle and imperceptible thing which is only inferred from its
products, it is called Anumana. As the unintelligent and unconscious principle, it is called Jada.
As the ever-active unlimited power, it is called shakti. The products are cause-dependent,
relative, many and temporary as they are subject to birth and death or to production and
destruction; but Prakrti is uncaused, independent, absolute, one and eternal, being beyond
production and destruction. The entire world of objects is implicit in the bosom of Prakrti,
unintelligent, unmanifest, uncaused, ever-active, imperceptible and eternal. Prakrti alone is the
final source of this world of objects which is implicitly and potentially contained in its bosom.
Samkhya gives five proofs for the existence of Prakrti which are as follows:
1. All individual things in this world are limited, dependent, conditional and finite. The
finite cannot be the cause of the universe. Logically we have to proceed from the finite to
the infinite, from the limited to the unlimited, from the temporary to the permanent, from
the many to the one. And it is this infinite, unlimited, eternal and all-pervading Prakrti
which is the source of this universe.
2. All worldly things possess certain common characteristics by which they are capable of
producing pleasure, pain and indifference. Hence there must be a common source
composed of three Gunas, from which all worldly things arise.
3. All effects arise from the activity of the potent cause. Evolution means the manifestation
of the hitherto implicit as the explicit. The activity which generates evolution must be
inherent in the world-cause. And this cause is Prakrti.
4. The effect differs from the cause and hence the limited effect cannot be regarded as its
own cause. The effect is the explicit and the cause is the implicit state of the same process
The effects, therefore, point to a world cause where they are potentially contained.
5. The unity of the universe points to a single cause. And this cause is Prakrti.
Prakrti is said to be the unity of the three Gunas held in equilibrium. The three Gunas are Sattva,
Rajas and Tamas. They are the constituents of Prakrti and through it of the worldly objects.
Being subtle and imperceptible their existence is inferred from their effects - pleasure, pain and
indifference respectively. Sattva literally means real or existent and is responsible for the
manifestation of objects in consciousness. It is called goodness and produces pleasure. It is a
light and bright, buoyant and illumining. Rajas, which literally means foulness, is the principle of
motion. It produces pain. Restless activity, feverish effort and wild stimulation are its results. It
is mobile and stimulating. Its color is red. Tamas, which literally means darkness, is the principle
of inertia. It produces apathy and indifference. Ignorance, sloth, confusion, bewilderment,
passivity and negativity are its results.

2.5 PURUSA
 7

Purusa is the principle of pure consciousness. Purusa is the soul, the self, the spirit, the subject,
the knower the brain and not mind or ego or intellect. It is not a substance which possesses the
quality of consciousness. Consciousness is its essence. It is itself pure and transcendental
consciousness. It is the ultimate knower which is the foundation of all knowledge. It is the pure
subject and as such can never become an object of knowledge. It is the silent witness, the
emancipated alone, the neutral seer, the peaceful eternal. It is beyond time and space, beyond
change and activity. It is self-luminous and self-proved. It is uncaused, eternal and all pervading.
It is the indubitable real, the postulate of knowledge, and all doubts and denials pre-suppose its
existence.
Samkhya gives the following five proofs for the existence of Purusa;
1. All compound objects exist for the sake of the Purusa. The body, the senses, the mind
and the intellect are all means to realize the end of the Purusa. The three gunas, the
Prakrti, the subtle body - all are said to serve the purpose of the self. Evolution is
teleological or purposive. Prakrti evolves itself in order to serve the Purusa’s end This
proof is teleological.
2. All objects are composed of the three gunas and therefore logically presuppose the
existence of the Purusa who is the witness of these gunas and is himself beyond them.
The three gunas imply the conception of a nistraigunya - that which is beyond them. This
proof is logical.
3. There must be a transcendental synthetic unity of pure consciousness to co-ordinate all
experiences. All knowledge necessarily presupposes the existence of the self. The self is
the foundation, the fundamental postulate of all empirical knowledge. All affirmations
and all negations equally presuppose it. Without it, experience would not become
experience. This proof is ontological.
4. Non-intelligent Prakrti cannot experience its products. So there must be an intelligent
principle to experience the worldly products of Prakrti. Prakrti is the enjoyed and so
there must be an enjoyer. All objects of the world have the characteristics of producing
pleasure, pain and bewilderment. But pleasure, pain, bewilderment have meaning only
when there is a conscious principle to experience them. Hence Purusa must exist. This
argument is ethical.
5. There are persons who try to attain release from the sufferings of the world. The desire
for liberation and emancipation implies the existence of a person who can try for and
obtain liberation. Aspiration presupposes the aspirant. This proof is mystical or religious.

2.6 THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION

Prakrti is the fundamental substance out of which the world evolves. Prakrti is regarded as
essentially dynamic. It is always changing. Even in dissolution there is homogeneous change.
Evolution starts when there is heterogeneous change in the gunas and one predominates over the
other two. When rajas, the principle of activity vibrates and makes the other two vibrate, the
process of creation begins. There is neither creation nor destruction of gunas. Production is only
a manifestation or evolution and destruction is non-manifestation and concealment. Evolution is
cyclic – alternative periods of evolution(sarga) and dissolution (pralaya). Prakrti evolves the
 8

world of objects when it comes in contact with the purusa. Even though prakrti and purusa are
diametrically opposed to each other in their nature they come together just as a blind man and
lame man can co-operate in order to get out of a forest; so the non-intelligent prakrti and the
inactive purusa combine and co-operate to serve their respective interests. Prakrti needs the
presence of purusa in order to be known or appreciated by someone(darsanartham) and purusa
requires the help of prakrti in order to discriminate itself from the latter and thereby attain
liberation(kaivalyartham).
Purusa is reflected in the intellect (buddhi) and wrongly identifies himself with his own
reflection in the buddhi. It is the reflection of purusa which comes into contact with prakrti and
not the purusa himself. Samkhyakarika simply assumes from the beginning that purusa and
prakrti are together, and its analysis includes only a description of the mutual interaction of the
principles together with the description of the means to attain freedom. The Process of
Evolution: As evolution begins there is gradual differentiation and integration of the three gunas;
and as a result of their combination in different proportions the various objects of the world
originate: Mahat (the great) is the first product of the evolution of prakrti. It is the basis of
intelligence(buddhi) of the individual. Buddhi emerges when sattva predominates over rajas and
tamas. The special functions of Buddhi are ascertainment and
decision-making. Mahat produces ahamkara. It is the principle of individuation. It produces the
notion of ‘I’ and ‘mine’. Ahamkara is bifurcated into the subjective series and the objective
series. Ahamkara in its sattva aspect evolves into manas, the five sense organs(organs of
perception) and the five motor organs (senses of action). The 5 sense organs (jnanendriyas):
functions of sight, smell, taste, touch and sound. The 5 senses of action (karmendriyas):
functions of speech, apprehension, movement, excretion and reproduction. Ahamkara in its
tamas aspect evolves into the 5 subtle essences (tanmatras): the essences of sight, smell, taste,
touch and sound. Ahamkara in its rajasa aspect plays its part in both. The 5 subtle essences
evolve into the five gross elements of earth, water, light, air and ether by a predomination of
tamas (mahabhutas). Thus the process of evolution of the universe includes the operation of 24
principles, of which prakrti is the first, the 5 gross elements are the last and 10 organs and 5
tanmatras are the intermediate ones. All the same it is not complete in itself because it has a
necessary reference to the world of selves as the witness and enjoyers. The evolution is
purposive. The evolution of prakrti into the world of objects makes it possible for the selves to
enjoy or suffer the consequences of their good or bad actions (merits and demerits). The ultimate
end of evolution of prakrti, therefore, is the freedom (mukti) of purusa.

2.7 BONDAGE AND LIBERATION

The earthly life is full of three kinds of pain. The first kind, called adhyamika, is due to intra-
organic psychophysical causes and includes all mental, and bodily sufferings. The second
adhibhutika, is due to extra-organic natural causes like men, beasts, birds, thorns, etc. The third,
adhidaivika, is due to supernatural causes like the planets, elemental agencies, ghosts, demons
etc. Wherever there are gunas there are pains. Even the so-called pleasures lead to pain. Even the
life in heaven is subject to the gunas. The end of man is to get rid of these three kinds of pain and
sufferings. Liberation means complete cessation of all sufferings which is the summum bonum,
 9

the highest end of life. Purusa is free and pure consciousness. It is inactive, indifferent and
possesses no attributes. It is above time and space, merit and demerit, bondage and liberation. It
is only when it mistakes its reflection in the buddhi for itself and identifies itself wrongly with
the internal organ - the intellect, the ego and the mind, that it is said to be bound. It is the ego,
and not the Purusa, which is bound. When the Purusa realizes its own pure nature, it gets
liberated which in fact it always was. Hence bondage is due to ignorance or non-discrimination
between the self and the non-self. Liberation cannot obtain by means of actions. Karma, good or
bad or indifferent, is the function of the gunas and leads to bondage and not to liberation. Good
actions may lead to heaven and bad actions to hell but heaven and hell alike, like this worldly
life, are subject to pain. It is only knowledge which leads to liberation because bondage is due to
ignorance or ignorance can be removed only by knowledge. The jiva has to realize itself as the
pure Purusa through discrimination between Purusa and Prakrti. Actions and fruits, merits and
demerits, pleasure and pain all belong to the non-self. The knowledge that ‘I am not (the non-
self), that’ nothing is mine’, that ’ego is unreal’, when constantly meditated upon, becomes pure,
incontrovertible and absolute and leads to liberation. Samkhya believes that bondage and
liberation are only phenomenal. The bondage of the Purusa is a fiction. It is only the ego, the
product of Prakrti, which is bound. And consequently it is only the ego which is liberated.
Purusa, in its complete isolation, is untouched by bondage and liberation Ishvarakrsna says, that
Purusa is really neither bound nor is it liberated nor does it transmigrate; bondage, liberation and
transmigration belong to Prakrti in its manifold forms.
Check Your Progress II
Note: Use the space provided for your answer
1. What is Prakrti and what are the justifications given by Samkhya?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………….………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………
2. What are the arguments for the proofs of Purusa?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………..
3. Explain the Samkhya concept of liberation.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
 10

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….

2.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have tried to give clear ideas about the central concepts of Samkhya. The
Samkhya metaphysics, especially its doctrine of prakrti, rests mainly on its theory of causation,
which is known as satkarya vada. It is a theory as to the relation of an effect to its material cause.
Prakrti is the ultimate cause of the world of objects. The Purusa is an indubitable reality.
Purusa or self is pure, eternal and all pervading consciousness. Samkhya accepts only three
independent sources of valid knowledge. These are perception, inference and scriptural
testimony. The other sources of knowledge like comparison, postulation and non-cognition are
included under these three, and not recognized as separate sources of knowledge. Finally we
conclude the unit with the expression that in the Samkhya system, Liberation is just the absolute
and complete cessation of all pain without a possibility of return.

2.9 KEYWORDS

Prakrti: Prakrti is the ultimate cause of the world of objects. Prakrti is constituted by
three gunas called Sattva, rajas and tamas.
Purusa: Purusa is an indubitable reality. Purusa is pure, eternal and all pervading
consciousness.
Bondage: Bondage is non-discrimination between self and non-self. Bondage is ignorance.
Liberation: Liberation is the absolute cessation of all pain.

2.10 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Chandradhar, Sharma. A Crtical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal banarsidass

Publishers, 1987.

Chatterjee, Satischandra and Dhirendramohan Data. An Introduction to Indian Philosophy.

Calcutta: University Press, 1968.

Hiriyanna, M. Outlines of Indian Philosophy. London: George Allen & Unwin. 1951.

Keith, B. The Samkhya System. Oxford: n.p., 1918.

 11

Majumdhar, A.K. The Samkhya Conception of Personality. Calcutta: Calcutta University, 1930.

Pandey, M.C. Origin of the Samkhya. Bombay: n.p., 1953.

Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. New Delhi: Blackie Son Publishers Pvt Ltd publication,
1983.

Suryanarayana Sastri, S.S. Samkhya Karika of Iswara Krishna. Madras: Madras University,
1933.
 1

UNIT 3 YOGA

Contents

3.0. Objectives
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Modifications of Chitta
3.3. Chitta Bhumi
3.4. Kinds of Klesas
3.5. Ashtanga Yoga
3.6. Place of God in Yoga
3.7. Eight Siddhis
3.8. Let Us Sum Up
3.9. Key Words
3.10. Further Readings and References

3.0 OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this unit is to give a description of Yoga as a philosophy associated with
the school of Samkhya as the practical method for achieving the understanding of the self. Its
importance lies in the fact that it is the discipline necessary for the pure subject to recognize
itself, and separate itself from the empirical reality with which it is confused. In this unit we shall
try to give you the meaning of the word ‘Yoga’. Since Yoga is defined as the cessation of the
modification of chitta, this unit also covers chitta and its vrittis. Again, Yoga also advocates
control over the body, the senses and the mind. This involves eight stages and the same is
explained in the unit as Ashtanga yoga. Finally, it gives a brief study on the theism or the place
of God in Yoga. Thus by the end of the unit you should be able :
• To have sufficient understanding of Yoga and its meaning;
• To know about the five kinds of modifications of the chitta;
• To interpret eight stages or Ashtanga marga of Yoga;
• To comprehend the place and nature of God in Yoga;

3.1. INTRODUCTION

The word ‘Yoga’ literally means ‘union’, i.e., spiritual union of the individual soul with the
Universal Soul and is used in this sense in the Vedanta. Bhagavad Gita defines Yoga as that state
than which there is nothing higher or worth realising and firmly rooted in which a person is free
 2

from all pains and misery. But according to Patanjali, who is the traditional founder of the Yoga
system, Yoga does not mean union but spiritual effort to attain perfection through the control of
the body, senses and mind and through right discrimination between Purusa and Prakrti. The
Yoga-sutra of Patanjali is divided into four parts. The first is called samadhi-pada which deals
with the nature and aim of concentration. The second, sadhanapada, explains the means to
realize this end. The third, vibhutipada, deals with the supra-normal powers which can be
acquired through Yoga. The fourth, kaivalyapada, describes the nature of liberation and the
reality of the transcendental self.

Yoga is the practical path of realisation of the theoretical ideals of Samkhya Philosophy. The
Samkhya Philosophy emphasises the attainment of knowledge by means of study, concentration
and meditation. The Yoga presents a practical path for the realisation of the self. It tells us the
way by following which the self can be realised. Yoga admits all the three pramanas accepted by
Samkhya, i.e, perception, inference and scripture. The Sadhana of Yoga is necessary for the
study of Samkhya Philosophy. Thus Yoga system of Patanjali, is a complement of Samkhya. Its
epistemological theories are based on the ground of Samkhya’s metaphysics. Hence, it is rightly
said that the Yoga system is the natural complement of practical discipline to achieve the
Samkhya ideal of kaivalya. Yoga includes moral restraints, and spiritual imperatives, as well as
the exercises (asanas) designed to withdraw consciousness from the senses, focus the mind and
ultimately achieve meditation in which the self is completely and transparently understood. The
total and absolute restraint of the mental functions constitutes the Yogic trance. With this
restraint the mind empties itself of all contents, it becomes still. The senses then do not receive
the messages coming from the external world. In the 21st century the philosophy and practice of
Yoga is becoming increasingly popular in the West also.

3.2. MODIFICATIONS OF CHITTA

As has been already pointed out the chitta, inspite of being material, seems to be like living due
to the reflection of self in it. It is these changes in the chitta which are known as its vrittis or
modifications. These modifications are due to ignorance and their result is the bondge. These
modifications are five types which are as follows. i) Pramana: By being outside, through the
sensation, the chitta attains the form of objects, this is known as pramana. ii) Viparyaya: The
false knowledge of any thing is known as Viparyaya like that of rope-snake. iii) Vikalpa:This is
the knowledge in which the object which is known does not exist like that of a hare’s horn. iv)
Nidra: The modification of the chitta which is the substractum of knowledge of absence of
anything is known as nidra. But this stage should not be conceived as the total absence of
knowledge because after arising from sleep the person has consciousness that he slept well.
Hence sleep is also a modification. v) Smriti: Smriti or memory is the recollection of past
experience through the impressions left behind.
3.3. CHITTA BHUMI
There are five levels of mental life (chitta bhumi). The difference in the levels are due to the
predominance of different gunas. i) Ksipta: The lowest level is called ksipta or restless, because
the mind here is restless due to the excess of rajas and is tossed about like a shuttle cock between
different sense-objects. ii) Mudha or torpid: The mind here has the predominance of tamas and
tends towards ignorance, sleep and lethargy. iii) Viksipta or distracted: Here sattva predominates,
 3

but rajas also asserts itself at times. This differs from ksipta stages because due to the
preponderence of sattva sometimes there is temporary ceasing of the modification of chitta in
this stage. iv) Ekagra or concentrated: The stages of chitta when it is fixed on one subject. The
mind here is entirely dominated by sattva and rajas and tamas are subsided. v) Niruddha or
restricted: The fifth and the highest level is called Niruddha. Here the mental modifications are
arrested, though their latent impressions remain. The first three levels are not at all conducive to
Yogic life. Only the last two are.
3.4. KINDS OF KLESAS

In fact the Purusa is the eternally pure and transcendental consciousness. It is the chitta with the
reflection of the Purusa in it or the Purusa as reflected in the chitta, which is the phenomenal
ego or jiva, which is subject to birth and death and to all painful or pleasurable experiences.
There are five kinds of sufferings (klesa) to which it is subject. These are: 3.ignorance (avidya)
2. egoism (asmita) 3.attachment (raga) 4.aversion (dvesa) 5.clinging to life and instinctive fear
of death (abhinivesa). The bondage of the self is due to its wrong identification with the mental
modifications and liberation. Therefore means to end this wrong identification is through proper
discrimination between Purusa and Prakrti and the consequent cessation of mental
modifications. It is the aim of Yoga to bring about this result.

3.5. ASHTANGA YOGA

Yoga advocates control over the body, the senses and the mind. It does not want to kill the body;
on the other hand, it recommends its perfection. A sound mind needs a sound body. Sensual
attachment and passions distract body as well as the mind. They must be conquered. To
overcome them, Yoga gives us the Eightfold Path of Discipline or the Ashtanga Yoga. The
prescribed eight sadhanas to control chitta are the following; 1.Yama, 2.Niyama, 3.Asana,
4.Pranayama, 5.Prathyahara, 6.Dharana, 7.Dhyana, 8.Samadhi.

1. Yama (Self-restrained)

Yama is the control of the body,speech and mind. It means abstention . The Yamas are five
which are as follows. i) Non-violence (ahimsa): It is abstention from injury through thoughts,
words and deeds. ii) Truth (satya): Truth is to be exact in mind and speech, ie; to speak things as
they are and to remember exactly as seen, heard and imagined. Thus it is abstention from
falsehood. iii) Non-stealing (asteya): It is abstention from stealing. It includes both not taking
or stealing another’s property and have even a desire for it. iv) Celibacy (brahmacarya): It is
abstention from passions and lust. Brahmacarya is the control of attachment in the enjoyment of
the senses. v) Non-possession (aparigraha): Aparigraha requires not to accept any unnecessary
things or collect it. It is abstention from avarice. All the above mentioned yamas are necessary
for the concentration of chitta.
2. Niyama (Positive rules of conduct)
Another important step in Yoga is Niyama or following the rules of good conduct. These
Niyamas are five which are as follows: i) Purity (sauca): Sauca includes external cleaning
through bath, pure diet etc. as well as internal purification through sympathy, friendliness,
 4

detachment etc. ii) Contentment (santosa): Santosa means satisfaction in whatever is attained by
sufficient and suitable efforts. iii) Right aspiration (tapas): Tapas includes the practice of
tolerance of cold and heat. It requires various types of hard practices. iv) Study of Philosophical
texts (svadhyaya): Svadhyaya means reading of religious scriptures. It is very much useful in the
spiritual advancement. Hence it is a necessary principle of good conduct in Yoga. v) Devotion to
God (Iswarapranidhana): The fifth niyama in Yoga is to remember God and to surrender
oneself to Him. This helps the aspirant in the practice of Yoga.
The Yoga ethics lays stress on a harmonious relationship between the individual and the society.
The positive and negative rules together constitute all that is necessary for a perfect moral life.
They are known as Ten Commandments of Yoga. Through them the moral foundation of Yogic
discipline is made. After the moral preparation comes the preliminary training of one’s body
frame. It consists of three steps- asana, pranayama, pratyahara.
3. Asana
The third step in the advancement of yoga is Asana or posture. It means steady and comfortable
posture. Asana emphasizes the importance of correct and comfortable bodily posture before one
begins meditation. Patanjali mentions that the posture must be firm,pleasant and easy. The idea is
that body must be disciplined to assume a posture which is helpful for concentration. This is the
discipline of the body.
4. Pranayama
It means control of breath and deals with regulation of inhalation, retention and exhalation of
breath. The regulating of breathing process helps considerably to bring the mind under control.
The Yogi who systematically practices pranayama is in a position to control the movements of
the lungs and also of the heart. For the Yogi, there is no involuntary organ in the body. The true
Yogi can even stop breathing and restart it at his will. It is highly conducive to the concentration
of mind. But it must be performed under expert guidance. Otherwise, it may have bad after-
effects.
5. Prathyahara
It is the control of the senses and consists in withdrawing the senses from their objects. Our
senses have a natural tendency to go to outward objects and they perceive the facts of Prakrti.
They can be compared to a mirror which is facing the other way reflecting everything except the
image of the person that holds it. They must be checked and directed towards the internal goal. It
is the process of introversion. The above five steps are called external aids to Yoga (bahiranga
sadhana) while the remaining three which follow are called internal aids (antaranga sadhana).
The last three steps are stages of mind control and therefore they constitute Yoga proper.
6. Dharana

It is fixing of the mind on the object of meditation. Here the mind is steadied by making all our
thoughts flow in single unbroken channel. Ordinarily the mind is easily disturbed. It passes from
objects to objects in a matter of seconds. The mind is to be tied to a particular object in order that
it may become steady and unmoving. Any object like the tip of the nose or the mid point of the
eye brows or the image of the deity may be chosen for meditating upon in this stage. The mind
must be steadfast like the unflickering flame of a lamp.
 5

7. Dhyana
It means meditation and consists in the undisturbed flow of thought round the object of
meditation. It is steadfast contemplation without any break. When the process of thought is
continuous, it is called dhyana. Meditation is always about something. That something gets fixed
in the mind through meditation. Dhyana culminates in Samadhi.

8. Samadhi
It is the final step in Yoga. It means concentration. Here the mind is completely absorbed in the
object of meditation. In dhyana the act of meditation and object of meditation remain separate.
But here they become one. It is the highest means to realize the cessation of mental
modifications which is the end. It is the ecstatic state in which the connection with the external
world is broken and through which one has to pass before liberation. Here the spirit is lifted
above the world process and is restored to its original stage. Samadhi is of two kinds: Conscious
or samaprajnata and supra conscious or asmaprajnata. In the former consciousness of the object
of meditation persists, in the latter it is transcended. The former is Ekagra and the latter is
Niruddha. In the former, the mind remains concentrated on the object of meditation. The
meditator and the object of meditation are fused together, yet the consciousness of the object of
meditation persists. This state is said to be of four kinds. i) Savitarka: When the chitta is
concentrated on a gross object of meditation like the tip of the nose or the mid-point of eyebrows
or the image of the deity. ii) Savichara: When the chitta is concentrated on a subtler object of
meditation like the tanmatras. iii) Sananda: When the chitta is concentrated on a still subtler
object of meditation which produces joy, like the senses. iv) Sasmita: When chitta is
concentrated on the ego-substance with which the self is generally identified. Here we have
conscious ecstasy where individuality persists.

Asamaprajnata samadhi is the supra-conscious concentration where the meditator and the object
of meditation are completely fused together and there is not even consciousness of the object of
meditation. Here no new mental modification arise .They are checked (niruddha), though the
latent impressions may continue. If the fire is restricted to a particular fuel, it burns that fuel
alone; but when the fuel has been completely burnt, the fire also lies down. Similarly in
conscious concentration, the mind is fixed on the object of meditation alone and modification
arises only in respect of this object of meditation. But in supra-conscious concentration, even this
modification ceases. It is the highest form of Yoga which is divine madness, perfect mystic
ecstasy difficult to describe and more difficult to attain. Even those who attain it cannot retain it
longer. Immediately or after very short time, the body breaks and they obtain complete
liberation. Asamprajnata or Nirbeeja (attributeless) samadhi is the highest form of samadhi in
which the distinction between the knower, knowledge and the known, disappears. In it there are
no klesas or attributes. Hence, it is known as nirbeeja or attributeless samadhi. This form of
samadhi is also divided into two subtypes, which are i) Bhava Pratyaya Samadhi: Samadhi is
disturbed due to ignorance. Bhava means ignorance. Ignorance means seeing the self as non-self.
In this form of samadhi only the samskaras of the passions remain. Thus the ignorance is not
absolutely destroyed at this stage due to which even after the attainment of this stage the beings
have to return to the world again. ii) Upaya Pratyaya: In this type of samadhi the ignorance is
absolutely destroyed due to arousal of prajna. In it all the klesas are annihilated and the chitta
becomes established in true knowledge. This is the samadhi of the Yogis. It breeds the pleasure
of the chitta, concentration, knowledge etc.
 6

Yoga is the steadiness of the mind, with the annihilation of the mental states, into a particular
type of graduated state leading to self realization. Yoga generates certain supra-normal powers.
But they should be avoided and attention should be fixed only on the liberation which is the end
of human life. The ideal is Kaivalya, the absolute independence and eternal and free life of the
Purusa, free from Prakrti.
Check your Progress – I
Note: Use the space for writing the answers.
1. Bring out the nature of the various levels of mental life as expounded by Yoga
Philosophy.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Explain the eightfold path of the Yoga system. What is its goal?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.6. PLACE OF GOD IN YOGA

The Samkhya in its original form is atheistic. The difference between the Yoga and Samkhya is
that while the former asserts a place to God, the latter does not. The Yoga therefore is described
as the Samkhya with God. Yoga accepts the existence of God. Iswara is only one of the many
objects on which Yogis can concentrate their mind. The only purpose of Iswara is to do good to
his devotees. Thus God in Yoga has only practical importance. The meditation on God or
pranava helps in the concentration of chitta. According to Patanjali, Iswara pranidhana helps in
the attainment of samadhi. Thus in the old Yoga philosophy not much theoretical importance has
been attached to God. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan has also supported this view. According to him, the
God of Yoga is not the summum bonum of life. Patanjali himself did not consider God as
necessary to solve the problems of the world. But the later Yogis have taken also a theoretical
interest in Him and have tried to prove His existence as necessary philosophical speculation.
Patanjali defines God as a special kind of Purusa who is always free from pains, actions, affects
and impressions. He is eternally free and was never bound nor has any possibility of being
bound. He is above the law of karma. He is omniscient, omnipotent and omnipresent. He is
perfection incarnate. He is the purest knowledge.

Devotion to God is one of the surest means of obtaining concentration. Patanjali thus makes
devotion to God as one of the aids of Yoga. The proofs advanced for His existence are: (1) the
Veda tells us that God exists (2) the law of continuity tells us that there must be the highest limit
of knowledge and perfection which is God (3) God is responsible for the association and
 7

dissociation of Purusa and Prakrti (4) devotion to God is the surest way of obtaining
concentration and thereby liberation. By disinterested devotion the yogi becomes eligible for the
grace of God. Surrender to God is one of the important principles of Yoga. This conception of
God is certainly different from that of the Upanishads. In the Upanishads, God is the Saguna
Brahman, who is the very social of the entire Universe. But in Samkhya Yoga, God is only a
particular Self, Purusa Visesa.

God of Yoga is not the creator, preserver or destroyer of this world. He is only a special Purusa.
He does not reward or punish the souls. Innumerable Purusas and Prakrti, all eternals and
absolutes, are there to limit Him. He cannot grant liberation. He can only remove the obstacles in
the upward progress of the devotees. Directly He has nothing to do with the bondage and the
liberation of the Purusas. Ignorance binds and discrimination between Prakrti and Purusa
liberates. The end of human life is not the union with God, but only the separation of Purusa
from Prakrti. Devotion to God is only a step to this ultimate liberation. Though according to
Patanjali, Iswarapranidhana is a means to attain samadhi, the later yoga philosophers considered
it as the best means because God is not only an object of concentration but also he removes the
impediments from the path of aspirants and makes the path of yoga easy. By meditating on God
with one pointed mind, the intellect is purified and all the impediments are destroyed. The
aspirant realises his self through Iswarapranidhana.

3.7. EIGHT SIDDHIS

According to Yoga philosophy, the Yogis attain various siddhis by the practice of the path of
Yoga. These powers are mainly of eight types and hence called Ashta siddhi or Ashta Aisvarya:
(1) Anima- This is the power to become small like atom and so to disappear. (2) Laghima- This
is the power to become light cotton and so to fly away. (3) Mahima-This is the power to
become big like mountains. (4) Prapti-This is the power to secure whatever is desired. (5)
Prakamya-This is the power by which all the impediments in the will removed. (6) Vashitwa-
This is the power by which all the living beings can be conquered. (7) Eshitwa- This is the
power by which one attains absolute mastery on all physical objects. (8) Yatrakamavasayitwa-
This is the power by which all the desires are fulfilled. The above mentioned eight siddhis can be
used according to the wish of the Yogi. But in the Yoga philosophy the pursuance of the path of
the Yoga for the attainment of these powers has been vehemently decried because that results in
misleading the aspirant from the path of Yoga. The ultimate end of the Yoga is not the
attainment of these powers, but the realisation of Moksa. Thus, Yoga is a combination of
practical physical development and discipline with a mystical objective which is its ultimate
purpose. This co-ordination of a system of thought with a programme of daily life exercises is
based on physiological psychology as well as religious philosophy.

3.8. LET US SUM UP

In this Unit our attempt is to provide a clear idea of Patanjali’s Yoga system which enables
one to attain Kaivalya. Since it is the cessation of the modifications of chitta, chitta vrttis
are dealt in detail. The kinds of klesas to which Purusa is subjected to, are also given. The
eight limbs of Yoga or Ashtanga Yoga which leads to self-realization is discussed. As this
system is attaining more and more importance these days each step of Yoga is given with
 8

detailed explanation. In the concluding part of the unit, the theism of Yoga, i.e., the nature
and place of God is also discussed.

Check your Progress – II

Note: Use the space for your answers.
1. What is Samadhi according to Patanjali? How can it be attained.?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. What is the place and nature of God in Yoga philosophy?

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.9. KEY WORDS

Kaivalya: Absolute independence and eternal and free life of Purusa, free from Prakrti.
Chitta vrttis: Modifications of chitta or manas
Chitta bhumi: Different levels of mental life due to predominance of different gunas.
Klesas: Sufferings to which soul is subjected to.
3.10. FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES
Legget, Trevor. Sankara on the Yoga Sutra: A full translation of the newly discovered text. Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass,2006.
Puligandla, Ramakrishna. Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: D.K.Printworld, 2008.
Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. Vol. I & II. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1958.
Raju, P.T. Philosophical Traditions of India. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1973.
Sharma, Chandradhar. A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1983.
The Yogasutras of Patanjali: On concentration of mind. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2005.
Whicher, Ian. The integrity of the Yoga darshana: A reconsideration of Classical Yoga. Delhi:
D.K.Printworld, 2000.
 1

UNIT 4 MIMAMSA

Contents

4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Theory of Knowledge
4.3 Mimamsa Theory of Error
4.4 Theory of Reality
4.5 Theory of Soul
4.6 Bondage and Liberation
4.7 Let us Sum up
4.8 Key Words
4.9 Further Readings and References
4.0 OBJECTIVES
This chapter aims to highlight the contribution of Mimamsa to Indian philosophy. A major
interest of this school is interpretation. They can be considered to be the first in India to have
embarked on interpreting the Vedas (germ of hermeneutic analysis found). Hence this chapter
with varied sections on theory of knowledge and metaphysics aims to bring out this aspect. In
fact, the section on theory of knowledge contains such interpretative analysis. Some of the basic
features of this chapter are:
• interpreting the Vedas
• theory of validity of knowledge
• theory of error
• theory of reality (realism)
• theory of God

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Mimamsa is a philosophical school (advocating realism) in India which developed the ritualistic
aspect of the Vedas. It must be noted that the Vedas depict two different aspects – the ritualistic
aspect and speculative aspect. Of the 6 orthodox systems of philosophy (astika darsanas), -
Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya and Yoga developed their philosophies independently though owing
allegiance to the Vedas. But Mimamsa and Vedanta are two schools which developed the two
different aspects of the Vedas. While Mimamsa developed from the ritualistic side, Vedanta
developed from the speculative side of the Vedas. In fact, it is because of this reason that
 2

philosophers are inclined to name them as purva Mimamsa (early Mimamsa) and uttara
Mimamsa (later Mimamsa). They were also known as karma Mimamsa and jnana Mimamsa
respectively.
There are two ways in which Mimamsa is useful to us today:
(a) Gives a methodology of interpretation with which the complicated vedic injunctions
regarding rituals can be understood.
(b) Provides a philosophical justification of the beliefs on which ritualism depends.
The faith underlying vedic ritualism is substantiated by Mimamsa in the following ways:
1. Belief in the existence of a soul which survives death and enjoys the fruits of the rituals in
heaven
2. Belief in some power or potency which preserves the effects of the rituals performed
3. Belief in the infallibility of the Vedas
4. Our life and actions are real and not dreams
Jaiminiya sutra is the work that laid down the principles of this school – purva Mimamsa.
Hence, Jaimini is thought to be the systematiser of this school of thought. Sabaraswami wrote the
major commentary (bhasya) for this work. There were many more commentators after him. But
the two most famous and important commentators are Kumarila Bhatta and Prabhakara Misra
who founded the two schools of philosophy named after them – Bhatta school of Mimamsa and
Prabhakara school of Mimamsa. The term ‘Mimamsa’ etymologically means ‘solution of some
problem by reflection and critical examination’.
4.2 THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
As Mimamsa was interested in interpreting the Vedas, they prominently discussed the nature and
validity of knowledge, criterion of truth and falsity, sources of valid knowledge etc.
Nature and Sources of knowledge
That knowledge which gives some new information about something, and is not contradicted by
another knowledge and which is not generated by defective conditions (like defective sense
organ or fallacious argument) is valid knowledge. Mimamsa admits two kinds of valid
knowledge – immediate and mediate. Immediate knowledge arises in the soul when the object is
in direct contact with both the internal sense organ (mind) and the external 5 sense organs. This
perception arises in two stages – when we see an object, there is indeterminate perception of that
object – a bare awareness of it (knowing that it is an object but not knowing what object it is).
This is indeterminate, immediate knowledge (nirvikalpaka pratyaksa). When we come to
interpret that object on the basis of our previous knowledge we understand it as something. That
is determinate perception (savikalpaka pratyaksa) which is expressed in statements like ‘this is a
man’ or ‘this is table’ etc. These two stages of perception, no doubt, gives us valid knowledge.
However, the objects are not known explicitly in the first stage. Yet, what is known clearly in the
second stage is implicitly known in the first stage. This means that the mind only interprets what
it sees in the first stage with the help of past experience. It does not ascribe something
imaginarily. Hence perception results in valid knowledge.
 3

Now, what we just saw is perceptual knowledge. Are there non-perceptual sources of
knowledge? What are they? Mimamsa accepts five more nonperceptual sources of knowledge.
They are: inference (anumana), comparison (upamana), verbal testimony (sabda), postulation
(arthapatti) and nonperception (anupalabdhi). The last source of knowledge is accepted only by
Kumarila Bhatta’s school of Mimamsa and not by Prabhakara’s school of Mimamsa.
The Mimamsa understanding of inference is similar to that of Nyaya and hence we need not
discuss it here.

Mimamsa understanding of Comparison

After Nyaya, Mimamsa accepts comparison as an independent source of knowledge. According
to Nyaya, we get valid knowledge of an object by comparing it with what is already known. That
is, we understand the new object through comparing it with what is already known by us. Here,
Mimamsa differs from Nyaya school of philosophy. To the Mimamsa, we do not get knowledge
of the new object from the knowledge of similarity that exists between this object and the known
object but we get the knowledge of similarity that is there between the object that is seen and the
remembered object. For example, Nyaya would say that when we see a new object, namely a
gavaya (or wild ox), we are told that the wild ox is similar to the domestic cow and that the
difference is that the ox is wild. So we derive knowledge of a new object by comparing it with
what has already been known. But the same example will be understood by Mimamsa
differently. To them, when we compare the ox with the cow that is already known, we derive the
knowledge of similarity that exists between the two. This source of knowledge is independent
and cannot be classed under perception or inference as done by other schools of philosophy
(except Nyaya). The knowledge of similarity is the new cognition here and that is not derived
from any other source of knowledge, according to Mimamsa.

Mimamsa understanding of sabda

Sabda is knowledge obtained from verbal authority. This source of knowledge is very important
for the Mimamsakas. It is with this that they are going to justify the impersonal authority of the
Vedas. It was seen that sabda is of two kinds – personal and impersonal – that is, knowledge
derived from the words spoken or written by an individual or knowledge derived from the Vedas
which have not been written or spoken by any individual. Again, authority may either give
information on the existence of something or merely give directions for the performance of an
action. Mimamsa is interested only in the knowledge from the Vedas and that too, about the
injunctions laid down in it regarding the performance of certain actions. In fact, they are of the
view that any part of the Veda which does not give information on the performance of rituals but
is said to speak about the existence of something (immortality of the soul or existence of god etc)
is useless. They just wanted to highlight what is essential for the performance of rituals. Hence
their philosophy is referred to as ritualistic pragmatism.

According to most of the schools admitting the authority of the Vedas, it is god who is the author
of the Vedas. But for Mimamsa, Vedas are impersonal – not written or spoken by any person.
 4

They come forward with elaborate arguments to suggest the impersonal authority of the Vedas
by asking the following questions.
• If the Vedas had any author, then his name would have been known and remembered.
• Even those who say that Vedas are not eternal but produced are not in agreement with each
other on the origin of the Vedas. Some say that god is the author of the Vedas while some say
that it is PrajaPati or Hiranyagarbha and thus the argument goes on.
• Those people, who regard Vedas to have been written, think vaguely on the basis of the
analogy of ordinary books written by human beings and say that even the Veda should have an
author.
• The names of certain persons are cited in the Vedas. But they are only seers to whom the Vedas
were revealed or the founders of different vedic schools.
• Now, it may be asked that the Vedas are composed of words and that these words are produced
and non-eternal. Let us see the reply by the Mimamsakas here. To them, the words are not really
the perceived sounds. These sounds are produced by the speaker and heard by the listener, no
doubt. But words are really the letters which are partless and uncaused. A letter, like ‘k’ is
uttered and revealed by different persons at different places and times and in different ways.
Though these letter-sounds vary, we recognize that the same letter is pronounced. This identity
shows that the words are not produced at any time and place, but transcends them. (here, we find
a linguistic analysis by the Mimamsakas).

Hence, Mimamsa regards words as letters which are eternal, as having an uncaused existence.
• The Vedas enjoin certain ritual duties which bear fruits like attainment of heaven etc. Now, if
the Vedas have been written by anybody, then we have to ask who that person is who has the
capacity to know the past, present and future in order to declare the connection between the
action and its result.
• If we agree that the Vedas have an author then we might have to agree (with the Carvakas), that
this author is a cunning deceiver because of what is contained in the injunctions.
• The Vedas are not vitiated by any defects to which the works of imperfect beings are subject.
Thus, the Mimamsakas hold that the Vedas are impersonal and that they are not the works
produced by any person. The applicability of the Vedas to all times itself shows that they are not
the products of a particular time, place and individual. The Mimamsakas very clearly state that
this knowledge cannot be classified under perception or inference. They assert that the validity of
every knowledge is assured by the conditions which generate that knowledge, so the knowledge
derived from authority carries with itself such assurance of its own truth.

Mimamsa understanding of postulation (arthapatti)

Datta and Chattejee (see An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, p. 325) state that “postulation
(arthapatti) is the necessary supposition of an unperceived fact which alone can explain a
phenomenon that demands explanation”. When a given fact cannot be explained without
supposing another fact, then this other fact is postulated in order for us to obtain knowledge of
 5

that given fact. For example, when we see a man growing fat but fasting during the day, we
cannot explain how this is happening. The two facts of fatness and fasting cannot be reconciled.
In order to clarify this we need to postulate that this may be due to heredity or because he eats
during night. Unless we postulate this, we cannot explain the fatness of the person. This is
postulation. This knowledge cannot be brought under perception or inference. The person eating
in the night is not perceived by us; nor is there any inseparable (vyapti) relation between eating
in the night and becoming fat. Hence this source of knowledge cannot be brought under
perception or inference.

Another example that can be given here explains that this source of knowledge is used by us in
daily life. When, for example, we go to a friend’s house and we see that he is not at home, we
postulate that he must be somewhere outside. This is postulation. This postulation alone can help
us explain how a person who is alive is not to be found in the place where he is supposed to be
found. Hence this kind of knowledge cannot be grouped under perception, inference or
testimony. We also say that ‘industry is the key to success’. Here, the term ‘key’ does not denote
the real key but suggests its secondary meaning. This is postulation.

Mimamsa understanding of non-perception (anupalabdhi)

This source of knowledge is accepted by one of the schools of Mimamsa – namely, Bhatta
school of Mimamsa and Advaita Vedanta. To them, nonperception is the source of our
immediate knowledge of non-existence of a thing. I say that a jar does not exist here only
because I do not perceive it. This is non-perception. That is, we should not conclude that all non-
perception leads to the conclusion of non-existence of what is not perceived. We do not perceive
a table in the dark; nor do we perceive such supersensible entities as atoms, ether, virtue, vice
etc. yet, we do not judge them to be non-existent. Why? This is because, if a thing should have
been perceived under certain circumstances, only then its non-perception under those
circumstances would give us the knowledge of non-existence of that entity. The supersensible
entities are those that are beyond our senses. So we cannot say that they are non-existent when
we do not see them.

Validity of Knowledge
Validity of knowledge according to Mimamsa is called svatah pramanyavada. Let us see what it
is. How is knowledge valid? What are the conditions of a valid knowledge? For example, if I
have to see a thing, my eye should be free of defect. If there is defect in my eye, then, I cannot
see the thing clearly. Hence, the condition that generates knowledge should be free of defect.
Only this will result in valid knowledge. Moreover, this knowledge should be beyond doubt.
Mimamsa draws two conclusions from this: (a) the validity of knowledge arises from the very
conditions that give rise to that knowledge, and not from any extra conditions (pramanyam
svatah utpadyate). (b) the validity of knowledge is also believed in or known as soon as the
knowledge arises; this belief does not wait for any verification by something else. This Mimamsa
view is known as the theory of intrinsic validity (svatah pramanyavada).
 6

This means that truth is self-evident. It is not verified by any other conditions. That is, the
validity of any knowledge is evident in the conditions that generate that knowledge. Now, what
if this knowledge is contradicted by any other knowledge? In such a case, we infer the falsity of
knowledge. Thus, while validity of knowledge arises from the conditions from which that
knowledge arises, falsity of that knowledge arises due to extraneous conditions. Dr
S.Radhakrishnan (Indian Philosophy, Vol 2) quotes, “jñanasya pramanyam svatah, apramanyam
paratah”

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space for your answers.

1. How Mimamsa interpret the Vedas? Explain with their theory of knowledge.
………………….
…………………………..
……………………………

2. Explain svatah pramanyavada.

……………………………..
………………………………..
……………………………….

4.3 MIMAMSA THEORY OF ERROR

If truth is self-evident and every knowledge is true, then, how does error arise? For example,
when we mistake a rope to be a snake we are afraid of the rope as long as we think it to be a
snake. Only when we realize that it is not a snake and that it is a rope, we come out of that fear.
Now, knowledge of rope as a snake is an error. How does this error arise when all knowledge is
valid? There are two answers for this question in the two schools of Mimamsa – Bhatta school
and Misra school. Let us look into them now.

According to the Prabhakara Misra school, every knowledge is true, and that nothing false ever
appears in error. Their theory of error is known as akhyativada or denial of illusory appearance.
Let us see that view now with the rope-snake example. When I perceive a rope as a snake, there
 7

is a mixture of two types of knowledge – the perception of a long thing (perceived thing) and our
memory of a snake perceived in the past (remembered thing). Here, the distinction between the
perceived thing and the remembered thing is not perceived by us. Hence we are afraid of a rope
as though it is a snake. Now, our behaviour towards rope is faulty and not our knowledge
(because there are two kinds of knowledge here, namely knowledge of a long thing and our
memory of a snake without the knowledge of distinction between them). Therefore, we do not
erroneously perceive a rope to be a snake but that there is only a cognitive defect coupled with
non-discrimination. This is negative, according to the Prabhakara Misra school of Mimamsa but
not the same as error. Error is not merely want of knowledge but a positive mental state.

The Bhatta school of Mimamsa does not accept this view. To them, mere nondiscrimination
cannot explain error. We cannot deny that sometimes the illusory object appears positively
before us. If my eye-ball is pressed while looking at the moon, two moons positively appear
before us. The snake illusion is also similar to this. Now, the Bhatta school argues that when we
perceive a snake in a rope and judge that it is a snake, both the subject and the predicate are real.
The rope is brought under the class of snakes which also exists. Then how does error arise? It is
simple. Error consists, however, in relating these two really existing but separate things in the
subject-predicate way. Thus error is always wrong relation and is not to be found in the object.
The Bhatta theory of error is known as viparitakyativada. Thus the Prabhakaras exempt all
knowledge from error while the Bhattas admit that error may affect some cognitive relations of
objects, though the objects themselves are always correctly perceived. One thing common to
both schools is that error affects activity rather than knowledge. Thus error becomes an
exceptional case of the falsification of the normal claim that every knowledge makes for truth.

4.4. THEORY OF REALITY

Mimamsa theory of reality is based on their theory of perception. When we perceive, we

perceive objects. Moreover, the theory of svatahpramanvada (theory of intrinsic validity of
knowledge) enables us to understand the reality of objects. Mimamsakas are realists and
pluralists. The universe is real and is independent of the mind which perceives it. Thus, the world
is eternally there for them (it is neither created nor destroyed). However, they also seem to
believe in souls, heaven, hell, deities to whom sacrifice is to be performed in addition to the
world that is accepted as real by them. The Mimamsakas too, like the Vaisesikas, believe in the
reality of atoms. However, they do not postulate an efficient cause for the arrangement of atoms
in order for the emergence of the world. Instead, they believe in the law of karma to have
regulated the order or arrangement of atoms. Being realists, they categorise the reality.
Prabhakara admits of 8 such categories – substance (dravya), quality (guna), action (karma),
generality (samanya), inherence (paratantrata), force (sakti), similarity (sadrsya) and number
(samkhya). Kumarila divides all categories into positive (bhava) and negative (abhava). Prior,
posterior, absolute and mutual are the four kinds of abhava. The positive categories (bhava) are
also four. They are substance, quality, action and generality. He brings force and similarity under
substance.
 8

4.5 THEORY OF SOULS

Jaimini does not offer any detailed proof of the reality of soul. However, he seems to accept the
arguments of the Vedanta. He distinguishes the self from the understanding and the senses. The
self is neither the body, nor the senses nor even the intellect. It is the cogniser. Sabara accepts the
reality of a permanent cogniser which is “known by itself and incapable of being seen or shown
by others”, says S.Radhakrishnan (Ibid., p. 408). Their interest in interpreting the vedic
injunctions as bringing fruits either in this life or in the afterlife has forced them to accept a soul
which survives even when the body is destroyed at the time of death. The Mimamsakas accept
plurality of selves in order to account for variety of experiences.

4.6 BONDAGE AND LIBERATION

According to Prabhakara, liberation consists in the total disappearance of dharma and adharma,
whose operation is the cause of rebirth. Another important term that needs mention here is
apurva (or unseen force or imperceptible antecedent of the fruit of our actions. All acts bear
fruits. Of course, not all acts can result in its fructification immediately. Some may effect a result
later. Jaimini assumes the existence of such unseen force as apurva. It can be considered as the
metaphysical link between the action and its result. Now, it is this unseen force that determines
whether the soul is in bondage or liberated. Hence Mimamsa prescribes that certain duties as
enjoined in the Vedas are to be performed. These duties help man in the right path and thus are
responsible for delivering good results. The highest good, according to early Mimamsa, appeared
to have been the attainment of heaven or a state of bliss.

However, the later Mimamsa thinkers fall in line with other Indian philosophical schools in
holding that the highest good is liberation or freedom from bondage to the body. To them,
liberation is an unconscious state, which is free from pleasure and pain. Is Mimamsa atheistic?
Mimamsa, we have seen, interprets the ritualistic side of the Vedas. Thus, this school emphasizes
the idea of dharma – that is, the criteria of discussion here is how man ought to live. Whatever
has been said about knowledge, its validity or about error is in relation to this idea of dharma.
Now, what is their conception of God? Do they believe in the existence of God? It must be
mentioned that the Mimamsakas believe in the authority of the Vedas. But the traditional
conception of Mimamsa is atheistic – non-belief in the existence of God. However, authors like
Max Mueller finds it difficult to believe that the Mimamsakas, who believe in the authority of
the Vedas do not believe in the existence of God (accepted by the Vedas). The Mimamsakas
argue that if a creator-God is accepted then He is liable to the charges of cruelty, partiality etc.
Therefore, they deny any such creator-God. However, Max Mueller contends that this need not
be construed as a case of atheism because, even Advaita Vedanta in India and Spinoza in the
West do not accept a creator-God.
 9

However, it must be mentioned that there is no reference to God by the early Mimamsakas while
the later Mimamsakas reject the proofs for the existence of God. Thus Mimamsa seems to be
atheistic. It might be pointed out that Mimamsa accepts Vedas which talk of a variety of gods –
sun, moon, fire etc. These are, at best, deities who are not objects of worship. They are not
referred to as existing somewhere bound by space-time continuum; nor are they imaginary
entities. Instead, they are eternal and self-manifesting entities described by the eternal, self-
revealing Vedas. The Mimamsa was interested mainly in the performance of rituals and these
gods were spoken of only in so far as they help man perform the rituals with piety. Thus, we see
that “in its great anxiety to maintain the supremacy of the Vedas, the Mimamsa even relegated
God to an ambiguous position.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space for your answers.

1. Give the account of Mimamsa understanding of soul.

………………….
…………………………..
……………………………

2. What is Liberation according to Mimamsa?

……………………………..
………………………………..
……………………………….

4.7 LET US SUM UP

Mimamsa is an orthodox school of Indian philosophy. It believes in the authority of the Vedas.
Realistic (and pluralistic) school of philosophy. However, they are considered to be non-
believers in god. Concept of apurva is unseen force that delivers the results of our actions.
Concept of liberation is attainment of heaven (by earlier thinkers) and freedom from bondage (by
later thinkers).
 10

4.8 KEY WORDS

Apurva: unseen force that delivers the results of our actions.

Svatahpramanyavada: theory of intrinsic validity of knowledge.

Viparitakyativada: Bhatta theory of error - Error consists in relating two really existing but
separate things in the subject-predicate way. Error is always wrong
relation and is not to be found in the object.

4.9 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Puligandla, Ramakrishna. Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: D.K.Printworld, 2008.

Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. Vol. I & II. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1958.
Raju, P.T. Philosophical Traditions of India. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1973.
Sharma, Chandradhar. A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1983.
 1

Indira Gandhi National Open University MPY – 001

School of Interdisciplinary and
Trans-disciplinary Studies Indian Philosophy

Block
4

ORTHODOX SYSTEMS -2

UNIT 1
Advaita Vedanta

UNIT 2
Visistadvaita Vedanta

UNIT 3
Dvaita Vedanta

UNIT 4
Saivism and Vaishnavism
 2

Expert Committee
Principal,
Prof. Gracious Thomas Dr. Bhuvaneswari College of Fine Arts,
Director, School of Lavanya Flats Manasagangotri
Social Work Gangai Amman Koil Mysore – 570 006
IGNOU St.
Thiruvanmiyur Dr. Keith D’Souza
Prof. Renu Bharadwaj Chennai – 600 041 St. Pius College
Director, School of Mumbai
Humanities Dr. Alok Nagims
IGNOU Vishwa Jyoti Gurukul
Varanasi
Prof. George
Panthanmackel, Senior
Consultant, IGNOU Dr. Jose Kuruvachira
Salesian College &
IGNOU Study Centre
Dr. M. R. Nandan
Dimapur, Nagaland
Govt. College for
Women
Mandya - Mysore

Dr. Kuruvila Pandikatt

Jnana-deepa Dr. Sathya Sundar
Vidyapeeth Sethty
Ramwadi, STRIDE
Pune IGNOU

Dr. Joseph Martis

St. Joseph’s College
Jeppu, Mangalore – 2
Dr Babu Joseph
CBCI Centre
Dr. Jaswinder Kaur
New Delhi Dhillon
147, Kabir park
Prof. Tasadduq Husain Opp. GND University
Aligarh Muslim Amristar – 143 002
University
Aligarh
Prof. Y.S. Gowramma
 3

Block Preparation Team

Unit 1 G.K. Parimala

Anjaneyanagar,
Bangalore.

Unit 2 Dr. James Ponniah

Jnana-Deepa Vidyapeeth,
Ramwadi, Pune.

Unit 3 Dr. V. John Peter

IGNOU,
New Delhi.

Unit 4 Prof. R. Gopalakrishnan

Head (former), Dept. of Philosophy
University of Madras, Chennai.

Content Editor
Dr. V. John Peter
IGNOU, New Delhi

Format Editor
Prof. Gracious Thomas
IGNOU, New Delhi.

Programme Coordinator
Prof. Gracious Thomas
IGNOU, New Delhi.
 4

BLOCK INTRODUCTION

The query on ultimate reality that began from the Upanisadic seers received a classical touch in
the hands of the commentators of Brahmasutra, Upanisads and Bhagavat Gita. Various
interpretations on the great pronouncements of the Upanishads, mahavakyas, regarding the
relationship between the individual and supreme self became a point of divergence in Vedantic
traditions and had led to establishment of many Vedantic schools. Prajanam brahma,
consciousness is Brahman (Aitareya Upanishad), Aham bramasmi, I am Brahman
(Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Ayamatma brahma, this Atman is Brahman (Mandukya Upanishad)
– are few of these mahavakyas. Three major schools, Advaita, Visistadvaita and Dvaita are
treated in this block. The non-dualism accepted and promoted by Advaita Vedanta, the qualified
monism of Visistadvaita school and the dualistic school of Dvaita vedanta have come out in
defence of their thesis with one’s own constructed epistemology and metaphysics. Latest in the
addition of Indian schools of philosophy is Saiva Siddhanta from Saivism. It is a pluralistic
realist school that upholds triple realities of God, Soul and world.

Unit 1 has a discussion on Advaita Vedanta will deal with the core philosophical issues of the
system starting from Gaudapada through Sankara to post Sankara advaitins. Brahman is the only
reality according to this school. How it is established and how the world and the human beings
are accounted for, are all explained in this unit. In Advaita, Liberation is not a product, but a
realisation.

Unit 2 on Visistadvaita which means qualified oneness or non-duality developed by

Vaishnavites speaks of oneness of reality qualified by body which is made up of the souls and
the universe. Primary difference of this school from that of Advaita is its realistic interpretation
of Maya, as power of Brahman. The unit highlights the important tenets of the qualified monism.

Unit 3 on Madhva’s philosophy which is a dualistic school of Vedanta tradition brings out the
views propounded by Madhva on the nature of Saksi, Visesa, Bheda, substance and attributes, the
universal, space and time are very much ahead of his times and remarkably suggestive.

Unit 4 portrays the unique contribution of Bhakti movements in the medieval period by
philosophizing the aspect of surrender, love and relationship between the Divine and the human
beings. Saiva Siddhanta from Tamil Saivism and Visistadvaita from Vaishnavism have a unique
blend of religion and philosophy.
 1

UNIT 1 ADVAITA VEDANTA

Contents

1.0. Objectives
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Brahman and Atman
1.3. Avidya and Maya
1.4. Karya and Karana (effect and cause)
1.5. Knowledge
1.6. Attaining Liberation through Knowledge
1.7. Let us sum up
1.8. Key words and sentences
1.9. Further Reading & References

1.0. OBJECTIVES

This unit is about Advaita Vedanta, its meaning and significance in Indian Philosophy. The word
Advaita according to the dictionary is non-dualism, especially in relation to identifying Brahman
with the Universal, or with Soul or the sprit and matter. It also means peerless and unique. Literal
meaning of Vedanta is the end of Veda. Upanishads came at the end of Veda, they are the Jnana
Kandas. They teach knowledge of Brahman or the universal Spirit, who is described as both -
Creator and Creation, Actor and Act, Existence, Knowledge, and Joy. Upanishad’s Major
Teachings are – the Self exists, it is immortal without a beginning or an end, essentially non –
material, and the self is identical with Brahman, the highest Reality, and the Absolute.

The main feature of Advaita Vedanta is to understand Brahman, the Supreme Soul. To
understand Brahman one has to attain knowledge, overcome ignorance, and be liberated and be
in vigilant state at the conscious level. Advaita Vedanta teaches three stages of truth. The first
stage is the transcendental or Paramarthika in which Brahman is the only reality and nothing
else. The second stage is the pragmatic or Vyavaharika in which both Jiva (living creatures and
individual souls) and God are true, and the material world is also true. The third and the last
stage is the apparent or Prathibhasika in which material world reality is actually false, like
mistaking a rope for a snake. To comprehend the essence of Advaita philosophy one has to
understand these topics: Brahman and Atman, Avidya and Maya (Ignorance and illusion), Karya
and karana (effect and cause), Knowledge, Attaining Liberation through Knowledge.
 2

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Around 7th century Gaudapada, the author of Mandukya Karika, a commentary on Mandukya
Upanishad discussed that there was no duality, awake or dream, the mind moves through illusion
(Maya) and only nonduality (Advaita) is the final truth. The truth is difficult to know because of
ignorance or illusion. There is no becoming of the thing by itself or from some other thing. There
is only Atman, ‘all –soul’, there is no individual soul. An individual soul is temporarily
delineated, as the space that a jar contains is delineated from the main space; once the jar is
broken the space within the jar merges with the vast space.

Sankara built further on Gaudapada’s foundation and gave more strength to the Adavita Vedanta.
His three major commentaries are on Brahmasutras, Upanishads and the Bhagavad-Gita.
Sankara while propounding his philosophy does not start from the empirical world with logical
analysis but, rather, directly from the Absolute, Brahman. Sankara’s metaphysics stands on the
criterion that the Real is that whose negation is impossible. Building his argument that the
Upanishads teach the nature of Brahman, he develops a complete epistemology to account for
the human error in taking the world as real. He justifies that Brahman is outside time, space, and
causality, which are simply forms of empirical experience; no distinction in Brahman or from
Brahman is possible.

Sankara strongly supporting that the world is not real but illusion, logically analyses his
statement:
1. Whatever remains eternal is true, and whatsoever is destroyed is non–eternal and
is untrue. As the world is created and destroyed, it is not real.
2. Truth is unchanging. Since the world is changing, it is not real.
3. Things that are independent of time and space are real, and whatever is in space
and time is unreal.
4. Just as one sees the dream in sleep, one sees a kind of dream even when one is
awake. The world is compared to this conscious dream.
5. The world is superimposition of Brahman. Superimposition cannot be real.

1.2 BRAHMAN AND ATMAN

According to dictionary meaning, Brahman is sacred learning, a divine source. Brahman is

considered as the Supreme, all-pervading spirit and the Soul of the Universe, the divine essence
and source of all being from which all created things emanate and to which they return. Brahman
as supreme Spirit is not an object of worship in the usual sense of the term, but Brahman is
meditated upon by the devout with profound veneration. Mandana Misra accepting Bhartrhari’s
thesis says that Brahman is language (Sabdadvaita). Brahman is consciousness, and
 3

consciousness is the power of speech, so Brahman is speech of the whole Universe manifestation
of Vivarta (speech). Brahman was the center theme in Upanishads, Jnana Kanda. In Chandogya
Upanishad, Tat tvam asi, (that thou art), Jiva is identified with Brahman. Brahman and the Self
are the one and the same. According to Advaita there is no duality. One and many, infinite and
finite, the subject and the object etc. are the limitation of consciousness that cannot comprehend
the Brahman due to ignorance or Avidya. There is no language to describe Brahman, it is like
‘neti, neti’, ‘not this, not this.’ Understanding Brahman is beyond the senses, He is the purest
Knowledge and illuminates like the source of light.

Brahman is self–existent, He is described as ‘Sachidananda’ – meaning Sat infinite truth, cit

infinite Consciousness, ananda infinite Bliss. Sankara sketches Him as “Satyam Jnanam
anantam brahma” (Taitiriya Up. II.1), Brahman is the Truth, Knowledge and Endless. Brahman
is free from any kind of differences or differentiation. Brahman is neither Sajatiya
(homogeneous) because there is no second to Him nor Vijatiya (heterogeneous) because none
other than Him exist; Ekamevadvitiyam, it is one without a second (Chandogya Upanishad).
Advaita philosophy is built on the strong hold of Upanishads and Brahmasutra. Upanishads give
various incidences where it is highlighted that Brahman = Atman; Prajanam brahma,
consciousness is Brahman (Aitareya Upanishad), Aham bramasmi, I am Brahman
(Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Ayamatma brahma, this Atman is Brahman (Mandukya
Upanishad). Brahmasutra starts with -”athato brahma jignasa” (chapter 1 Samanvaya: harmony
1.1). Taking these as examples, the philosophy puts forth the unique theory that Brahman is the
One, the Whole and only reality. Other than Brahman everything else, including the Universe,
material objects and individual are false. Brahman is infinite, omnipresent, omnipotent,
incorporeal, impersonal transcendent reality; that is the divine ground for all Being. There is no
separation or distinction between Brahman and others in the Universe. That is how when one
achieves the turiya state, one experiences that one’s soul becomes one with everything else.

Atman: Atman exactly means breath but according to some it is connected with aham (I) and
according to others contrast of avatman. From Vedic period Atman is interpreted as breath, soul,
the principle of life and sensation. After the Vedic period, in Indian philosophy, Atman is
described as the eternal core of the personality which survives after death and transmigrates to a
new life or is released from the bond of existence. Upanishads define Atman as part of the
universal Brahman, with which it can commune or even fuse. So Atman is deemed to be the
central circle identified with Brahma. Advaita Vedanta understands Atman not as a part of
Brahman that ultimately dissolves into Brahman, but as the whole of Brahman itself. One has to
understand how the individual soul, which is limited and one in each body can be same as
Brahman. The philosophy argues that Self is not an individual concept, Atman is only one and
unique. It is like the same moon that appears as several moons on its reflections on the surface of
the water covered with bubbles; Atman appears as different Atman in different bodies.

Atman is the silent witness of all the life happening and free from and beyond sin and merit. It is
incorporeal and independent. When the reflection of Atman leads to avidya (ignorance), Atman
becomes jiva – a living being with a body and senses. Each jiva feels that he has his own, unique
and distinct Atman called jivatman. The concept of jiva is true in pragmatic level. In the
 4

transcendental level, the Atman is equal to Brahman. The Advaita Vedanta explains the relative
and the unreal nature of the objective world; it propounds the Advaita (one without a second) and
states three levels of experience of the Atman – waking (vaishvanara), dreaming (taijasa) and
deep sleep (prajna).

1.3 AVIDYA AND MAYA

Sankara distinguishes Brahman as Higher Brahman and Lower Brahman in his major
Commentaries. According to him the Higher Brahman is understood only by knowledge (Vidya),
He is free from attachment, names and forms; He is Nirguna Brahman; this understanding brings
about Liberation. Saguna Brahman or God according to Sankara is Lower Brahman; he says that
this Brahman is viewed from the aspects of ignorance (Avidya). Arguing further, Sankara asks
when The Higher Brahman is the Absolute where is the cause for the distinction? He further says
that The Lower Brahman is the cause of diversity. The entire Advaita philosophy concentrates on
how one can understand Brahman. Philosophers discuss the hurdles that are faced while
understanding Brahman. The main characteristic to understand Brahman is Vidya (Knowledge).
Knowledge is possible only when the mind is cleared from doubts and apprehensions. As long as
there is no transparency learning becomes ignorance (avidya). Gaudapada calls ignorance as
vikalpa (wrong interpretation) and Sankara calls it as adhyasa (superimposition).

Samkhya gives an example for cause and effect; the pot is a transformation of the clay; it is and
real. But Advaita philosophy says that except Brahman the rest of the thing is only an
appearance, because of Avidya. Even the pot and clay, effect and cause become ‘unreal’ at
‘Higher Standpoint’ (Paramarthika) but ‘real’ at empirical standpoint (vyavaharica). Gaudapada
says that people fail to understand at the ‘higher point of view” because of wrong interpretation.
He gives another example how things are seen differently; One sees a rope at dusk and thinks it
as a snake, due to the wrong interpretation of the senses. Sankara calls this wrong interpretation
‘superimposition’ (adhyasa). He defines it as “the appearance, in the form of a memory, of
something personally experienced in some other place.” Unless one has the idea of or seen a
snake, it is not possible to mistake a rope for a snake. Similarly it is natural tendency to
superimpose the qualities of the object on its subject and vice versea. Karl H. Potter writes, “….
We identify our self quo seat of consciousness with our self quo body, mind, memory etc. all of
which are objects, not subjects, and so have at least one property that the self quo subject cannot
have.” Sankara identifies such superimposition with the result of avidya (ignorance). The only
way to overcome ignorance is to thrive by Vidya (knowledge).

Maya
There are references to the use of the word ‘Maya’ in the Rig Veda and in a few Upanishads as
‘mysteries’. Even Advaita Vedanta uses the same meaning in its interpretation of the word
‘Maya’. Gaudapada uses Maya in different occasions not only to mean the power of apparently
creating things but also to speak of the things so created. This kind of usage is found in
Buddhism. In this respect Goudapada is influenced by Buddhism. He does not identify Maya
 5

with avidya but Sankara does. Sankara uses the term avidya to speak of that which creates the
world of Maya or name and form, but does not refer to the world itself as avidya. Joshi has
pointed out that Sankara is not consistent in this respect. But it is indicated, Sankara uses avidya
while discussing superimposition and Maya while mentioning prakruti or namarupa. Karl Potter
writes, “Sankara makes it known that superimposition does not need a cause as it is beginning
less. Avidya is for the empirical objects in the world but for the false awareness of those objects.”

A few scholars question the identical use of avidya and Maya; they argue, if ignorance is of jiva,
then it belongs to Brahman. Maya is God’s power to produce the world as illusion. The main
concept of Advaita Vedanta is that there is no individual self or jivas and everything is Brahman.
If such is the case then ignorance is of Brahman. The question arises “What is avidya?”
Mandana Mishra says that ignorance is anirvachaniya (as neither real nor unreal). Sureshwara
points out that avidya is unreal, so, it does not affect Brahma. However the jiva takes avidya for
real, so it is jiva which is ignorant. Even though Sankara does not have definite terminology to
distinguish between avidya and Maya; he stresses, “Avidya and Maya are causing us to
experience (superimposition) the thing that we do, which is to give it a positive function beyond
that of merely veiling Brahman.” Maya has a complex illusory power of Brahman which causes
the Brahman to be seen as the material world of separate forms. Maya has two functions; one is
to ‘hide’ Brahman from ordinary human perception, and the other is to present the material world
in its (Brahman) place, Maya is also said to be indescribable, though it may be said that sense
data entering ones awareness via the five senses are Maya, since the fundamental reality
underlying sensory perception is completely hidden. The credibility of Maya being real or unreal
is not for sure. But Brahman is not touched by Maya. It is like the magician who is not affected
by his own tricks.

Both avidya and Maya are temporary. An action is not necessary to overcome avidya. It is
naturally removed by its opposite Vidya (knowledge). Knowing needs intention and depends on
the agent. For example to milk a cow, what is needed is a cow and the cognition of milking.
Whereas, if one has a false understanding, mistake can be rectified by correct information; a
false understanding of a rope as a snake is removed when one receives the information that it is
rope. Knowledge is gained by personal perseverance to know the Truth. The truth is realized at
two levels, one is to study the great Scripture with the guidance of a Teacher (guru) and the
second level is to examine one’s ‘miss’ interpretation of things and situation. The self
examination starts with the questioning of one’s own understanding of the present and the
previous experiences; one has to examine the reasons for the false interpretation and realize the
‘higher’ knowledge governed by nothing but the truth: how is that the snake is superimposed on
a rope? Is it due to fear of the snake or the failure of the senses to recognize correctly? Are rope
and snake two different objects? If they are two distinct objects then why one is superimposed on
the other? Clarity in understanding brings about Truth. The truth is the knowledge.

Check your progress I

Note: Use the space provided below for your answers.

 6

1. How does Upanishad characterize Brahma?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

2. What is Avidya according to Advaita Vedanta?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

1.4 KARYA AND KARANA (EFFECT AND CAUSE)

Gaudapada justifies that an object which is not existing at the beginning can exist in the end or in
the middle, that is to say an object is not completely nonexistent. He gives an example of a
dream. When one dreams, he knows that it does not exist. In sleep, the dream originates, exists
for some time; once the sleeper wakes up the dream ceases to exist. Gaudapada says even the
objects one sees in wakeful state are unreal as they originate like in dream. He divides objects in
two groups–Real (sat) and unreal (asat). Unreal objects are born and seen to be real. Discussing
the relation of cause and effect, he says that both cause and effects are unreal under four
possibilities:
1. If the effect is different from the cause, then it is not real
2. If the cause is unreal and becomes real in effect it will be absurd like like son of a barren
woman.
3. The cause is real and the effect is not.
4. The last one is, both cause and effect are unreal, in which case nothing ever comes to
existence or goes out of existence.

He says that whatever originates has to end, like Samsara, emotions etc. Nothing can stay for
ever. Sankara’s argument about cause and effect is that when one’s understanding of a thing
called A, depends on the persistence of another thing B and it might be a possibility that A and B
are similar in nature, but A might not be equal to B; in such a case, understanding of A does not
depend upon understanding of B. For example, a horse can be perceived without the presence of
a donkey. And it is further put forth that an agent (karta) is necessary for a cause (karana) and
effect (karya). To make a pot, clay is the cause, the pot is an effect, the person who does the pot
is the agent, karta, as he is the one who gives shape to the pot. Without the agent the effect will
not come into existence. Sankara says, “The only thing that one properly functions as agent is the
effect itself.” He further states that cause has a pre existence of the effect before it is manifested.
 7

Causality involves relationship between the agent with the nature and the effect with the nature.
Agent brings about effect manifestation to our experience. The effect pot is made out of clay.
The effect is thus identical in substance with its cause, pre-existent in it is the potency, and this is
sakaryavada. This causation is called as parinamavada and vivartavada. Samkhya system adopts
parinamavada; it says that pot is a transformation of the clay, the cause and effect exist at the
appointed time and it is not ‘unreal’. But vivartanavada argues that the pot is an object but an
appearance is a work of imagination conditioned by ignorance (avidya). Advaita hails
vivartanavada rather than parinamavada model. The reality of the cause is in reality only
relative of the effect, with the pot the clay is ‘real’. But Sankara says even the clay is not
ultimately real. The ultimate reality brings about only Brahma and all the others are considered
as Avidya. Further discussing the cause and effect, Advaita Vedanta says that Karya (effect) is
non–different from the Karana (cause). Nevertheless Karana is different from Karya. This
principle is called Karya – Karana ananyatva (non – difference of the effect from the cause).
It is said - if the cause is destroyed, the effect will no longer exist. For example, in the cotton
cloth, if thread is removed, then there will not be cloth, the cloth is destroyed. Similarly, the
effect thread, the cause, cotton is removed then there will not be any thread. Sankara taking
Brahma sutra 2.1.9 “Ananyatva Karyakaranayoh karyasya karanatmatvam na tu karanasta
kartaymatvam - despite the non–difference of cause and effect, the effect has its self in the cause
but not the cause in the effect. The effect is of the nature of the cause and not the cause the nature
of the effect. Therefore the qualities of the effect cannot touch the cause. At the time of the
existence, one can easily grasp that the effect is not different from the cause. But the cause is
different from the effect is not readily understood. As to this, it is not easy to separate cause and
effect. But it is possible by imagination. For example, the reflection of the moon in the mirror,
only the form of the moon is seen but it is not the moon itself as it (the reflection) has no moon in
it. In Chandogya Upanishad it is said – Sarvam ca namarupadi sadatmanaiva atyam vikarajatam
svatastu anrtameva – all names and forms are real when seen with the Sat (Brahman) but are
false when seen independent of Brahman. Karya is not different from the karana, nonetheless
karana is different from karya. Jagat (the world) is not different from Brahman; on the other
hand Brahman is different from the jagat.

1.5. KNOWLEDGE
True Knowledge is attained by eagerness to learn. The ambition to know the ultimate ‘Truth’
leads to wisdom. When snake is superimposed on the rope, correct information that it is only a
rope not a snake must be clarified. The person who has mistaken the rope for a snake must
understand the object rope as the existing thing and snake as an illusion. Before deciding to
perceive an object right or wrong one has to know how the things are perceived in the first place.
Advaita philosophy states that there are six different ways of learning –
• Pratyaksha – the knowledge gained by the senses
• Anumana - the knowledge gained by inference
• Upamana – the knowledge gained by analogy
• Sabda or agama – knowledge gained by testimony
 8

• Arthapatti – the knowledge gained by superimposing the known knowledge on an

appearing knowledge that does not occur with the known knowledge.
• Anupalabdhi – the knowledge gained by negation
Among all these the importance is given to verbal testimony (sabda or agama).

To acquire knowledge pramatr (the subject), the knower of the knowledge, pramana (the cause
or the means) of knowledge and the prameya (the object) of knowledge are very essential.
Knowledge is achieved by mediate or immediate, the difference is that while in the first, only
‘that’ of the object is known, in the second, ‘what’ is also understood. Both are alike vritti
(behaviour) of the internal organ in which the sakshin (what is present) is imminent. In some
cases to obtain knowledge, it does not involve sensory perception. The empirical self is
understood immediately but it is not presented to any senses. So, the word ‘pratyaksa’ (present
to the sense) is replaced with ‘aparoksa’ (not immediate). Knowledge is immediate whether it is
by the senses or not. The object must be such that one can comprehend directly (yogya). For
example, a chair is understood by looking at it but not kindness. Other condition is that the object
must be present at the time. Finally there must be an intimate relationship between the subject
and the object in question. For the external object the vrtti flows out to understand where as
internal, it originates inside; like understanding happiness or sorrow.

Accomplishment of knowledge happens when subject and object come together and by
hypothesis they are removed from each other and occupy a different place in space; the vritti
relates these two and brings about for the time being identical ground for the two. Describing
how the understanding takes place M. Hiriyanna writes, “When an organ is brought in contact
with an object, the antahkarana, like a search light as it were, goes out towards it and gets itself
determined by it or assumes the ‘form’ of the object. The existence of knowledge is thus
necessary so that psychologically, the theory is realistic. When the vritti coincides with the object
the perceptual knowledge arises.” Vritti is internal so it coincides with jiva. This brings about the
connection between the knower and the known. As these stages of knowing are internal, M.
Hiriyanna says that the object is ‘felt’ rather known. The same thing happens to the internal also
like happiness and sorrow, the condition is that at the time of knowing it must be present. In
some situation like religious merits ‘punya’ and demerits ‘papa’ the anthakarana cannot
understand because of the lack of condition ‘yogyatva’ or ‘feltness’. They are understood by
verbal testimony. Going back to the mistaking rope for a snake, the antahkarana understand the
object by arthapatti. This wrong understanding can be rectified if the subject is made to realize
by sabda. Once anumana is cleared then it makes way to the True Knowledge.

1.6 ATTAINING LIBERATION THROUGH KNOWLEDGE

Almost all Indian philosophical systems give importance to ‘Liberation’ and looks at it as the
main aim of the mankind and Advaita is no exception. Advaita Vedanta looks at Liberation as
Being, Knowing and Experiencing one’s True Self. Pure knowledge is not under other’s control
nor is it under any control, it is something one has. All it needs is a quest to know the Truth and
Reality, once one has the thrust to know immediately the pure knowledge surfaces to
 9

understanding. According to Sankara there are four outstanding characteristic of a person who is
in quest of the Pure Knowledge. He is able to distinguish between what is eternal and what is
not. He will be non attached to present and future actions. He acquires moral virtues like
tranquility, restraint etc. He desires liberation, Advaita says that liberation is free from
differentiation and identifies only with ‘True Self’, which is without beginning and end and
without any change of any sort. Sankara disputes the idea of the Mimamsas that Liberation is a
result of action. Firstly, he says that liberation is identical with ‘True Self; the true self does not
have a commencement or finish, whereas the result of an action, has a starting and comes to
existence when an act is performed. So, the Liberation cannot be the result of an action.
Secondly, there are four kinds of actions – Utpatti, (the origination), for example, a potter
making a pot; Apati, (the attainment) of a state, like arriving at a place; Samskara (the
purification), performing rituals; Vikara (the modification), change taking place like milk turning
to curds.

To attain Liberation these actions are not necessary. The only entity of Liberation is to cognize
Brahman, this is the heart of Advaita epistemology and philosophy of language. Liberation is not
a product. Liberation does not change a person; the liberated need not have to become someone
or something else. Liberation is not to reach a place (heaven) as a result of an action. The
liberated will not die and be born again. Gaudapada says, “There is no liberation.” Liberation is
similar to the difference in light reflections from a stained mirror to a spotless mirror. Sankara
propounds that liberation is not a future state or goal, but it exists in the present, past and the
future without any time bound. The Self realization brings about the awareness that Brahman is
pure consciousness (Cit), awareness (Jnana) and witness (saksin), Brahman is self luminous, by
His light everything shines out. While such an understanding is reached then the relationship
between knower and the known merges. There will be no subject and object relationship.
Sankara is of the opinion that even the state of Bliss (ananda) is not cognized or experienced by
the Liberated Soul.

Gaudapada in his work Mandukya Katika, book 3, commenting on non duality (Karika 37 – 48)
states that Liberation is, “Rather the awareness (of the mind), Samadhi (concentration), which is
beyond language and thought, very calm and unwavering, full of light and without fear. Since
there are no thoughts about objects, the awareness rests in itself and attains equanimity.” He
further argues that it is not easy to reach this state because we are grounded by fear. This is
difficult even for the Yogis. When one reaches this state, one is free from all pain or pleasure
because there will be no distinction or awareness of the emotional attachment due to physical
senses. The mind will be immersed in the divine light of understanding the Absolute. There is
oneness with the whole of the Universe. The liberated man functions like a burnt seed, he will be
inactive. It is like liberation in living, the behaviour is to live his life to complete his present
life’s Prarabdhakarma.

Check your progress II

Note: Use the space provided below for your answers.
 10

1. “Jagat (the world) is not different from Brahman; on the other hand Brahman is different from
the jagat.” – justify this statement.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
2. What is ‘superimposition’, according to Sankara?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
3. Will Liberation change a person?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
1.7 LET US SUM UP

It is through pure consciousness (vijnana) one understands the ‘Truth’. Thrust for the ‘Truth’
does not have a beginning or end. It is always present inside, only one needs to recognize it.
When one understands the greatest truth of the Absolute, Brahman that the effect of the world is
illuminating like a source of infinite light then he is liberated from the ignorance (Avidya) and
released from illusion (Maya). It is said, “The manifold universe is, in truth, a single Reality.
There is only one Great Being, which the sages call Brahman, in which all countless forms of
existence reside. That Great Being is utter consciousness, and it is the very essence, or self
(Atman) of all being.” Advaita upholds that a person can be liberated while still living in the
body. The identification of the Self with the Highest Self is the liberation. According to Advaita,
“There is neither dissolution nor creation, neither a person in bondage nor any spiritual aspirant
neither any seeker after liberation nor one that is liberated this realization is the highest truth.”
The ethics of the Advaita philosophy stress that the liberated understands the Absolute, Brahman
and lead a life and do what they have to do in their life time like a dew drop on a leaf to merge in
the Sun light.
1.8. KEY WORDS

Consciousness: awareness (in philosophy) the power of the mind, whether rational or not,
to be aware of acts, sensations or emotions

Manifestation: that act or process of showing, making manifest

Perception: the act of perceiving, understanding that is the result of perceiving

 11

Prajnanam Brahma: Consciousness is Brahman (Aitareya Upanishad, Rig Veda)

Aham Brahmasmi: I am Brahman (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Yajur Veda)

Tat tvam asi: That thou art (Chandogya Upanishad, Sama Veda)

Ayamatma Brahna: This Atman is Brahman (Mandukya Upanishad, Atharva Veda)

Athato Brahma jignasa: now therefore the inquiry into the nature of Brahman
(Brahmasutra, Chapter one Samanvaya: harmony, 1. 1. 1.)

1.9 FURTHER READING REFERENCES

Bhattacharyya, Haridas. Ed. The Cultural Heritage of India. Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Institute
of Culture, 1969.

Hiriyanna, M. Outlines of Indian Philosophy. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1985.

Potter, Karl H. Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies. Delhi: Mothilal Banarsidass, 1981.

Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. Vol. II. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004.

Rao, K.B. Ramakrishna. Advaita Vedanta: Problems and Perspectives. Mysore: University of
Mysore, 1980.

Rao, Srinivasa. Advaita - A Critical Investigation. Bangalore: Jnana Bharati, 1985.

 1

UNIT 2 VISISTADVAITA

Contents

2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Origin and History of the School
2.3 The scriptural foundations of the School
2.4 Philosophy of Visistadvaita: An Overview
2.5 Theory of Knowledge
2.6 Brahman
2.7 Jivas or Individual Souls
2.8 The Means of Liberation
2.9 The Two sects of Sri-Vaishnaivsm
2.10 Comparison with Other Traditions
2. 11 Let Us Sum up
2.12 Keywords
2.13 Further Readings and References

2.0 OBJECTIVES

One of the prominent philosophical schools that gave Bhakti a philosophical foundation is
Visistadvaita which originated in the 11th century C.E in south India. The aim of the unit is to
familiarize students with this origin and historical development and to impart to them the basic
tents of this school.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Visistadvaita is the name given to the philosophy of Sri Ramanuja and his followers. It means
'advaita” = “oneness” ; “Visistasya” = of the Lord who is “qualified.” Here the Lord is qualified
by a 'body' (sarira) constituted by the animate (cit) souls and the inanimate (acit) universe.
 2

While 'visistadvaita' is the name given to the philosophy of Ramanuja, its another name 'Sri-
Vaishnavism' stands for the religious aspects of this thesitic school of vedanta. The term 'Sri-
Vaishnavism' refers to the system of thought where Vishnu, along with His consort Sri (Laksmi)
occupies the supreme position. She is the mother of the entire creation, being the consort of Lord
Visnu. She also acts as the mediator (purusakara) between man and God and brings about union
between them. It is because of this reason the theistic philosophical system of Ramanuja is
significantly known as 'Sri-Vaishnaivsm'. It is also known as 'Sri-sampradaya' because 'Sri' is
recounted as one of the 'teachers' in the transmission of this tradition. Thus both the expressions
Sri-Vaishnaivsm and 'Sri-sampradaya' signify the role of 'Sri' (Laksmi) in the process of
liberation.

2.2 THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE SCHOOL

Though the origin of 'Visistadvaita' is historically associated with the philosopher Ramanuja,
long before him, from the 2nd to the 9th century CE, a group of 12 Vaishnavite mystics—known
as Alwars in South India—poured out, in the regional language of Tamil, their love of God and
their vision and experiences of the divine through ecstatic, soul-stirring and moving metaphors
and symbols. Their outpourings constitute one of the most important scriptures of Tamil
Vaishnavism, known as Nalayira Divya Prabandham (literally it means 'The Book of Four-
thousand Divine Stanzas') that contains the four thousand songs of these Vaishavite saints.
These songs are regarded as the primary source book for the philosophy of Ramanuja and his
followers. Though these songs probably were in circulation among the people of this region in
oral form, it was Nathamuni who set them to writing and put them to singing in the temples. But
the tradition has it that Nammalvar, alias Sathakopa revealed these songs to Nathamuni in his
yogic trance.

Another great figure in the pre-Ramanuja period was Yamunacharya alias Alavandar, the
grandson of Nathamuni. Alavandar picked up Ramanuja as his chosen instrument for
propagating the philosophy of the Vedas. He wrote several works such as Siddhi-traya and
Girartha Samgraha and Stotra Ratna. Ramanuja never forgets to express his indebtedness to
Yamuna by proclaiming his glory in his works. The works of Ramanuja such as Sri-Bhasya,
Vedartha-sangraha and Gadya-traya and his commentary on the Bhagavad-gita serve as a
strong philosophical foundation for the development of Visistadvaita philosophy. Yet it should
be noted that some of Ramanuja works in many ways are further developments on and
reminiscent of Yamuna's writings. For instance while Ramanuja's commentary on Brahma Sutra
finds in it good deal of arguments from Yamuna's Siddhitraya, former's work of Saranagati
Gadya is an imitation of Yamuna's Stotra Ratna.

After Ramanuja the school of Visistadvaita got divided in course of time into two groups
Vadagalai (the Northen School) and Thengalai (Southern School) the separation of which was
based on eighteen doctrinal matters. While the former sub-school is founded vastly on the views
of Vedanta Desika, the latter owes allegiance to the ideas of Pillai Lokacarya.
 3

2.3 THE SCRIPTURAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE SCHOOL

According to Visistadvaita tradition, the hymns of Alwars, Divya Prabhandam, were considered
to be equal in importance to Sanskrtic Vedas. Sri-Vaishnavites call Divya Prabhandam as the
Tamil Veda and they regarded it as authoritative as Prasthana-trya (the triple cannon of
Vedatanta philosophy:Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma-Sutra) Since this school
considers both Sanskrit and Tamil scriptures as normative and foundational, the Visistadvaita
system itself is regarded as Ubhaya-Vedanta (double Vedanta). To the group of authoritative
texts, they also add the Vaishanava Agamas and the Puranas especially the Bhagavata Purana.

As mentioned above, one of the distinguishing characters of this school is the pre-eminence
given to Alwars and their vision as supreme models of Vaishavite tradition. According to
Vaishnavite belief, these Alwars were incarnations of Lord Vishnu's attendants such as Adi-sesa
and Garuda and the accoutrements such as conch (sakha) and the discus (cakara). The Alwars,
twelve in number including a woman saint (Andal), were born in all castes and strata of society,
and in areas widespread in the South. Among the alwars, the most important saint is 'Nammalvar'
whose work 'Tiruvaymozhi' is compared to 'Sama Veda' in its richness and depth. As their name
Alwars (meaning the ones 'who dived into the divine,') denote, they were immersed in God-love
and God-bliss and their primary mission was nothing but spreading the glory and love of God. It
is to be noted that their vertical love for God encompassed their horizontal relationship with
other fellow Vaishnavites and other human beings needing God's mercy.

2.4 PHILOSOPHY OF VISISTADVAITA: AN OVERVIEW

Visistadvaita philosophy believes that the supreme reality is Saguna Brahman, a personal being
with countless auspicious attributes, and it is a qualified whole of which Brahman is the soul, and
the Jiva and the Jagat (the soul and material nature) constitute the body, which has an inseparabe
relationship with the whole. Though it is a non-dual whole, yet it is characterised by internal
differences in it. This is why this one reality is called 'Visistadvaita” meaning 'qualified non-
dualism'. Here the non-dual reality is made known by its qualities—the souls and the world
which are of two different natures. These two kinds of entities are distinct yet real parts of the
whole. The 'Visistadvaita” was not coined by Ramanuja but came to be used by others
afterwards. Some regard the doctrine of Visistadvaita as absolute realism, without any place for
illusion of any kind. There is no category like maya which is described in Advaita as an
indeterminate existent-non-existent entity. Ramanuja considers such a description as a
philosophical fantasy. Maya for him is the power of Brahman and its effects are absolutely real,
though changing.

2.5 THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

 4

According to this school, perception, inference and scripture are valid as sources of knowledge,
and each valid source is an affirmation of reality in its own domain. Unlike Sankara Ramanuja
does not admit a distinction between illusory perception and true perception, for even in the so
called illusory perception there is some perception of reality. Even in the famous mistaken
cognition of ‘shell as silver’ when someone makes a statement that ‘this is silver,’ it is not only
‘this’ that refers to what is real, but also ‘silver.’ In other words, both are the reality of ‘this’ (the
object) and that of the silver (and the identification of the object as something) are real.
Visistadvaita argue for their point with the help of the doctrine of pancicarna (quintiplicaion),
according to which in any given gross element the other four elements are also present as
subordinate parts. This school would say that all things should be present in all things. In shell
there are particles of silver; and in the so-called illusion (maya ) ‘this is silver’ it is the particles
of ‘silver’ that are perceived. And so, the silver-cognition in ‘shell’ is of the “real”, and not of
what is fictitious or imaginary. Even in the case of mistaken identity of ‘mirage’ as ‘water’ there
is some truth in it, because in the desert-sand which belongs to the category of element ‘earth’
there is the element of ‘water’also. Thus knowledge necessarily refers to what is real, even in
cases where cognitions are considered to be erroneous. This theory of error is known as
yathartha-khyati-vada (the doctrine of the apprehension of what is real)

If so how does one distinguish between valid cognition and invalid cognition, if both refer to
what is real? The distinction is not a logical one. We cannot even say that in erroneous cognition,
the reference is to a part of what is perceived whereas in valid cognition, the reference is to the
whole; for in valid cognition too, it is only a part of that is perceived. In shell, for example, the
shell-particles do not constitute the whole of the object presented; they too are only a part,
although the predominant part. Psychologically, the experience of shell as silver takes place
because of greed, defective sense-organ etc. and one sees only the silver-element, although it is
minute, and omits to notice the other elements, of which the shell-element is predominant. The
distinction between truth and error can be accounted for in terms of success and failure,
respectively, in practice. What is of service to people in life is true and what fails to serve people
in their practical needs is said to be false. That is why Visistadvaita defines valid knowledge ‘as
that which reveals an object as it is and is useful in practice.’ Thus all knowledge, according to
Ramanuja, is of the real.

Vistitadvaita is known for its peculiar view of dual aspects of knowledge (jnana) of the jivas.
The knowledge or consciousness of the Jiva has two aspects. The first is its basic or substantive
consciousness (dharmi- jnana) and the second its attributive-consciousness (dharma- bhuta-
jnana) By virtue of dharmi- jnana, the Jiva is only self-aware. It is the dharma- bhuta-jnana that
makes it aware of others including Isvara. If the substantive consciousness is like light, the
attributive consciousness is like luminosity. In the state of ignorance it is almost one with
unconscious matter (Prakrti) but its dharmi- jnana keeps up its individuality and the possibility
of developing the dharma-bhuta-jnana further. What stands in the way of this expansion of
dharma- bhuta-jnana is its load of karma from beginningless time. It is the creative process of
Isvara that helps this development. When fully developed, it embraces the all-knowing dharma-
bhuta-jnana of Isvara Himself. The Jiva however never merges in Him. Its dharmi- jnana keeps
up its individuality, just as a wick-light maintains its separateness even when its effulgence
becomes submerged in the brilliance of the sun.
 5

2.6 BRAHMAN

Brahman is the basis of all existence. The universe is composed of cit (the sentient) and acit (the
non-sentient) and both have their source in Brahman, and he is the indwelling Self within all and
the ruler of all. Brahman is both the first and the final cause of the universe. Like in any other
system of Indian thought, the universe alternates between the phases of evolution and
dissolution. In the phase of dissolution, the universe goes back to Brahman and remain latent in
Brahman and creation or evolution is the actualization of the latent. The one becomes many in
the sense that Brahman, by exercise of his will, evolves into twenty-four categories and the jivas,
or individual souls. Thus Brahman is the material as well as the efficient cause of the universe.
To put it differently, God, as the source and support of the universe, has transformed himself into
the cosmic manifold; and he is the indwelling Self in his creation, the ruler and director of the
cosmic process. The evil that the universe contains is the result of the karma of the individuals,
for whom God is the dispenser of the Law. But God himself remains unaffected by evil and is
forever absolutely good. God, though he has transformed into the universe of sentient and non-
sentient forms, remains distinct from them. He is defined in Upanishads as satyam (real), jnanam
(conscious) and anantam (infinite). Ramanuja, while commenting on this text, states that because
of this distinctive attributes God is above and beyond matter—a changing phenomenon, and
distinct from individual souls caught up in the cycle of birth and rebirth. Though, the universe is
the transformation of Brahman, he remains by his nature beyond change, and though immanent,
he is transcendent.

As mentioned earlier, Brahman is related to the cosmos as the soul is related to the body. As
human beings have a soul and a body, and as the soul, though distinct from the body, yet controls
and guides it, lives in it, and uses it as an instrument, similarly Brahman is the soul of the
universe, the source and sustenance of all beings within it, and the ruler of all. In the metaphor of
body-soul relationship between God on the one hand, and the world and the individual jivas on
the other hand, are present threefold relations defined by Ramanuja: adhara and adheya—
support and the supported; niyamaka and niyamya—the controller and the controlled; seshin and
sesa—the Lord and his servant. God as the controller of the universe is absolutely good and the
redeemer of all beings. Evil and suffering are caused by individual’s karmas. Karmas—good or
evil deeds—create happiness or misery; but by karmas alone man cannot redeem himself. Only
the grace of God can save him; God is therefore the saviour. In his infinite love, his absolute
goodness, he is forever merciful and takes avatara to redeem them.

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.

 6

1. What is the meaning of Visistadvaita?

…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
........................................…................................................................................................................
................................................2. Describe Ramanuja's idea of maya.
…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
3. Is Brahman the material and efficient cause of the universe? Is God transcendent and
immanent?
…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................

2.7 JIVAS OR INDIVIDUAL SOULS

The Visistadvaita philosophy establishes that the finite self is an eternal spiritual entity yet not a
separate self-existent entity, but an organ, an element of Brahman. It is part of Brahman,
essentially different from him but inseparably bound to him. Jiva always maintains its
distinctiveness even though it is part of Brahman. Even in the state of Moksa, it does not lose its
individuality. Jivas are infinite in number. It is monadic in substance (anu). Svetasvatara
Upanishad (V 9) says that the self is infinitely smaller than the hundredth part of the point of a
hair divided a hundred times and yet it is infinite in range. The monadic character of jiva is its
natural form. That is, it is not caused or conditioned by any physical limitation. The finite self is
essentially an attribute (prakara) of God. As substance and attribute, they are inseparably
associated with God on the one hand, and distinct from one another and from God on the other
hand. As inseparably associated with God, the individual self is eternal; and as distinct from him,
it has a personality of its own.

The jivas are essentially of the nature of knowledge (jnana-svarupa). They are not merely of the
nature of knowledge but are also the substrata of knowledge (jnanasrya). The individual self
which is the knower is also the agent of action (karta) and enjoyer of pleasure and pain (bhokta).
It is to be noted that jiva is regarded as knower in the sense that it is the asraya or a substratum
for knowledge through which all experiences take place. By being a substratum (asraya) for
jnana which is subject to modifications, jiva is not subjected to any change. In the same way
kartrtva and bhoktrtva admitted in jiva do not involve change in it. Jiva is karta or doer in the
 7

sense that it is the asraya or substratum for krti or effort. Effort is caused by a desire (iccha) to
do an act. It is therefore a mental modification or an avastha of jnana. It is not to be confused
with the actual physical activity which follows subsequent to the desire to do an act. In so far as
jiva is the astraya for the krti which is a particular state of knowledge, jiva becomes the karta.
The change involved in the physical activity does not affect the karta. The same explanation
holds good for jiva being the bhokta. Pleasure and pain are different states of mind resulting
either in an agreeable disposition of mind (anukulatva-jnana) or in a disaggreable disposition of
mind (pratikulatva-jnana) respectively. As jiva is the asraya for such states of experience, it is
regarded as bhokta or enjoyer of pleasure and pain. The change involved in such mental
dispositions applies to the attributive-knowledge and not to jiva. Such an explanation is logically
tenable in the Visistadvaita system because of the admission of dharma-bhuta-jnana as distinct
from jivatman. The modification applies to the former, while the latter remains unaffected.

2.8 THE MEANS OF LIBERATION

According to Visistadvaita system, Bhakti (loving devotion) and Prapatti (whole-hearted self-
surrender) are the alternate means of liberation. They are adopted by people according to their
own eligibility and taste. Bhakti basically means loving devotion towards God. The term (Bhakti)
derived from the root bhaj = 'to share, partake, to enjoy' calls for a reciprocal relationship
between the deity and the devotee. Bhakti is not a mere emotional pursuit, according to
Ramanuja. It involves training one’s mind and intellect towards love of God. Non-stop constant
contemplation is the very essence of Bhakti. It implies an unperturbed total concentration on
God. Ramanuja compares it to the continuous flow of oil poured form one vessel to another.
“tailadharavad avicchinna-smriti-santana-parampara,”

In Ramanuja's view, various terms such as “upasanam”, “dhyanam”, “niddhyasanam” found in

the Upanishads, along with the term “janam” are all synonymous with Bhakti. By Bhakti is
meant unbroken chain of thoughts on God. When that is assured, liberation is near at hand.
Traditionally, Bhakti has several aspects like sravana (listening to the discourses on the Lord),
Kirtana (singing His glories), Smarana (remembering Him), Padasevanam (serving Lord's lotus
feet, i.e., worshiping him in the sacred places), arcanam (doing pooja to him according to the
rules laid down in the sacred texts), vandanam (doing namaskaras/prostrations), dasyam (serving
him like a servant), sakhyam (becoming his friend) and atmanivedanam (offering everything one
has, including the body, to the Lord).

Sri Vaishanava tradition points out that this Bhakti can be cultivated through seven steps, called
the “Sadhana-saptaka.” They are: Viveka, Vimoka, Abhyasa, Kriya, Kalyana, Anavasada and
Anuddharsha. They can be explained as follows:

Viveka: Discrimination of food. Taking sattvic food (sweets, fruits, ghee, etc.) makes one’s mind
pure. Purity of mind leads to steady contemplation on the Lord.
 8

Cf. “Aharasuddhau sattvasuddhih, sattvasuddhau dhruva smritih.” (When the food is pure, mind
becomes pure; when the mind is pure, recollection of the Lord becomes steady).
Vimoka: Cessation of all desires for material enjoyment.
Abhyasa: Repeated thinking on the Lord.
Kriya: Performing “five great yajnas” ( Panchamahayajnas) according to one’s capacity. They
are:

1. Study of sacred scriptures/ teaching them (Brahma-yajna),

2. Offering food etc. to the departed spirits (pitr-yajna).
3. Performing fire sacrifices for the gods (daiva-yajna)
4. Offering food to the other beings like animals (bhuta-yajna) and
5. Hospitality to the guests (narayana).
It may be noted that according to the traditional view, those who are not invested with the sacred
thread and women are not eligible to perform the first of the five yajnas listed above, namely,
Brahma yajna which involves teaching/ studying the Vedas. “Brahma” here means the “Veda.”

Kalyana: Cultivating auspicious qualities like truthfulness, non-injury to animals and

straightforwardness.
Anavasada: Displaying unwavering faith, not losing one’s heart even in the worst calamity but
continuing contemplation on God with cheerfulness.
Anuddharsa: maintaining moderation and not becoming over-joyed even when there appear
indications that God is becoming favourable.

Visistadvaita holds that although these seven steps are prescribed to cultivate Bhakti, they are not
easy for an ordinary man to follow. Hence it is declared that Bhakti is difficult to practice in the
manner expected of the devotees. In contradistinction to Bhakti, Prapatti or whole-hearted
surrender is easier. It can be adopted by one and all, without any distinctions of caste, creed or
sex. It can be adopted at any time and place. All are eligible for it. Prapatti is also known as
Saranagati, Nyasa, Bharanyasa, Atmanikshepa, Thyaga, Samnyasa, Namaskarta etc.

Prapatti, like Bhakti, is only a kind of mental attitude towards God. If one thinks one can please
God by one's own personal efforts like kirtana, vandana, etc. one is called a Bhakta. If however,
one feels convinced that one cannot please God by one's own personal efforts, and that nothing
apart form God’s grace can save him or her, one becomes a Prapanna. Prapatti needs to be
done only once. It need not be done again and again, as Bhakti.

There are five subsidiaries (angas) or Prapatti. They are:

 9

1. Anukulya-sankalpa: Resolve to do only things favourable to God and wishing good

for all
2. Pratikulya-varjana: Avoiding things disliked by God.
3. Raksishyati iti visvasah (Mahavisvasah): Firm faith in the saviourship of God.
4. Goptritva-varanam: Requesting the Lord to be the protector.
5. Atmaniksepa-karpanyam: Placing one’s burden at the feet of the Lord in all meekness
and humility.

These five angas make Prapatti complete and efficacious. Of all these, Mahavisvasa is the very
heart of Prapatti. Without it, all the other angas become insignificant.

The later Srivaisnava teachers add one more point to the means of liberation. Apart from Bhakti
and Prapatti “Acaryanistha” is also capable of procuring Moksa. It consists of trusting one’s
own acarya as the savior. Those who entertain this view argue that since one’s acarya himself
has done Prapatti to the Lord, one need not separately do it. Tengalai holds that since Sri
Ramanuja did Prapatti in his life-time, his followers, direct and indirect are exempted from
doing individual Prapatti. The Vadagalai, however, contend that what Sri Ramanuja did was for
his own sake and that the successors of his have to do Saranagati separately, for their own good.
According to those who advocate this Acarya-nistha, even the Supreme Being becomes
unimportant when compared to the guru. Madurakavi Alvar, for instance, declared in his
Kanninn Siruthambu that his own guru Nammalvar was more important to him than Lord Krsna
Himself, whom Nammalvar resorted to.

2.9 THE TWO SECTS OF SRI-VAISHNAIVSM

As mentioned earlier, after Ramanuja Sri-Vaishnaivsm got divided into two sects namely
Vadagalai and Thengalai. While Vadagali considered the Sanskirt scriptures (vedas) more
authoritative than the Tamil scriptures (Divyaprabhandam), Thengalai believed just the opposite.
Subsequently, Vadagalai privileged the teachings of Risis over those of the Alwars and the
Thengalai considered the teachings of Alwars more important than those of Risis. Further, while
the northern school believed in Markata-nyaya (monkey's model) for Moksa (liberation) giving
more emphasis on effort than grace, the southern school promoted Marjara-nyaya (cat's model)
that regarded grace more important than human effort to attain liberation. The northern school
recommended Bhakti (unbroken chain of thoughts on God) as a means of liberation for the male
twice-born and advocated Prapatti (self-surrender) to others as another means of liberation. The
southern school regarded Prapatti as the only means of salvation and prescribed it for all. Even
if one were to practice Bhakti, it has to mature into Prapatti for one to attain liberation.

2.10 COMPARISON WITH OTHER TRADITIONS

 10

The philosophy of Visistadvaita can be easily compared with and contrasted to other schools of
thought. For instance while Sankara's Advaita believes in Nirguna Brhaman as the supreme
reality, Ramanuja's school regards Saguna Brahman as the supreme reality: For Sankara, the
world is unreal and for Ramanuja the world is real. For Sanakara, Jnana marga is the only means
of liberation while Ramanuja believes in the Bhakti/Prapatti marga to attain liberation. Further
while Sankara believes in Jivanmukti (liberation while living), Ramanuja believes in
Videhamukti (liberation only after death). Besides, one can find similarity between Sri-
Vaisnavism and Christianity. Both believe in the idea of personal God as the supreme being.
Both believe in liberation after death. Both believe in the role of grace in salvation and both
understand liberation as state of union with the ultimate, without losing one's distinct identity.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer

1. Does knowledge, action and enjoyment affect the jiva? Explain.

…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
........................................
2. According to Sri-Vaishnava tradition can all regardless of caste and sex practise Bhakti? Why?
…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
.......................................

3. Which sect in Sri-Vaishnavism believes in Prapatti as an all-inclusive means of liberation and

why?
…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
.......................................

2.11 LET US SUM UP

 11

In the history of philosophy in India, Visistadvaita is described as a system of thought that gave a
strong philosophical and theological foundation to the practice of Bhakti found in the popular
traditions of different linguistic cultures across the country. While one can become wary of
intense Bhakti as a form of emotional outburst, Visistadvaita has brought intellectual content to
the practices of Bhakti and Prapatti as it is described above. By doing this, on the one hand they
have built an intellectual domain for Bhakti, but on the other hand, they have shown the
limitations of human mind and its efforts in matter of 'faith' by their belief in Prapatti. Besides,
historically speaking, Visistadvaita grew as a competing philosophical discourse to the Advaita
of Sankara. While the latter makes this world as unreal in order to preserve the transcendence of
God, the former found a way out by making the world as real part of God, thus enabling its
practitioners to deal with the world in a non-dualistic and non-conflictual manner. Thus
Visistadvaita can be praised as a balanced philosophical system of thought in India.

2.12 KEY WORDS

Dharma- bhuta-jnana: The knowledge or consciousness of the Jiva has two aspects. The first is
its basic or substantive consciousness (dharmi- jnana) and the second its attributive-
consciousness. By virtue of dharmi- jnana, the Jiva is only self-aware. It is by means of the
dharma- bhuta-jnana that the jiva becomes aware of others including Isvara. Dharma- bhuta-
jnana has to evolve and grow in human beings. What stands in the way of expansion of dharma-
bhuta-jnana is its load of karma from beginningless time. It is the creative process of Brahman
that helps this development. When fully developed, it embraces the all-knowing dharma- bhuta-
jnana of Brahman Himself.

Bhakti : Bhakti is a loving devotion towards God. Bhakti is not a mere emotional pursuit ,
according to Ramanuja. It involves training one’s mind and intellect towards love of God. It
calls for an unperturbed total concentration on God and unbroken chain of thoughts on God. But
these demands of Bhakti cannot be met by ordinary common man and woman.

Prapatti : Prapatti stands for wholehearted self-surrender to God. Prapatti is easier than
Bhakti. It can be adopted by one and all, without any distinctions of caste, creed or sex. It can be
adopted at any time and place. All are eligible for it. Prapatti is also known as Saranagati,
Nyasa, Bharanyasa, Atmanikshepa, Thyaga, Samnyasa, Namaskarta etc.

2.13 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Adidevananda, Svami. Trans. Sir Ramanuja Gita Bhasya. Madras: Ramakrishna Math, n.d.
 12

Carman, John Braisted. The Theology of Ramanjua: An Essay in Interreligious Understanding.

New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1974.

Chari, Srinivasa S.M. Fundamentals of Visistadvaita Vedanta. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1987.

Devamani B.S. The Religion of Ramanuja - A Christian Appraisal. Madras: The Christian
Literature Society, 1990.

Hiriyanna M. Outlines of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1994.

Hooper, J.S.M. Hymns of Alvars. Madras: Pioneer Book Series, 1985(1929).

Mahadevan, TMP. Invitation to Indian Philosophy. New Delhi: Arnold-Heinemann, 1974.

Prabhavananda, Swami. The Spiritual Heritage of India. Madras: Ramakrishna Math, 1977.

Rao, Nagaraja P. Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy. New Delhi: Indian Book Company, n.d.
 1

UNIT 3 DVAITA VEDANTA

Contents

3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Madhvacarya: Life and Works
3.3 Dvaita: its Notion and Meaning
3.4 General Philosophy of Madhva
3.5 Metaphysics of Dvaita Vedanta
3.6 Epistemology
3.7 Bondage and Liberation
3.8 General Estimate of Dvaita Vedanta
3.9 Let us sum up
3.10 Further Readings and References

3.0 OBJECTIVES

This unit has an objective of introducing the dualistic school of vedanta developed by Madhva.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Dvaita is one of the living systems of Vedantic thought in India, having its own well-defined
community of followers, religious institutions and extensive philosophical literature in Sanskrit,
and a substantial body of devotional literature in Kannada. Dvaita system has been the chief rival
in thought to the Advaita of Sankara, in the history of Indian Philosophy. It stood up for realism
in Indian thought against all forces of idealism and acosmism. The followers of Madhva,
especially Jayatirtha and Vyasatirtha, present the logical skill and depth of acute dialectic
thinking almost unrivalled in the whole range of Indian thought.

Madhva derives his philosophical tenets from the three authoritative prasthanas (the upanisads,
the Bhagavadgita, and the Brahma sutras), from the puranas and Mahabharata. The
quintessence of Maduva’s philosophy is that Visnu (Hari) is the supreme God, the world is real
and the difference between God and soul does actually exist. All the living beings are dependent
upon Visnu, and they are divided into higher and lower classes; liberation consists in the
enjoyment of bliss that is inherent in oneself; pure devotion is the means of attaining it.

3.2 MADHVACARYA: LIFE AND WORKS

Madhvacarya of 12th Century AD is the founder of the Dvaita Vedanta. Traditionally he is also
known as Anandatirtha and Purnaprajna. His birthplace is said to be the village of Pajaka near
Udupi in Karnataka. Madhva proclaims himself as the third incarnation of Vayu after Hanuman
and Bhima. Madhva was a many-sided personality. He had a stupendous memory and he was a
splendid debater. Although he accepted Sannyasa at the hands of Acyutapreksacarya, a
 2

renowned Advaita teacher he opposed sankara's monistic tenets and interpretations. He was
convinced that the sacred texts don't propagate the mayavada, but the realistic theism.
Madhvacarya installed the idol of Lord Krsna at Udupi which has become a centre of the Dvaita
Vedanta with the tradition of ashtamaths, with his eight disciples.

Madhva is a prolific writer in Sanskrit both in prose and in verse. He quotes profusely from
Vedic, Buddhist, Jaina and other systems of philosophy and religion of India. In short he was
scholar, saint, philosopher and mystic. The works of Madhva are thirty-seven in number. Some
of his major works are his commentaries on Prasthanatraya (Gita, Brahmasutra and
Upanishads), commentaries on Vedas, Epics and puranas, and his Ten prakarnas (other
writings). In his tradition, there have been commentaries (tikkas) on Madhva’s works written by
Jayatirtha and Vyasatirtha.

3.3 DVAITA: ITS NOTION AND MEANING

The term ‘Dvaita,’ meaning dualism, posits more than one fundamental metaphysical principle
to explain the universe or a fundamental distinction between the human souls and the Supreme
Being. Dualism is a theory which admits of two independent and mutually irreducible
substances. In it a fundamental twofold distinction is drawn. In Western philosophy dualism is
clearly seen in Plato’s any fundamental twofold distinction between the intelligible and the
sensible; in Descartes’ distinction between two substances, mind and matter; and Fichte’s
distinction between ego and the non-ego, may be described as dualistic. Among the classical
Indian tradition, Samkhya propagates dualism with its two fundamental eternal categories
constitutive of reality namely, Purusa and Prakrti, spirit and matter.

Madhva has put more depth into the meaning of the term ‘Dvaita’ as it is applied to his thought.
The dualism of Madhva admits two mutually irreducible principles as constituting reality as a
whole. Yet God is regarded as the only independent (svatantra) and the other as dependent
(paratantra). The Supreme Being is the one and only independent principle. All finite reality
comprising of the Prakrti, Purusas, Kala, Karma, Svabhava, etc is dependent. For dvaita
vedanta these dependent categories are reals and also eternal. Madhva advocates pluralistic
theism. To maintain the unity, sovereignity and independence of the Supreme Being, dualism of
Madhva upholds that the dependent reals are not in spite of the Lord, but because of Him.
Therefore, for dvaita vedanta, although there are two principles, yet one of them (finite)
dependent completely on the other for its being and becoming. There is another aspect of
dualism of Madhva. It is its ‘realistic’ attitude to the experiences of life. Our finite experiences of
embodied existence and our efforts to achieve liberation from bondage have both a real value
and validity of their own and are not mere illusion created by avidya as held by Advaitins. Again,
in Dvaita vedanta since ‘Bheda’ or difference is the very nature of being, along with Brahman,
the principles like Jiva and Prakrti are co-eternal and uncreated, but they are dependent on God.

3.4 GENERAL PHILOSOPHY OF MADHVA

 3

Philosophy of Madhva is contained in his commentaries on sacred texts. Specially, he shares the
prominent place along with Sankara and Ramanuja as one of the systematizers of Vedantic
thought. His commentary on Brahma Sutras as established his unique system of dualistic
vedanta. As Sankaracarya, Ramanujacarya developed their own theory and interpretations on the
Upanishadic teachings and the teachings of the Brahma sutras, and called their systems Advaita
and visistadvaita, Madhvacarya’s system is called Dvaita Vedanta. The basic issue dealt in all
these three systems is regarding the relationship between Brahman, the individual soul (Jiva) and
the world (jagat). Madhvacarya refuted the mayavada theory of Sankara in his system of advaita.
He upheld the world is not bundle of illusory objects created out of maya and avidya. For him
the world is real but of course dependent on the Brahman. In the same way, Madhva differed
from Sankara who said that the individual self is not different from the supreme self. The identity
of the Jiva and Brhman is somehow established in advaita vedanta. In dvaita vedanta, for
Madhva, Jiva (soul) is different from Brahman and not identical with Him. In the same way,
Madhva also rejected the claims of qualified monism. Without reconciling with the Visistadvaita
of Ramanuja the philosophy of Madhva held that that cit (spirit) and acit (matter) are different
realities from Brahman and donot form His body (sarira). For, in qualified monism we find that
Ramanuja considered the world and the souls are part of the whole reality, the Brahman. We
shall elaborately see these distinctive teaching in the following sections, how Madhva different
from the other schools of vedanta. The speciality of the philosophy of Madhva lies in his
advocacy of various differences. He spoke of the reality of five-fold differences between – soul
and God, soul and soul, soul and matter, God and matter, one material thing and another. Thus
the concept of difference (bheda) is central to the philosophical system of Madhva. That is the
reason one can call his philosophy as pluralistic. Since he speaks of the reality of the external
world and of the souls, we consider the dvaita vedanta as realistic. In his concept of God, we find
Madhva propagating theistic principles and worship. Therefore one can call the philosophy of
Madhva as theistic. It accepts a personal God who is the only independent (svatantra) reality,
the other real beings entirely dependent on Him.

3.5 METAPHYSICS OF DVAITA VEDANTA

Concept of God
As we have seen earlier, Madhva recognizes two kinds of reality, independent (svatantra) and
dependent (paratantra). God is the independent reality. Individual souls and the world are
dependent realities. He speaks of God as a personal God. God is the supreme person called
Isvara. He is completely independent, perfect, absolute and pure consciousness. He is savisesa.
He possesses infinite qualities. He assumes various manifestations. The supreme Lord is Visnu.
Laksmi, the consort of Visnu, is eternally blessed and absolutely accomplished. She eternally
contemplates Visnu. Laksmi is dependent on Visnu. She is intelligent Prakrti. Prakrti is the
material cause of the world. The Lord enters into Prakrti and makes himself into many. The
Lord’s will is Prakrti.

The understanding of God in dvaita vedanta is theistic. It is his ‘theology’ so to say. This is
described as uncompromising theism. For Madhva, Visnu is the Supreme God. The purpose and
goal of all the scriptures (sadagamas) is revealing and making that Supreme known to people.
That is to say the prime import (mahatatparya) of the sacred texts is Vishnu. Not only the
 4

scriptures, even Madhva asserts that every word in the language primarily signifies Visnu and
refers only secondarily to other objects. The language of people is only to signify God.

With regard to the attributes and qualities of the Supreme God, Visnu, Madhva is a great
theologian. Visnu possesses all auspicious, blessed, infinite and eternal attributes. The relation
between God and His attributes is governed by the principle of visesa, by virtue of which a thing
is distinguished from its permanent attributes though they are identical in essence. There is no
fundamental distinction between God and His attributes. He is the Supreme Reality possessing
all excellences like infinite knowledge, bliss, power, etc. He manifests in various forms,
incarnates as avataras and is present in the Sacred images. He is apprehensible through the
Vedas (sruti) though not fully comprehensible. (Dominic Vas, 2010)

As any theistic understanding would go the Supreme God is everything in relation to the world.
For him, Visnu is the efficient cause (nimitta-karana) of the universe. He is the cause of creation
(srsti), preservation (sthithi) and destruction (pralaya). In His relation to the souls, He is the
liberator. As He himself is the primary cause of, the bondage of samsara (chain of existence) for
the soul. The so called apparent causes of bondage such as ignorance (avidya), action (karma)
and the subtle body (linga-sarira) are only the secondary causes of the chain of existence.
Ultimately God’s grace is needed for removal of bondage though the efforts are fruitful initially
from the part of the jiva. For Madhva, it is Vishnu’s grace (prasada) alone which can give
salvation (mukti) to the Jiva.

Concept of Jiva
Jiva by essence is spiritual consciousness that is partless. This Jiva possesses knowledge and
bliss. In this possession Jiva is similar to God but is dependent on God. For Madhva, God is the
perfect Jiva, and the individual Jivas are only images of God. Madhva defended the distinction
and plurality a
mong the jivas. (We shall later speak of various other differences Madhva’s philosophy has.)This
becomes also a feature of his realism. He classifies Jivas. Some are not liable to pain, some are
liable to pain as they are on their way to purification. Yet some others are eternally punished.
These are the evil souls who become so weighed down by karma that they are not able to rise.
Accordingly, each jiva is distinct and unique because of its Yogyata. Each Jiva resembles and
reflects God. It becomes a pratibimba, reflection of the bimba, Visnu in accordance with its
svarupa. This distinction (taratamya) of the Jivas remains a foundation for his theory of
gradation among the Jivas, starting from Laksmi and coming down to those bound for hell. In
agreement to each one’s svarupa, according to Madhva, there are three kinds of Jivas. The first
kind of jivas are those who are fit for liberation (muktiyogyas). The second ones are those that
are caught in the cycle of birth and rebirth (nithyasamsarins) and travel endlessly in their
journey. In the third category, there are souls that are eternally condemned to hell (tamoyogya).
By making such a distinction, taratamya among the Jivas Madhva tries to give an original
solution to the problem of evil, and to lift God (Visnu) above all blame for evil in the world.
(Dominic Vas, 2010)

Concept of World
The world is Prakrti and is not created by God as it has eternal existence. The external world is
affirmed to be ultimately real (satya) and continues to exist at all times. The world process is
 5

beginningless and eternal (anadi and nitya). All the material products originate from prakrti or
primal matter. Sattva, rajas and tamas are its three gụnas. The Dvaita conception of causation
differs from the well-known views of Advaita and Visistadvaita.
̣ It is known as Sad-asat-karya
vada, ie. the effect is considered as neither existent only nor non-existent. It exists as the cause,
but not as the effect.

In his metaphysical thought the unique contribution of Madhva is the notion of ‘bheda’ and
‘visesa’. Madhva accepts five fold difference or bheda in reality, namely, the difference between
God and soul (Isvara and Jiva), between soul and soul (Jiva and Jiva), between God and matter,
between soul and matter, and between different material objects. Difference doesn’t mean
Independence. God (Vishnu) alone is independent reality (svatantra-tattva), and all other beings
are dependent on God (Paratantra-tattva). The system of Madva accepts ten categories:
Substance (Dravya), attribute (guna), action (karma), universals (samanya), speciality (‘visesa’),
the specified ((visista’), the whole (amsin), potency (sakti), similarity (sadrsya) and non
existence (abhava). Substances are twenty in number. Of these, Brahman, and souls are sentient
(cetana). The rest are insentient (acetana). The twenty substances are: Brahman, Laksmi, Jivas,
space (akasa), Time (kala), primal matter (Prakrti), and its eight evolutes, the cosmic egg
(Brahmanda), ignorance (avidya), speech sounds (varna), Darkness (timira), mental impressions
(vasana) and reflection (pratibimba). (Dominic Vas, 2010)

3.6 EPISTEMOLOGY

Foundation of Madhva’s metaphysics of differences among realities of God, soul and the world
lies in his epistemology. For Madhva, the world of objects and things exist independently of
human mind. It is a realistic perspective of dvaita as opposed to the doctrine of mayavada of
Sankara. This doctrine of realism is characterised by the epistemological position that the mind
perceives the objects and knows them. Humans experience the object and the objectivity of the
human knowledge is manifested in different pramanas. The means of knowledge (pramanas) are
perception, inference and verbal testimony (revealed scripture). For him to perceive is to become
aware of something 1) as unique, 2) as being different from the other thing, 3) as being different
from the perceiving self. Hence knowledge is the articulation of these perceived differences.
Perceptual knowledge is direct and immediate knowledge. Knowledge is intrinsically valid. If we
deny perception there is no knowledge. For Madhva the pramanas are means of knowledge
(anu-pramans) or knowledge itself (kevala-pramanas). Each of the pramanas is therefore self-
valid, true and objective knowledge. Eventhough they are all valid knowledge they are not
equal. Madhva says that there is a hierarchy among them, each having one’s own importance in
its sphere and supports the other pramanas. Perception is valid and important in its own sphere
and is useful for the later inference, and so on.

The sense-organs, manas and Saksin constitute the instruments of knowledge. The notion of
Saksin as a sense-organ is unique in Madhva’s system. Etymologically, the word Saksin means a
witness, a seer or one endowed with vision. Madhva defines it as Saksad iksate iti Saksi. Thus
the Saksi is the name of the spiritual sense organ of the self or its caitanya-indriya (essential
sense organ partaking of the nature of consciousness) through which it intuits its experiences.
But it is not different from the self. It is the self itself. Saksin is the ultimate and unassailable
 6

basis for the intrinsic validity of knowledge. For self-validity is the nature of Saksin itself. Saksin
is the source of all knowledge in the individual, and ever-vigilant witness of one’s own validity.
This is so true that there can be no error where the knowledge of Saksin is concerned. Saksin
jnana is infallible. For nothing can come in between the witnessing self and its light. All error,
therefore, is due to the malfunctioning of manas and the other senses. Error or illusion consists in
the mis-perception of the non-existent as existent and of the existent as non-existent. A
distinction is made by Madhva in agama as parụseya and aparụseya. The latter constitutes the
vedas (sruti) whose validity is infallible. Madhva’s doctrine gives great importance to vedas
(sruti) as a means for the true knowledge of Supreme Reality since perception and inference are
confined to the facts of ordinary experience only. (Dominic Vas, 2010)

3.7 BONDAGE AND LIBERATION

Madhva accepts the reality of human misery and bondage. Maya causes the individual to be
unaware of the relationship of the soul with God. Ultimately it is God who makes maya cause
bondage. Hence, he alone brings liberation through his grace although there is self-effort on the
part of the soul. The devotee, on his part, must prove himself worthy of it by good works
(karma), acquisition of right knowledge (Jnana-yoga) and single-minded devotion (bhakti-
yoga). The adikarins should work out his salvation by an ascetical striving – through the hearing
of the scriptures (sravana), reflection (manana) and contemplation (nidithyasana) under the
guidance of a guru. This will lead the person to bimbopasana, and further to the immediate
cognition (aparoksa-Jnana) of Visnu, and to mukti.

In dvaita Vedanta understanding, liberation is achieved through the knowledge of the greatness
of God. Liberation is possible by devotion to God by sravana, manana and nididhyasana.
Through bhakti combined with meditation one can dispose oneself to the experience of God.
Visnu’s favour and grace (prasada) a human being can be liberated from them and attain moksa
or liberation. Hence, finally it is God’s grace that removes maya and liberates the soul.

Liberation consists in the realization of soul’s innate bliss. Then according to his Yogyata he will
attain bliss and occupy a place reserved for him in the galaxy of the elect. He will not be
absorbed in the Absolute to the extent of losing his self-identity. And yet he will be united with
the Lord in knowledge and love, and with other emancipated Jivas in a family of intimacy.

3.8 GENERAL ESTIMATE OF DVAITA VEDANTA

Madhva through his system, has made a great impact in Indian philosophical tradition. He
classified reality into "Svatantra" and "Paratantra". He rationalised the conception of substance
and attributes with the doctrine of "Visesas" in terms of an identity-in-difference. The concept of
"saksi" as an apriori principle of knowledge is his contribution in Indian epistemology. By his
commentaries he brought in the reconciliation of the existence of "eternal substances" (nitya -
padarthas) like Jivas, Akasa, Prakrti etc., with that of the acceptance of the universal causation
of Brahman. He achieved it by his doctrine of creation defined as "Paradhina-Visesapti." He
brought in a realistic notion of reality. His understanding of god and soul, metaphysical notion in
general, and his ethical concepts and practices are well supported by his defence of means of
 7

knowledge. One could say, thus, his metaphysics and ethics are fruits of his well-worked out
epistemological theories.

Dvaita Vedanta is called as theistic, dualistic (pluralistic) and realistic, from different
perspectives. Madhva was convinced that we can have knowledge of other realities, and thus
man can really reach truth. This truth has objectivity, or correspondence of our knowing mind
with the object of knowledge. He believed in a personal God and essential difference between
God and man. Again, he believed in the Saguna Brahman who can be reached through bhakti
(devotion), emphasising self-surrender and God’s grace. These two concepts make Dvaita
vedanta different from the other Indian systems. For him, all jivas are destined by God to attain
bliss after a life of samsara, or to continue to remain in it or to go into the hell of eternal
darkness. The doctrines of souls that are liberated (mukta) and those eternally damned has a
parallel in Jaina religious thought also. Jains distinguish two groups of souls. They are those
who are redeemed (bhavya) and those which cannot be redeemed (abhavya).

His vedantic interpretations of the Brahmasutra, brought in a unique system of philosophy as his
counterparts like Sankara and Ramanuja. He has written many learned commentaries on the
basic texts of Vedanta – the Vedanta sutras of Badarayana, the Upanisads and Bhagavad Gita.
While all the other Acaryas have attempted in their Bhasyas only to establish a samanvaya
(harmony) of the various terms and doctrines found in the Upanisads, Madhva has established
the samanvaya of the upanisadic thought with the Puranas and Itihasas as well. (Dominic Vas,
2010)

3.9 LET US SUM UP

Madhva’s philosophy is one of dualism. The thinkers of Dvaita School have made many
outstanding contributions to the problems of Philosophy. The views propounded by Madhva on
the nature of Saksi, Visesa, Bheda, substance and attributes, the universal, space and time are
very much ahead of his times and remarkably suggestive. The devotional movement of the
Haridasas of Karnataka was a spontaneous expression of Madhva’s religious thought in the
regional language of the majority of its adherents and its appeal reached the common people.
Dvaita literature is very extensive; much of it still remains unpublished and unexplored. Plurality
of the reals is the basic doctrine of dvaita. According to Madhva, difference is the very nature of
things. He identifies five eternal levels of difference: Difference between God and the individual
soul, God and matter, one individual soul and another, individual soul and matter, and one
material thing and another. He looks upon the world as real. For Dvaita God is the highest
Being, the most perfect Being, the only free Being, the ultimate goal and destiny of humans; He
is the giver of salvation / liberation through grace (prasada). The path of bondage and liberation
is also realistic.

3.10 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

 8

Madhvacarya, Sarva-Mula-Granthah; Collection of the Complete Works of sriMadhvacarya. Ed.

by Bannanje Govindacarya. Vols. 1-5. Bangalore: Akila Bharata Madhva Maha Mandala, 1969 –
1974.

Glasenapp Helmuth Von. Madhva’s Philosophy of the Vishnu Faith. trans. by Shridhar B.
Shrothri and ed. by K. T. Pandurangi. Bangalore: Dvaita Vedanta Studies and Research
Foundation, 1992;.

Govindacarya, Bannenje, Madhvacarya. trans. by K. Krishnamurthy and U. P. Upadhyaya.

Udupi, Sri Pejavar Mutt, 1984;

Puthiadam, I., Vishnu the Ever Free: A Study of the Madhva Concept of God. Madurai, Dialogue
Series, 1985.

Ramachandran, T. P. Dvaita Vedanta. New Delhi: Arnold Heinnman, 1976/

Sharma, B. N. K. Philosophy of sri Madhvacarya. Dehli: Motilal Banarsidass, 1991.

Raghavendrachar, H.N. and Wadia, A.R., The Dvaita Philosophy and Its Place in the Vedanta.
Mysore: The University of Mysore, 1941.

Sharma, B. N. K. History of the Dvaita School of Vedanta and Its Literature. Deldi: Motilal
Banarsidass, 1981.

Vas, Dominic C. Origin and Destiny, St. Thomas Aquinas and Sri Madhvacharya: A
Comparative Critique. Bangalore: Asian Trading Corporation, 2003.

Vas, Dominic. “Dvaita.” ACPI Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Vol.1. (Bangalore: ATC, 2010),
425-426.

Vas, Dominic. “Madhva.” ACPI Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Vol.2. (Bangalore: ATC, 2010),
847-851.
 1

UNIT 4 SAIVISM AND VAISNAVISM

Contents

1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Origin of Saiva Religion and Philosophy
4.3 Schools of Saivism
4.4 Saiva Siddhanta
4.5 Siddhanta Concept of God and Soul
4.6 Siddhanta Concept of Bondage and Liberation
4.7 Sources of Vaishnava Religion and Philosophy
4.8 Vaishnava Epistemology and Metaphysics
4.9 Vaishnava Concept of God and Soul
4.10 Let us Sum up
4.11 Key Words
4.12 Further Readings and References

4.0 OBJECTIVES

The unit gives a brief picture of saiva and vaishnava religious thought. By going through this
lesson the students would be able to have the general characteristics of these religions, their
scriptural basis and their emergent philosophical systems.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Saivism is a religion, being practised by millions of people in India and those migrated to other
countries all over the world. It is a realistic, ritualistic and pluralistic religious system. This
religion acknowledges the supremacy of Lord Siva as the Supreme God, who has been included
as one among the major Gods of Hindu pantheon. The literal meaning of the word ‘siva’ is
auspicious who is adored as an embodiment of grace and wisdom. Saivism is very well
recognized as a philosophy of religion and goes by the expression Saiva Siddhanta. The first part
of this expression viz ‘saiva’ refers to Saiva faith which has full of religious significance such as
temple, idolatory, rituals, prayers, objects of worship, chanting of mantras and devotional songs,
devotees festivals, service, yoga etc. the term ‘siddhanta’ indicates the philosophical outlook of
Saivism which mainly deals with the three fundamental realities viz, Pati (siva), pasu (souls) and
pasa (bonds) and their interpenetration. Hence Saivism is a well developed intellectual faith
 2

which avoids two extremes such as dogmatism or dry intellectualism and superstition or blind
observances.

4.2 ORIGIN OF SAIVA RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

Like any other sect included in the generic term ‘Hinduism,’ Saivism too has no founder or
founders. Only a galaxy of saintly souls hasve enriched the glory of this religion through their
incessant pilgrimages and impressive devotional utterances and propagating the ideals, doctrines
and practices through institutional methods especially by establishing several religious mutts. As
there is no human founder to Saivism, it is a healthy convention to attribute to Lord Siva as the
founder since the saints express their gratitudes in their spontaneous outpourings for recognizing
their services rendered to Him to His creation as well as uniting them with Himself as His
‘person.’ This attitude the shows the intimate rapport the saints had with Lord Siva. In their
devotional utterances they make references, knowingly or unknowleingly, to God, who had His
descent to this earth to make them as His person, His gracious nature, forms, appearances,
testings, transcendence, immanence etc., their own personal reactions, modifications, cravings,
cryings, troubles, tortures, agonies, ecstasies, illuminations, enlightenment, etc. Besides these,
they also reveal the pernicious nature of the empirical world (though it is real), its attractive
nature, but at the same time serving as a resourceful platform to work out their salvation through
renunciation. These three major messages directly fall under the legitimate province of the
philosophers who have evolved the grammatical expositions of God, soul and the world.

A few sages in Saivism, along with their staunch devotion to God and their metaphysical bent of
mind have made explicit the implicit doctrines embedded in the outpourings of the saints. The
philosophy of Saivism technically known as ‘Siddhanta’ means accomplished end. As a prelude
to this type of venture, the sages have presented and criticised the non-Saiva and other saiva
schools of thought from the Siddhanta point of view. The alien faiths which atheistic in outlook,
some schools even after accepting a God do not recognize the supremacy of Lord Siva, a few
faiths claiming to be Saivism, go against the well established Siddhanta doctrines are taken up
for presentation and criticism. They are known as parapakkam or purva-paksa (the views of the
opponents). After this dedicated venture, the sages devote themselves in bringing forth their own
view-points viz, the Siddhanta or the well cherished doctrines by means of three eternal
categories known as Pati (Siva), Pasu (souls), and Pasa or the impurities. The devotional songs
have been codified as the twelve canonical literature (panniru tirumuraigal) and the
philosophical treatises are known as fourteen philosophical texts known as Siddhanta Sastras.
Hence, Saivism is studied, clarified, understood and realized throught these devotional and
metaphysical scriptures.

4.3 SCHOOLS OF SAIVISM

Saivism, also known as the southern school of Saivism or Tamil Saivism, recognizes the
authority of the Vedas, Saiva Āgamas, Upanishads and Siva-puranas which are in Sanskrit
language. Of these the Vedas are regarded as the specific scriptures while the Agamas are the
specific scriptures. The former is prescriptive like having injunctive statements. The latter is
 3

descriptive since they describe about the modes of worship. The Agamas promote systematic
worship. They explain the method of constructing a Siva temple, the methods of worshipping the
presiding Deity at the appropriate times, the objects of adoration, the ways of chanting the holy
syllables (mantras) etc. The Saivites believe that both the Vedas and Agamas are poured out by
Lord Siva and no human author has been attributed for their existence. There is a belief among
certain scholars that the word Siva has been derived from Rudra, one of the Vedic deities, who
was malevolent in the beginning and made later as a benevolent deity. The word ‘rud’ means red
and Siva has red complexion hence ‘Siva’ is a derivative of Vedic Rudra. Also Rudra was
worshipped as Pasupati, the Lord of the souls and later Siva has been called as Pati and souls,
pasu. Some are of the opinion that Siva in Tamil means auspicious, therefore He is a Tamil God.
The ancient Tamil liteary works like the Tholkappiam, Manimekalai, SilapPatikaram,
Purananuru etc., refer to the characteristic features of Lord Siva without referring to His name.
Especially during the time of the Nayanmars (the sixty three devotees of Siva) the worship of
Siva flourished with the same title. References of Siva are also found in the Ithihasas like the
Ramanyana and the Mahabharata.

We have also other schools of Saivism such as Virasaivisim or Lingayata religion, Kashmir
Saivisim (Trika System) Sivadvaita of Srikantha etc. Virasaivism emerged in the Karnataka
region to curtail the influence of Jainism and Sri Vaishnavism in the South. It is more or less a
social renaissance movement propounded by Basava. It insists on the worship of Siva in the
Sivalinga form only especially wearing a Sivaling on the body to indicate the constant touch of
the divine on the human. This religion insists on ethical discipline more than philosophical
expositions. Kashmir Saivism emerged in the valleys of Kashmir and it is also known as
Pratybhijna system which empasises the recognition of the soul after annihilating the onslaught
of the impurities, that it is none other than Siva Himself. This school of thought commences
with Saivism, passes through Sakti visistadvaita and culminates in monistic doctrines of Advaita.
Srikantha has interpreted the prastana traya, the basic texts of Indian philosophy in terms of
Saivism rather than Vedanta. Brahman has been replaced with Siva and an advaitic union takes
place between Siva and the soul at the time of emancipation.

4.4 SAIVA SIDDHANTA

Saiva siddhanta is Tamil school of Saiva religion and philosophy which gained popularity and
accepted to be one of the Indian systematic philosophical schools. Regarding the Saiva literature
in Tamil, the following is the list of devotional literature that are called panniru tirumurais.
Literature Composed by
Tevaram 1-3 St. Sambandhar
Tevaram 4-6 St. Tirunavukkarasar
Tevaram 7 St. Sundarar
Tiruvacakam St. Manickavacakar
Tiruvisaippa and Tiruppallandu Few saints like Senthanar, Karuvurthevar
Tirumandiram St. Tirumular
 4

11th Tirumuari Several saints like Karaikkal Ammaiyar,

Nambiandar Nambi
Periyapuranam Cekkizhar

The above literature exemplies the nature of devotion, Siva’s gracious nature, the peripheral
nature of the phenomenal world, worship of fellow devotees, biographies of the devotees and the
significant features of Lord Siva etc. They too reveal performances of rituals, celebration of
festivals, miracles, mantra, tantra, yantra, mystic experience, trials and tribulations by Lord Siva,
the devotees’ perseverance even during the times of penury etc., social, political religious, moral,
aesthetic, psychological, spiritual, historical, geographical, archeological, musical, linguistic and
metaphysical realms are very well portrayed in these texts.

The philosophical treatises are fourteen in number and they are commonly known as Siddhanta
Sastras or Meikanta Sastras which are as follows

Text Author
Tiruvundhiyar Uyyavandha Devar of Tiruviyalur
Tirukkalirruppadiyar Uyyavandha Devar of Tirukkadavur`
Sivajnanabodham Meikandar
Sivajnana Siddhiyar Arulnandi Sivacaryar
Irupa Irupathu Arulnandi Sivacaryar
Unmai Vilakkam Manavacakam Kadantar
Sivappirakasam Umapathi Sivacaryar
Kodikkavi Umapathi Sivacaryar
Unmai Neri vilakkam Umapathi Sivacaryar
Nenju Vidu Tutu Umapathi Sivacaryar
Sankarpa Nirakaranam Umapathi Sivacaryar
Tiruvarutpayan Umapathi Sivacaryar
Vina Venba Umapathi Sivacaryar
Porri pahrodai Umapathi Sivacaryar

The first two works are the foremost treatises on Siva philosophy which elucidates the
philosophical tenets of Saivism in a simple and lucid way. Sivjnanabodham is considered as the
basic text which tives the quintessence of Saiva Siddhanta doctrines for which Sivajnanayogin
has given an excellent commentary in the name of Dravida Mapadiyam or Sivajnana
 5

Mapadiyam. Arulnandi was the preceptor of Meikandar’s father, but became Meikandar’s
disciple. His famous Sivajnana Siddhiyar follows the structure of his preceptor’s work but adds
the epistemology, parapakkam, (others’ view) in his work. The rest of the works in the list
brings out the implications of Sivajnanabodham with analogy, illustrations, critical notes etc.
They contain a variety of themes as per the titles.

4.5 SIDDHANTA CONCEPT OF GOD AND SOUL

With regard to the doctrines of Saiva Siddhanta, it was Tirumular who gives a most but emphatic
definition of the three realities. Among the three realities of Saivism known as Pati, pasu and
pasa, pasu and pasa are as beginningless as Pati. The pasa which binds the pasu can seldom
reach Pati and bind. But the moment Pati comes forwards, the pasa hitherto brinding the soul
will be annihilated. As the impurities are eternal, seldom can they be destroyed, but they will
lose their vitality and assist the souls in their pursuit for emancipation. This view has also been
illustrated through the structure of Siva temple thus: the gracious Sivalinga in the Sanctum
represent Pati; the bull outside the hall indicates pasu and the pulpit adjascent to the bull is a
mark of pasa.
Pati or Siva is only one, but assumes several forms out of His bounteous grace. Actually He is
formless in Himself, but takes several forms for the sake of His beloved devotees. Another
unique factor about His existence is the state of form-formless (ruparupa) specifically known as
the Sivalinga. It has a form such as the unique linga form and has no form like human or animal.
This type of existence is meant for a common devotee to worship Him in the temples. Among the
forms the famous ones are Nataraja, Daksinamurty, Piksadanar, Somaskandar, Kalyanasundarar
etc. Of these Nataraja or the cosmic dance form is significant in the sense that it depicts the five-
fold function of Lord Siva (panca kritya) viz., creation (srsti), preservation(stiti), destruction
(samhara), concealment ( tirodhana), and bestowal of grace (anugraha). Though each one is a
distinct function all involve Grace. As Saiva Siddhanta subscribes to satkaryavada, (the effect is
already in the cause), Lord Siva is the efficient cause (nimita karana), His consort or sakti is the
instrumental cause (upadana karana) and maya is the material cause. According to Saiva
Siddhanta, ‘whatever exists will never vanish and whatever does not exist will never emerge.’
So from the subtle level the gross world has been created for the sake of the souls to work out
their salvation (tanu - body; karana – instruments of knowledge; bhuvana – earth and boga –
enjoyment.)

Siva is recognized and revered as a passive Lord while His consort or sakti is an active principle.
She is none other than the female aspect of Siva’s grace and to substantiate their inseparable
nature Siva has united Her on His left side and is known as arthanarisvara murti. Siva is also
viewed as omnipresent, omnipotent and omniscient God. He is both transcendent and immanent.
He manifests as the five elements besides the sun, moon and the soul (astamurtha) – eight-fold
manifestation. He is the very embodiment of pure love and is the very nature of grace. Though
He transcends human comprehension, He is very accessible to the souls. His form is effulgence,
the inner light (atmajyoti).
 6

Siddhanta Concept of Soul

The soul or pasu which is pure in essence is unable to be so because of the enslavement by the
impurities especially the ego (ananva). It has been sandwiched between the Holy God and the
horrible world. Hence it undergoes transmigration due to the impact of karmas. The Siddhantins
put forth several arguments for the existence of the self other than the body, sense organs, mind,
internal organs etc. It has three levels of existence such as kevalavasta (disembodied state);
sakalavasta(embodied state) and suddhavasta (liberated state). In the first state in the absence of
body, mind etc. it is like an eyeless child lying in a dark cave suffering due to anava. In the
second state it is given a body due to karmas and undergoes by levels of experience viz., waking
(jagrat), dream (swapna), deep sleep (susupti), the fourth (turiya), beyond the fourth (turiyatita).
Also if the soul is entangled with all the three impurities, it is known as sakalar; if it has two
impurities, it is pralayakalar and with one impurity, anava alone, it is known as vijnanakalar.
The soul is also known as sadasat. Sat when it is in the company of God and His devotees and
becomes asat in the company of asat (impermanent world). It is the soul which suffers in
bondage and enjoys the bliss of Siva through His grace in the state of liberation.

4.6 SIDDHANTA CONCEPT OF BONDAGE AND LIBERATION

Anava, as an ontological and eternal entity observes the intelligence of the self completely and in
association with karma and maya partially. To the question why there should be anava, the
siddhantin replies that if there is no such thing called anava, the sols would be eternally in a state
of pleasant consciousness without knowing what is suffering at all. Hence there is no possibility
of realizing the efficacy of Siva’s grace and emancipation as well. It has been described as the
prime evil or dark evil. It is worst than darkness, for darkness will reveal not the objects, but
itself, whereas anava will not reveal itself and make the persons affected by it reveal. Hence it is
obligatory for a saivite always to check and control the emergence of anava and always promote
God-consciousness than self-centredness.

Karma is the repurcursions of the deeds executed by the souls with personalistic motivation.
They are classified as stored up karmas, sancita, accumulated karmas, agamiya, and fructifying
karmas, prarabdha. In fact karma becomes the cause for births and re-births. By the invitation
of the guru with divine grace, the sancita karma is burnt, the agamic karma will not be
accumulated and the prarabdha karma will affect the body and vanish like an arrow sent out of
the bow. In fact karma and maya are beneficial to the soul in making it moving towards God,
but due to the influence of anava, they too become detrimental to the soul in binding. Maya is
the matrix of the universe and the material cause of the world which is real. From maya the
world has been created by the grace of Siva and unto the same the world resolves during
dissolution. Maya has a three-fold classification, suddhamaya, asuddha maya and prakrti or
suddhasuddha maya. From suddhamaya five suddha tattvas emerge. Likewise from
asuddhamaya, seven vidya tattvas, and from suddhasuddhamaya, twentyfour atma tattvas.
Hence Saiva siddhanta subscribes to thirtysix tattvas.
 7

Liberation is made possible by realizing the grace of Siva through wisdom by resolving to the
following steps:

Path Relationship Attainment Example

Carya Master-servant, Saloka St. Appar
dasamarga
Kriya Father-son, satputra Samipya St. Sambandhar
marga
yoga Friend-Friend, Sarupya St.Sundarar
Saha marga
jnana Master-Disciple, Sayujya St. Manickavacakar
Sanmarga

All these pathways to liberation are not mutually exclusive, but inclusive. Ultimately there are
sixteen paths. To sanctify the body the holy ashes and the holy beads serve as the sascred
symbols while the five lettered holy syllabus, pancaksara mantra, serve as a spiritual resource to
strengthen the soul. The invitation of the guru will expel divine darkness and infuse divinity into
the seekers after release. The equilibrium of the twofold deed, iruvinaioppu, will make the
impurities lose powers and the descent of divine grace becomes imminent, saktinipada.

Saiva siddhanta subscribes to jivamukti, since in this birth itself the vitality of egoity in binding
the soul is transformed to feel proud as the member of Siva’s close devotees. No karmas will get
accumulated since all actions are executed in the name of and for the sake of Siva. Maya will
seldom affect since the eyes are opened, but would be blind to the luring of material objects. As
all the three impurities are transformed towards Siva’s aspirations, the soul gets united with Siva
and after entering into the state of illumination and enlightenment it enjoys the unalloyed bliss of
Siva abundantly.

4.7 SOURCES OF VAISHNAVA RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

Like Saivism, Sri Vaisnavism also is a philosophy of religion which has been included as one
among the sects of Hinduism having Mahavishnu as the Supreme God. As religion it has its
source of inspiration from the Vedas, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas in Sanskrit and the
devotional utterances of the Alvars in Tamil. The Upanisads and Bhagavat Gita and the
Brahmasutras and the three major vedantic texts have been commented upon by Ramanuja in
the realm of Visistadvaita philosophy. In the Hindu pantheon Vishnu has been recognized and
adored as the God meant for protecting the human beings. However, the Vaishnaites
comprehend Vishnu as the Ultimate God who is above these triple functions of creation,
 8

preservation and destruction, but at the same time as an immanent Being He is responsible for
these functions. God is also named as Srimath Narayanan and in Tamil Tirumal.

In the Tamil vaisnavite tradition, we have the compilation of 4000 verses in the name of
Nalayira Divya Prabandham, composed by the twelve ardent admirers of Vishnu by name
Alvars. They have poured out their vibrant experiences in mellifluous terms wherein they depict
the nature and characteristic feature of Mahavisnu in a manifold ways. Also they point out the
disastrous nature of the worldly phenomena and the significant role of bhakti in uniting with
God. The saints also elucidate a variety of devotion, but ultimately a devotee has to totally
surrender to God to become the recipient of His Grace. The Vedas declare it is not possible to
comprehend the personality as well as qualities of God while the experience of Brahman is
possible, yato vacate vartate. But the Alvars who have been incarnated to give the quintessence
of the Vedic message in Tamil assert the essential qualities of Visnu as the person having
immeasurable high qualities. He also removes the impurities in the human minds and grants
salvation through wisdom. By the grace of Lord Visnu the Alvar saints were born to praise His
glory with divine fervour under the following categories: They have the joy of melodies. They
have the hailing verses. They have the songs with internal meaning. They have the songs
exposing the implied meaning of the Vedas. The have the songs depicting God as a child. They
have the songs highlighting hero-heroine type of songs. They have songs with description of
nature. They have the songs which awakes the Lord from His yogic slumber. They have the
songs which glorify the incarnations of God.

The following is the list of Alvar Saints and the title of their hymns.

Poyhai Alvar Iyarpa

Bhutattu Alvar Iyarpa
Pey Alvar Iyarpa
Tirumazhisai Alvar Tiruceanda Viruttam and Nanumkan Tiruvandati
Nammalvar Tiruvaimozhi
Madhurakal Alvar Kanninun Siruttambu
Kulasekara Alvar Permal Tirumozhi
Periyalvar Tiruppallandu, Periyalvar Tirumozhi
Andal Tiruppavai, Nacciyar Tirumozhi
Tondar Adippodi Alvar Tirumalai Tiruppalliyezhucci
Tiruppan Alvar Amalan Adipiran
Tirumangai Alvar Periya Tirumozhi, Tiruyezhukkurriryjjaum, Siriya
Tirumadal, Periya Tirumadal.
 9

As per convention, in Vaishnavism also Lord Mahavisnu has been revered as the first acarya
who has revealed the philosophical doctrines, sastras and instructed His disciples with the eight
lettered mantra. The acaryas not only promoted bhakti but also promulgated the Vedantic
Philosophy from a theistic perspective. Sankara’s monistic and absolutistic philosophy has been
replayed by the qualified non-dualism of Ramanuja which is also known as Visistadvaita. (Refer
the unit on Visistadvaita for the details.) The following is the list of acaryas of Sri Vaishnavism:
Sri Nadamunigal, Sri Alavandar, Sri Tirukkacci Nambigal, Sri Ramanujar, Koorathalvar, Sri
Vedanta Desikar and Sri Manavala Mamunigal. Sri Vedanta Desikar founded the northern
tradition of Vaishnavism, while Sri Manavala Mamunigal established the southern tradition.
Based on the adaptation of language, practices, customs and modes of worship this distinction
was made.

The epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata speak about the birth and human activities of Lord
Visnu as Rama and Krishna respectively. Thought they represent the royal class by birth, these
avatars illustrate the truth regarding dharma at all spheres of life and of eliminating the evil
forces. In the Bhagavat Gita , a classical philosophical text appearing in the Mahabharata, it is
stated through the mouth of Lord Krishna that he would incarnate through out the yugas, eras, to
protect the righteous people and to wipe out the wicked ones. The main ambit of these texts is
that man ought to live according to the purusharathas (human values). We have also the Tamil
Version of the Ramayana, Kamba Ramayanam, and Mahabharata, Sri Villiputhurar Bharatam,
written according to the Tamil tradition, but without altering the tempo of the thematic contents.
Through drama, dance, paintings, carving etc., the focal themes of these epics hasve been passed
on to the people so as to enable them to lead a virtuous and pious life. In fact the Bhagavat Gita
speaks about karma yoga, bhakti yoga, raja yoga and jnana yoga with special reference to
niskama karma and svadharma, (desireless action and one’s own duty). Besides the major
scholars of vedantic schools such as Sankara, Ramanuja and Madhva, the contemporary scholars
like Tagore, Swami Vivekananda, Sri Arurobindo, Gandhi and others too have made extensive
commentaries to this grand text which gives room for several interpretations from philosophical
perspectives.

In Vaishnava religion has its unique religious scripture known as the Agamas, particularly called
as the pancaratna agamas or samhitas which deliberately deal with the section of wisdom,
jnana, Concentration, yoga, devotional activities, kriya worship, carya. Especially the vaishnava
tradition upholding the authority of Ramanuja treat the pancaratra Agamas as the authoritative
sources and sacred text. The philosophy of Vaishnavism commences from the purusa-sukta of
the Rig Veda. Actually it lays the foundation of Visistadvaita. Only by performing sacrifice
prescribed by the pancaratra, Narayana became the Great God, the Lord of the Universe – both
transcendent and immanent, according to the Satapatha Brahmana. A few Vaishnava
Upanishads such as Avyakta Upanishad, Krisha Upanishad, Naryana Upanishad, Gopalataini
Upanisad etc. also speak high of the supremacy of Vishnu and highlight the philosophy of
Vaishnavism known as Visistadvaita.
 10

4.8 VAISHNAVA EPISTEMOLOGY AND METAPHYSICS

As far as its epistemology is concerned this system recognizes only three pramanas, viz.,
Perception, inference and verbal testimony. It rejects altogether the indeterminate perception as a
psychological myth. Ramanuja agrees with the Nyaya system regarding inference as a pramana.
Regarding verbal testimony he makes a compromise between Sankara’s advaita and Mimamsa
that both karma and jnana are to be equally treated as valid since the former is concerned with
the methods of worship while the latter, the knowledge of personal God. Knowledge always has
attributes and is self-luminous, but not self-conscious. His theory of error is known as sat-khyati,
or yatarthakhyati, i.e. error is real. Since all knowledge is intrinsically valid.

In Metaphysics, this system rejects the attributeless Brahman, but considers Brahman as having
all auspicious qualities and no evil or bad quality. Taking clues form the three vedantic texts,
viz., Gita, Brahmasutra and Upanisads, Ramanuja endeavours to establish a theistic trend in the
philosophy. Since he could not ignore the subject matter of the Agamas, it was possible for him
to maintain religious views in his philosophical wisdom. Since Nirguna Brahman has been
replayed by a qualified Absolute, Viz., God, it was easy for him to introduce two dependent
realities, vis., cit and acit – the conscious beings and non-conscious things. Even as the body
forms the substratum for the soul to exist, these two realities form the body to God who is their
soul. He is present in them and at the same time controls them, antaryamin. God is endowed
with three qualities viz., sat, cit, ananda – Existence, knowledge and bliss and He is truth,
goodness and beauty as well.

4.9 VAISHNAVA CONCEPT OF GOD AND SOUL

Of all the Puranas, which speak about the grandeur of Visnu’s gracious deeds, Visnupuranam has
been considered as a great one. The Vaisnava religion and philosophy have received several
sources of inspiration from this purana. This work exemplifies the five-fold nature of existence
of Visnu such as Para, Vyuha, Vibhava, Antaryamin and Arca. Para means Vyapaka, the state of
existence as all pervasive and extending grace. It is like the rain-water pouring out in all parts of
the world. He dwells in the Holy Land of Paramapada and adorns as sovereign monarch. Vyuha
means surmounting in the universe with a form especially the form of yogic slumber at the ocean
of milk. He becomes the prime object of worship for every month in the names of Kesavan,
Narayanan, Madhavan, Govindan, Vishnu, Madhusudhanan, Trivikraman, Vamanan, Sridharan,
Rishikesan, Padmanabhan and Dhamodharan. Vibhava means appearing in human form like the
flowing water in a river. In order to alleviate the afflictions of His affectionate devotees He
assumes several avatars. Mahavisnu’s avatars are stated below.
Maccavatar Fish
Kurumavatar Turtle
Varaha Avatar Pig
Narasimha avatar Lion-Man
Vamana Dwarf
 11

Parasuraman First Rama

Dasarata Raman Rama of Ramayana
Sri Krishna Dhamodharan of Mahabharata
Balarama Later Raman
Kalki avatar (yet to come) Kalki
Antaryamin is like the water beneath the earth, He bestows His grace in a concealed manner.
Right from Brhama, upto the ant He conceals Himself as their inner controller and activates
them. Finally Archavatar is like the water in the pond. Vishnu's idols are adored in the temples
in several distinct forms, mainly for promoting devotion among the masses and strengthen the
notion of surrender among His devotees He is installed in the form of idols in the temples.

The soul is an attribute of God and not identical with Him. It is a spiritual substance but eternal
substance since it is neither created not destroyed. But is is finite and has individuality. It is the
knower (jnata), agent of action (karta), and an enjoyer (bhokta). As its knowledge is obscured by
karmas, bondage takes place and in liberation all the karmas are annihilated due to deeper
devotion and total surrender and wisdom emerges as to enjoy its dharma bhuta jnana. Both
increasing love, infite knowledge and everlasting bliss constitute the nature of liberation. The
following is the relationship between God and Soul in Visistadvaita thought:
1. Sarira-Sariri bhava: Soul is the body and God is its soul
2. Amsa-Amsi bhava: Soul is the part and God is the whole
3. Sesa-Sesi bhava: Soul is the means and God is the end
4. Nayaka-Nayaki bhava: Soul is the lover and God is the beloved
5. Adhara-Adheyi bhava: Soul is the supported and God is the supporter
6. Niyramya-Niyamita bhava: Soul is the controlled and God is the controller
7. Prakara-Prakari bhava: Soul is the mode and God is the substance

There are three kinds of souls, viz., ever free souls (nitya muktas), always in bondage (buddhas)
and the released souls (muktas). In order to overcome bondage Visistadvaita basically insists
upon promoting pure love towards God and through the grace of God the soul attains liberation.
Through sevenfold argument known as saptavita anupapatti, Ramanuja rejects the conception of
maya as envisaged and exemplified by Sankara as anirvacaniya etc. and considers it as the
special power of God in creating the universe. In liberation the soul does not merge with
Brahman who is Nirguna etc., but retains its individual identity and enjoys the holy company of
God for ever. Thus a thorough going theistic philosophy has been maintained by the Vaishnava
philosophy.

4.10 LET US SUM UP

 12

Both Saiva and Vaishna religions are as old as Vedic religion in India. They accepted the Vedic
scriptures and integrated them in their own. Systematic philosophies emerged out of these
religions when they had a revival during the medieval period as bhakti movements. Saiva
Siddhanta and Visistadvaita are the prominent philosophical systems of these two religions.

4.11 KEY WORDS

Avatar : Vaishna concept of God taking different forms with specific purpose.

Satkaryavada : General Indian principle of causality that the effect pre-exists in the cause.

Antaryamin : Vaishna concept of God as indweller

4.12 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Heehs, Peter. Ed. Indian Religions: The Spiritual Traditions of South Asia. Delhi: Permanent
Black, 2003.

Singh H. An Introduction to Indian Religions. Patiala: Punjabi University, 1973.

 1

Indira Gandhi National Open University MPY – 001

School of Interdisciplinary and
Trans-disciplinary Studies
Indian Philosophy

Block 5

INDIAN SYSTEMATIC PHILOSOPHY

UNIT 1
Logic and Epistemology

UNIT 2
Metaphysics

UNIT 3
Ethics

UNIT 4
Aesthetics
 2

Expert Committee
Aligarh Muslim Amristar – 143 002
University
Prof. Gracious Thomas
Aligarh
Director, School of Prof. Y.S. Gowramma
Social Work Principal,
IGNOU Dr. Bhuvaneswari College of Fine Arts,
Lavanya Flats Manasagangotri
Prof. Renu Bharadwaj Gangai Amman Koil Mysore – 570 001
St.
School of Humanities
Thiruvanmiyur
IGNOU
Chennai – 600 041

Prof. George
Panthanmackel, Dr. Alok Nag
Senior Consultant, Vishwa Jyoti Gurukul
IGNOU Varanasi

Dr. M. R. Nandan Dr. Jose Kuruvachira

Govt. College for Salesian College &
Women IGNOU Study Centre
Mandya - Mysore Dimapur, Nagaland

Dr. Kuruvila
Pandikattu
Jnana-deepa
Vidyapeeth Dr. Sathya Sundar
Sethy
Ramwadi,
Dept of Humanities
Pune
IIT, Chennai.

Dr. Joseph Martis

St. Joseph’s College
Dr Babu Joseph Jeppu, Mangalore – 2
CBCI Centre
New Delhi Dr. Jaswinder Kaur
Dhillon
Prof. Tasadduq Husain 147, Kabir park
Opp. GND University
 3

Block Preparation

Unit 1 Dr. Shyamala

Payannur, Kannur, Kerala

Unit 2 Dr. L. Vijai

Government College, Tiruvanthapuram.

Unit 3 Bruno Baptist

Jnana-Deepa Vidyapeeth,
Pune.

Unit 4 Dr. S. Bhuvaneswari

Tiruvanmiyur, Chennai.

Content Editor
Dr. V. John Peter
IGNOU, New Delhi

Format Editor
Prof. Gracious Thomas
IGNOU, New Delhi.

Programme Coordinator
Prof. Gracious Thomas
IGNOU, New Delhi.
 4

BLOCK INTRODUCTION

Logic is the study of inference and argument. Epistemology is the study of the origin, nature and
limits of human knowledge. The logic and theory of knowledge of Indian systems are largely
coloured by their metaphysical tenets. The central questions of epistemology include the origin
of knowledge, the place of experience in generating knowledge and the place of reason in doing
so; the relationship between knowledge and the responsibility of error and changing forms of
knowledge that arise from new conceptualisations of the world. Metaphysics as a theory of
reality raises profound questions about the nature of matter, life, mind, God, space, time,
numbers, of causation, freedom and fate, and of objects and events. It is not possible to speak of
Indian Metaphysics in the singular. Each school of Indian Philosophy has developed a distinct
metaphysical view that is consistent with its epistemology and ethics. The motive of
metaphysical thinking in the Indian tradition has been practical and not merely theoretical.
Specialty of Indian philosophical thinking is that rational enquiry does not aim only at abstract
speculation about reality but is done with practical insights for everyday living. All schools of
Indian philosophy ends their philosophical discussions with moral injunctions to perfect one’s
own personal life and to create a healthy and a peaceful society. Indian Aesthetics is a witness to
the fine and subtle philosophical exposition of Indian masters.

Unit 1 makes the students know about the system of logic in Indian thought and of the different
means of knowledge accepted in the different schools of Indian thought. Every classical Indian
systems deal with logic, the object of knowledge (prameya), the means of valid knowledge
(Pramana), the resultant of valid knowledge (prama). This unit focuses on the discussion on
various means of knowledge accepted or rejected by different schools.

Unit 2 provides a sketch of Indian Metaphysical theories of different schools. This unit looks
into the fundamental questions raised and answered by Indian metaphysics and outlines its
conceptual structure. It will provide a comprehensive account of Indian Materialism, Realism,
Dualism, Pluralism, Idealism and Absolutism of different schools of Indian tradition.

Unit 3 on ‘Indian ethics’ is a short survey of the ethical foundation of Hindu religious
philosophy and of other philosophical schools like Buddhism, Jainism and Carvaka. The
essential Buddhist and Jaina ethics consist in Pancasila and Pancamahavrata. Vedic ethics gives
emphasis on the individual morality in terms of societal well being. However, Carvaka ethics
focus on life of happiness and pleasure here on earth upholding materialistic and physical
aspects.

Unit 4 studies the origin and development of Indian Aesthetics as art appreciation and
experience. It expounds various theories of Aesthetics from the written sources on aesthetics
with the contemporary discussion on the philosophical implications of aesthetic theories.
 1

UNIT 1 LOGIC AND EPISTEMOLOGY

Contents

1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Carvaka Epistemology
1.3 Jaina Logic and Epistemology
1.4 Buddhist Epistemology
1.5 Nyaya-Vaisesika Epistemology
1.6 Samkhya-Yoga Epistemology
1.7 Purva Mimamsa Epistemology
1.8 Vedanta Epistemology
1.9 Let us Sum UP
1.10 Key Words
1.11 Further Readings and References

1.0 OBJECTIVES
Logic is the study of inference and argument. Epistemology is the study of the origin, nature and
limits of human knowledge. The main objective of this unit is to give details of logic and
epistemology in the different systems of Indian Philosophy. The logic and theory of knowledge
of Indian systems are largely coloured by their metaphysical tenets. This unit is concerned with
the sources, nature, validity and limits of man’s knowledge. It also deals with the theories of
truth and logic and their relevance in the different schools of Indian thought. By the end of this
unit you will have a clear cut idea
* of basic understanding of the theories of knowledge;
* to relate it with the theories of truth and error;
* to know about the system of logic in Indian thought;
* of the different means of knowledge accepted in the different schools of Indian thought;
* of the validity and invalidity of knowledge as given in the schools of Indian thought.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
 2

The central questions of epistemology include the origin of knowledge, the place of experience
in generating knowledge and the place of reason in doing so; the relationship between knowledge
and the responsibility of error and changing forms of knowledge that arise from new
conceptualisations of the world. All of these issues link with other central concerns of Indian
systems. There are four factors involved in any knowledge
(1) The subject who knows (pramata)
(2) the object of knowledge (prameya)
(3) the means of valid knowledge (Pramana)
(4) the resultant of valid knowledge (prama)
Prama is valid knowledge. Knowledge can be valid or invalid; valid knowledge is called prama
and non-valid knowledge is known as aprama. Pramana is valid means of knowledge and its
important four means include perception (pratyaksa), inference (anumana), verbal testimony
(sabda), and comparison (upamana). Different schools of Indian thought accept or reject
different ones of these methods. All methods are accepted by Mimamsa; only perception,
inference and testimony by Yoga; only perception and inference by Buddhism and Vaisesika;
and only perception by Carvaka.

Indian theories of knowledge are divisible into two - Svatahpramanya vada (self validity of
knowledge) and Paratahpramanya vada. In the former view knowledge is intrinsically valid.
Error occurs only when some outside factors affect it. In the latter case, knowledge by itself is
neither valid nor invalid. Its truth or falsity is to be ascertained through some appropriate test.

The general science of inference is logic and its aim is to make explicit the rules by which
inferences are drawn. Inferences are rule-governed steps from one or more propositions known
as premises, to another proposition, called conclusion. A deductive inference is one that is
intended to be valid, where a valid inference is one in which the conclusion must be true if the
premises are true. All other inferences are inductive. Hence we can say that logic is the art or
philosophy of reasoning. We will be having a detailed study of these concepts of logic and
epistemology, introduced above in the context of Indian systems in this unit.

1.2 CARVAKA EPISTEMOLOGY

According to the Carvaka school, pratyaksa or perception is the only source of knowledge; i.e.,
what cannot be perceived through the senses must be treated as non-existent. They refute all
other sources of knowledge. They admit only four elements; i.e., earth, water, air and fire. We
experience all the four through perception. So, perception is the only authority. There is no space
because we cannot perceive any such element. The world of common sense perception is the
only world that exists. Again, the physical body is the self of an individual. There is no mind, no
consciousness, no soul, over and above the physical body. We do not perceive mind or soul.
Hence they are unreal. Even consciousness is a by-product and epiphenomenon of matter.
“Matter secretes mind as liver secretes bile.” A particular combination of elements produces
consciousness though the elements separately do not possess it. It is similar to the red colour
being produced from the combination of betel leaf, areca nut and lime, none of which is red.
 3

The validity of inference is also rejected by Carvakas. Inference is said to be a mere leap into the
dark. We proceed here from the known to the unknown and there is no certainty in this, though
some inferences may turn out to be accidentally true. A general proposition may be true in
unperceived cases. But there is no guarantee that it will hold true even in unperceived cases.
Deductive inferences is vitiated by the fallacy of petitio principii. It is merely an argument in
circle since the conclusion is already contained in the major premise, the validity of which is not
proved. Inductive inference undertakes to prove the validity of the major premise of deductive
inference. But induction too is uncertain because it proceeds unwarrantedly from the known to
the unknown. In order to distinguish true induction from simple enumeration, it is pointed out
that the former, unlike the latter, is based on casual relationship which means invariable
association or Vyapti. Vyapti, therefore is the nerve of all inference. But the Carvaka challenges
this universal and invariable relationship of concomitance and regards it a mere guess work.
Perception does not prove this Vyapti. Nor can it be proved by inference, for inference itself is
said to presuppose its validity. Testimony too cannot prove it, for testimony itself is not a valid
means of knowledge. Secondly, if testimony proves Vyapti, inference would become dependent
on testimony and then none would be able to infer anything by himself. Hence inference cannot
be regarded as a valid source of knowledge. Induction is uncertain and deduction is argument in
a circle. The logicians therefore find themselves stuck up in mud of inference.

The Carvaka position has been vehemently criticised by all systems of Indian philosophy all of
which have maintained the validity of at least perception and inference. To refuse the validity of
inference from the empirical standpoint is to refuse to think and discuss. All thoughts, all
discussions, all doctrines, all affirmations and denials, all proofs and disproofs are made possible
by inference. The Carvaka view that perception is valid and inference is invalid is itself a result
of inference. Carvaka can understand others only through inference and make others understand
him only through inference. Thoughts and ideas not being material objects cannot be perceived
but can only be inferred.

1.3 JAINA LOGIC AND EPISTEMOLOGY

Jains have also critically examined the valid sources of knowledge. According to Jainism
knowledge is of two kinds-Pramana and Naya. Pramana refers to the knowledge of a thing as it
is. Naya is that particular standpoint from which we deliver our judgement about a particular
thing. Both Pramana and Naya are essential for the full and true knowledge of a thing. Pramana
is that knowledge which illuminates itself and others without any hindrance. Hence Jains
classify knowledge gained through Pramana into direct (aparoksa) and indirect (paroksa).

Direct knowledge:- Avadhi-jnana, Manah paryaya and kevala jnana are three kinds of direct
knowledge which may be called extra-ordinary, and extra-sensory perceptions. Avadhi is
clarivoyance, Manah paryaya is telepathy, and kevala is omniscience. Avadhi is direct
knowledge of things even at a distance of space or time. It is called Avadhi or limited because it
functions within a particular area and up to a particular time. It cannot go beyond sPatial and
temporal limits. Manah paryaya is direct knowledge of the thought of others. This too is limited
 4

by sPatial and temporal conditions. In both Avadhi and Manah paryaya, the soul has direct
knowledge unaided by the senses or the mind. Hence they are called immediate, though limited.
Kevala-jnana is unlimited and absolute knowledge. It can be acquired only by liberated souls. It
is not limited by space, time or object.
Indirect knowledge:- Perceptual knowledge which is ordinarily called immediate, and admitted
to be relatively so by Jainism and therefore included in mediate knowledge. Pure perception in
the sense of mere sensation cannot rank the title of knowledge. It must be given meaning and
arranged into order by conception or thought. Perceptual knowledge is therefore regarded as
mediate since it presupposes the activity of thought. Mediate knowledge is divided into mati and
shruta. Mati includes both perceptual and inferential knowledge. Mati jnana springs in the
following order:
(1) Avagraha-is the first kind of knowledge produced from the contact of sense organs with
the objects.
(2) Iha-This follows avagraha and in it the soul is able to appreciate the qualities of the
visible object.
(3) Avaya-In this we come to know definitely about the object
(4) Dharand-In this, the full knowledge about the object leaves an impression upon the mind
of man.
Shruta jnana means knowledge derived from authority. It is to be gained from authoritative
books and words of great sages. Perusal of authoritative books and listening to the sermons of
saints are essential for this kind of knowledge. Shruta jnana is divided into two categories, i.e.,
Angavahya and angapravistha. The former is mentioned in the Jaina scriptures while the shruta
jnana outside the pale of the religious books of the Jains, fall in the latter category. Thus Mati
and Shruta which are the two kinds of mediate knowledge have as their instrument perception,
inference and authority- the three Pramanas admitted by Jainism.
According to Jaina epistemology indirect knowledge is of five kinds-Smrti, Pratyabhijna, Tarka,
Anumana and Agama.
(1) Smrti- To reminisce something known directly in the past as a result of the awakening of
some samskara is known sruti. For Jains, smrti is valid knowledge because it is the
correct form of things perceived in the past.
(2) Recognition (pratyabhijna)- It is the synthetic knowledge contributed by direct
perception and recollection (Smrti).In it we know resemblance (samanata), identity
(tadatmya), differences (bheda), comparison (Tulana),etc. In it we know the general
(samanya) in the form of similar change (sadrsaparinama) of different jivas and ajivas.
Recognition is valid knowledge.
(3) Logic (Tarka)- It is the knowledge of Vyapti between paksa and sadhya.It depends upon
the perception whether two things exist together or not in the past, present, and future.
Vyapti is of two kinds-- Anavya Vyapti and Vyatireka Vyapti. In the former the
concomitance of two tings is established. In the latter Vyapti is shown in the absence.
‘where there is fire, there is smoke’ is an example of Anavaya Vyapti. On the other hand.’
where there is no fire, there is smoke’, exemplifies Vyatireka Vyapti. The relationship of
universal accompaniment, gradual or concurrent, exists in Vyapti. This relationship is
ascertained by logic (Tarka).
 5

(4) Inference (anumana)-It is the knowledge of sadhya with the help of hetu. This inference
is either svarthanumana or pararthanumana. The former is the grasp for one’s own self.
Hence it needs no amplification. For example, the frequent visibility of fire under smoke
together suffices to convince us of their concomitance. Afterwards, when we see smoke,
we infer the existence of fire also with the help of Vyapti, which is already known to us.
It is, svarthanumana. In it the place of smoke is paksa, smoke is paksa dharma. In
svarthanumana both Vyapti and paksa dharma are essential. Pararthanumana is used for
convincing others. So it must be more systematised and vivid. It is fivefold. In the
fivefold Pararthanumana an inference is drawn in five sentences. These sentences are
called the propositions (avayava) of inference; e.g.,
(a) Pratijna-The hill is fiery;
(b) Hetu-because of smoke;
(c) Drstanta- Wherever there is smoke there is fire, such as in the kitchen;
(e) Upanaya- The smoke, which does not exist without fire (Vyaptivisistdhum) is in the
hill;
(f) Nigamana-Therefore the hill is fiery;
(5) Agama:- It is the knowledge of a thing through the words of reliable people. A person
who knows things in their true form and expresses his views correctly, is a reliable person
and an apta. He is free from prejudice. His words befit the object which they are seeking
to express. Agama is of two kinds-Laukik and Alaukik.

Naya vada
Naya means a standpoint of thought from which we make a statement about a thing. All truth is
relative to our standpoints. Partial knowledge of one of the innumerable aspects of a thing is
called ‘Naya’. Judgement based on this partial knowledge is also included in ‘Naya’. There are
seven nayas of which the first four are called artha-Naya because they relate to objects or
meanings and the last three are called shabda Naya because they relate to words. When taken as
absolute, a ‘Naya’ becomes a fallacy or nayabhasa.

Syad Vada
Syad vada or saptabhangi Naya is the most important part of Jaina logic. According to this, we
can know only some aspects of reality and so all our judgements are relative. It is a theory of the
relativity of knowledge. Therefore, the knowledge of every object is not absolute but relative and
Syad vada holds all knowledge to be only probable. Every proposition gives us only a perhaps, a
may be or a Syad. We cannot affirm or deny any thing absolutely of any object. There is nothing
certain on account of the endless complexity of things. It emphasises the extremely complex
nature of reality and its indefiniteness.

Reality has infinite aspects and we can know only some of these aspects. The infinitely complex
reality admits of opposite predicates from different standpoints. It is real as well as unreal. It is
universal as well as particular. It is one as well as many. Viewed from the point of view of
substance, a thing is real, universal permanent and one. Viewed from the point of view of modes,
it is unreal, particular, momentary and many. Those who ignore this truth make simple and
unqualified statements about reality. Jains are very fond of quoting the story of the blind men
and the elephant. The blind men gave different accounts of the elephant. They are right in what
they affirmed, but wrong in what they denied. There is no judgement which is absolutely true
 6

and no judgement is absolutely false. All our judgements are relative, conditional and limited.
The statements ‘exists and does not exists’ may be made from different standpoints. Each is true.
The stand from which a thing is known is called ‘Naya’. It is this principle of standpoint (Naya)
that is made known through the theory of ‘may be ism’ (Syad Vada). It consists of seven steps.
Each judgement is meaningful, only if the standpoint from which it is made is taken into account.
This is done by adding the expression ‘may be’ or Syad to the judgement. The seven steps are as
follows:-
1. May be, a thing is (Syad asti);
2. May be, a thing is not (Syad nasti);
3. May be, a thing is and is not (Syad asti nasti);
4. May be, a thing is inexpressible (Syad avaktavya);
5. May be, a thing is and inexpressible (Syad asti avaktavya);
6. May be, a thing is not and is inexpressible (Syad nasti avaktavya);
7. May be, a thing is and is not and is inexpressible (Syad asti nasti avaktavya).
The significance of this doctrine is that our knowledge regarding any thing is relative. Relative
knowledge presupposes absolute knowledge. Jainism accepts Kevala jnana as the absolute
knowledge.

1.4 BUDDHIST EPISTEMOLOGY

In epistemological ideas also we can see the different opinions among the four schools of
Buddhism, Yogacara, Madhyamika, Sautrantika, Vaibhasika. According to Sautrantika the
external objects are not known through perception. According to Vaibhasika, on the other hand,
the knowledge of the external objects can also be gained through perception. The Vaibhasika
philosophers have criticised the Sautrantika view regarding perception.

According to Vaibhasika the inference of things external to knowledge is self-contradictory. If

all the external objects are inferred by their knowledge, then nothing can be known by
perception. In the absence of perception there can be no relation of concomitance between the
major and the minor premise without which no inference is possible. This is opposed to actual
experience. The Vaibhasikas accept the presence of the external things and conceive them as
subject to perception. According to Vaibhasika that is Pramana by which direct knowledge is
possible. The Pramanas are two types: Pratyaksa (perception) and anumana (inferential). Both
these Pramanas are known as samyagjnana (right knowledge) and it is by these that all the
purusharthas are attained. Pratyaksa is the knowledge devoid of imagination and error. This
knowledge is of four types:
(1) Indriya jnana—This is the knowledge attained through senses.
(2) Mano vijnana—in this knowledge there is the sensual knowledge in the form of
samanatara pratyaya after the knowledge through senses. This samanantara
pratyaya is a mental modification in the absence of which there is no knowledge even
after continued seeing. Thus mano vijnana is born of both the object and the
consciousness.
(3) Atma samvedana—It is the manifestation of chitta and its dharmas are like pleasure
and pain in their real form. This is attributeless, without error and of the nature of
self-realisation.
 7

(4) Yogic jnana—It is the ultimate knowledge of the things perceptible through various
Pramanas. The object of pratyaksa is svalaksana. Svalaksana is that object in which
there is difference in the form of knowledge by the presence and absence of its
contact. It is by it that a thing has the capacity to do anything. Hence it is said to be
paramartha satya.

Inference is of two types: Svartha (for the self) and parartha (for others).In the former the linga
is inferential, i. e., in the inference there is fire on the hill, the hill is linga and the fire is
inferential. In it the linga remains in self side (svapaksa), just as the kitchen. The linga does not
remain in the opposite side (vipaksa), e.g., a pool of water, etc.

Sautrantika School
According to Sautrantikas they are subject to inference. According to Sautrantikas there are four
causes of knowledge.
(1) Alamban-It is the cause of external objects like jug etc, because the form of the
knowledge is born from it.
(2) Samanantara—This is so called because it is only after the previous mental stage
that the following stage attains consciousness.
(3) Adhipat—The senses have been called as the Adhipati Pratyaya of the knowledge.
It is the normative cause. Without the senses there can be no external knowledge even
after the presence of the first two causes.
(4) Sahkari Pratyaya—these are the subsidiary conditions necessary for knowledge,
e.g., light, form, etc. without which knowledge becomes almost impossible.
The knowledge of the external objects becomes possible due to the above mentioned four causes
or conditions. The Sautrantikas do not admit that the external objects have no existence and all
knowledge is in the consciousness. Nor do they believe like the Vaibhasikas that we know
anything by direct perception. As opposed to Vaibhasikas , the Sautrantikas maintain that we
have no direct perception of the external objects but only the knowledge of their appearance. It is
by the distinction in these appearances which are the basis of the knowledge. Hence they are in
the mind itself, though the things which they represent as external objects are not known by their
perception, but by the inference based upon the mental modifications aroused by them . This
view is known as Bahayanumeyavad. It is representationalism or indirect realism.

Yogacara School
According to Yogacara the physical world has no existence apart from consciousness. Even if
the existence of anything outside consciousness is admitted it cannot be known. Vijnanavadins
believe that all things external to mind are mental modifications. Thus the knowledge of the
external things is impossible. Hence the thing which appears to be external, should be taken as a
mental concept. It can be questioned here that if the object is a mere concept of the mind why it
does not appear, disappear and change as desired. To this the Vijnanavadins reply that the mind
is a mere stream in which the past experiences remain in the form of expression and whenever
there is favourable condition for a certain impression the same impression manifests and results
into knowledge. From the multiple point of view Vijnanavadins admit two types of knowledge -
Grahana and Adhyavasaya. Grahana is indirect and Adhyavasaya direct inference. The
Vijnanavadins believe that the proof of things depends on something else. (Parartah
 8

Pramanyavada). They made two distinctions in the empirical truth – Paratatra and Pari-kalpa.
The former is relative while the latter is imaginary.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer

1. Examine the main contributions of Carvaka epistemology to Indian philosophy.

…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
........................................
2. Expound the Jain theory of syad vada and evaluate it as an epistemological theory.
…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
.......................................

1.5 NYAYA-VAISESIKA EPISTEMOLOGY

In the Nyaya philosophy knowledge is spoken of as the manifestation of object. Knowledge

lights its objects as does a lamp. Knowledge may be valid or invalid. Valid knowledge (prama)
is defined as the right apprehension of an object. It is the manifestation of an object as it is.
Nyaya maintains the theory of correspondence. While Nyaya system recognises all the four
Pramanas namely perception, inference, verbal testimony and comparison, Vaisesika recognises
only two Pramanas- perception and inference and reduces comparison and verbal testimony to
inference.

Perception is divided into ordinary (Laukika) and extra-ordinary (Alaukika). In ordinary

perception knowledge results from the contact of the sense organs with the external objects
(bahya). Extraordinary perception has three distinctions - perception of classes (samanyalaksna),
complication (jnana laksnana) and intuition (yogaja). The Naiyayika maintains two stages in
perception- Nirvikalpa (indeterminate) and Savikalpa (determinate). Gautama accepts this
distinction of perception.
 9

According to Nyaya philosophy, the second source of valid knowledge is anumana . The term
anumana literally means ‘after-knowledge’ i.e., knowledge that follows other knowledge. It is
mediate and indirect and are arranged through the medium of some mark which is called ‘hetu’
and bears the relation of invariable concomitance with the observed feature. The basis of the
inference is invariable concomitance. The invariable relation between the hetu and the sadya is
called Vyapti. The knowledge of the qualities of the ‘paksa’ through the ‘hetu’ is called
paramarsa. Hence inference or anumana is said to be knowledge gained through paramarsa, or
in other words, the knowledge of the presence of sadhya in the paksa through the linga, which is
in the quality of paksa and is invariably related by Vyapti.

This may be explained with the help of the typical example of inference, the presence of fire on
the perception of smoke. When one sees smoke on distant hill one remembers one’s experience
of the universal concomitance (Vyapti) between smoke and fire and concludes that there is fire
on the distant hill. The character which is inferred (fire) is called sadhya; the mark on the
strength of which the character is inferred is the hetu (smoke); the subject where the character is
inferred is paksa (hill). The three terms correspond to the major, the middle and the minor terms
in the Aristotelian syllogism. The following is a a typical nyaya syllogism.
1. This hill has fire (pratijna),
2. Because it has smoke (hetu),
3. Whatever has smoke has fire e.g. an oven (udaharana),
4. This hill as smoke which is invariably associated with fire (upanaya),
5. Therefore this hill has fire (nigamana).
The first, the pratijna, is the logical statement which is to be proved. The second is hetu or
reason which states the reason for the establishment of the proposition. The third is udaharana
which the universal concomitance together with example. The fourth is upanaya or application
of the universal concomitance to the present case. The fifth is nigamana or conclusion drawn
from the preceding propositions. These five members of Indian syllogism are called Avayavas.

Linga paramarsa: The Nyaya syllogism has five terms. Among them ,middle term works as a
bridge between the major and the minor terms. Therefore, the middle term has main
responsibility to prove a syllogism valid or invalid. How a middle term is related to major term is
lingaparamarsha. There are five characteristics of a middle term-
1. It must be present in the minor term (paksadharmata); e.g., smoke must be
present in the hill.
2. It must be present in all positive instances in which the major terms is present;
e.g., smoke must be present in the kitchen where fire exists.(sapaksasattva).
3. It must be absent in all negative instances in which the major terms is absent;
e.g., smoke must be absent in the lake in which fire does not
exist.(vipaksasattva).
4. It must be non-incomPatible with the minor term; e.g., it must not prove the
coolness of fire (abadhita).
5. It must be qualified by the absence of counteracting reasons which lead to a
contradictory conclusion; e.g., ‘the fact of being caused’ should not be used to
prove the ‘eternality’ of sound (aviruddha).
Hetvabhasa:-In Indian logic a fallacy is called hetvahasa. It means that middle term appears to
be a reason but is not a valid reason. All fallacies are material fallacies. We have mentioned the
 10

five characteristics of a valid middle term. When these are violated, we have fallacies. Five kinds
of fallacies are recognized:
1. Assiddha or sadhyasama- This is the fallacy of unproved middle.
2. Savyabhicara- this is the fallacy of irregular middle.
3. Satpratipaksa- here the middle term is contradicted by another middle term.
4. Badhita- It is the non-inferentially contradicted middle
5. Viruddha- It is the contradictory middle.
Comparison with Western Syllogism:-
There are many important points of difference of resemblances as well as difference between
Nyaya syllogism and Aristotelian syllogism. The first we shall note the resemblances. Though
the Nyaya syllogism has five and the Aristotelian syllogism as three propositions, the terms in
both are only three-the sadhya or the major, the paksa or the minor and the hetu or the middle.
The Nyaya syllogism can easily be converted into the usual Aristotelian syllogism. The first and
the last propositions are the same. The second coincides with fourth. Hence if we leave out the
first two members of the Nyaya syllogism, we find that it resembles the Aristotelian syllogism.
All things which have smoke have fire (Major).
This hill has smoke (Minor).
Therefore, this hill has fire (conclusion).
But there are certain real differences between the Nyaya and Aristotelian syllogism.
1. While Aristotle concentrates only on deduction the Nyaya system combines
deduction with induction. The example is a special feature of the Nyaya syllogism
and illustrates the truth that the universal major premise is the result of inductive
reasoning. The Nyaya regards deduction and induction as inseparably related as two
aspects of the same process. The third proposition shows that the universal
proposition is derived from the particular instances like the oven. Such observation of
particular instances is the work of induction. The third proposition where Nyaya
combines the Universal with the particular brings out the inseparable connection
between deduction and induction.
2. Again while the Aristotelian syllogism is formal, the Nyaya syllogism is formal as
well as material. Nyaya syllogism discusses only facts of experience, since it has to
suggest examples.

Classification of inference: Inference is twofold-(1) Svarthanumana-inference for one’s own

sake and (2) Pararthanumana-inference for the sake of others. The former is not expressed in the
form of a syllogistic argument. The latter is a syllogism which helps to direct the mind of the
listener to think in the required manner.

Sabda: It is defined as the statement of a trustworthy person (aptavakya) and consists in

understanding its meaning. It is based on the words of trustworthy persons, human or divine. A
person is trustworthy if he knows the truth and conveys it correctly. Testimony is of two kinds-
Vaidika and secular (laukika). The vaidika testimony is perfect and infallible because the Vedas
 11

are spoken by God. Secular testimony, being the words of human beings who are liable to error,
is not infallible.

Comparison (Upamana): It is knowledge derived from similarity. It has been defined as the
knowledge of the relation between a word and its denotation.

1.6 SAMKHYA YOGA EPISTEMOLOGY

Samkhya theory of knowledge: In all knowledge three factors are involved.

(a) The subject who knows,
(b) The object known,
(c) The process of knowledge.
Samkhya admits of three Pramanas –perception, inference, and verbal testimony.

Perception: Samkhya believes in ‘representative perception’. In knowledge the internal organ

mediates the purusa and objects when an object comes within the range of vision, the internal
organ is so modified as to assume the form of an object. The modification of the internal organ
into an object is called vrtti or mode. Knowledge means that mode as illuminated by the light of
purusa. Illumination is a constant feature of perceptual knowledge. The mode varies in
accordance with the objects presented.

Inference: There are varieties of inference generally recognised. The first is syllogistic inference
which is based on perception. The second corresponds to analogical reasoning in modern logic.
Such inference is called samanyatodrsta. For e.g., From the observed fact that an effect like a jar
requires for its production, an agent like potter, it is concluded that the world also should have
been brought into existence by a competent being God.

Sabda: It is interpreted as aptavacana. Testimony is valid if the source is reliable. It may come
not only from the scriptures, but also from persons who are trust worthy (apta).

1.7 PURVA MIMAMSA EPISTEMOLOGY

According to Kumarila Bhatta, valid knowledge is that which provides the experience of an
unknown object, that which is not contradicted by other knowledge and which is free from other
defects. The Mimamsakas uphold svatah pramanya vada or self validity of knowledge.
Knowledge is valid by itself. The conditions of freedom from defects and non-contradiction
being satisfied, all knowledge arises as self-valid. Coherence and self-consistency is the nature of
valid knowledge. Both Prabhakara and Kumarila regard knowledge itself as Pramana or means
of knowledge. Jaimini admits three Pramanas - perception, inference and testimony. Prabhakara
adds two more –comparison and implication. Kumarila further adds non-apprehension.

Arthapathi (presumption):- Prabhakara and Kumarila both, admit Arthapathi as an independent

means of valid kowledge. Through this Pramana we discover a fact as a result of a contradiction
 12

between two facts already known to be well established. A common example is - Devadutta does
not take his food during day time. Yet he is quite strong and fat. We presume that he must be
taking food at night. The assumption of Devadutta eating at night is a postulation. We have never
seen him eating his food at night. Hence the knowledge gained by postulation is not perception.
This kind of knowledge is a peculiar or unique kind of knowledge and it has to be considered
separately. But some Indian logicians bring this Pramana under inference-disjunctive inference.
All fat persons who do not eat during the day are persons who eat during the night.
Devadutta is a fat person who does not eat during the day
Therefore Devadutta is a fat person who eats during the night.

Anupalabdhi (non-apprehension):- Anupalabdhi is the immediate knowledge of the non-

existence of object. Kumarila admits this but Prabhakara rejects it. It is related to the category of
abhava. For e.g., an umbrella which is expected to be seen in a particular corner of a room is not
seen there. We know about the non-existence of the umbrella through a separate Pramana,
anupalabdhi. Nyaya, though it accepts non-existence as a category has no separate Pramana to
understand it. According to them, the non-existence of an object can be known by perception
itself as in the case of perceiving the bare floor. But according to Mimamsa since there is no
sense object contact, we require a new Pramana to know the non-existence of an object. This is a
unique feature of Mimamsa epistemology.

1.8 VEDANTA EPISTEMOLOGY

According to Vedanta, there are three Pramanas- Perception (pratyksa), Inference (tarka), and
Scripture (sruti). Perception: In perception the subject and object become identical because in
fact both are the same consciousness. The subject and the object remain separate due to the
covering of ignorance. But by the direct union of Antakarana through the sense it takes the form
of the object and shines in the form of that particular object illumined by the self due to the
removal of the covering of ignorance. Tarka (inference): Inference is the knowledge which
results by the past impressions based upon the awareness of concomitance. The awareness of
concomitance leaves the impressions on the unconscious and when these impressions are
awakened by perceiving that object again, the result is inference. Against Nyaya, Sankara admits
only three premises of inference-Pratijna, hetu and udaharana. Sruti or Scripture:-According
to advaita, God is the author of Veda in a special sense. It is not His work in the literal sense.
Like everything else, Veda also disappears at the end of the cycle and God repeats it at the
beginning of the next cycle. So far as its substance is concerned, it is independent of God, i.e.,
Apurusya. According to Nyaya, God is the sole author of Veda and according to Mimamsa,
Vedas are self-existent. In advaita, we find a midway position between these two systems.

According to Ramanuja, all knowledge points to a complex or qualifies object. Knowledge never
reveals anything as nirguna. According to Ramanuja, nirguna does not mean having no qualities
at all but the absence of evil qualities. Ramanuja admits three Pramanas- perception, inference
and verbal testimony. He rejects nirvikalpa stage of perception. Inference is treated in the same
manner as in Nyaya. With respect to sabda, there are two points to be noted- (1) all sections of
the Veda are equally important. There is no need to distinguish between the ritual portion and
the knowledge portion as is done by Sankara. (2) Ramanuja gives much importance to the
Agamas as to the Veda and to the Upanishads.
 13

In Dvaita epistemology the process of knowing is explained as a mode of the internal organ.
Knowledge always points to a complex or qualified object. It does not recognise the division of
three levels of reality as in advaita. Truth is defined as correspondence with outside reality.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer

1. State the Nyaya View of Syllogism and compare it with the Western View.
…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
........................................
2. Give a brief account of the pramanas accepted by Purva Mimamsa.
…........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
.......................................

1.9 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have given a detailed study of the Logic and Epistemology in the different schools
of Indian philosophy. Through this unit it will become evident that valid knowledge is prama and
Pramana is the means to it. Pramana are mainly four including perception, inference, verbal
testimony and comparison. Schools of Indian thought accept or reject these Pramanas and an
elaborate picture of the same is given in this unit. As the general science of inference is logic, it
is also given due importance while dealing with schools which accept inference. The unit makes
it explicit that all schools of Indian thought accept perception as one of the chief instruments of
knowledge. To the end of the unit, theories of error of different schools are also mentioned.

1.10 KEY WORDS

Pramana: Criterion of valid knowledge.

Syllogism: It is the inference of one proposition from two premises.

 14

Fallacy: Any error of reasoning.

Antah karana: Internal organ constituted of mind, ego-sense and intellect.

Naiyayika: An adherent of the Nyaya school

1.11 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Sharma, Chandradhar. A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas, 1983.

Narayana Rao, P. The Epistemology of Dvaita Vedanta. Madras: The Adayar Library and
Research Centre, 1976.

Puligandla, Ramakrishna. Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy. New Delhi: D.K.Print world,

2008.

Raju, P.T. Structural Depth of Indian Thought. New Delhi: South Asian Publishers, 1985.
 1

UNIT 2 INDIAN METAPHYSICS

Contents
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Indian Materialism (Carvaka)
2.3 Realism of Nyaya-Vaisesika
2.4 Realism of the Sautrantika and Vaibhasika
2.5 Realism of Mimamsa
2.6 Dualistic Metaphysics of Samkhya
2.7 Realistic Relativistic Pluralism of Jainism
2.8 Idealism of Vijnanavada and Madhyamika
2.9 Non-dualistic Absolutism (Advaita)
2.10 Non-dualism of the Qualified Whole (Visistadvaita)
2.11 Dualilstic Absolutism of Madhvacarya
2.12 Let us Sum up
2.13 Further Readings and References

2.0 OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this unit is to provide a sketch of Indian Metaphysics. This unit looks into
the fundamental questions raised and answered by Indian metaphysics and outlines its conceptual
structure. It will provide a comprehensive account of Indian Materialism, Realism, Dualism,
Pluralism, Idealism and Absolutism of different schools of Indian tradition.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Metaphysics is the theory of reality. It raises profound questions about the nature of matter, life,
mind, God, space, time, numbers, of causation, freedom and fate, and of objects and events.
What sets metaphysics apart from other enquiries is the distinctive method of approach where it
seeks to answer the questions only through natural faculties of which reason is the chief. It is not
possible to speak of Indian Metaphysics in the singular. Each school of Indian Philosophy has
developed a distinct metaphysical view that is consistent with its epistemology and ethics. The
motive of metaphysical thinking in the Indian tradition has been practical and not merely
theoretical. Questions related to the Universe and creation have been subordinated to the concern
for the ultimate destiny of man and its fulfillment.

2.2 INDIAN MATERIALISM (CARVAKA)

 2

The school of the Carvaka or Lokayata held a metaphysics of materialism. The Carvakas were
materialists and Naturalists because they believed in the reality of physical Nature alone; every
object being a form assumed by Natural elements. The process by which the elements assume the
forms are also natural, not guided or controlled by any supernatural agency. Since pratyaksa is
the only pramana accepted by Carvaka, the four elements – earth, water, fire and air – are the
only categories accepted by it. The fifth element akasa is not accepted as it is not an object of
perception. All objects in the world including human beings are made up of the four basic
elements. The differences among the types of objects in the world are due to differences among
the patterns in which the four elements combine with one another. The atman is nothing but the
physical body of man. The living man is conscious, but consciousness emerges when the
material particles of the body come together in a particular pattern and form a particular
structure. When that pattern deteriorates and the body disintegrates and is destroyed, the
constituents separate themselves and the emergent quality disappears. The Carvaka brings in the
analogue of the instance when yeast is added to grape juice to make wine which acquires the
quality of intoxicating power which is possessed neither by yeast nor grape juice. The Carvaka
argues that God or an ethical potency need not be posited to create the world and its forms,
because it believes that the elements come together naturally and produce the forms without any
specific purpose. This mechanistic and naturalistic model of creation of the objects of the world
is called yadarcavada.

2.3 REALISM OF NYAYA-VAISESIKA

The Nyaya-Vaisesika classifies reality under a few categories (padarthas) in order to facilitate a
comprehensive treatment of reality. The Vaisesika recognizes seven such categories. One of
them is abhava or non-being that stands for all kinds of non-existence, which is classified into
four: pragabhava (prior non-existence), pradhvamsabhava (non-existence after destruction),
anyonyabhava (mutual non-existence) and athyanthabhava (absolute non-existence). The
remaining six categories represent various kinds of being (bhava) and include dravya,
(substance), guna (quality), karma (action), samanya (universal), visesa (particular) and
samavaya (inherence). Nyaya had admitted sixteen categories which are pramana (source of
valid knowledge), prameya (objects of knowledge), samsaya (doubt), prayojana (end), drstanta
(example), siddhanta (doctrine), avayava (members of syllogism), tarka (hypothetical
argument), nirnaya (ascertainment), vada (discussion), jalpa (wrangling), vitanda (destructive
dialectic), hetvabhasa (fallacies of inference), chala (quibbling), jati (futile objections), and
nigrahasthanas (points of defeat in a debate). Except prameya, the categories of Nyaya are
logical and epistemological while the seven categories of Vaisesika are exclusively
metaphysical. The important knowables (prameyas) according to Nyaya are twelve in number –
the atman, the physical body, senses, objects of the world, cognition or consciousness, mind,
activity, imperfection, life after death, result, pain and final liberation.
The Nyaya school regards the atman as essentially unconscious. Consciousness arises in the
atman as an adventitious property when perception occurs. Nyaya maintains that the atman
constitutes an infinite plurality and each atman is the knower, doer, enjoyer and sufferer. God is
one of the atmans but the greatest of them. Unlike other atmans, God is by nature conscious and
his consciousness is eternal and infinite. God is only the efficient cause of creation, the eternal
atoms being the material cause. The atoms are brought together by God in accordance with the
ethical merits and demerits of the atmans.
 3

The Vaisesika school defines substance (dravya) as that in which qualities and actions inhere
(samaveta). Qualities and actions cannot exist except in a substance. The relationship between
substance and its qualities and action is the inseparable relation of inherence (samavaya). There
are nine kinds of substances: earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, space, spirit and mind. Of the nine
substances, the first four, that is, earth, water, fire and air are constituted by atoms. Mind is also
atomic in size but the other four substances – ether, time, space and spirit – are infinite. Time and
space are indivisible and divisions like the past, the present and future of time and directions like
north and south of space, are conventional and artificial. Qualitatively, the atman, mind, and
atoms of the elements are different from one another. This difference is made possible because
each individual has its own particular (visesa) that distinguishes it from others.
Of the four kinds of atoms, each group differs from another qualitatively. They are imperceptible
to human beings except yogis. For ordinary human beings, the existence of atoms is proved by
inference. All perceptible objects are composed of parts and are therefore divisible. But the
division into parts cannot be carried on ad infinitum. Therefore we have to stop at some point
where further division is not possible. This fundamental unit is the atom (anu). The atoms (anu)
are imperceptible and so are their qualities. Two atoms combine to form a dyad (dvayanuka).
Three dyads combine together to form a triad (trayanuka). The triad is the least visible unit. It is
said to possess the size of mote in the sunbeam.
Quality is defined as the being that is different from substance and activity and that is itself
without qualities and activities. The list of twenty four qualities listed in the Vaisesika school
are: colour, taste, smell, touch, number, magnitude, distinctness (prthaktva), conjunction
(samyoga), disjunction (vibhaga), nearness (temporal and spatial), remoteness (temporal and
spatial), cognition, pleasure, pain, desire, hate, effort, weight, fluidity, viscidity, tendency
(samskara), unseen merit, unseen demerit (adrsta) and sound.
Action belongs to finite substances and is the cause of conjunction and disjunction. It can only be
a formal (asamavayi) and an instrumental (nimitta) cause but not a material cause, since only a
substance can be a material cause. Actions are of five kinds: throwing upward, throwing
downward, contraction, expansion and locomotion.
The universal (samanya, jati) is defined as that which is eternal (nitya) and which inheres in
many. It is dependent on our cognition (buddhyapeksyam). It exists in substances, qualities and
activities. It is of two kinds, the higher and the lower, the highest (para) beyond which there is
no higher is Being (satta).
The particular (visesa) is defined as that which is ultimate and exist in eternal substances. It
exists only in substances and that too only in ultimate, eternal substances. The particular is the
ultimate differentiator. To illustrate, all the earth atoms are alike, yet they are differentiated from
one another by each one having a particular.
Inherence (samavaya) is defined as the relation of inseparability. Inherence is found between the
whole and its parts, between substance and qualities, between substance and activities, and
between the universals on the one hand and substances, qualities and activities on the other. The
whole inheres in its parts, qualities and activities inhere in substances and universals inhere in
substances, qualities and activities. However, no higher universal inheres in the lower universals.
Non-being (abhava) is defined as what is not, or as different from the six positive categories.
Nyaya-Vaisesika holds that reality is both positive and negative. Non-being is real only with
reference to our thought and is not related to any form of being. Yet Nyaya-Vaisesika holds that
 4

non-being is perceived , but only when accompanied by the thought, “Had the object been there,
it would have been perceived”. Non-being is of two kinds: relational absence (samsargabhava)
and mutual negation (anyonyabhava). Relational absence is the absence of something in
something else like the absence of the pen on the table. Relational absence is of three kinds: prior
negation (pragabhava), posterior negation (pradhvansabhava), and absolute or infinite negation
(athyanthabhava).

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answers.

1. Define metaphysics. What are the unique features of Indian metaphysics?

2. What are the fundamental tenets of Carvaka metaphysics?

3. What are the categories of reality accepted by Nyaya and Vaisesika?

2.4 REALISM OF THE SAUTRANTIKA AND VAIBHASIKA

The Vaibhasika and Sautrantika schools of Buddhism are affiliated to the Theravada or Hinayana
sects of Buddhism. Buddhist realism takes its origin from the Sarvastivadins who are the
advocates of the doctrine which says that all things no matter whether they belong to the past,
present or future exist (Sarvastivada). The Vaibhasikas hold the view that the universe is
ultimately constituted by simple, unanalysable elements called dharmas. The dharmas are
regarded as impermanent or momentary (ksanika). There is no whole as distinct from the parts;
concrete objects are mere aggregates (skandhas) of a number of dharmas. The aggregation of the
elements is effected by the principle of causality conveyed by the doctrine of pratityasamutpada
(theory of dependant origination). Both matter and mind are considered to be real; they are real
in virtue of their simplicity, indivisibility and unanalysability, though they are both impermanent.
The Universe is ultimately constituted of 75 elements, 72 of which are conditioned (samskrta)
 5

and the remaining three are unconditioned (asamskrta). This distinction suggests that the
universe is the field where human beings are thrown into a state of bondage and which provides
them opportunities to win back their freedom or liberation. The elements (dharmas) conditioned
by avidya and passions that accompany it co-operate with one another so as to present
themselves as a stream (sasrava) of phenomenal life (samsara) marked by the presence of pain
(duhkha) or else the cause of pain (samudaya) and are held in a state of bondage. The elements
are open to subjection to the counteracting process of their separation from one another and their
suppression through the means of spiritual discipline (marga), resulting in the emergence of
prajna. They are reduced to a state of quiescence, free from the pain and cause of pain, which is
the state of Nirvana.
The Vaibhasika school classifies dharmas into five: (1) rupa (matter) (2) citta (consciousness)
(3) cetasika (states and characteristics of the mind) (4) citta-viprayukta-samskara (powers that
are neither mental nor material but common to both mind and matter) and (5) asamskrta
dharmas (the unconditioned dharmas). The realism of the Vaibhasikas is subject to the
limitations imposed upon it by the core ideas of Buddhism, namely momentariness
(ksanikavada), theory of no-self (nairatmyavada) and the theory of particularity (sva-laksana) as
opposed to generality or universality (samanya).
The Sautrantikas opposed the Vaibhasika contention that the elements exist in the past, the
present and the future. The admission of the continuous existence of things through the past, the
present and the future amounts to the acceptance of a form of eternalism, which is unacceptable
to Buddhist metaphysics as a whole. The Sautrantikas criticize the Vaibhasika contention that
whatever is an object of thought, exists. Whatever exists admits of being thought of but the
converse is not necessarily true. The Sautrantikas consider some of the elements admitted by
Vaibhasika to be fictitious like akasa (space), niravana, citta-viprayukta (non-mental powers)
and the past and future aspects of elements. The Sautrantikas list forty three elements classified
under five heads: (1) Rupa (matter) comprising four primary forms (upadana) and four
secondary or derivative forms (upadaya-rupa) (2) Vedana (feelings) including pleasure, pain and
the neutral feeling (3) Samjna (signs or sense-organs) consisting of five external sense organs
and one internal sense organ called citta or manas (4) Vijnana (consciousness) of six kinds
corresponding to the six sense organs. (5) Samskaras (powers or forces) numbering twenty in all
including ten good (kusala) and ten bad (akusala) ones. Like Vaibhasikas, Sautrantikas also
admit the reality of the twofold world of matter and mind. The Vaibhasikas hold that our
knowledge of objective reality is direct and immediate and is yielded by perception while the
Sautrantikas regard this knowledge as indirect and mediate, i.e, derivable from inference instead
of from perception.

2.5 REALISM OF MIMAMSA

The Mimamsa propounds a metaphysics of ethical action. It advocates qualitative and

quantitative pluralism. It substitutes ethical action for God himself. The efficacy of ethical action
is a force that creates the forms of the world and is the controller of the world and its organizer.
The world is meant for action and is created by action. Dharma is the central concern of the
Mimamsa and it is that which supports the universe. Ethical action must be what answers to a
Vedic injunction (vedapratipadya). Dharma brings forth the desired fruits of action; if ethically
right, it brings forth enjoyment, if ethically wrong, it results in suffering (adharma). The
 6

Mimamsa does not regard dharma and adharma as qualities (gunas), but as constituting a
potential force which is extraordinary (apurva) and the unseen (adrsta). This force or sakti
resides in the atman of the agent and controls and determines the future life of the atman. Action
performed at the present produces its fruit often after a lapse of time. But causation is a
continuous process without any time intervening between the processes of the cause and the
appearance of the effect. The Mimamsa therefore postulates that the action we perform does not
end when our activity ends, but assumes the form of a potential force that remains as a potency
until the circumstances become ripe for its fruition. This force called the sakti is unseen (adrsta)
and since it is extraordinary it is called apurva. The Mimamsa accepts the reality of the atman as
distinct from the mind (manas), senses and the physical body. It is identified with the I –
consciousness (ahamdhi); plurality of the atmans is accepted, each atman is regarded as infinite.
Consciousness is not regarded as the essential nature of the atman, but arises in it as an
adventitious quality when manas comes into contact with it. The atman itself is the seer, doer and
enjoyer. The problem of God is taken up by Mimamsa in the context of the interpretation of the
meanings of the words of the Veda. Jaimini regarded the relationship between the word and
meaning as innate and therefore did not feel the need to posit God to fix the meaning of words.

2.6 DUALISTIC METAPHYSICS OF SAMKHYA

Samkhya presents a qualitative dualism of spirit and matter, the material principle being Prakrti
and the spiritual element, Purusa. The Purusa which is of the nature of pure consciousness,
throws the reflection of its consciousness on Prakrti and this initiates a process of evolution.
While Prakrti is one, Purusas are infinite in number. Prakrti evolves the universe through its
three constituents (gunas): the sattva (pure), rajas (active) and tamas (inert). All the objects of
the universe are composed of three gunas. The original nature of the sattva is pleasantness
(priti), of the rajas, drive, and of tamas, dullness and inertia. None of the gunas are found alone
without the other two. In the objects of the world, one or the other of the three gunas dominates
over the other two. Prior to evolution, the gunas remain in equilibrium in Prakrti. Due to
inexplicable association of the Purusa with Prakrti, the reflection of the Purusa is thrown on
Prakrti that destroys the original equilibrium of the gunas. Evolution of the world out of Prakrti
follows. Various theories have been offered in the Samkhya school to explain the nature of the
contact between Prakrti and Purusa that vary from each other, but according to all those theories,
the contact has no beginning and therefore the universe is beginningless. The Samkhya in its
aetheistic form gives twenty five categories (Prakrti and its evolutes + Purusa) that evolve from
Prakrti during the course of evolution. They are not the meanings of words (padarthas) as in
Nyaya-Vaisesika but as ontological entities. The theistic Samkhya adds God in addition to the
twenty five.

The Purusa is a pure knower (drasta) but not a doer (karta). Action belongs to manas, ahamkara
and its evolutes, all of which are evolutes of prakrti. The purusa exists by himself, separate and
unrelated to everything else (kaivalya). The Samkhya accepts a plurality of Purusas because it
maintains that birth, death and all other physical characteristics are separate for each individual.
If Purusas are not many, when one man is born, all others must be born at the same time; if one
man knows an object, all the others must know it; if one man acts all the others must act.
Similarly enjoyment, suffering, good and evil, must be the same for all. Since Purusa is a pure
 7

witness and never the doer, the existence of different egos implies that they are the reflections of
different Purusas. The essential nature of the Purusa is consciousness (cit). In the state of
bondage after evolution, the Purusa may think that it is happy or miserable but this is due to the
lack of discrimination between itself and the higher evolutes of prakrti to which the dualities of
happiness and sorrow actually belong. It is like the coloring of a pure, colourless, transparent
glass by the reflection of some colour. When the Purusa identifies itself as pure consciousness,
distinct from all the evolutes of prakrti, then it is said to be liberated (kaivalya).

2.7 REALISTIC RELATIVISTIC PLURALISM OF JAINISM

The Jaina metaphysics is a realistic relativistic pluralism; it is realistic as it accepts the existence
of an extramental reality; it is relativistic as it denies the validity of any absolute predication of
reality; it is pluralistic as it accepts the plurality of substances. Jaina metaphysics is metaphysics
of substance. Even motion, rest, space, and action are substances.

Jainism regards every object as multi-modal (anekanta) and as possessing many characteristics.
Jainism distinguishes between the substances that possess the characteristics (dharmi) and the
characteristics possessed by the substance (dharmas). Characteristics are further divided into
essential characteristics (gunas) and changing modes (paryayas). Both change and permanence
are real. Every object has both positive and negative characteristics, from one point of view, if an
object has the characteristic ‘P’, from another point of view it has the characteristic ‘~P’. Every
object has the characteristics of origin, duration and decay. Jainism does not accept the view that
the reality of an object lies in performing the function for which it is meant (arthakriyakaritva).
Substance is divided into the extended (astikaya) and the unextended (anastikaya). Extended
substance is further divided into the animate and the inanimate. The animate substance called the
Jiva is one that displays the characteristics of consciousness (cetana laksano jivah). The Jivas are
of two kinds: the liberated and the bound. The bound is again of two types: the moving and the
unmoving. The non-moving are the plants that have only the sense of touch. Moving jivas are of
four kinds: those with five senses like human beings, those with four senses like bees, those with
three senses like ants and those with two senses like worms. The atman is identified with the Jiva
and the relation between the atman and consciousness is both identity and difference. The atman
is endowed with both doership and enjoyership. Atmans are infinite in number, yet they coexist.
Jainism rejects the reality of God as the Universal spirit and creator of the world. They reject all
the proofs for the existence of God. The atman although not a material substance is regarded as
extended; it being coextensive with the body that it inhabits. By nature atman is infinite but it has
the capacity to expand or contract depending upon the karma that is present in it.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answers.

1. Give an account of the classification of substance according to Jainism.

 8

2. What are the constituents of Prakrti? What are their characteristics?

3. Explain the process of evolution of the world according to Samkhya metaphysics.

4. What is the Jaina conception of substance?

2.8 IDEALISM OF VIJNANAVADA SCHOOL OF BUDDHISM

Vijnanavada school of Buddhism maintained that Vijnana (idea) alone is real. To the
Madhyamika claim that everything is illusory, Vijnanavadins reply that even illusion is a kind of
cognition. Vijnana cannot be reflected in any kind of dialectical argument. Vijnanavadins argues
that since cognition and its object are inseparable, and since we cannot conceive or even speak of
an object which is unknown, the external objects which are said to exist independent of
cognition, are inadmissible. If the object is external, then there can be no relation of its identity
(sarupya) with cognition which is demanded by the possibility of its being cognized. The
Vijnanavadins argue that the phenomena of illusion, hallucination and dream which involve
cognitions without there being any extramental objects corresponding to them, testify to the fact
that cognition creates its own object, instead of being determined by objects existing
independently of it. Thus the Vijnanavadin concludes that there are no extramental objects

Madhyamika showed that the ultimate reality cannot be described either in the positive or
negative terms. Even the phenomenal world cannot be described because none of the categories
we use in describing the world has its own nature. Nagarjuna held the theory of naturelessness
(nihsvabhavata) and attacked the view that everything has its own nature or character (sarvam
svalaksanam). If everything is devoid of its own characteristics and is void then the Absolute
reality itself must be void. Whatever is experienced is only an appearance of the void;
 9

appearance is the empirical truth (samvrtisatya) and the void is the Absolute truth
(paramarthikasatya). Then even the Buddha, his doctrine, the aggregates, the bases and the
elements are not ultimately true. If the world is not real, it could not have been born and
therefore was never born.

2.9 NON-DUALLISTIC ABSOLUTISM (ADVAITAVADA)

The metaphysics of Advaita Vedanta of Sankaracarya is centred on the establishment of the

reality of only the Brahman, showing that the world cannot have an independent being of its own
and demonstrating that the being of the world is rooted in the Brahman. Sankaracarya accepts the
reality of Brahman on the basis of the Upanisads. The svarupalaksana (defining or constitutive
characteristics) of Brahman is Sat-Cit-Ananda (infinite being, consciousness and bliss). Advaita
introduces the concept of levels of reality which are not levels of truth, but levels of Being
(satta). Advaita propounds four levels of Being, the lowest of which is the insignificant Being
(tuccha satta). It includes the merely imaginary, fanciful and self-contradictory like the horns of
hare, the lotuses of the heavenly river (sky lotuses), son of a barren woman etc. They belong
merely to imagination and are acknowledged as having no place in reality. The next higher level
is the illusory Being (pratibhasika satta) or apparent Being, the example of which is the
perception of an illusory snake. Higher than the illusory Being is the pragmatic Being
(vyavaharika satta) identified with the empirical reality. It is the product of our past ethical
actions (karmas) and is meant for future actions. While the illusory being is contradicted by
perceptual experience within the world itself and the experience of action, the pragmatic Being is
not contradicted either by perception or action, but by dialectical reason and the intuition of
Brahman. The innate self-contradictions of the pragmatic world are revealed to the light of
reason by its own self reflection. Just as the illusory Being presupposes the pragmatic Being, the
pragmatic Being due to its inherent self-contradictions presupposes the ultimate Being
(paramarthika satta) that is above all contradictions. Uncontradicted and unchanged in the past,
present and future, the ultimate Being marks the pinnacle of existence. Each of the lower levels
of Being presupposes and is superimposed (adhyasta) upon the higher one.

The Advaitins use the word Maya to refer to the appearance of the objective world as an existent
and its non-existence at a higher level. The world experience is a cosmic illusion whereas the
appearance of the snake in the rope-snake illusion, is an individual illusion. The cosmic illusion
is identified with Maya and the individual illusion is called avidya, although most Advaitins use
the terms synonymously. Maya cannot be accepted as real since the illusion of Brahman sublates
it, neither can it be called unreal as it is experienced by one and all until the Brahman is realized.
Hence it is ontologically indescribable (sadasadvilaksana). Maya is treated as a positive entity
(bhavarupa), its powers being concealment of the true nature of Brahman (avaranasakti) and the
projection of the world of multiplicity (viksepasakti).

Advaita accepts only that cognition which is uncontradictable (abhadya) as absolutely true and
only the Brahman stands this test of truth and this justifies the nomenclature of Advaita (non-
dualism). The Brahman shines through the individual as the witness of Self, actions, cognitions
and the states of the mind. This is called the witness consciousness (saksi caitanya). This witness
consciousness delimited by the psycho-physical adjuncts is the Jiva. The witness consciousness
 10

is continuous with the Brahman and is non-different from it. The Jiva in its identification as a
separate entity distinct from the Brahman is a mere appearance. It is essentially identical to the
Brahman. Just as the ego (ahamkara) is continuous with the Brahman, so is the personal God
Isvara. Sankaracarya uses the term Brahman for both, calling them the higher Brahman (para
Brahman) and the lower Brahman (apara Brahman). The lower Brahman is the same as the
higher Brahman, but as facing the world of objectivity, that is with reference to Maya. It is never
overpowered by Maya like the Jiva. The Isvara is therefore never in bondage.

2.10 NON-DUALISM OF THE QUALIFIED WHOLE (VISISTADVAITA)

Visistadvaita holds the view that Brahman is non-dual but qualified or characterized by the world
and the individual spirits, both of which form its body (sarira). Visistadvaita broadly divides the
categories (padarthas) into the means of cognition (pramanas) and the objects of cognition
(prameyas). The objects of knowledge are of two kinds, substance (dravya) and non-substance
(adravya). Substances are of two kinds, the conscious and the unconscious. The unconscious are
of two kinds, prakrti and kala. Prakrti is divided into twenty four categories as in the Samkhya.
The conscious is of two kinds, the inward (pratyak) and the outer (parak). The inward is of two
kinds, the atman and God. The atman is of three kinds – the bound, the liberated and the eternal.
The outward consciousness is of two kinds – the eternal force (nityavibhuti) and the attribute
consciousness (dharmabhutajnana).

Ramanujacarya maintains that the three attributes are not the constitutive qualities of Prakrti but
merely their qualities. Ramanujacarya regards Prakrti as eternal and calls it by many names like
the non-transient (aksara), avidya, maya etc. Ramanujacarya accepts the concept of eternal force
or energy (nityavibhuti) from the Pancaratra. It is same as the pure transparent (suddha-sattva)
and is also called the pure essence. It is never found mixed with other attributes of Prakrti. It is
by nature unconscious (acetana), yet thoroughly self-relieving and blissful (anandatmika). It
constitutes the bodies, the means of enjoyment, the objects of enjoyment and also the process of
enjoyment by God, the eternally liberated souls and the liberated souls. God’s body has six
attributes – knowledge (jnana), power (sakti), strength (bala), lordship (aiswarya), heroic quality
(virya) and splendor (tejas). The Concept of attribute consciousness (dharma-bhuta-jnana) is an
important contribution of Visistadvaita. The ‘I’ as the knower, reveals itself to itself, but not to
the consciousness revealing the object. Thus we have two consciousness, one that reveals itself
to another, and the other that reveals itself to itself only. The former belongs to the latter and is
called its attribute (dharma). It is called attribute consciousness (dharmabhutajnana).

The atman according to Visistadvaita is by nature atomic (anu), but its attribute consciousness
which is inseparable from it, is infinite. It is dependent on God and is subsidiary to (sesa) him, as
the body is to the spirit. It is eternal, different for each individual and by nature blissful. It is the
knower, doer and enjoyer (jnata, karta and bhokta). The nature of the atman is to be the ‘I’
consciousness (ahamdhi) and not mere consciousness (jnana) or mere witness consciousness
(saksi caitanya). The atman is of three kinds – the bound, the liberated and the eternal. The
bound souls are the ones living in the world of prakrti; the liberated are those souls that have
freed themselves from prakrti and the eternal souls are the eternal servants of God, who live with
him and have never done anything against his wishes. The liberated and the eternal souls live
 11

with God, enjoy like him and are similar to him. They are not identical to him and do not have
the powers of creation and destruction.

2.11 DUALISTIC ABSOLUTISM OF MADHVACARYA

Madhvacarya proclaimed complete difference between the Brahman and the world and
maintained that the non-duality referred to by the Upanisads had to be interpreted as that
between a king and his subjects or one who is independent (svatantra) and one who is dependent
on the former (paratantra). Since Madhvacarya rejects any relationship of being between God
and the world, his philosophy is dualism (dvaitavada). It is primarily a dualism of God and the
individual spirit and a dualism of God and the world. The world of matter (prakrti) is different
from God and the individual spirits. Thus the philosophy of Madhvacarya is metaphysically
qualitative dualism and quantitative pluralism. As a quantitative pluralist, he makes use of the
Vaisesika doctrine of the particular (visesa).

Madhvacarya broadly divides the categories into the independent (svatantra) and the dependent
(paratantra). The only independent reality is God. The dependent category falls into two kinds,
the conscious and the unconscious. The individual atmans and supernal beings like the consort of
Visnu, Lakshmi are conscious. The supernals are eternally liberated and perform certain cosmic
and divine functions. Here Madhvacarya follows the line of traditional Vaisnavite mythology
and the Pancaratra. He classifies the individual atmans into four kinds: those that are liberated
like the Hiranyagarba (the Cosmic soul), who is called the highest soul (jivottama), those that
are capable of obtaining salvation (muktiyogyas), those that are always transmigrating
(nityasamsaris) and those that are eternally damned (tamoyogya), those that deserve only
darkness). This classification involves the doctrine of predestination which is unacceptable to
many Vedantins. The unconscious reality is of three kinds: prakrti, space and time. Another
classification enlists nine categories: substance (dravya), quality (guna), action (karma),
universal (samanya), particular (visesa), the characterized (visista) or the whole (amsi), force
(sakti), similarity (sadrsya) and negation (abhava). Substances are said to be nineteen in number:
God, his consort (SriLakshmi), innate forces (samskaras, vasanas), the atman, space, prakrti, the
three attributes (sattva, rajas and tamas), mind (manas), the senses (indriyas), the elements
(pancabhutas), the subtle elements (tanmatras), ignorance (avidya), word sounds (varnas),
darkness (andhakara), time (kala), reflection (pratibimba), cosmic reason (Mahat), ego
(ahamkara) and individual reason (buddhi). Madhvacarya’s list of qualities include mental and
ethical qualities such as self-control (sama), mercy (krpa), endurance (titiksa), gravity
(gambhirya), beauty (saundarya), courage (saurya), fear (bhaya), liberality (audarya), strength
(bala) and shame (lajja). The particular (visesa) plays an important role in the philosophy of
Madhvacarya. The particulars are found everywhere and exist in all things, eternal and transient,
conscious and unconscious, God and the world.

Madhavacarya identifies the atman with the witness consciousness (saksi caitanya). It is of the
nature of ‘I’ consciousness (ahamdhi) which is different from the ego (ahamkara) which is an
evolute of prakrti. It is the knower (jnata), doer (karta) and enjoyer (bharta) of the fruits of
 12

actions. The atmans are atomic and constitute a plurality, each having a particular (visesa). They
are absolutely dependent (paratantra) on God, who alone is self-dependent (svatantra) or
independent. By nature, every atman is existent, conscious and blissful (sat-cit-ananda).
Through ignorance (avidya) of its original nature, it becomes entangled in prakrti. This
entanglement is its bondage. Every atman is entirely different from God, prakrti and the other
atmans. The Upanisadic statements that speak of the identity of the atman and Brahman, are to
be interpreted as meaning that the atman is similar to the Brahman just as the reflection of a face
in the mirror is similar to the face. The atman is self-conscious, self-revealing, and self-luminous,
yet its consciousness is distinct from itself, just as the specific gravity of a substance is distinct
from that substance.

Maya and avidya are treated as separate from prakrti in the philosophy of Madhavacarya. He
regards Maya as the mysterious will of God (Isvareccha) and avidya as the ignorance of the
atman. Avidya conceals the true nature of the atman and it conceals the Brahman from the atman.
The latter results in the atman developing a false notion of independence from God. Like
Ramanujacarya, Madhavacarya identifies the personal God with the Brahman. He is the creator,
sustainer and destroyer of the world and has infinite auspicious qualities. Madhavacarya insists
upon five kinds of differences (pancabheda): (1) difference between the atman (jiva) and the
Brahman (God); (2) difference between all that is unconscious (prakrti, time and space) and the
Brahman; (3) difference of every atman from every other; (4) difference of every atman from all
that is unconscious (prakrti, time and space); and (5) difference of every unconscious entity from
every other unconscious entity. Madhavacarya accepts not only the difference of every member
of a class from every other member of the same class (sajatiyabheda) but also every member of a
class from every member of every other class (vijayiyabheda) but also the difference of every
element of the content of a whole from every other element in that whole and from that whole
also. He says that every element is a particular (visesa) and is not merely distinguished but
differentiated from the others.

Check Your Progress III

Note: Use the space provided for your answers.

1. State the arguments provided by Vijnanavada to conclude that there are no extramental
objects.

2. Explain the Visistadvaita conception of atman.

 13

3.Explain the Advaita conception of maya.

2.12 LET US SUM UP

Every school of Indian philosophy has developed a profound metaphysics of its own which is
intertwined with the epistemology and ethics of that school. Indian metaphysics has evolved
through a rich tradition of exegesis and dialectics. Ranging from materialism to spiritual
absolutism, Indian metaphysics displays a wide range of standpoints.

2.13 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Banerjee, Nikunja Vihari. The Spirit of Indian Philosophy. New Delhi: Arnold-Heinemann
Publishers. 1974.
Dasgupta, S. N. History of Indian Philosophy. 5 Vols. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press.
Hiriyanna, M. Outlines of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarssidas Publishers.
Max Muller, F. The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy. New York: Longmans. 1928
Potter, Karl. Presuppositions of Indian Philosophy. Englewood Cliffs. Prentice Hall. 1963
Potter, Karl. Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1977.
Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. 2 Vols. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.
Raju, P. T. The Philosophical Traditions of India. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.
Raju, P. T. The Structural Depths of Indian Thought. New York: State University of New York
Press.
Raju, P. T. Introduction to Comparative Philosophy. Carbondale: University of Southern Illinois
Press. 1971.
Sarma, B. N. K. The Philosophy of Sri Madhavacarya. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. 1962.
Sharma, Chandradhar. Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarssidas
Publishers.
Srinivasachari, P. N. The Philosophy of Visistadvaita. Madras: Adyar Library, 1950.
 1

UNIT 3 INDIAN ETHICS

Contents
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Vedic and Vedantic Schools of Ethics
1.3 Doctrine of Karma
1.4 Transmigration of Soul
1.5 Supreme Goals (purusharthas)
1.6 Social Stratification (varnashrama dharma)
1.7 Ethics in Buddhism
1.8 Ethics in Jainism
1.9 Hedonism in Ethics of Carvaka
1.10 Let us Sum up
1.11 Key Words
1.12 Further References and Readings

3.0 OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study on Indian ethics is to give a short survey of the ethical foundation of
Hindu religious philosophy and of other philosophical schools of India like Buddhism, Jainism
and Carvaka. The primary purpose of this unit is to impart the religious and moral instruction to
the students of philosophy and to make them aware of the principles of religions and finally to
make them adopt certain good principles and avoid certain disturbing elements in order to create
a healthy and a peaceful society.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Traditional Indian thinking is mainly spiritualistic with a firm belief that man has a soul within
him as his real being. This ‘soul’ aspect of human person puts before him a goal higher than any
other goal to which our natural physical inclinations lead. So man has to adopt a particular point
of view which helps him go towards the higher, spiritual plane, the plane of his real, inner being
(soul); so adopting the moral point of view is the apt human point of view to attain the goal of
the inner being of man, namely, soul.
 2

3.2 VEDIC AND VEDANTIC SCHOOLS OF ETHICS

Here we shall discuss an outline of the ethical vision and moral content of five representative
Vedic and Vedantic texts, namely Vedas, the Upanishads, the laws of Manu, the Gita and the
Ramayana. The beginnings of ethical vision is traced from the Vedas, particularly Rig Veda.
Concept of Rta, the concept of Dharma and the concept of Karma become the central moral
principles emerging from the Vedas. In the Upaniṣads the atman-centric understanding of
morality takes precedence. The Self-realisation as moksha is the highest goal reached by good
conduct and pursuit of knowledge. The smrti literatures like sastras, especially dharmasastras
are moral codes and law books for the Vedic and Vedantic traditions. The practical guidelines
and strict injunctions are found for human conduct with respective rights and duties in
Manusmriti, although from the caste categories. The Dharmasastras, Epics and the Puranas have
their own specific goal but they seem to share more or less a common ‘ethos’ from the point of
ethics. The epics teach ethical ideals and thoughts of Hindu system. Much celebrated text of
Bhagavat Gita focuses on moral actions coupled with attaining Brahmajnana. Gita emphasizes
both Karma Yoga and Gnana Yoga for the attainment of the Supreme Bliss. Besides all the
scriptural texts, the philosophical schools of Vedic and Vedantic traditions have focused well on
the ethical concepts and conduct based on their metaphysical and epistemological positions.
Putting them all in one category, despite the subtlety of differences, we have the following
concepts.

3.3 DOCTRINE OF KARMA

Karma is of four categories: 1) Sanchita Karma, which means the accumulated past actions. 2)
Prarabdha Karma, which means the part of Sanchita Karma, this results in the present birth
itself. This is also called pre-destination. 3)Kriyamana Karma, which means present willful
actions or free will. 4) Agami Karma, which means the immediate results caused by our present
actions. There is another version of the meaning of Karma. This word Karma simply means
action. And this Karma must remind us that what is called the consequence of an action is really
not a separate thing but it is a part of the action and it cannot be divided from it. The
consequence is the part of the action, which belongs to the future but yet the part is done in the
present. For instance, when a person is wounded, at the time of accident he will not feel any pain
but after sometime when he is quiet, he will feel the pain. Pain is the part of the action ‘falling
down’ and ‘wounding’ but it is felt later though done in the present. When a man sins, he feels
no suffering at the time of sinning, but later he feels the suffering. Thus we can conclude the
theory of Karma, saying, whatever a man sows he shall reap.

3.4 TRANSMIGRATION OF SOUL

The doctrine of Karma and transmigration of soul are so closely bound up together. After the
death of the body the life of the individual is continued in another body and so on in indefinite
series. According to this theory, the soul though pure and blessed in itself, gets entangled in the
Samsara (cycle of birth and rebirth). It is because of the karma it passes through innumerable
 3

births (transmigration) before it regains its original state. The purpose and mechanism of rebirth
is elaborated in the Chandogya Upanishad. According to Chandogya Upanishad a man after his
death reaches the moon with the merit he has acquired during his life. He remains there as long
as there is residue of his good works. And then he returns to space, from space he goes to mist
and cloud etc. After having become cloud, he rains down. Then he is born as rice, trees, beans
etc. If someone or the other eats him as food he develops further and finally those who are of
pleasant conduct enter either the womb of a Brahmin or a Kshatriya, or a Vaisya and those who
are of stinking conduct, enter either the womb of a dog or of a swine, or of an outcaste
(Chandala).

3.5 SUPREME GOALS (PURUSHARTHAS)

The dominant interest of the Indian thought is in the highest value of human life. There are four
values, which give meaning to human life. They are called Purusharthas: 1) Dharma 2) Artha 3)
Kama 4)Moksha.

Dharma
The term ‘dharma’ gathered more and more meaning down the ages and it became a term of
complex and varied meanings. For dharma the dictionary suggests the terms like virtue,
righteousness, duty, right, morality, justice, good, characteristics, tradition, ordinance and law
etc. But dharma is essentially a human value operating in the universe of human ideals. The
Brahadaranyaka Upanishad identifies ‘dharma’ with truth. That which is justice is truth. And
justice and truth are the same (1.4.14). Sankara in his own way interrelates the three concepts rta,
satya, and dharma. He says ‘rta’ is the mental perception of truth. Satya is the expression of truth
in words as perceived by the mind. Dharma is the observance of truth in the conduct of life. And
thus dharma is the way of life embodying the truth perceived. Dharma is usually distinguished
into sadharana dharma and varnashrama dharma. sadharana dharma refers to the duties of the
universal scope and validity. There are ten cardinal virtues known as sadharana dharma
according to Manu; endurance, Patience, self-control, integrity, purity, restraint of senses,
wisdom, learning, truth and absence of anger or non-violence. The varnasrama dharma refers to
the duties of persons according to the castes and the stages of life. Thus ‘dharma’ is considered
to be a means for attaining personal integration in the spiritual level or liberation.

Artha (Wealth)
The term ‘artha’ generally indicates the attainment of riches and worldly prosperity, advantage,
profit and wealth. It means the whole range of tangible objects that can be possessed, enjoyed or
lost and which we require in daily life for the upkeep of a household, raising of a family and
discharge of religious duties. By the term ‘artha’, Kautilya in his book Artha Sastras IV 9 means
both economic and the political aspects of man’s life in the society. The materialistic aspects of
life have great significance, because the absence of economic well-being of man is a great
hindrance to the pursuit of personality integration and good life. Absence of economic well-
being may also lead a man to adopt or to do immoral deeds to satisfy himself. The Mahabharata
stresses the great importance of wealth saying that poverty is a state of sinfulness. All kinds of
meritorious acts flow from the possession of great wealth. From wealth springs all religious acts,
 4

pleasures, and heaven itself. From wealth one’s merit increases but the man who has no wealth,
has neither this world nor the next. The man who has no wealth succeeds not in performing
religious acts. Kautilya in Artha Sastra recommends that the state should punish those who
renounce the world without having first satisfied the claims of society and family. Kautilya
would not even allow ascetics to enter into the villages of the kingdom for fear that they may
cause disturbance in the economic activities of the villagers. Hindu philosophers are not
uncritical about the admirers of wealth nor are they fanatical supporters of its abolition. They say
virtues themselves are impractical without wealth. Without wealth neither virtue nor desire can
be won.

Kama (Satisfaction of Desires)

Kama is a comprehensive term, which includes all desires: desires ranging from the cravings of
the flesh and the yearnings of the spirit. The Hindu view is that man should only gradually
overcome the insistent cravings of the flesh. The only human end is the attainment of pleasures
and the Hindu view holds very strongly and it is an accepted principle that any spiritual aspirant
should not try to achieve his realization by forcibly starving his normal biological desires, that is
to say, he should not suppress the desires of the flesh very violently. In Hindu thought there is
always a clear emphasis on the enjoyment of secular pleasures along with the emphasis on the
realization of spiritual values. Vatsyayana in his book Kama Sutra gives a great treatise on erotic
enjoyment. It deals with the various aspects of sex life and the natural strivings of human heart.
However Vatsyayana suggests that the satisfactions of sexual desires are to be followed with
moderation and caution. Hindu philosophers do not exclude anyone of the branches of human
enjoyment, sex or arts, singing, playing on musical instruments, dancing, writing, drawing,
tattooing, colouring the hair, nail, and so on. The uniqueness of the concept of kama and
enjoyment in the Hindu ethics is that all of them are to be related to the spiritual goal of human
existence and so the Indian ethics insisted on a regulated enjoyment.

Moksha (Liberation)
In every school of philosophy in India the first three Purusharthas are treated as the instrumental
values, which directly or indirectly promote the Parama Purusharthas, the highest values of
human life namely Moksha. Moksha is also known as by other names such as mukti, apavarya,
kaivalya and nirvana. The concept Moksha has a negative as well as a positive side. In its
negative aspect it signifies complete freedom from sorrow and in its positive aspect it stands for
the plenary happiness or bliss. In the Vedic age the idea of Mukti was not in evidence. What the
Vedic man sought was length of days on earth and life in heaven in company with gods. But it
was in the Upanishads for the first time we find the full-fledged doctrine of Mukti or liberation.
This liberation is intimately bound up with the karma samsara, the doctrine of transmigration.
Almost all Indian schools of thought accepted the theory of karma and rebirth and the ideal of
Moksha is conceived as liberation from the cycle of births and deaths.

As an ideal, moksha is pursued by an individual as a personal value. It is a spiritual perfection

understood by the intellect, loved by the will and actualized in the daily life. It is understood as
Jivanmukti in Advaita Vedanta. The man who has attained liberation in this life is called
 5

Jivanmukta. Different schools propose different ways to attain Moksha. Advaita Vedanta of
Sankara holds that knowledge or Jnana is the means of attaining Moksha. Here Moksha refers
not to a new state to be attained but it is the realization of what has always been namely the
realization of the Universal Self (Brahman), in one’s own self (Atman). For this no morality is
needed. The dualistic and pluralistic systems insist that the bondage of the individual can be
removed by the Bhakthi Marga or path of devotion to God. There is another way promoted by
the Gita to attain the ultimate realization in life and liberation from the cycle of births and deaths,
which is known as Karma Yoga (Path of activity). The Gita has described this way as the method
of disinterested action (NishkamaKarma). To attain Moksha one has to be freed from the
bondage to one’s own actions. Thus the Gita suggests the golden rule that actions should be done
with the spirit of non-attachment to their fruits.

From all this understanding of Moksha one thing is clear that Moksha cannot be reached by
bypassing morality or ignoring it, and a good life is indispensable and absolutely necessary for
attaining spiritual perfection and Moksha.

3.6 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION (VARNASHRAMA DHARMA)

Varna-Dharma stands for social stratification or caste system. Before getting into discussion on
the four-caste system we need to discuss the evolution of the Jivatma; Jivatma is the human
person. The evolution of Jivatma is divided into four great stages. These four stages are universal
and common to all human beings irrespective of caste, creed, colour.

The first stage is that which embraces the infancy, childhood, and the youth of the Jivatma.
During this stage he is only fit for service and duty, and scarcely he has any responsibilities. The
second stage is the first half of his manhood, during which he carries on the ordinary business of
the world. He bears the burden of household responsibilities, such as accumulation, enjoyment,
and proper disposal of wealth, together with the heavy duties of organizing, training and
educating his younger ones in all the duties of life. The third stage occupies the second half of
his manhood, during which he bears the burden of national responsibilities, the duty of
protecting, guiding, ruling and subordinating his individual interests to the common good even to
the willing sacrifice of his own life for the lives around him. The fourth stage is the old age of
the Jivatma. In this stage, his accumulated experiences teach him to see clearly the valuelessness
of all earth’s treasures. And thus in this stage, he becomes rich in wisdom, compassion. He
becomes the selfless friend of all, the teacher and counselor of all his younger ones. These four
stages are universal and they are the foundation of a social polity; they have been represented by
four external castes or classes.

The first stage is represented by Sudra caste, in which the rules are few and the responsibilities
are light. The one great duty of Sudra caste is service and the virtues of the Sudra caste are
obedience, fidelity, reverence, industry like that of a youth in his pupilage. The second stage is
represented by the Vaisya, the typical householder, on whom the social life of the nation
depends. He comes under strict rules, designed to foster unselfishness and the sense of
 6

responsibility to nourish detachment in the midst of possession; he is made to feel the nation as
his household. His virtues are diligence, caution, prudence, discretion and charity.

The third stage is represented by the Kshatriya, the ruler, warrior on whom depends the national
order and safety. He also lives under strict rules, intended to draw out all the energy and strength
of his character and to turn them to unselfish ends, and to make him feel that everything he
possesses even life itself must be thrown away at the call of duty. His virtues are generosity,
vigour, courage, strength, power to rule and self control.

The fourth stage is represented by the Brahmana, the teacher and the priest who lives under the
strictest of all rules directed to make him a centre of purifying influence, physically, morally and
spiritually. He must be devoted to study and he must be learned and wise. He is to be the refuge
of all creatures, and their sure help in the time of need. His virtues are gentleness, Patience,
purity, self-sacrifice. The Jivatma (human person) in any nation, at anytime who shows these
types of virtues, belongs to the stage of which his type is characteristic. If he were to be born in
India as a Hindu he should be born into the corresponding caste. Throughout the world, we can
see that the broad dividing lines of classes follow these lines of caste system in India. The
manual labour class (proletariat - Western term) should consist of Jivatmas in the Sudra stage.
The organizers of industry, merchants, bankers, financiers, large agriculturist, traders, should be
Jivatmas in the Vaisya stage. The legislators, warriors, the judicial and administrative services,
the statesmen and rulers should be Jivatmas in the Kshatriya stage. And the teachers, clergy, the
spiritual leaders, should be Jivatmas in the Brahmana stage.

There are three gunas (quality) of human mind. The human beings according to these innate
qualities fall under one of the four castes. These three gunas are sattva, rajas, and tamas. Sattva
(Real) is the noblest guna. The word ‘sattva’ means that which exists, that is real. It is the
principle of goodness, happiness, bliss, luminosity and knowledge. Manifestation of
consciousness is due to sattva guna. The Brahmins are those in whom the sattva or sattvika
qualities are very much dominant. Rajas (Foulness) is the principle of activity, energy, motion. It
leads to a life of feverish enjoyment and restless effort. Those people in whom sattva and rajas
qualities are powerful are called Kshatriyas. Tamas (Darkness) is the principle of inertia, matter,
resistance, passivity, negativity etc. It resists activity and produces the state of apathy or
indifference. It leads to ignorance and sloth. Those people in whom rajas and tamas qualities are
predominant, are called Vaisyas. And those people in whom tamas is very dominant are called
Sudras. According to Manusmrti, this caste system functioned as the superstructure both in the
legitimation and delineation of moral life. In order to protect the universe, the human beings are
assigned separate duties and occupations according to their castes. Purusa Sukta speaks about the
whole universe as the manifestation of the Universal Self called Purusa. The Brahmins sprang
from the mouth of the Universal Self. The Kshatriyas sprang from his two arms. The Vaisyas
sprang from his two thighs and finally the Sudras sprang from the feet of the Universal Self
Brahman. Since mouth is the seat of speech, it stands for learning, arms stand for strength, and
thighs stand for productive works. Feet stand for other works of labour. Thus the duties and
functions are assigned to the four castes by the very nature of their birth.
 7

In Bhagavad Gita IV.13, we read that the four castes were emanated by me, by the different
distribution of energies and actions; know me to be the author of them. Rig Veda X. XC. 12, we
see, the Brahmana was his mouth, the Rajanaya was made of his two arms, and the Vaisya was
made of his two thighs. The Sudra was born from his two feet. In Manusmrti we read I. 87-91
about the occuPation of each caste very clearly. Teaching and studying the Veda, sacrificing and
guiding others in offering sacrifices, gifts and receiving of gifts are assigned to the Brahmanas.
The protection of the people, bestowing of gifts, offering sacrifices, studying the Vedas (not
teaching), practicing non-attachment amid the objects of the senses are assigned to Kshatriyas.
The protection of cattle, bestowing gifts, sacrificing, studying the Vedas (not teaching),
involving in commerce, banking and agriculture are assigned to the Vaisyas. And finally serving
the three castes ungrudgingly is assigned to the Sudras.

Thus the teaching of Vedas is only assigned to the Brahmanas, but the duty of studying the
Vedas is assigned to Brahmanas, Kshtriyas, and Vaisyas who are regarded as the twice-born
because they have undergone the initiation ceremony (Upanayana), which is the rite to study the
Vedas. Since the Sudras are not mentally equipped, they are denied of Upanayana. But yet a
Sudra is eligible for receiving the knowledge about Vedas through secondary sources like
Puranas and Itihasas. Manusmrti says, a man who does not show forth the dharma of his caste is
not regarded as belonging to his caste, if they do not practice their own duties; they only bear the
names alone as Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas. And again Manu says, X.65 the Sudra becomes a
Brahmana and a Brahmana becomes a Sudra by their very conduct. So too it applies to
Kshatriya and Vaisyas. In Mahabharata, Vanaparva c1 xxx 21, 25, 26, we read, a man is called a
Brahmana, when in him there are truthfulness, forgiveness, good conduct, gentleness, austerity
and mercy. If they are not found in him, he is not a Brahmana, he is regarded as a Sudra, so also
if these qualities are found in a Sudra, he is not a Sudra but a Brahmana. Shridhara Swami says,
by birth everyone is Sudra but by Samskara he becomes a twice born and even then Brahmans
and others are to be recognized by Shama and other qualities and not by their birth alone. The
famous Shloka in Mahabharata, Vanaparva, ccc xiii 108 says, “not birth, nor Samskaras, nor
study of Vedas, nor ancestry are the causes for Brahmanhood, conduct alone is verily the cause
of Brahmanhood. So anyone can attain Brahmanhood by their conduct. For example, Valmiki
Vyasa, Vasistha, and Narada who were all the children of Sudras.

Check your progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.

1. Describe the theory of karma and its relation to the transmigration of soul.
 8

2. The Supreme goals of human life in Vedic ethics - explain

3. Is the caste system a healthy system in Indian society – Comment?

3.7 ETHICS IN BUDDHISM

Buddhism brings about the four noble truths and eightfold path as the way of life intended for all
people. This way of life is offered to all mankind without any distinction. This is the moral
foundation of Buddhist ethics. The core of Buddhist belief is contained in the four - noble truths.
The core is that there exists suffering and there is a way to escape suffering: a) Life is full of
suffering; b) The cause of suffering is desire or craving; c) Eliminating suffering is liberation;
and the final is the means for attaining Nirvana is eightfold path. The eightfold path as follows,
• Right Knowledge about four-noble truths
• Right Aim towards salvation
• Right Speech – right speech reflects our character. We need to avoid speaking false,
slanderous, belittling words
• Right Conduct - no killing, stealing, lying, committing illicit sexual acts, consuming of
alcohol
• Right Livelihood - having the profession of good nature, no butchering, slave dealer,
prostitutes and trading of weapons
• Right Effort- one must have will-power to burn desires and develop virtues.
• Right Mindfulness- one must examine his behaviour and the thoughts from which it
comes. By improving awareness one can become virtuous.
• Right Meditation - proper mental, physical preparation helps a person to attain nirvana.
Salvation comes only from following four - noble truths and eightfold path. No god, no
ritual and no type of outside power can save humanity.

Buddhist ethics are not arbitrary standards invented by man for his own utilitarian purpose nor
are they arbitrarily imposed from without. Man-made laws and social customs do not form the
 9

basis of Buddhist ethics. Buddhist ethics finds its foundation not on the changing social customs
but rather on the unchanging laws of nature. Buddhist ethical virtues are intrinsically a part of
nature and the unchanging law of cause and effect. The Buddhist ethics are based on and rooted
in natural law and so its principles become useful and acceptable to the modern world.

Morality in Buddhism is essentially practical and it is only a means leading to the final goal of
ultimate happiness. Buddhist ethics are not founded on any commandments, which men are
compelled to follow. The Buddha advised men on the conditions, which were most wholesome
and conducive to long term benefit for self and others. The theory of Buddhist ethics finds its
practical expression in the various precepts. These precepts or discipline are nothing but general
guides to show the direction in which the Buddhist ought to turn to on his way to find salvation.
The morality found in all the principles can be summarized in three principles: to avoid evils; to
do good, to purify the mind. To make distinction between what is good and what is evil,
Buddhism says, whatever actions that have their roots in greed, hatred and delusion and that
spring from selfishness are called bad; they are called Akusala Kamma. And all those actions,
which are rooted in the virtues of generosity, love and wisdom, are meritorious and good. They
are called Kusala Kamma.

3.8 ETHICS IN JAINISM

In general Jaina morality consists in the essential observance of Pancamahavrtas (panca-maha-

vratas) which are the ingredients of right conduct. For the attainment of Moksha, Jainism
prescribes a threefold path known as Triratna (Three Jewels). They are right faith (Samyag
Darsana), right knowledge (Samyag Jnana), and right conduct (Samyag Caritra). All these three
are essential for the attainment of Moksha but Jainism gives primary importance to the third
without which it is useless to observe the former two.

The Threefold path as Moral Values for Moksha

From the practical point of view Jainism necessarily invites us to have firm belief in the seven
principles. Belief in the seven principles is known as right faith. The seven principles are: 1) Soul
(Jiva) 2) Non- Soul (Ajiva) 3) Inflow (Asrava) 4) Bondage (Bandha) 5) Checking (Samvara) 6)
Shedding (Nirjara) 7) Liberation (Moksha). All the objects and modifications of the universe
come under the first two principles, soul and non-soul. Feeling, perception, consciousness are
found in the impure soul. Body is included in the non-soul. Pain and its cause are described by
the two principles inflow and bondage. Cessation of pain is liberation. The means of cessation is
included in the other two principles checking and shedding.The good and bad activities of mind,
body and speech are the causes for the inflow of karmic matter; these activities are the causes for
bondage. Removing this bondage is liberation. The means to remove the bondage is checking
and shedding the bad activities. This is the way to attain Moksha. Now coming to the right
knowledge, it is nothing but having right knowledge about the seven principles mentioned above.
 10

Right conduct means giving up bad engagements and following good engagements. Five vows,
five carefulness and three restraints have been said to be practical conduct by Jina. Five vows are
called pancamahavrata: They are non-injury (Ahimsa), truth (Satya), non-stealing (Asteya),
chastity (Brahmacarya) and non possession (Aparigraha). Five carefulness are called five
Samiti: They are carefulness in walking, speaking, eating, handling and casting refuse. Three
restraints are called three Gupti: they are control over mind, body, and speech. These thirteen
kinds of conduct are for the monks from the practical point of view. But whether a householder
or a monk, he has to follow pancamahavratas faithfully. Among these five vows, ahimsa is
given a very wide connotation in Jainism. Ahimsa is to be practical not only in deed but also in
thought and words. Keeping ill will against anyone in thought or speaking harsh words to anyone
is also himsa. It is equal to inflicting any bodily injury to anybody. Even forcing someone to do
something against his will is himsa. Similarly causing injury to someone due to negligence is
also himsa. Practicing ahimsa in Jainism is not very easy; it is a kind of tapas. Sometimes the
Jains go to the extreme of not burning light or cooking meal after sunset, so that no worms could
be attracted towards light and thereby killed. Thus Jainism in line with Buddhism and Hinduism
and in more stringent manner prescribes virtues meant for internal purity of the individual to lead
him ultimately to Moksha. However social virtues like love, compassion etc are not neglected in
Jainism. The three virtues of mahavratas, non-injury, truthfulness and non-stealing show the
direct concern of the Jainas for social virtues.

3.9 HEDONISM IN ETHICS OF CARVAKA

In Tune with Buddhism and Jainism it criticizes the Vedic ritualism and ceremonialism. Carvaka
school is the most ardent and ruthless critic of the Vedas. In its ethical teaching Carvaka is
equated with Epicureanism and Hedonism. According to this school, attaining and enjoying
maximum pleasure in this life is the only goal of man, because there is no other world or life
beyond the present one. The Carvaka system says the Vedas have falsely and deceitfully shown
the attraction of heaven for the attainment of which various kinds of rituals and sacrifices are
prescribed. The Carvakas make a fun of and ridicule all Vedic prescriptions regarding rituals and
sacrifices. According to them these are all innovations of the Brahmins to deceive people and to
serve their own selfish ends. But the Carvaka system is purely materialistic, hedonistic and anti-
Vedic doctrine and so it has very little impact on the general spiritualistic trend of the Hindu
ethical ideas. It never had any recognizable effect on the moral thinking of the Indian people.

3.10 LET US SUM UP

To conclude the essential Buddhist virtues and Jaina virtues consist respectively in Pancasila and
Pancamahavrata. Both Buddhism and Jainism give their virtues of individual purity. They give
more emphasis on the individual morality. Buddhism and Jainism reject Vedic ceremonialism
and ritualism and they do not speak of Varnashrama Dharma of Hinduism. They both prescribe
qualities of character and conduct which are equally applicable to all. They make distinction only
between the duties of an ordinary man and those of a monk.
 11

Check your progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.

1. Give your views on Buddhist teachings on ethical life.

2. Explain about three fold path of Jainism as foundation of Jaina ethics.

3. Carvaka: do you advocate any value in this system of Indian philosophy?

3.11 KEY WORDS

Artha: Wealth. As a goal of life, it is pursuit of goods

Dharma: Righteousness

Moksa: Liberation.

3.12 FURTHER REFERENCES AND READINGS

 12

Chandravarkar, A. Manual of Hindu Ethics. Poona: The Oriental Book Agency, 1925.

Crawford, Cromwell. The Evolution of Hindu Ethical Ideals. Hawaii: The University Press of
Hawaii, 1982.

Kadankavil, Thomas. Ethical World. Bangalore: Dharmaram Publications, 1995.

Mekenzie, John. Hindu Ethics. New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation, 1971.

Pushpendra, Kumar Sharma. Ed. Hindu Religion and Ethics. New Delhi: Asian Publication
Service, 1979.

Prashad, Sital. A Comparative Study of Jainism and Buddhism. New Delhi: Sri Sat Guru
Publications, 1982.

Sri Dhammananda. What Buddhists Believe. Taiwan: The Corporate Body of Buddha
Educational Foundation, 1993.

Tiwari, Kedarnath. Classical Indian Ethical Thought. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas Publishers,
1998.
 1

UNIT 4 INDIAN AESTHETICS

Contents

4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction to Aesthetics
4.2 A Survey of Aesthetic Literature
4.3 Aesthetic Theories - 1
4.4 Aesthetic Theories - 2
4.5 Aesthetico-Philosophy
4.6 Let Us Sum Up
4.7 Key Words
4.8 Further Readings and References
4.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

4.0 OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this Unit is to study the origin and development of art appreciation and
experience, classified under the title ‘Aesthetics’ as a distinct branch of Philosophy. ‘Aesthetics’
a borrowed term from Greek, used in Germany for the first time to deal in the field of art
experience is most often contrasted to the Indian Art-experience popularly known as ‘Rasa’. In
this unit, we shall begin with an analysis of the word ‘Aesthetics’ and its employment in the field
of Art. We shall then take a look at the literary development of Indian Aesthetics. In two
sections, we shall briefly learn the theory of rasa followed by various other theories primarily
dealing with the mechanism of art appreciation and experience. Finally, we shall see the role of
Aesthetics in Philosophy and its distinct place as Aesthetico-Philosophy.

By the end of this Unit you should be able:

• to understand the role of Aesthetics
• to get a broad outline of the Aesthetic literature
• to appreciate the various theories of Aesthetics and
• to relate Aesthetics and its Philosophical implications

4.1 INTRODUCTION TO AESTHETICS

Let us begin with the analysis of the word ‘Aesthetics’. Generally, it is associated in the field of
Art. The art-appreciation is also known by the word ‘Aesthetics’ and also the art-experience.
Though the words ‘appreciation’ and ‘experience’ are inter-related and overlapping, they are
 2

distinguished in the field of art. However, anything related to Art suggests the use of the word
‘Aesthetics’. In this context, let us see what the word ‘Aesthetics’ means. It is a Greek word
which means ‘sense-perception’. Anything that is given to the senses is known as ‘Aesthetics’
and later it was used in the plural as ‘Aesthetics’. In 1735, this word was for the first time
formally used by Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten in the sense of ‘Science of Sensitive
Cognition’ in the field of Arts. Later, this Science of Art, namely, Aesthetics came to be
recognized as a distinct branch of Philosophy under the head ‘Philosophy of Art’. In the Indian
context, we have simply borrowed the term ‘Aesthetics’ and broadly applied in the field of
Indian Art and thus we say ‘Indian Aesthetics’ generally refers to the art-appreciation and art-
experience of art forms. In order to understand the function of aesthetics in art, let us first survey
the classification of art forms.

Art forms
In the Indian context, the art forms like music, dance, architecture, painting etc., are found
mentioned in the earliest available works like the Vedas, Puranas, Itihasas etc. Thus, it is tedious
to place historically the advent of art forms, but, we have in a span of 100 years, (18th-19th cent
AD) located and arranged one of the earliest treatises dealing specifically with the art form and
the mechanism of art-experience known as Natya-Shastra attributed to Sage Bharata. The period
is roughly from 5th century BC to 3rd century AD. By this time, the art form is classified into
three arts, namely, Poetry (Kavya), Drama (or Theatre) (Natya) and Music (Gana). We find
classification of arts into 64 that includes stringing flowers, face-painting etc., but the
identification of the three arts seems to enhance the study of art-experience elevating it from the
physical plane to a spiritual plane. Even among these three, Bharata in the Natya-Shastra shows
that the highest form of art-experience is Poetry and it can be well brought out by acting. The
Natya-Shastra, deals with the three main arts and defines the art-experience as “Rasa” and
provides the mechanism of what came to be known later as rasa-experience. This word ‘Rasa’
though profound, reaching beyond the sensitive cognition, however over a period of time has
come to be identified with the word ‘Aesthetics’ of Western origin. Now, in the light of the three
main arts, we shall survey the literary development in these three art forms. We do have much
literature in the other art forms, here; we restrict to these three arts basically to understand the
evolution and development of Aesthetics in the Indian context.

4.2. A SURVEY OF AESTHETIC LITERATURE

We shall classify the Literature on Indian Aesthetics broadly into three based on the above
classification of three art forms, viz., Kavya, Natya and Gana. Firstly, we present the earliest
available treatise, that is, Natya-Shastra that commonly presents Rasa, the experience of any art
form and specifically the three mentioned art forms.

Natya-Shastra and Its Commentaries

The treatise Natya-Shastra attributed to Sage Bharata, deals with the Science of Dramaturgy and
we have at least three different editions with 36, 37 and 38 chapters. Considering the 36 chapters
work as the earliest, we find the description of characteristics of poetical works
(Kavyalakshanam) in the 17th chapter, different types of dramas (Natakas) also known as
 3

Rupakas, in the 20th chapter and music (dhruvas) in the 32nd chapter. The famous definition of
Rasa in the aphoristic (sutra) form is given in the 6th chapter of Natya-Shastra. This is later
referred to by the Aestheticians as ‘Rasa-Sutra’.

The available commentary to the NatyaShastra is that of Abhinavagupta (10th-11th cent. AD).
The commentary is known as Natyaveda-vivritti and most popularly as Abhinavabharati.
Abhinavagupta comments this treatise in the background of Pratyabhijna Shaiva system that is
said to have prevailed widely in Kashmir. From this available commentary, we come to know
that there had been several earlier commentators to NatyaShastra, like, Udbhata, Bhatta Lollata,
Shri Shankuka, Bhattanayaka, Kirtidhara, Rahula, Shri Harsha and others. Basically the
commentators differed in the interpretation of the Rasa-sutra and evolved their theories of Rasa.
We shall deal with the theories of Rasa in 1.3 of this unit. The other features of the commentaries
are the different viewpoints on the nature of drama (rupaka), dramatic presentation (vritti),
histrionics (abhinaya), and different aspects of music and poetical compositions. In the broad
platform of Rasa theory developed various views on “aesthetically sound” poetic compositions.
We shall now see some of the literary contributions in the field of poetry that took a prime place
in the gamut of Aesthetic study.

Works on Kavya (Poetry)

Bharata describes alamkaaras literally known as embellishments that which gives rise to a
beautiful poetry. Based on this later Aestheticians built up theories on producing a beautiful
poetry by refining and re-defining the alamkaras. In that order, we enumerate here some of the
important works in the Alamkara literature, that fall under the Aesthetic Theory of Poetry. The
Bhamaha’s Kavyaalankaara describes Kavya and divides it into three based on the language as
Samskrita, Prakrita and Apabhramsha. Bhamaha is considered as the oldest extant exponent of
the Alamkara School of Poetics. By this time, alamkara has evolved as a distinct school of
Aesthetics in par with Rasa. Dandin, in his Kavyadarsha divides Kavya as gadya (prose), padya
(poetry) and mishra (both prose and poetry). In the work Alamkara-sara-sangraha, the author
Udbhata deals with 41 alamkaras with 90 illustrations. The author Vamana in his work Kavya-
alamkara-sutra, declares riti or the special arrangement or combination of words, as the soul of
poetry. The Kavya-alamkara is an extensive work of Rudrata. It consists of 16 chapters and
reviews the whole field of poetics. He was the first to attempt a scientific classification of the
figures as based on certain definite principles. In about, 9th-10th cent AD, the famous work
Dhvanyaloka of Anandavardhana took a new form which settled the principles to be followed in
poetics. It is considered as the epoch-making work in the history of poetic literature. He
introduced the two senses in poetry, viz., expressed and implied. The term he uses is ‘dhvani’
that brings out the poetic beauty in a suggestive language. Rajashekhara’s Kavya-meemaamsa
serves more as a practical handbook for poets. Kuntaka in his Vakroti-jivita, is said to have
elevated poetic expression with extra-ordinary charm known as vakroti. In the late 14th to 16th
centuries we find standard works like Sahityadarpana of Vishvanatha and works of Jagannatha
and others that seem to embellish further the theories of poetic compositions. We shall deal with
the theories of Aesthetics in the light of poetry in 4.4 of this unit.
 4

Works on Natya (Dramaturgy)

Some of the independent works on Dramaturgy is traced to the early 10th cent.CE, the famous
work being Dasharupaka of Dhananjaya, commented by his brother Dhanika. It deals with the
ten main types of rupaka as found in NatyaShastra. Another work is the Nataka-lakshana-ratna-
kosha of Sagaranandin which also deals with dramatic elements. The Natyadarpana of
Ramachandra and Gunachandra of early 12 cent AD also focuses on the elements of acting. We
find a mention of Natakamimamsa by Ruyyaka, a Kashmiri Pandit but so far this work is not
traced. The Bhavaprakasha of Sharadatanaya highlights the bhava or the emotion at the mental
level. The Rasarnava-sudhakara of Simhabhupala treats dramatic elements in the closing section
of the work. Vishvanatha in his Sahityadarpana, 6th chapter deals with acting and other dramatic
elements.

Works on Gana (Music)

The work on music is traced to Pre-Bharata period. Dattila, a Pre-Bharata Aesthetician, seems to
have recorded about 18 jatis (species of melodies) while dealing with music. Bharata, in the
NatyaShastra, deals with 18 jatis in connection with rasa and bhava. The work ‘Brihaddeshi’ of
Matanga is considered as the forerunner of works on music. Matanga for the first time introduces
the term “raga” from the root ranj to please. He defines raga technically and assigns the role of
deshi music. Another important work on music is ‘Sangeeta-Makaranda’ of Narada. Here, based
on emotional feeling or rasa, the ragas are divided as masculine (raga) and feminine (raginis).

In this background, as theories of Aesthetics we shall deal with the following important Schools:
Rasa, Alamkara, Riti, Vakroti, and Dhvani. Though mostly, they deal with the aesthetic sense in
poetry, to some extent the mechanism of aesthetic pleasure can be extended to other art forms. A
distinct Aesthetic theory representing every art form is yet to develop.

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answer

1) Define Aesthetics. What are the three major art-forms?

………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….
2) Survey the development of Literature of Indian Aesthetics.
…………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………
 5

4.3. AESTHETIC THEORIES - 1

Bharata’s Rasa-Theory
Bharata defines ‘Rasa’ in an aphorism in the sixth chapter of Natya-Shastra. It runs as follows:
Vibhava-anubhava-vyabhichari bhava-samyogaat-rasa nishpattihi. ‘The rasa is established by
the combination of the determinants (vibhava), consequents (anubhava) and transitory emotions
(vyabhichari bhava)’. Let us explain this further – In the definition we find terms like vibhava,
anubhava and vyabhichari bhava that commonly have the word ‘bhava’ with different prefixes.
So, let us try to understand the term ‘bhava’ first. Bhava, is generally translated as ‘expression’;
that is, bhava is that which conveys a particular rasa through various techniques. The vi+bhava,
is the determinant, that is, the rasa to be conveyed is expressed in the form of stage-settings,
character’s costumes etc. The anu+bhava, is the consequent, that is, the rasa to be conveyed is
further expressed by gesticulation at the physical, verbal levels. The evoked rasa is further
sustained by the vyabhichari+bhava or the transitory emotions. Bharata classifies about 33
vyabhichari bhavas also known as sanchari bhavas. The three combined, that is
vibhava+anubhava+vyabhichari bhava constitutes in the establishment of rasa. Further, Bharata
says that the unexpressed emotion at the mental level (known as sthaayi-bhava) alone when
expressed results in rasa. Thus, there is a kind of cause-effect relation between the sthayi bhava
and rasa. Bharata enumerates eight sthayis and its corresponding eight rasas.

STHAYI-BHAVA (unexpressed emotion at RASA (the experience of expressed emotion

the mental level) through gesticulations etc.)
RATI SHRINGAARA (Sentiment of Love)
HASA HAASYA (Sentiment of Laughter)
UTSAAHA VEERA (Sentiment of Valour)
VISMAYA ADBHUTA (Sentiment of Wonder)
KRODHA RAUDRA (Sentiment of Anger)
SHOKA KARUNA (Sentiment of Pity)
JUGUPSAA BEEBHATSA (Sentiment of Disgust)
BHAYA BHAYAANAKA (Sentiment of Fear)

The meaning of the words under the Sthayi bhava means the same as that of rasa, the difference
is that the sthayi is unexpressed at the mental level and rasa is the experience of the expressed
emotion. Further, Natya-Shastra conveys nine rasa (popularly known as “navarasas”), wherein
‘Shaanta’ is the ninth rasa and its sthayi is identified as ‘nirveda’. Later, number of
Aestheticians added to the number of rasas, ‘bhakti’ (devotion), ‘vaatsalya’ (motherly love) etc.,
that are more or less off-shoots of Shringaara rasa and we have schools that enumerate of more
 6

than 41 rasas. But, the two distinct schools of rasa are 1. eight rasas (excluding Shaanta as a
rasa) and 2. nine rasas (inclusive of shaanta as a rasa).

Let us try to apply the definition in an art-form, say, visual gesticulation (acting). If the rasa
proposed to be conveyed is, say, Bhayanaka (fear), then the stage-settings and light systems
create a fearful condition – this is known as vibhava, which prepares the audience to the rasa that
is going to be conveyed. Hence, vibhava is said as the determinant. The consequent or anubhava
is carried by the actors; their physical movements expressed in the face, limbs etc., convey the
fear. The vyabhichari bhava helps to sustain the bhayanaka rasa that is evoked. Now, the
puzzling question for centuries and the continued debate is to the locus of rasa and sthayi-bhava
and their relation. This continued debate gives rise to various theories of rasa.

Theories of Rasa
The Bharata’s definition of Rasa is quite ambiguous, in the sense, it does not explicitly state the
“sthayi-bhava” (unexpressed emotion in the mind) nor does it clarify the word “nishpatti”
(establish) that occurs in the aphoristic rasa-definition. Thus, it gave rise to many theories of
rasa, and we find four main theories recorded in the commentary of Abhinavagupta to Natya-
Shastra. We shall examine briefly, each of these theories one by one. These theories mainly
differ in identifying the locus of sthayi-bhava and the rasa.

Bhatta Lollata’s Rasa-utpatti-vada (The Generation Theory of Rasa)

Lollata is said to have flourished between 5th – 6th cent. A.D. He is considered as a Mimamsa
Philosopher and also as well-versed in Shaiva philosophy. His commentary seems to be the
earliest on Natya-Shastra. He is believed to have commented on the entire treatise, but the work
is lost and his theory of rasa is structured from the commentary of Abhinavagupta. According to
Lollata, the sthayi-bhava is in the historical character who is portrayed on the stage. When the
actor assumes the role of that character, then there is a rise of that sthayi-bhava secondarily in the
actor. Then, through the vibhava, anubhava and vyabhichari bhavas this sthayi gets expressed
that results in rasa. The word ‘nishpatti’ is understood by Lollata as ‘utpatti’ or produced. So, he
states, the sthayi bhava is produced in the original character. Hence his theory of rasa is known
as ‘rasa-utpatti vada’ or the theory of generation.

Shri Shankuka’s Rasa-anumiti-vada (The Inferential Theory of Rasa)

The Logician, Shri Shankuka (6th-7th cent.AD), presented his theory of rasa opposing the view
of Lollata. Shankuka tried to explain the rasa-theory on the inferential ground. So, he presents
the paksha – the locus consisting of the reason; hetu – the reason that is directly perceived,
sadhya – the result or the indirect perception of a thing is arrived at by a universal concomitance
or vyaapti. Shankuka applies this inferential syllogism in the following manner;
Paksha – The actors are the locus
Hetu – the various gesticulations by the actors are directly perceived by the audience
 7

Sadhya – the sthayi-bhava is inferred

Vyapti – gesticulations by the actors are possible only when there is sthayi-bhava in the mind of
the actors
By the inferred sthayi-bhava, the audience relish the rasa. This is the rasa-anumiti-vada or the
inferential theory of rasa.

Bhatta-Nayaka’s Rasa-bhukti-vada (The Enjoyment Theory of Rasa)

Bhatta-Nayaka (9th-10th cent AD) is considered as a Samkhya philosopher who interprets the
rasa-sutra by introducing for the first time the concept of ‘generalization’ or
(saadhaaranikarana). He states, the sthayi-bhava in the whole enactment is general; it is
identified by the spectators who then enjoy the rasa. He extends the concept of saadharana to the
other elements too, like the vibhava, anubhava and vyabhichari bhavas. According to Nayaka,
the art forms contain the emotional fervour in general and that is communicated to the audience.
Further, for Nayaka, the rasa is relished only when the mind of the audience is calm (vishranti)
and detached (samvit).

Abhinavagupta’s Rasa-abhivyakti-vada (The Revelation Theory of Rasa)

Abhinavagupta (10th-11th cent AD) is well-known Pratyabhijna Shaiva Philosopher (popularly
known as Kashmir Shaivism). He opposed the above three views on Rasa and borrowing the
concept of saadharana from Bhatta-Nayaka and the concept of dhvani from Anandavardhana,
and in the background of Pratyabhijna Shaivism, developed his theory of rasa.

According to Abhinavagupta, the vibhava etc., portrayed to the spectator suggests the sthayi-
bhava as belonging to someone (as in real life) and the by the imagination (pratibha) of the
spectator, these accessories are reconstructed leading to the general or sadharana state. Here,
Abhinava postulates the sthayi-bhava in the mind of the viewer too, which gets connected with
that of the character portrayed through the actor. There is an emotional experience by the viewers
through identification (tadatmya) with the character. There is revival of sthayi-bhava in the mind
of the viewer; who is now not conscious of himself, in fact, he gets freed from the ego. Abhinava
equates this ego-less state to chamatkara of Pratyabhijna system. Thus, for Abhinava, rasa is the
manifestation of the intrinsic bliss of oneself aroused by the sthayibhava freed from obstacles.
Thus, sthayi bhava is said to be transferred to rasa, there is the revelation of bliss or rasa. This is
the Revelation Theory of Rasa.

4.4. AESTHETIC THEORIES - 2

Now, we shall briefly see the other theories of Aesthetics that developed into distinct schools
primarily addressing the Kavya or poetry as the main art form.

Alamkara
 8

The definition of a good poetic composition conditioned with 36 qualities included alamkara or
embellishments in the form of figures of speech in Bharata’s explanation of poetry. Later,
Vamana (800 AD), identified the word ‘alamkara’ as a ‘thing of beauty’. Dandin and a host of
other Aestheticians used ‘alamkara’ in a wider sense. Dandin classified the various aspects
connected to alamkara. Bhamaha divided alamkara as word (shabda) and meaning (artha).
Thus, there emerged two kinds, shabda-alamkaras and artha-alamkaras. In course of time, from
the four alamkaras mentioned by Bharata, as much as more than 100 kinds of alamkaras were
introduced by the end of 17th cent AD. The school of alamkara, sub-ordinated the rasa and
positioned rasa as one aspect of alamkara.

Riti
Vamana, the foremost Aesthetician, developed the concept of riti as the soul of poetry. Riti
means diction, a particular arrangement of words. This special arrangement is again based on
defined excellences (guna) of a composition. He gives three kinds of riti: Vaidarbhi, Gaudi and
Panchali. The Riti school suggests the enquiry as to what constitutes the essential beauty of
poetry. It includes rasa among the necessary feature of poetic works. Thus, here too, rasa takes a
sub-ordinate position.

Vakroti
The theory of poetical work further developed which gave rise to another distinct school
spearheaded by Kuntaka in his theory of Vakroti. Vakroti means ‘strikingness in expression
different from the general mode of speech’. Vakra or turn/twist in the words of poetry was
considered as the life of poems. The words in poetry which get a particular twist (bhangi or
vakrata) in their use by a skilled poet are seen as poetic embellishment. This vakroti, for
Kuntaka, demands greater skill and maturity of treatment.

Dhvani
Anandavardhana (who influenced Abhinavagupta and many others) propagated the theory of
dhvani. Dhvani theory is seen as an extension of Rasa theory. It entrenched the theory of rasa in
the field of poetry. Anandavardhana states in his famous work Dhvanyaloka that words can
convey apart from its conventional meaning, a suggested meaning. In a composition, when the
suggested sense prevails it is called dhvani. That is, a suggestive poetry is called dhvani.
Anandavardhana tried to show that rasa can be best conveyed through dhvani.

4.5. AESTHETICO-PHILOSOPHY

In presenting various theories of Aesthetics, it is highly held that the theory of rasa as re-defined
by Abhinvagupta is the best ever presented theory. His theory is inclusive of the ingredients
contributed by his predecessors: there is focus on the character to be portrayed as given by
Lollata, there is indirect conveyance method of Shankuka, and the sadharana of Bhatta-Nayaka.
Abhinavagupta includes the theory of dhvani, as the method of communication as given by
Anandavardhana. Thus, his theory is seen as a standard theory of rasa. In addition to all, it is
 9

Abhinavagupta who elevates the aesthetic to a philosophical plane in the background of

Pratyabhijna Shaivism. Thus, here we shall see the application of philosophical thought that
brings about the difference, from aesthetics to what is called “meta-aesthetics”.

In the Pratyabhijna Shaiva system, the universal self is Maheshvara; considered in itself, it is
Shiva, of the nature of luminosity (prakasha), consciousness (cit) and bliss (ananda). There is
the universal energy (shakti) inseparable from Shiva. Shiva is bliss and also possesses bliss. An
individual being is only a manifestation of Shiva. The bliss nature of self is forgotten because of
concealment by impurities like ego (ahamkara) etc. Abhinava shows in his theory of rasa that the
art form is instrumental in removing the obstacles and there is bliss (ananda) of the self that gets
manifested which is termed as rasa. Following Abhinavagupta, there are other Aestheticians who
give this philosophical bent to the aesthetic theories.

In this line, we find many philosophers present the aesthetic theory in the light of Vedanta. One
such theory we find in the works of Shri Narayana Guru, identified as one of the contemporary
Indian philosophers. In the background of Vedanta, Narayana Guru shows that the sense of
beauty enjoyed (which we call rasa), is one Atma or self, that manifests as the object, instrument
and the enjoyer. He terms the subjective enjoyer as ‘ahanta’ and all the objective enjoyables as
‘idanta’. In the moment of enjoyment, he says, there is forgetting of the subjective and the
objective conditioning leading to oneness, that is atma. This he calls as the mysterious ways of
the functioning of atma. He describes the creative process of God, in his Darshana-mala, as an
art-work. He talks about the horizontal kind of beauty-experience, that is, the experience of
beauty is an enjoyer – enjoying and enjoyable. He considers that in both the beautiful and the
ugly, the enlightenment is nothing but the unfoldment of one ananda-atma. In this sense, he
perceives the entire universe of enjoyment of Shiva as comparable to an epic conceived by a
poetic genius. He speaks of both ecstasy and mystery in nature that reflects in art-works.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer

1) Define Bharata’s Rasa and examine the theories of Rasa.

………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….
2) How do you understand the development of “Meta-Aesthetics”?
…………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………...
 10

……………………………………………………………………………………

4.6. LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have tried to present the Indian Aesthetic growth beginning from the treatise of
Bharata, that is, Natya-Shastra. This is the starting point of any Aesthetician in the Indian
context. We have tried to re-define the perspective of Indian Aesthetics and its extension to the
Meta-Aesthetics by the interpretation by Philosophers. In this unit, we have covered the literary
development in Aesthetics. We have briefly seen the rasa-sutra of Bharata and the meaning of
the various terms that occur in the rasa-sutra. We have covered the theories of rasa, mainly four
as recorded in the commentary of Abhinavagupta. Then we saw the theories of Aesthetics in the
light of poetry that took the prime place in history of Aesthetic development. The philosophical
approach of an earlier philosopher, Abhinavagupta in the background of Pratyabhijna system and
the approach of a modern philosopher, Narayana Guru, in the background of Vedanta, gives an
insight into the Aesthetico-Philosophical outlook. However, this field of knowledge is to be
further explored. The position of Indian Aesthetics is yet to be proved as a distinct identified
branch of a systematic philosophy in the Indian context.

4.7. KEY WORDS

Rasa – sentiment; feeling; emotional experience through art forms

Bhava – expression of sentiments

Alamkara – figure of speech

Riti – diction; a particular arrangement of words in poetry

Vakroti – striking turns in words that is used in poetry

Dhvani – suggestion; words conveying suggestive expression other than the conventional
meaning.

4.8. FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Blackburn, Simon. Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
 11

Board of Scholars. The Natya Sastra of Bharata Muni. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 2000.

Chari, V.K. Sanskrit Criticism. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass, 1993.

Culturual Leaders of Indian Aestheticians. Delhi: Publications Division, 1990.

Kane, P.V. History of Sanskrit Poetics. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass, 2002.

Kivy, Peter. Ed. The Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics. USA: Blackwell Publishing, 2004.

Pandey, K.C. Comparative Aesthetics: Indian Aesthetics. Vol.I. Varanasi: Choukhambha

Sanskrit Series Office, 1995.

Prasad, Muni Narayana. The Philosophy of Narayana Guru. New Delhi: D. K. Printworld (P)
Ltd, 2003.

Ramachandran, T.P. The Indian Philosophy of Beauty. Part I and II. Madras: University of
Madras, 1979.

Seturaman, V.S. Ed. Indian Aesthetics: An Introduction. Delhi: Macmillan Indian Ltd. 2005.

Sheikhar, Shiva. Fine Arts and Technical Sciences in Ancient India. Varanasi: Krishnadas
Academy, 1982.
 1

Indira Gandhi National Open University MPY – 001

School of Interdisciplinary and Indian Philosophy
Trans-disciplinary Studies

Block
6

ORTHODOX SYSTEMS -1

UNIT 1
Swami Vivekananda and Muhammad Iqbal

UNIT 2
Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore

UNIT 3
Aurobindo and S. Radhakrishnan

UNIT 4
B.R. Ambedkar and Raimundo Panikkar
 2

Expert Committee
Principal,
Prof. Gracious Thomas Dr. Bhuvaneswari College of Fine Arts,
Director, School of Lavanya Flats Manasagangotri
Social Work Gangai Amman Koil Mysore – 570 006
IGNOU St.
Thiruvanmiyur Dr. Keith D’Souza
Prof. Renu Bharadwaj Chennai – 600 041 St. Pius College
Director, School of Mumbai
Humanities Dr. Alok Nag
IGNOU Vishwa Jyoti Gurukul
Varanasi
Prof. George
Panthanmackel, Senior
Consultant, IGNOU Dr. Jose Kuruvachira
Salesian College &
IGNOU Study Centre
Dr. M. R. Nandan
Dimapur, Nagaland
Govt. College for
Women
Mandya - Mysore

Dr. Kuruvila Pandikatt

Jnana-deepa Dr. Sathya Sundar
Vidyapeeth Sethty
Ramwadi, STRIDE
Pune IGNOU

Dr. Joseph Martis

St. Joseph’s College
Jeppu, Mangalore – 2
Dr Babu Joseph
CBCI Centre
Dr. Jaswinder Kaur
New Delhi Dhillon
147, Kabir park
Prof. Tasadduq Husain Opp. GND University
Aligarh Muslim Amristar – 143 002
University
Aligarh
Prof. Y.S. Gowramma
 3

Block Preparation Team

Units 1 - 4 Shimmy Joseph V.

Pulikurumba P.O
Kannur, Kerala.

Content Editor
Dr. V. John Peter
IGNOU, New Delhi

Format Editor
Prof. Gracious Thomas
IGNOU, New Delhi.

Programme Coordinator
Prof. Gracious Thomas
IGNOU, New Delhi.
 4

BLOCK INTRODUCTION

Capturing the thoughts of the modern and contemporary Indian thinkers is quite interesting and
enriching to construct the philosophical thought pattern of India in this period. Whether they
rigorous philosophers is under scrutiny. Even to some extent some scholars raise doubt about
calling something as contemporary Indian philosophy, for, we do not find in this period, the core
philosophical issues like metaphysical and epistemological debates and arguments for and
against as the classical Indian period witnessed. The so-called contemporary Indian philosophers
are mostly concerned about reviving the old, making the ancient and classical thoughts relevant
to modern Indian society and many of them are also focused their thought and action towards
political and social field rather than abstract philosophizing. The reason might have been the
concretizing the philosophical wisdom in times of encounter with the Western ideas and in
struggle for political and social freedom.
In unit 1, the thoughts of Vivekananda and Muhammad Iqbal are arranged in an academic and
systematic manner. The philosophy of Vivekananda is born out of his strong awareness of the
social, religious and economic conditions of Indian masses. Humanism is the dominant aspect in
Vivekananda’s philosophy and religion. Iqbal is a mystic philosopher. Iqbal occupies a unique
position in the contemporary Indian thought. The reconstruction of religious thought in Islam
was one of the important aims of his philosophical thinking. Persian philosophy also made a
great impact in shaping his philosophy. Apart from these, his contact with the western
philosophical world also moulded his philosophy.
Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore lived in the stirring and crucial time of the history of
India and contributed a lot to the philosophical, ethical, social, political, religious, and economic
systems and theories. Unit 2 captures the thought pattern of these two great personalities, though
they are not systematic thinker in strict sense of the term. Yet we could follow certain
philosophical stream of thoughts evident in the works and teaching of the both. Gandhi is an
activist with certain convictions and thinking. Rabindranath Tagore is a religious poet, a seer,
visionary or mystic. His philosophical thoughts are scattered in his literature.
Unit 3 introduces some of the prominent philosophical thoughts of two prominent Indian
philosophers, namely, Aurobindo and S. Radhakrishnan. Aurobindo is considered as the greatest
mystic of the modern age. The robust intellectualism, the powerful expression of philosophical
thoughts, and the mystic vision are uniquely blended in his writings. Radhakrishnan’s salient
features comprise universal outlook, synthesis of the East and the West in religion and
philosophy, the spiritualism and humanism, and openness to the influences of science, art and
values. Radhakrishnan’s philosophy aims at a creative assimilation of mystic perception and
experience.
Unit 4 provides a bird’s eye-view on the basic philosophical understanding of B.R Ambedkar &
Raimundo Panikkar. Ambedkar, was one of the most learned among the political and social
leaders of the 20th century in India. In this unit, proper attention is given for his social thinking.
Raimondo Panikkar, a reputed thinker, has been an inspiring presence in the field of multi-faith
and multi-cultural dialogue for over half a century. He occupies a unique place in the history of
both Indian and world history of philosophy and theology by way of coupling Indian thoughts
with the western.
 1

UNIT I SWAMI VIVEKANANDA AND MUHAMMAD IQBAL

Contents
1.0. Objectives
1.1. Introduction
1.2. The philosophy of Vivekananda
1.3. God, cosmos and Human Person
1.4. Yoga - the ways of realisation
1.5. Towards universal religion
1.6. The Philosophy of Muhammad Iqbal
1.7. Concept of Self
1.8. His Concept of God
1.9. The Nature of the World
1.10. Human Destiny
1.11. Let Us Sum Up
1.12 Key Words
1.13 Further Readings and References

1.0. OBJECTIVES
One of the important aims of this unit is to give a gist of the philosophical thinking of both
Vivekananda and Muhammad Iqbal. Swami Vivekananda, a great patriotic, dynamic philosopher
and a vigorous religious preacher, finds his place in the history as the one who awakened the
people of India from its age-old slumber and infused in it, a new life and spirit. He consecrated
his life for the spiritual union and upliftment of the humanity with his deep insight. The thoughts
of Vivekananda and Muhammad Iqbal are arranged in an academic and systematic manner.
While writing this paper, only those subjects which appeared to be ‘philosophical’ were selected
as their works cover a very large area. The unit provides the students a general idea regarding
their stream of thoughts.
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Swami Vivekananda was born in an educated and well-to-do family in Calcutta, on 12th January
1863. His father was a famous lawyer, educated and a well-versed person in modern liberal
thought and scientific outlook. His mother was pious, wise and devoted to God. He studied the
Western thought which ingrained in him the quality of critical enquiry and analysis. His inborn
spiritual characteristics and his rational outlook were at tussle. He turned towards the Brahmo
Samaj which rejected idol worship and formulated the formless worship of God. His meeting
with Swami Ramakrishna in the year 1881 was the turning point in his life. He accepted Swami
Ramakrishna as his friend, philosopher and guide. An extensive travel that he made almost
 2

throughout India after the death of Ramakrishna in 1886 provided him the opportunity to get
acquainted with the social and economical situation of the country. Meanwhile he participated in
the Parliament of Religions at Chicago. This particular meet witnessed the transformation of
Vivekananda from an unknown sage to a spiritual and religious celebrity. He founded the
Ramakrishna Ashram at Belur, near Calcutta. In 1899, he undertook a second journey to the
West. He breathed his last on the 4th of July 1902.

Sir Muhammad Iqbal occupies a unique position in the contemporary Indian thought. He seems
to be the only thinker of the contemporary times who tries to apply academic philosophical
standards to Islamic thoughts. Mohammad Iqbal was born in 1876 at Sialkot. He received his
early education at Sialkot and Lahore. In 1905, he went to Cambridge. For some time, he did
research on Persian metaphysics at Munich in Germany. In 1908, he returned to Lahore and
joined the bar as a barrister. He became very famous as a poet. Meanwhile he also showed a
greater interest in his philosophical pursuits. He died in 1938 at Lahore. The reconstruction of
religious thought in Islam was one of the important aims of his philosophical thinking. So, one
can find a greater influence of Islam in the basic concepts and categories used by Mohammad
Iqbal in his metaphysics. Persian philosophy also made a great impact in shaping his
philosophy. He was also influenced by Islamic mysticism, especially, by Sufism. Apart from
these, his contact with the western philosophical world also molded his philosophy.

1.2 THE PHILOSOPHY OF VIVEKANANDA

The philosophy of Vivekananda is born out of his strong awareness of the social, religious and
economic conditions of Indian masses. He realized that the orthodoxy, superstitions, loss of faith
in spiritual values etc., are the reasons for at least some of the social evils. The Hindu
philosophy, especially, Vedanta which made him known as a Vedantist and the Buddhist
philosophy made a great impact upon Vivekananda. Along with these Indian influences, he also
carried, on his thought, the influence of Christianity. There were certain other influences too. For
some time he was under the influence of Brahmo Samaj. It also seems that he was also
influenced by the personality of Dayananda Saraswati. The Gita was also a source of constant
inspiration to Vivekananda. But it must be admitted that the profoundest influence was that of his
master Swami Ramakrisha Paramahamsa. It is right to say that swami Ramakrishna revealed him
the spiritual path, unravelled and opened his soul, flooded the spiritual consciousness into his
soul and removed the ignorance which obstructed and covered the wave and tide of the
unbounded spirit within Vivekananda.

1.3 GOD, COSMOS AND HUMAN PERSON

The philosophy of Vivekananda is idealistic in the sense that he believes in the spiritual character
of the ultimate reality. Vivekananda asserts that his idealism is not unrealistic but it is a living
ideal capable of inspiring and attracting the human being towards itself. Vivekanada’s idealism is
monistic. He often describes reality in the fashion of the abstract monist. Basing himself on
Advaita he says that reality is one absolute Brahman. According to him this Brahman is beyond
space, time and causation, and as such it is changeless. But it does not mean that it remains the
 3

same in all points of time. It rather means that the question of time is irrelevant to it. One cannot
attribute qualities to the Absolute. It is indeterminate. But at the same time, an attempt can be
made to give a working description of the Absolute. He tries to describe the Absolute as Sat-Cit-
Ananda. Vivekananda believes that Absolute and God are not two. He likes to treat the Absolute
and God under the same head. Metaphysically speaking, reality is absolute Brahman; the same
reality viewed from the religious point of view is God. He feels that the Vedantic distinction
between the Absolute and God is redundant. It is here that Vivekananda emphasises the all-
pervasive nature of God. God is present everywhere and in everything. God is also presented as
the one eternal principle. His assertion of God as a human god suggests that the human being
bears the spark of Divinity within himself\herself. God is also conceived as the ultimate Ideal of
life and existence. This Ideal can be reached through love. However, the question on the nature
of God that Vivekananda speaks of (personal or impersonal God) is a subject of discussion.
Many times he describes God as both impersonal and personal. But one who reads Vivekananda
has more reasons to tell that he is inclined towards the personal God. But it does not negate his
basic loyalty to the Vedantic understanding of God which speaks of an impersonal God. By way
of presenting the personal nature of God, his main preoccupation was to bring religion closer to
the common people.

The Cosmos: For Vivekananda, God is the only real principle and creation is God’s creation.
Therefore the creation is an aspect of God. Creation can be best understood as the expression of
the creator in finite forms. But the problem remains unsolved; how has the Infinite become the
finite? He explains that the Absolute has become the universe by passing through Time, Space
and Causation. This description of creation implies that in the Absolute there was no Time,
Space and Causation. Then, where do Time, Space and Causation come from? If we say that
they are independent entities and they are outside of the Absolute, it will have a repercussion on
the ultimate monistic conviction of Vivekananda. But he solves this problem showing that Time,
Space and Causation are not metaphysical entities but they are mere forms as they are not
independent entities. Time, Space and Causation are dependent on our mind and they change
with every change of our mind. One cannot have any idea of abstract space or abstract time or
abstract causation. So they have dependent existence. Vivekananda reconciles with the idea of
‘jagat’ ‘mithya’ of Shankara telling that Vedanta does not assert the unreality of the world, but
its mityavada; it merely emphasises that the world cannot have any fixed or absolute character of
its own. It asserts the fact that world does not come out of God as a finished product and creation
is not a completed process.

Maya: Vivekananda certainly borrowed the doctrine of Maya from Advaita Vedanta, but, at the
same time, one can observe that his conception of Maya is not exactly similar to that of Sankara.
Vivekananda shares his understanding of Maya with Sankara while telling that Maya is the
principle of change, a power that makes creation possible. But Vivekananda disagrees with
Advaita Vedanta where Sankara says that Maya is that power which creates illusion.
Vivekananda believes that Maya does not necessarily mean being illusory or unreal. It is right to
say that in his philosophy of Maya, Vivekananda seeks to express the essential characteristics of
the world as it exists, where he says “......Maya is not theory for the explanation of the world: it is
simply a statement of facts as they exist, that the very basis of our being is contradiction...” So
Maya is a convenient name for the fact of contradiction that the universe demonstrates. Our
 4

whole life is a contradiction, a mixture of being and non-being. At places, in tune with the
Vedantic thinking, Vivekananda also says that Maya can neither be defined as existence or as
non-existence. Vivekananda places Maya somewhere in between Absolute being and Non-being.

Human Person: According to Vivekananda, the real human being is a sort of a ‘concentration of
spiritual energy’. Man\Woman is a spirit. Man\Woman is not what he\she usually appears to be.
He tells that human is spiritual because he\she represents some aspirations and urges which only
he\she is capable of having. So it is right to say that the philosophy of Vivekananda presents the
human being as an organized unity of the physical and the spiritual. And it is a fact that the
importance of body was never undermined in his philosophy.
Check Your Progress I
Note: Use the space provided for your answer
1.What is the teaching of Vivekananda on the Absolute and God?
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................2. How does
Vivekananda explain the concepts of Cosmos and Man\woman?
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
3) What is the concept of Maya according to Vivekananda?
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................

1.4. YOGA - THE WAYS OF REALISATION

According to Vivekananda the soul realises immortality through the process of yoga. It means
union or it also stands for a kind of discipline.
The way of knowledge (Jnana yoga): The realisation that bondage is due to ignorance is the
basis of the way of knowledge. According to Vivekananda, ignorance is the inability to
distinguish between the real and the unreal. In other words, it is the ignorance of the real nature
of the things.
Ways of devotion (Bakthi Marga): This is the way of knowing God through intensity of feeling.
Vivekananda says that strong emotions have the capacity to awaken and activate the potential
powers of human being. Ordinary emotions can be converted into powerful feelings; ordinary
love can be converted into Divine Love or Supreme Devotion. This is the Bhakti Marga.
 5

The way of action (Karma Marga): According to Vivekananda, Karma Marga is a system of
ethics and religion intended to attain freedom through unselfishness and by good works.
Man\woman has to remain in the world and has to keep on working as well as he\she can. A
continuous doing of selfless work enables a person to rise above his\her self, and to feel oneness
with everything which is nothing but the realisation of immortality, the realisation of oneness of
everything.

The way of psychology (Raj Yoga): It is the way of realisation of immortality by controlling the
mind and the body. Here the mind and the body are controlled by way of subjecting them to
certain physical and mental disciplines. Although Vivekananda speaks of these four ways
differently, he says that they are different ways for the realisation of the same goal.

1.5. TOWARDS UNIVERSAL RELIGION

For Vivekananda all religions are attempts to get beyond nature. Seen under this angle, religion
appears to be synonymous with spiritual realization. Religion is not in books and temples; it is an
actual perception. Only the person who has actually perceived God and soul has religion. Seen
empirically as a process it is man’s\woman’s struggle to go beyond nature and to live in the
freedom of the spirit. “Religion is not in doctrines, in dogmas, nor in intellectual argumentation;
it is being and becoming, it is realization.

Basic elements of religion: Vivekananda distinguishes three main aspects in religion:

philosophy, mythology and rituals. First, there is the philosophy which presents the whole scope
of the religion setting forth its basic principles, the goal and the means to reach it. The second
part is mythology, through which the philosophy is made concrete. The rituals make the
philosophy of religion more concrete through ceremonies and various physical attitudes and
expressions. In rituals and workship he finds three elements that are found in almost all religions:
symbols, name and god-man. Symbols are meant to represent the idea behind them. Holy names
are the external expressions of the form; the god-man becomes the special instrument by which
the divine becomes manifest to us.

Unity of religions: All the religions are good since their essentials are the same. Each
man\woman should have the perfect exercise of this individuality but the individualities form a
perfect whole. Each religion, as it were, takes up one part of the great universal truth, and spends
its whole force in embodying and typifying that part of the great universal truth. It is therefore
addition not exclusion. The ideal to be pursued is assimilation and not destruction, harmony and
not dissension. If we want to reach a real harmony we cannot be satisfied with an attitude of
tolerance; tolerance is a passive attitude; we tolerate error and sin but we do not have to tolerate
religions. Out attitude should be of positive respect, sympathy and understanding.

The Nature of Universal Religion: A religion is said to be a universal religion only if it is able
to fulfil at least two conditions. First, it must be open to all individuals. Secondly, it must provide
 6

satisfaction and comfort to every religious sect. Vivekananda is on that opinion that such religion
is already there. One fails to recognize its presence as he\she is lost in the external conflicts of
religions. First of all, religions are not contradictory to each other but they are complementary to
each other. Problem arises when each religion concentrates only on one aspect of religion.
Secondly, Vivekananda makes it clear that there can be contradictory views of the same thing.
We view, understand and grasp the truth in our peculiar way. But they are basically of the same
reality and therefore complementary to each other. By universal religion, Vivekananda does not
mean a religion that will have one universal philosophy, one universal mythology or one
universal ritual. The spirit of universal religion demands that one should have the respect for the
other ones. A kind of positive acceptance is another important requirement for universal religion.
The believer in a universal religion must be broad-minded and open-hearted. At least one
element which is common to all religions can be articulated as the element of ‘God’. According
to Vivekananda, though different religions talk of different aspects of the Truth, as aspects of the
same Truth, they are all one. So, to Vivekananda, that Truth is God. Vivekananda believes that
the ideal religion must harmoniously balance all the aspects of religion namely, philosophy,
emotion, work and mysticism.
Check Your Progress II
Note: Use the space provided for your answer
1. How does Vivekananda explain the concept of yoga?
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
....
2. What is the nature of the universal religion that Vivekananda speaks of?
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
....

1.6. THE PHILOSOPHY OF MUHAMMAD IQBAL

Nature of Intuition: Mohammad Iqbal is on the assumption that the ultimate truths which
religion and metaphysics seek to emphasize are not known by us in the ordinary way. The
ordinary way is the way of experience. In this level whatever is known is known under space-
time dimension and is useful from the empirical and pragmatic point of view. But the reality, in
itself, cannot be directly known in this level of experience. Basing himself on the Quranic idea
on ‘heart’, he says that the heart is a kind of inner intuition or insight which brings us into
contact with aspects of Reality. So, thereby, he presents the heart as the faculty of intuition and
intuition is the way through which Reality can be apprehended directly. He also speaks of the
important characteristics of intuition. The important character of intuition is its immediacy.
Intuition is the immediate knowledge of the Reality because it does not require any medium.
Secondly, intuitive knowledge is always a unity or wholeness which is not analyzable. In
intuition the knower becomes one with the known and the distinction between the subject and the
 7

object disappears altogether. Thirdly, intuition is a moment of intimate relationship with the
Supreme. It is a feeling of the presence of the Divine. According to Iqbal, this intuitive
experience has an objectivity about it. It is neither a subjective state nor merely a private and
personal experience. The object of the intuition is not the mere creation of the individual’s
intellect. But the object of the experience is really there. Iqbal asserts that intuition is not the
property of the mind or intellect, but it is the property of the heart. He also says that the
intuitive experience helps one realize eternity in a moment. He further explains that this
experience gives the individual a sense of the unreality of serial time. Lastly, he speaks of the
incommunicable nature of this intuitive experience. It is not communicable because of the
simple reason that it is the function of the heart. He also says that though the content of this
experience cannot be communicated, a mystic can interpret this experience in terms of verbal
form and this interpreted truth can be easily communicated.

1.7. CONCEPT OF SELF

Traditionally, self is considered as that principle which organizes the activities and the
experiences of an individual and gives them significance different from the bodily activities. In
line with the traditional understanding, Iqbal also says that the self is the principle of unity in the
individual, but he asserts that it not opposed to the bodily. He affirms that the self gives unity
even to bodily activities. He develops his idea of self in tune with the Quranic conception of self
and prefers to use the word ‘ego’ for the self. He asserts the necessity to accept the reality of the
self. He explains that no mental state can exist in isolation, but there must be a unity organizing
all the mental states. Parts of the material object can exist as isolated, but mental state cannot.
This principle of unity of inner life or of the mental state is called as ego. It is the ego which
keeps all experiences organized and united. It shows that it is the ego which organizes and gives
a final shape and directions to our various affections and experiences.

Iqbal seems to be against the doctrine of parallelism of the body and the soul. According to him,
both the body and the soul are systems of acts and as activities they are close to each other. The
self is a series of activities and it needs an environment on which it will act or to which it will
react. In other words ego cannot remain in complete isolation, it must have a world. The ego is
confronted with the world of non-ego, and it is through his experience of the world of the non-
ego that the life of the ego grows and develops. We have seen that all the experience is organized
by ego. Such a conclusion leads to one of the important questions in philosophy; does the ego
determine its own activities or is it casually determined by something else? This question is all
about the question of freedom. Iqbal is of the opinion that the ego has the capacity to choose its
course of action and thereby ego is free. Another important character of the self is its
immortality. According to him the self is immortal in spite of its apparent fact of death. He
believes that the self has the capacity to survive death and thereby, it is immortal.

1.8. HIS CONCEPT OF GOD

 8

Basing himself strongly on the Islamic understanding of God, Iqbal declares his firm conviction
on monotheism. For him, the question of God is more important because it satisfies not only the
religious urge of man\woman, but also his\her metaphysical curiosity.

God as the Supreme Ego: Iqbal believes that the universe is of the nature of a free creative
force. He is of the opinion that the world-process is purposive and is rationally directed.
According to him rational egos are capable of regulating and directing their own creative life. So
it prompts us to think that there is a Being directing the creative life of the universe. So he comes
to the conclusion that it is the Super Ego that guides the creative progress of the world. Here, he
also explains the Quranic description of God as ‘light’. Iqbal thinks that light is the nearest
metaphor for understanding the nature of the Absolute Ego, which is the most perfect
embodiment of dynamic and creative life.

Attributes of God: While talking about the attributes of God, he makes a distinction between
the attributes apprehended by intuitive insight and those known through intellectual
deliberations. Here, he mainly speaks of the intellectual attributes of God. According to him,
creativeness, knowledge, omnipotence, eternity, immanence, transcendence etc. are some of the
main attributes of God. Creativeness: the supreme Ego is creative in the way in which an ego is
creative. He says that the Supreme Ego or God is creative in the inner way. It means that God
creates completely from within himself. For Supreme Ego, creation means the unfolding of his
own inner possibilities. His creativeness is infinite because these possibilities are infinite.
Knowledge: for a finite ego or being, the knowledge is based on the distinction between the
knower and the known. So the finite being knows ‘the other’ which is something different from
the subject. But God is all comprehensive. So there is no ‘other’ for God. In other words, “in
Him thought and deed, the act of knowing and the act of creating are identical”. God himself is
the object of His knowledge. God creates as He knows and knows as He creates. Omnipotence:
Iqbal explains the Quoranic understanding of Divine omnipotence; the Divine omnipotence
according to Quran, is intimately connected with the concept of Divine wisdom. One cannot
neglect one of the important questions that the attribution of omnipotence to God raises. It raises
the question of presence of evil in the world. He solves this problem by explaining the concept of
freedom given to human by God for making it possible for him\her to bring out the potentialities
latent in human beings. At the same time, human can use this freedom rightly or misuse this
freedom for wrong choice. He considers that freedom is a basic requirement for goodness. So, he
considers pain and suffering as the necessary aspects of the fact of freedom. He likes to treat both
good and evil within the same whole.

Eternity: Iqbal does not treat eternity as a time concept. He does not speak of an idea of
endlessness of time. God is considered eternal because He is the expression of the infinite
possibilities latent in God. In this sense God is portrayed as eternal. Immanence and
transcendence: According to Iqbal, God is both immanent and transcendent. But God is not
immanent in the world as a pantheist understands. He is immanent in the world in the sense that
the world is His creation. God is presented as transcendent in the sense that the God is beyond
the grasp of the finite ego. So, by way of presenting God as a unity of infinite possibilities, the
 9

metaphysical demand of human being is satisfied. And by conceiving God as personal and
Supreme Ego, the religious demand is also satisfied.

1.9. THE NATURE OF THE WORLD

Like many of the contemporary Indian thinkers who are aware of the present scientific
exploration in determining the nature of the material world, Iqbal also asserts the reality of the
world. He asserts that the external world exists and is real. Before we enter into the question of
the nature of the material world, it is necessary to understand Iqbal’s conception of space and
time. According to Iqbal, space and time are relative. They are relative not only to the different
grades of being but also to the different levels of experience of the same being. The impression
of space and time that we have will be different from the impression of space and time that other
animals may have. He further explains that the physical world is understood in the analogy of the
self. So the world is conceived as a continuous movement. He also finds that the universe also
exhibits a tendency to egohood. The universe manifests a clear tendency to grow as an
individual. And individual is a unity of its parts and the parts cannot exist apart from the whole.
Iqbal applies the same principle to the universe where he says that even though one finds diverse
and discrete aspects of the universe, there exists an inner unity among them all. He draws the
conclusion by saying that the whole physical world can be viewed as an individual. This is the
reason why Iqbal says that every detail of the world is an ego and the totality of the ego is the
ego of the egos. So if the nature of the world is that of ego, it is nothing but growing. It has a
reason, purpose and a plan and steadily progresses towards the realization of an end.

1.10. HUMAN DESTINY

In short, according to Iqbal the realization of immortality is considered as the ultimate human
destiny. Immortality is presented both as soul’s nature and as a person’s destiny. Death is not the
end of the soul. The soul survives the death and continues to exist even after death. But this is
not all about immortality. One will be truly immortal only when these potentialities are fully and
freely expressed. That is, one’s real destiny, the realization and free expression of all the
potentialities, is embedded in the self. Iqbal asserts that it is through persistent and continuous
action one realizes it. It is in this sense that Iqbal presents immortality as ultimate human destiny.
Iqbal tries to highlight three points in respect to immortality which The Quran speaks of. First of
all he says that the finite ego has a beginning. It speaks of the finiteness and humanness of
man\woman. The finite ego is a created being. So, immortality is that of the immortality of a
created being and therefore, immortality does not mean attaining godhood. Secondly, he says
that there is no possibility of its return to the earth. It implies that once the soul is free from the
body, a person is free from the bondage of birth or re-birth and awaits the final judgment with
regard to his\her destiny. So it does not involve a belief in rebirth. Thirdly, he states that finitude
of the ego is not a misfortune. He criticizes those who are on the assumption that finitude is
nothing but evil. He says that the dignity and uniqueness of the individual can be retained only
when an individual is approached with his individuality.
Check Your Progress III
Note: Use the space provided for your answer
 10

1. How does Iqbal look at the concept of God and what are the characteristics of this God?
..........................................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................
2. Explain his concept of the world with special reference to ‘time and space’.
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
3. Explain his concept of human destiny and the three points he highlights on human destiny.
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................

1.11. LET US SUM UP

Swami Vivekananda has revitalized the Indian thought. He identifies his thought with the
philosophy of Advaida and gives the latter a new form. Brahman alone is real and the world is
unreal. The body, life, mind, ego and the world are illusions. The Brahman is indeterminate,
nameless,, formless, eternal, existence, truth-consciousness and bliss. Every religion worships
the same Absolute in different ways. Humanism is the dominant aspect in Vivekananda’s
philosophy and religion. The religion is expressed in service to humanity, universal brotherhood
and humanism.

Iqbal is a mystic philosopher. Intuition alone manifests the truth of God and nature. It gives an
organic knowledge. It reveals the nature of ego and helps communion with God. God evolves
with the cosmos. He is potentially Infinite and is the conscious force. God is duration and there is
no limit for his creativity. The relation between the God and ego is that of a garland with its
beads. For him the external world exists and it is real. The ultimate human destiny is the
realization of immortality. Death is not the end and the soul survives death. But often Iqbal is
criticized for conceiving God as pure becoming and reducing God’s nature to mere fluxional
phenomena. Such a criticism has its ground on the fact that if God is ever evolving, he is an
imperfect reality and growing towards perfection.

1.12. KEY WORDS

Idealism: The theory that maintains the ultimate nature of reality as based on the mind or ideas.
Pantheism: It means that the god is found in everything. It has view that the universe is
permeated with God.
Maya: The term maya has multiple meanings. It is mainly centered around the concept of world.
 11

Intuition: It is a priori knowledge or experiential belief characterized by its immediacy.

Parallelism is a theory related to dualism which suggests that although there is a correlation
between mental and physical events there is no causal connection. The body and mind do not
interact with each other but simply run alongside one another, in parallel, and there happens to
be a correspondence between the two but neither cause each other.

1.13 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Abhayananda, Swami. Universal Religion and Vedanta. Calcutta: Ramakrishna Vedanta Math
Publications. 1968.
Bali, D.R. Modern Indian Thought. Bangalore: Sterling Publication Pvt. Ltd. 1980.
Dar, Bashir Ahamad. A Study in Iqbal’s Philosophy. Lahore: Kashmiri Bazaar, 1948.
Fyzee, Asaf. Modern Approach to Islam. Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1968.
Iqbal, Mohammad. Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. London: Oxford University
press, 1934.
Lal, Kumar Basant. Contemporary Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass
Manuel, Thomas. The Advaita of Vivekananda. Madras: T.R. Publications, 1991.
Mumukshananda, Swami. The Complete Works of Swami Vvekananda.Vol. I-VIII, Calcutta:
Advaita Ashram, 1991.
---------Teachings of Swami Vivekananda. Calcutta: Advaita Ashram Publication, 1978.
Sinha, Sachidananda. Iqbal, The Poet and his Message. Allahabad: Ram Narain Lal Publishers,
1947.
Vahid, Syed Abdul. Iqbal, His Art and Thought. Lahor: Sheikh Mohammad Ashraf, Kashmiri
bazaar, 1947.
Vishwanathan, S. Narvan. Modern Indian Thought. New Delhi:Oriental Longman Limited,
1978.
Vivekananda, Swami. A Study of Religion. Calcutta: Udbodhan Office, 1970.
 1

UNIT 2 MAHATMA GANDHI AND RABINDRANATH TAGORE

Contents

2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Gandhi: Life, Influence and Basic philosophy
2.3 God and Truth
2.4 Nature of the World
2.5 Concept of Human Person
2.6 Social and Political Philosophy
2.7 Tagore: Life and Basic Thought
2.8 Search for the Absolute and Nature of the World
2.9 Philosophy of Human Person
2.10 Tagore’s Religious Thoughts
2.11 Social and Political Philosophy
2.12 Let Us Sum Up
2.13 Key Words
2.14 Further Readings and References

2.0 OBJECTIVES

No philosophical consideration will be complete without any reference to Mahatma Gandhi and
Rabindranath Tagore who lived in the stirring and crucial time of the history of India and
contributed a lot to the philosophical, ethical, social, political, religious, and economic systems
and theories. The most important objective of this unit is to help the students follow the
philosophical stream of thoughts evident in the works and teaching of both Mahatma Gandhi and
Rabindranath Tagore.

Rabindranath Tagore is a religious poet. It is right to call him a seer, visionary or mystic. It is
from his poetry that we know of his philosophy. He does not present his philosophy in an
academic manner. His philosophical thoughts are scattered in his literature. So, one has to
 2

systematically arrange his thoughts in a particular manner so as to make it fit into the mould of
an academic philosophy.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi is a comprehensive system. His philosophy is not an

abstract system of thought. Credit goes to him for blending philosophy with life, abstract
principle with concrete reality of facts, religion with politics, and ethics with a programme for
social evolution. His system is a synthetic unity of different sciences.

2.1 GANDHI: LIFE, INFLUENCE AND BASIC PHILOSOPHY

Gandhi was born in a Baniya family in Kathiavar, Porbanther, Gujarat in 1869. After his early
childhood his family shifted to Rajkot. It is there he painfully and at times, tumultuously, spent
the years of youth. After completing his high school studies, he left for England in 1887 where
he qualified as a lawyer. Back in India he went to South Africa to deal with a legal matter. In
South Africa, he became a leader of the Indian community. After several years at the service of
the Indians of South Africa he left for India in 1914. At Ahemadabad, by the side of Sabarmati
River, he built his Satyagraha ashram to prepare people for non-violent struggle. Soon he
assumed an important role in India’s freedom struggle. After a few limited attempts at utilizing
the method of Satyagraha to deal with various injustices, he launched a nationwide agitation in
1919. Then he saw that people were not ready for a non-violent fight and he decided to suspend
that struggle. After spending a long time in educating the people, he launched a nationwide
action in 1930 (Quit India movement). After his confrontation with Dr.Ambetkar, he turned his
attention to social problems such as untouchability and social inequality. In 1934, he left
congress and withdrew from active politics. Back to the political scene in 1939, he organized a
movement of individual Satyagraha as protest against the war politics of British government.
After the war, when India’s independence was drawing near, we find Gandhi deeply concerned
with the Hindu-Muslim tensions. At the time of independence, he went to Calcutta to try to avoid
bloodshed and violence. Back to Delhi, he was assassinated in 1948.

The main influences on him were from Hindu and Christian teaching. The Jain teaching with its
radical demand of non-violence had also an early influence on him. However, in his mature years
it is Gita that played the greatest role in his life. Gandhi understood Gita as the gospel of
detachment and non-violence. Gita teaches that God is present in everything and that this divine
presence leads us to see the basic spirituality of human life.

2.3 GOD AND TRUTH

 3

We can find a basic consistency in his thought. The focal point of this consistency is the concept
of truth. The quest to know ‘truth’ is an ever-unfinished quest and ‘life is a continuous
experiment with truth’. In this attempt of reaching truth, one relies on the two pillars of faith and
reason. Gandhi seems to have two models to speak of God; a theistic model that is closely related
to his old Vaishnava faith and an Advaidic type of absolutism. In the absolute model, God
appears as an impersonal force or power or as divine law and as Truth. Gandhi agreed that we
could say that God is love; but he felt that the word love is used in many ways and can be
ambiguous. So he prefers to say God is truth. Later, Gandhi went further and said that truth is
God. Wherever one finds truth, there one finds God also. Gandhi accepts the main features of
Hindu tradition with regard to man\woman and the world. As a moral philosopher Gandhi’s
ethics is basically that of intuitionists. The still small voice within oneself must always be the
final arbiter when there is a conflict of duty. This inner voice is the voice of God or the voice of
truth. From the point of view of objective standard in ethics, Gandhi is an ethical naturalist.
Man’s\woman’s nature is defined in terms of non-violence. When man\woman acts violently,
he\she breaks the basic law of his\her own being.

Gandhi did not accept the principle that ‘end justifies the means’. As the means so the
end…there is no wall of separation between the means and the end…realization of the goal is in
exact proportion to that of the means. While speaking about the fundamental moral virtues, he
says: “Morality includes truth, ahimsa and continence. Every virtue that mankind has ever
practiced is referable to and derived from these three fundamental virtues. Non-violence appears
as the means and truth the goal. Continence appears to be necessary to reach the self-control
which is necessary to dedicate oneself more and more fully to truth and non-violence.”

2.4 NATURE OF THE WORLD

It is very difficult to outline precisely Gandhi’s views on the nature of the world as his remarks
on the nature of the world are both casual and scattered. But a close journey along with the
works and words of Gandhi will tell us that he has a profound philosophy on the world. Gandhi
believes that nature is the expression of God and it is the evidence of the all-pervasive reality.
Gandhi says, “God manifests himself in innumerable forms in this universe and every such
manifestation commands my reverence.” Gandhi also observes a force behind the laws of the
universe which maintains the world in harmony, gives an order and saves the world from
destruction. For him, this force is nothing but God and the laws are nothing but the ways of the
working of that force.

2.5 CONCEPT OF HUMAN PERSON

Gandhi feels that man\woman is a complex being. The bodily man\woman is the apparent
man\woman; his\her body is natural in so far as it is akin to the other objects of nature. The body
grows and decays according to the laws of Nature. But, this aspect of a human represents merely
 4

the physical aspect. Man\woman is not merely a physical being. He\she has many other
characteristics which are not just physical. He\she has consciousness, reason, conscience, will,
emotion, and similar other qualities. He\she has an aesthetic sense, a feeling-sensibility, and an
insight into the nature of good and bad. These are not physical activities, but rather these are all
expressions of the real man-woman, of the spirit or soul present in him\her.

He believes that every individual is a mixture of the bodily and the spiritual. According to him,
evolution is a change from the physical to the spiritual, aiming at the complete realization of
Divinity. The elements of divinity, present in every human being, are expressed in different
ways. They can be expressed by way of the presence of reason, conscience, free-will etc. He
believes that man\woman can bring heaven on earth if he\she uses these Divine elements in the
right manner. He also believes in the essential spirituality and goodness of every man\woman.

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answer

1) Explain the Gandhian idea that ‘God is truth’?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
2) How does Gandhi explain the concept of ‘nature’?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
3) Explain the concept of man\woman according to Gandhi.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

2.6 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY

Gandhi speaks of non-violent society, non-violent state and non-violent Swaraj. “All societies
are held together by non-violence, even as the earth is held in position by gravitation.” Gandhi
did not give a blueprint of the non-violent society; from his writings we can see two main
features of this society. First of all, decentralization of authority and village life: society based on
 5

non-violence can only consist of groups settled in villages in which voluntary cooperation is the
condition of dignified and peaceful existence. Centralization as a system is inconsistent with
non-violent structure of society. Here we shall have both economic and social equality.
Economic equality is the master key to non-violent independence. Working for economic
equality means abolishing the eternal conflict between capital and labour; it means leveling
down of the few rich in whose hands is concentrated the bulk of the nation’s wealth on the one
hand, and leveling up of the semi-starved naked millions on the other. This economic equality is
to be achieved not by nationalization and compulsory acquisition of the wealth but by making
the rich realized that they are not owners of the goods they have but they are only trustees of
God.

For Gandhi social equality means a new approach to caste. Gandhi rejects the actual caste system
because it contains the idea of inequality. The idea of inequality must go. However, Gandhi
believed that we must keep the idea of hereditary transmissions of profession. Man\woman must
remain faithful to his\her traditional family duties. But the idea of inferiority and superiority is
totally repugnant to this. We must not however forget that the duty prescribed by one’s caste
does not limit one’s action for society. Having performed one’s hereditary duty one should free
oneself to serve society in all possible ways.

Non-Violent State

Though he speaks of democracy, it is not a centralized democracy: ‘In the true democracy of
India the heart is the village. True democracy cannot be worked by twenty individuals sitting at
the centre. It has to be worked out from below by the people of every village. The ultimate ideal
of his political theory would rather be a state of enlightened anarchy; if national life becomes
perfect and becomes self regulated, no representation becomes necessary. There is then a state of
enlightened anarchy. In the ideal state, therefore, there is no political power, there is no state. But
this ideal is never fully realized in life. Real Swaraj is reached when every man\woman has total
political freedom. Concretely this is expressed in the following manner: “Real Swaraj will come
not only by the acquisition of authority by a few, but by the acquisition of the capacity by all to
resist authority when it is abused. In other words, Swaraj is to be attained by educating the
masses to a sense of their capacity to regulate and control authority.”

Satyagraha
The non-violent ways or means to attain the goal of Swaraj is satyagraha. It is the non-resistance
of the strong. He says: “Passive resistance has no power to change man’s heart…it is only what
the weak offer because they are unable, not unwilling, to offer armed resistance.” Satyagraha is
based on three basic moral principles: truth, non-violence, and the law of suffering. The
reference to truth and non-violence is clear. The law of suffering is the acceptance to suffer
rather than make the other suffer. Self-suffering is the test of love. To suffer without any
violence outward or inward one needs strength, courage and fearlessness. Satyagraha implies a
whole interior moral attitude of the Satyagrahi: “Satyagraha is gentle, it never wounds, it must
never be the result of anger or malice. It is never fussy, never impatient, and never vociferous. It
 6

is breach of Satyagraha to wish ill to an opponent or to say a harsh word to him\her with the
intention of harming him\her.”

Sarvodaya Society
The term Sarvodaya literally means the rise of all, i.e., a society in which the good of all is
achieved. Gandhi writes about the India of his dream where the goal of Sarvodaya is achieved:
“An India in which there shall be no high class and low class people, an India in which all
communities shall live in perfect harmony; there can be no room in such an India for the curse of
untouchability or the use of intoxication, drinks and drugs. Women will enjoy the same rights as
men.” From the writings of Gandhi five important aspects of Sarvodaya society can be
identified. They are, Rama Rajya (Kingdom of God), Sarva Dharma Samabava (secularism),
Swaraj, Swedeshi and Panjayat raj.

Poverty
The solution Gandhi proposed to the acute problem of poverty was ‘bread labour.’ “If every one
of us bodily labours to earn his\her food, we would not see the poverty which we find today in
the world.” He held the view that the poverty of the millions cannot be solved by big industries
of the modern western type, which is based on industrial capitalism, rationalistic materialism and
colonial imperialism. The introduction of machine into the production leads to the exploitation of
masses by the small group of rich people through competition and marketing. Because of the
demerits of heavy industries Gandhi encouraged small scale industries. About spinning wheel he
wrote: “I would make spinning wheel the foundation on which to build a sound village life. I
would make the wheel as the centre a round which all other activities will revolve.”

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer

1) What is the Gandhian concept of non-violent state?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
2) What is the concept of Satyagraha according to Gandhi?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
3) Explain the Gandhian vision of Sarvodaya?
 7

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

2.7 TAGORE’S LIFE AND BASIC THOUGHT

Tagore was born on 7th August 1861, in Kolkata, Bengol. He belonged to an eminent and
influential Bengali Brahmin family. He was born and brought up as an aristocrat and a lover of
beauty. He became conscious of his higher mission of bringing human beings close to each
other and to God. Tagore ranks with the greatest seers, sages and the devotees of India, who
valued human being above everything else. Under the influence of the liberal tradition of his
family and the philosophy of the Upanishads, he developed a positive view of life and love of
humanity. He died on 7th August 1942.

Tagore had been deeply influenced by the thoughts of Upanishads and the Bhagavadgita. The
medieval Indian religious and social philosophy also made an impact on his philosophical
thinking. Though the metaphysics of Buddhism does not attract the poet much, the humanistic
tradition of the Buddha and the Buddhist way of life appealed to him the most. In the spirit of the
medieval saints and poets, he talked of the divinity of man\woman. Besides them, humanism of
Vaisnavism, the mysticism of medieval saints, the philosophy of human being of the Baul sect of
Bengal, humanism of Christianity and Buddhism helped him form his humanistic ideas and
ideals. Apart from these, Brahmasamaj, the revival and reform of Bengali literature guided by
Bankim Chandra Chatterjee and the naturalistic and scientific movement also moulded his
thinking.

2.8 SEARCH FOR THE ABSOLUTE AND NATURE OF THE WORLD

From his very early writings till his last poems Tagore’s poems are marked by a quest for the
Absolute. From the beginning itself he felt that there is a basic current of unity, a basic force of
life and harmony behind the world. In the poems of Gitanjali, this basic force takes the form of a
‘Thou.’ This ‘Thou’ is presented as Supreme person who stands beside everyone, whose strength
can transform his\her weakness into strength. Although this ‘other’ is the companion of one’s
life, he passes often unnoticed. Though man\woman fails to see him, yet he/she lives in a hope of
a final encounter with this ‘Other.’ This final encounter will be a moment of ultimate bliss. One
might look into the temples of organized religions to find this ‘Thou’. But the God whom he/she
longs for or seeks for is not there. It is in this sense Tagore says; “whom does thou worship in
this lonely dark corner of a temple with doors all shut? Open thy eyes and see, thy God is not
before thee. He is there where the tiller is tilling the hard ground...” (Gitanjali XI). Already in
Gitanjali Tagore suggests that the lord is to be discovered in man\woman rather than in the
confines of the organized religions. The Absolute which was first discovered as the force present
 8

in nature, and then the force present in man\woman himself\herself is now declared as the
“Supreme Man.” Tagore will now speak of the Humanity of our God or the divinity of
man\woman.

Reality and God

Though in the metaphysical context the distinction between ‘God’ and ‘reality’ is still
maintained, Tagore does not treat ‘reality’ and ‘God’ as two different entities. It is noticed that
Tagore rarely uses the word ‘Absolute’ for the Absolute. The expressions that have been mostly
used are: ‘The universal Man’, ‘The Supreme Person’, ‘The Supreme Spirit’, ‘The Infinite
Personality’ etc. It can be said that his philosophy is peculiar and yet is a religious synthesis of
Abstract Monism and a particular type of Theism. Reality, according to him is One. He
identifies this reality with personal God. This identification of impersonal reality with personal
God gives interesting results. And, therefore, Tagore can rightly be called ‘An Idealist’ or ‘A
Spiritualist’; he can again be described both as a ‘Monist’ and a ‘Theist’. That is why many
commentators on Tagore say so legitimately that Tagore’s philosophy oscillates between
Sankara’s Vedanta and Vaishnavism.

Nature of the world

Tagore is of the opinion that the reality of creation has given a definite view on the nature of
creation. Though his account of creation has a humanistic significance, it is, more or less,
theistic. God, being the supreme reality, is the basis of the universe. Here, the creation is said to
be the manifestation or the expression of the Absolute. According to Tagore, God finds Himself
by creating. The reason for creation is joy. Using the Indian concept of ‘Lila’ Tagore says that
creation is the ‘Lila’ of the creator. He creates in the fullness of joy- just to find Himself in the
place of joy. Creation is separate from the Creator, and is yet united with Him.

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answer

1) What are the influences that moulded the philosophy of Tagore?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
2) How does Tagore explain his concept of God?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
 9

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
3) What is the nature of the world that Tagore speaks about?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

2.9 PHILOSOPHY OF HUMAN PERSON

The philosophy of Tagore itself suggests the ultimate aim of human person, that is, the final
destiny. It is the realization of unity, the realization of Divinity; it is comprehension, in an act of
supreme love, nature and everything else; it is the realization of the Universal within. Tagore
says, “The ultimate destiny is the realization of immortality, of complete freedom. The spiritual
progress of human being is from bondage to freedom. The embodied state is a state of bondage.
As we go on unfolding the powers and the freedom of the soul by rising above the bodily
bondage and by trying to realize our essential affinity with all, we are progressing towards
immortality-towards the realization of complete freedom.” While accepting human person as a
material, psychological, social and moral being at a time, Tagore lays more stress on the moral
and spiritual aspect of human person’s nature.

Nature of Human Person

According to Tagore, human person’s real nature is that which he/she has not yet realized. The
real glory of persons is hidden in him/her; it is not extrinsic but intrinsic. All his/her outward
activities and achievements do not reveal his/her nature. He/she is never satisfied with his/her
present state, with what he/she is, but he/she craves for what he/she ought to be. Tagore does not
think human person to be imperfect, but incomplete, which is due to the fact that the real
meaning of himself/herself is not yet realized in his/her present state. According to him human
nature invites selfishness now and then and commits errors and crimes. This selfishness is
human nature, which hinders the real view of our true nature. Tagore says, “Every individual is
to be helped, wisely, reverently, towards his/her own natural fulfilment. Every human person
shall be himself/herself, shall have every opportunity to come to his/her own intrinsic fullness of
being. The final aim is not ‘to know’ but ‘to be’.” Sin and evil are nature of person’s superficial
self. According to Tagore, though man/woman had not actually revealed the infinity in his/her
nature yet, in him/ her infinite is present potentially and therefore, he/she, by nature is not sinful,
but good. Like other Vedic and great thinkers, Tagore thinks that with the removal of ignorance
or avidya, the human person’s real nature will be revealed. His/her real nature is covered by the
external covering of ‘aham’, which makes him/her limited to time and space.

The Self, Individuality and Universality of Human Person

 10

Tagore emphasizes the reality and freedom of self. The self in us is divine. It is a part of God.
The selves are the parts of the Divine, and they are, therefore, dependent on God. And therefore
realize that ‘self’ which is divine in you. Human person is an individual, being and his/her
individuality gives him\her unique identity among all creatures. Every individual is unique; in
this plane he\ has no second to him\her. He strongly believed that no force can destroy this
individuality of a person and no other being except God can enter into this world of person
which he/she calls ‘mine’. The field of the individuality is the field of his /her freedom.

Human person is not only individual, but also is universal. Human person has an idea of
perfection. This idea of perfect being is present in every human being, and here he/she has
universality within himself/herself. These ideas and values make human person one with all
other persons. Thus this universality of human person raises him/her above other laws of nature.
In this level, human being is universal; therefore there is no difference between one human
person and other human persons. The differences of social, educational, economical and
political conditions cannot differentiate the inherent unity of all human beings. Tagore says,
“Human person’s individuality is not the highest truth, there is that in him/her which is universal.
If he/she were made to live in a world where his/her own self was the only factor to consider
then that would be the worst prison imaginable to them, for a person’s deepest joy is in growing
greater and greater by more and more union with all.”

Human Being as a Creator

As human being is free, his/her freedom is expressed in his/her creative act where he/she
becomes a partner of the Supreme soul. His/her true nature is not revealed in his/her acts of
necessities, but in the acts, which he/she does joyfully. Human being is not contented with the
world given to him/her. Therefore, he/she creates his own world of creation. But that is only a
pure work of art, which is created from human being’s overflowing joy, and inner urges of
creation.

Immortality of Human Being

Human being is great because he/she does not want to live in isolation, but wants to comprehend
all. Again human being is great because God is expressed through his/her being. As a human
being is God’s expression, he/she cannot be limited by the narrow boundaries of his/her lower
self. For Tagore, a human person is made in the image of the Divine artist, God Himself, and the
Divine Artist is incomplete and unfulfilled unless He finds expression in the finite and human
person imitates the Divine Artist. This is his/her religious response which gives him/her
immortality in Divine creator. He/she is immortal in that aspect where he/she is ‘true’
transcending her/his small partial ‘Ego.’ In his/her inner being he/she actualizes the desire of all,
gives form to joy of all. But if he/she goes to the opposite direction, he/she falls from the truth of
humanity. Therefore, Tagore wants to live in the plane where Human being is immortal, where
he/she dwells in the universal. Tagore reminds human beings that they are ‘children of
immortality’. Their immortality consists in their greatness. Tagore compares a person’s greatness
with the morning sun whose horizon is far away from us. A person’s greatness consists in this
that he/she knows that he/she is not yet born and he/she is yet to realize his/her true nature.
 11

2.10 TAGORE’S RELIGIOUS THOUGHTS

The Religion of Rabindranath was the poet’s religion. It was neither an orthodox religion of
piety nor a mystic religion of a theologian. The religious consciousness and the poetic talent
were so interrelated that he was unable to isolate the divine element from his poetic works. This
is very well expressed in the insight meaning of his poetical work ‘Gitanjali’; his religious life
has followed the same mysterious line of growth as his poetical life. The spiritual freedom or the
liberation of the soul or ‘Mukti’ formed one of the cardinal truths of Religion. Each man\woman
is conscious of the transcendental truth in him\her, which is made known to him\her through
his\her inner fulfilment. The Religion of Tagore preaches fearlessness of the finite as it has
implicit faith in the deathlessness of the real of ‘Whole man’. The philosophy of self-surrender
and the integration of the individual being with the cosmic being are as old as the Upanishadic
teaching i.e., ‘Tatvam-Asi’. All these are possible when a human being learns the real
significance of selfless life and detachment.

2.11 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY

Tagore’s ‘Social Philosophy’ cannot be separated from his ‘Humanism’. His social philosophy is
an outcome of his humanism. In his social thinking humanistic viewpoint is expressed. His social
thinking can be divided mainly into two broad divisions. One is the aspect of knowledge or
analysis; another is the aspect of solving the problems or practical side. And he himself takes
active part in removing and solving the problems of social injustice. Economic and political
problems are also for him parts of our social life. Tagore never believes in the existence of any
other world. When every individual of the earth unfolds all his/her potentialities and blooms in
his/her fullest and complete form, and when all human beings co-exist in love and
companionship with each other, heaven will come down to this earth. His social philosophy aims
at progress of life in all its aspects. He was fully aware of all evils of India in those days –
ignorance, poverty, social injustice, political subjection, slavery and bondage labour. Therefore
in his philosophy, he wisely highlights the equality of human beings in full real freedom as
individual human beings.

For Tagore, merely ‘no- war’ is not identical with peace, because according to him ‘no-war’
forms only negative aspect of peace. What matters to him is the positive aspect of peace, i.e. to
realize spiritual harmony of human beings. Peace, according to him cannot be mere negative of
war, but it should mean mutual understanding and sympathy among the people of the same
nation, other nations and the universe at large. Therefore, real peace cannot be achieved by any
instrument of policy but through the spirit of love. He has travelled all over the world preaching
the ideal of universal peace. He believes that each race should be allowed to develop itself and at
the same time a sense of unity should be developed in people, so that keeping their identities, the
different races and nations can meet and unite with each other for the national and universal
peace.
 12

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.

1) What is the nature of a human being according to Tagore?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
2) Explain Human being as ‘Individual’, ‘Universal’, ‘Creator’ and ‘Immortal’?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
3) What does Tagore speak of religion?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
4) Explain the social philosophy of Tagore.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
5) How does Tagore look at the concept of peace?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

2.12 LET US SUM UP

Gandhi’s system is a synthetic unity of different sciences. Humanism is the dominant principle in
Gandhian philosophy. Gandhi speaks of two models to speak of God, namely, a theistic model
and an Advaidic type of absolutism. He beautifully couples God with truth; he identifies God as
truth and truth as God. The universe is considered as the expression of the absolute. Gandhi also
finds the spiritual elements in the human being which acts as the basis of his\her dignity. Non-
violent state characterized by economical equality can be considered as the essence of his
political philosophy. In summary, his system is an exalted one in so far as he gives to mankind a
complete set of social, economic, political, ethical and religious principles to govern the
individual and humanity.
 13

Tagore has an anthropomorphic conception of God. The infinite has been conceived as the
supreme human personality. God is the creator of finite selves and nature. Though theism has the
dominant theme in Tagore’s philosophy, the impersonal and indeterminate nature of the absolute
also finds place. The creation is considered as the ‘Lila’ of the creator God. In other words God
finds himself in creation. While speaking about human person, he places more emphasis on the
spiritual and moral aspect of human being. One of the notable factors of Tagore’s philosophy is
that he sometimes makes his position confusing. The inconsistency in his thinking is justified by
the fact that he is, basically, a mystic and poet.

2.13 KEY WORDS

Ethical naturalism, which identifies the rightness or goodness of actions with their tendency to
promote happiness, thereby reduces moral facts to natural ones.

Lila: A concept in Indian philosophy that explains the universe as a cosmic puppet theatre or
playground for the gods. "Lila" literally means "play," but in religious texts it refers to "divine
play" - life as a spontaneous game played by light hearted forces beyond our understanding.

2.14 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Bose, Nirmal Kumar. Studies in Gandhism. Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publication House, 1972.
Chakrabarti, M. Gandhian Mysticism. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers, 1989.

Datye, S.N. “Relevance of Gandhi’s Leadership,” Gandhi on Social & Racial Equality, ed. L.M.
Bhole. New Delhi: Kalinga Publications, 2002.

Datye, S.N. “Relevance of Gandhi’s Leadership,” Rethinking Mahatma Gandhi, ed. by S.R.
Kakade. New Delhi: Kalinga Publications, 2002.

Fischer, Louis. Gandhi His Life and Message for the World. New York: New American Library
Publication, 1954.
 14

Gandhi, M.K. The Story of My Experiments with Truth. Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publication,
2005.

Kytle, Calvin. Gandhi Soldier of Non–Violence. New York: Grosset & Dunlap Publication,
1969.

Lal, Kumar Basant. Contemporary Indian Philosophy. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
Publications, 1973.

Ramachandran, G. “Relevance of Satyagraha as a Weapon in Modern Times,” The relevance of

Gandhi to our Times, ed. by Bhabesh Chandra Barua. New Delhi: Rouse Avenue Publications,
1983.

Mani, P. Mahajan & K.S Bharathi. Foundation of Gandhi and Thought. Nagpur: Dattsons
Publication, 1987.

Vatsyayan. Social Philosophy. New Delhi: Kedar Nath Ram Nath Publication, 1986.

“Satyagraha,” July 16, 2006 [online]; available at http://www.gandhism.com

Basak, Kokali. Rabindranath Tagore: A Humanist. New Delhi: Classical Publishing Company,
1992.

Bharathi, K. S. The Political Thought of Rabindranath Tagore. New Delhi: Concept Publishing
Company, 1956.

Chakrabarti, Mohit. Rabindranath Tagore Diverse Dimensions. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers
and Distributions, 1990.

Cenkner, William. International Philosophical Quarterly: Tagore and Aesthetic Man. Ky.
Shepherdsville: Publishers Printing Co., 1973.

Kumar Lal, Basant. Contemporary Indian Philosophy. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
Indological Publishers, 1978.

O’ cornel, Kathleen, Rabindranath Tagore; the Poet as Educator, Culcutta, Viswabharati, 2002.
 15

Srivastava, Rama Shanker. Contemporary Indian Philosophy. New Delhi: Munshiram

Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1965.

Srivastava, A. K. God and its Relation with the Finite Self in Tagore’s Philosophy. New Delhi:
Oriental Publishers, 1976.

Sharma,Chandradhar. A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass,

1976.

Srivastava, Rama Shanker. Contemporary Indian Philosophy. Ranchi: Sharda Publishers, 1984.

Tagore, Rabindranath. Towards Universal Man. New Delhi: Asia Publishing House, 1962.

Tagore, Rabindranath. Lipika: Prose Poems. New Delhi: Clarion Books Publishers, 1978.

Tagore, Rabindranath. Geetanjali. New Delhi: Hind Pocket Books Pvt. Ltd., 1984.
 1

UNIT 3 AUROBINDO AND S. RADHAKRISHNAN

Contents
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Life and the Works of Sri Aurobindo
3.3 The Transcendental Reality in Aurobindo’s Thought
3.4 Nature of Creation: The World-Process
3.5 Man in Terms of Evolution
3.6 Reality and Its Aspects
3.7 Synthesis of Yoga
3.8 Social and Political Philosophy
3.9 Radhakrishnan’s Life and Works
3.10 The Absolute or the Brahman
3.11 The Nature of the World And Creation
3.12 Human Being And the Nature of Soul
3.13 His Religious and Political Thought
3.14 Let Us Sum Up
3.15 Key Words
3.16 Further Readings and References

3.0 OBJECTIVES

One of the important aims of this unit is to introduce some of the prominent philosophical
thoughts of two prominent Indian philosophers, namely, Aurobindo and S. Radhakrishnan to the
students. It will provide a general picture of their understanding on the Absolute or God, nature,
human being etc. It also helps students have a glance at certain concepts which are peculiar and
unique to each philosopher.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Aurobindo is considered as the greatest mystic of the modern age. The robust intellectualism, the
powerful expression of philosophical thoughts, and the mystic vision are uniquely blended in his
writings. Radhakrishnan’s salient features comprise universal outlook, synthesis of the East and
the West in religion and philosophy, the spiritualism and humanism, and openness to the
 2

influences of science, art and values. The values, culture, tradition, religions and philosophies of
different countries are in synthesis in Radhakrishnan’s philosophy. His philosophy does not aim
at merely a constructive synthesis, but at a creative assimilation of mystic perception and
experience.

3.2 LIFE AND THE WORKS OF SRI AUROBINDO

Aurobindo (ArvindGhose) (1872-1950), yogi, nationalist, poet, critic, thinker, spiritual leader of
India, was born at Konanagar, West Bengal on the fifteenth of August 1872 as the third son of
Krishna Dhan Ghose and Swaranalata Devi. Aurobindo Ghose was educated in England from
the age of seven to the age of twenty-one. In 1906 Aurobindo joined the political movement of
Indian resistance to British colonial rule and became a prominent voice of the nationalist party.
In 1908 he was arrested. In 1910, Aurobindo shifted to French India (Pondicherry) where he
developed his great religious and philosophical vision of reality. He spent the next forty years of
his life in Pondicherry formulating his vision of spiritual evolution and integral yoga, and
refusing to pursue direct involvement in political events. He died in Pondicherry in 1950. Some
of his main works include; The Future Evolution of Man, The Hour of God, The Life Divine, The
Lights on Yoga, Savitri, a Legend and a Symbol, Foundation of Indian Culture, More Lights on
Yoga, The Riddle of the World. The ideal of Human Unity, Bases of yoga, The Supernatural
Manifestation on Earth etc.

At an early age of his life itself he was exposed to the world of western philosophy. He was also
well-acquainted with great philosophers like Plato and Aristotle. His study of ancient Indian
philosophy, especially, the Advaita Vedanta and yoga, made a great impact on him. However, it
is right to say that he relied mainly upon his own vision, contemplation and reason. He believed
that religion is a Sanatana Dharma, eternal and universal. It cannot be confined to one religious
tradition or one set of texts. Its only infallible scripture is to be found in the heart of man\woman.
However, this eternal religion is remarkably well expressed in the spiritual tradition of India and
so India has a God-given mission to be the guardian, exemplar and missionary of this religion.
Aurobindo goes back to early Vedas and discovers there, expressed in symbolic ways, the basic
spiritual teachings of Sanatana dharma. While surface level meaning speaks of myths and
rituals, the symbolical way of understanding the spiritual experience reaches the deeper secret
meaning. The purpose of Aurobindo’s philosophy was to bring out this meaning.

3.3 THE TRANSCENDENT REALITY IN AUROBINDO’S THOUGHT

Aurobindo conceives reality as supremely spiritual. The ultimate reality for Sri Aurobindo is the
triune principle of Sacidananda. The ultimate Reality is Transcendent. This Transcendent
Reality expresses itself in the cosmos. The ultimate Reality is linked up with the cosmos by the
triple formula of Supermind that “Brahman is in all things; all things are in Brahman; and all
things are Brahman”.
 3

In the thoughts of Sri Aurobindo, the supreme reality is eternal, absolute and infinite. Since it is
absolute and infinite, it is in its essence indeterminable. The pure Absolute is indefinable,
infinite, timeless, and spaceless. It cannot be summed up in any quantity or quantities; it cannot
be composed of any quality or combination of qualities. The Absolute is beyond stability and
movement as it is beyond unity and multiplicity. The Absolute is independent of all relatives, but
it is also the basis of all relatives. It governs, pervades, and constitutes all relatives. Though it is
indescribable and unknowable, it is self evident to itself.

Sacidananda
The highest positive expression of the Reality to our consciousness is Sacidananda. Sacidananda
is the one with a triple aspect. For us, the highest positive expression of Brahman is the
Sacidananda or Existence - consciousness - bliss, all in all. In other words, in the Supreme the
three are not three but one; existence is consciousness, consciousness is bliss and they are not
distinct at all. It manifests itself as indeterminate as well as determinate, as nirguna as well as
saguna, as one as well as many, as being as well as becoming and yet it transcends them all. The
existence (sat) of Brahman is that which appears to us as Atman, Ishwara and Purusha. The
consciousness (chit) of Brahman which is always a force (shakti) manifests itself as maya, shakti
and prakriti. The Bliss (anand of Brahman underlies all these manifestations and it is out of
sheer bliss that Divine manifests himself as this world. These three aspects and these powers
embrace all reality and when taken as a whole, reconcile all apparent contradictions.

Supermind Principle
In the philosophy of Sri Aurobindo, the ultimate Reality becomes the world by the principle of
Supermind. It is present there in everything of the world as consciousness and controller.
Supermind is creative principal. It has been variously described by him. It is Real idea, it is
truth consciousness, the seer will, the Creative Idea, the Creator, the God and so on. The mind is
divided into three parts – Thinking mind, dynamic mind, externalizing mind, - the former is
concerned with ideas and knowledge in their own ways, the second with putting out of mental
forces for realization of the idea, and the third with the expression of there. For Aurobindo, the
overmind is a link between the higher and lower Hemispheres. The overmind is a sort of
delegation from the Supermind, which supports the present evolutionary universe in which we
live here in matter.

By the Supermind what we mean is the full Truth - consciousness of the Divine Nature in which
there can be no place for the principle of division and ignorance; it is always a full light and
knowledge superior to all mental substance or mental movements. We call it the Supermind or
the truth – consciousness, because it is a principle superior to mentality and exists, acts and
proceeds in the fundamental truth and unity of things and not like the mind in their appearances
and phenomenal divisions.
Check Your Progress I
Note: Use the space provided for your answer
 4

1) How does Aurobindo explain the Absolute reality as Sachidananda?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
2) Explain the Supermind Principle of Aurobindo?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

3.4 NATURE OF CREATION: THE WORLD-PROCESS

Sri Aurobindo conceives creation as a double-process. It is a process of descent and ascent or

involution and evolution. First of all, it is a descent of the spirit into the worldly forms and then it
also implies an ascent of the worldly forms to its original higher status. Aurobindo describes
creation as the plunge of the spirit into ignorance. Ignorance, according to Aurobindo, is not a
separate power, but it is a part and parcel of Divine consciousness itself. In involution the spirit
is descended into the matter.

The movement of ascent, that is evolution, follows the same pattern as the process of descent but
in a reversed order, starting from matter and reaching the Supermind and thereby sharing in the
life of the absolute. Evolution presupposes involution. In other words, evolution is possible only
because involution has already taken place. Matter can evolve into life only because life itself
has involved into it. The lower cannot evolve into the higher unless the higher is already in it. So
therefore, he conceives evolution as a reverse process of involution. This process of ascent has a
triple character: (Widening: simple forms of matter take an increasingly complex character so as
to admit the concentration of a complex and subtle form of consciousness. (b) Ascent: from
lower to higher grade of being. (c) Integration: as soon as the evolution reaches a higher grade, it
takes up all the lower grades and transforms them according to its own principles and laws. It can
be expressed in the following manner.
Absolute being Sat-Cit-Anand: to Supermind
INVOLUTION: Overmind ...Intuition...Illumined mind... Higher mind...mind... Life... Matter.
EVOLUTION: Matter...Life...Mind...Higher mind...Illumined mind...Intuition... Overmind.

3.5 MAN IN TERMS OF EVOLUTION

According to Aurobindo, so far evolution has passed from the state of complete inconscience to
the grade of mental which is well represented in man\woman. So in man\woman lies the
possibility of the next step of evaluation- the transition to the supra-mental level. Aurobindo
believes that the man\woman who is evident to our senses is not the real man\woman- at least
he\she is not the complete man\woman. In the process of evolution the appearances of
 5

man\woman does not correspond with the appearance of mind. With the animals the mind has
already appeared. But with the coming of human intellect we have new dimension of the mind.
Now, apart from the knowledge of appearance we have self-consciousness too. Following the
general principle of evolution man\woman takes with him\her the inferior levels of matter and
life to a higher level. There is no opposition between matter, life and mind but an integration of
the three in a higher synthesis. Man\woman and all the lower levels of reality reach the divine
manhood or ‘super manhood.’ This can be realized only through a long process of evolution.
This process cannot be limited to one life span. This evolution is fully possible only if we accept
the general principle of rebirth.

3.6 REALITY AND ITS ASPECTS

The soul is a spark of the Divine. It is the representative of the central being. It supports all
individual existence in nature. The Psychic being is a conscious form of that soul growing in the
evolution, in the persistent process that develops first life in matter, mind in life, until finally
mind can develop into overmind and overmind into the supramental Truth. The soul supports the
nature in its evolution through these grades, but is itself not any of these things. The psychic
being is, according to Aurobindo, the original conscience of man\woman. It is the concealed
witness, hidden guide, inner light, and inner voice of the mystic. Sri Aurobindo uses the word
consciousness in the following senses: Conscious Being or spirit; Purusha or Chaitanya,
Awareness of knowledge; Chit, Chetana or Jnana, Consciousness force or conscious energy;
Chit- Shakti, Power of awareness of self and things; Chetana, The faculty of becoming aware of
anything; Chitta, Manas Chetana. Consciousness is a fundamental thing, the fundamental thing
is existence. Not only the microcosm but also the macrocosm is nothing but consciousness
arranging itself.

Being and Becoming as Real

Sri Aurobindo definitely tries to solve the problem of Being and Becoming in the most original
manner. He tells that both Being and Becoming are real. He takes both the facts of Being and
Becoming with equal importance. The word ‘Being’ is not used by Sri Aurobindo always strictly
in the sense of Atman or the original and fundamental reality except in a few places like the
Divine Being, the Supreme Being etc… In other places he has used it in the sense of existence or
that which exists or is conceived of existing, life, etc… as the word is generally used in the
English language. The Absolute manifests itself in two terms, Being and Becoming. The Being
is the fundamental reality; it is a dynamic power and result, an effectual reality, a creative energy
and working out of the Being, a constantly persistent yet mutable form, process, and outcome of
its immutable formless essence. What is original and eternal for ever in the Divine is the being;
what is developed in consciousness, conditions, forces, forms etc… by the Divine power is
Becoming. The eternal Divine is the Being; the universe in time and all that is apparent in it is
Becoming.

3.7 SYNTHESIS OF YOGA

 6

Attainment of supramental status is not the ultimate destiny of human being. The superman also
has to work for the transformation of others. So, one has to lead a divine life - a perfected life on
earth - a life not of limited consciousness but a life of inner completeness and perfection of
being. Aurobindo believes that this divine life can be realized with the help of yoga. Describing
the nature of yoga, he says, “yoga means union with the divine, a union either transcendental or
cosmic or individual or as in our yoga, all three together.” Yoga helps all the aspects of
evolution: widening, heightening and integration and therefore it is integral. The triple yoga of
knowledge, devotion, and action leads to the transformation of man’s\woman’s mind, emotion
and will. Aurobindo classified the various yoga according to the way they have inserted
themselves in human life. Here we have a more complete list of yoga: ( at the lower level we
have the ‘Hata yoga’, which is concerned with the bodily transformation. (b) A little higher we
have ‘Raja yoga’ which is concerned with the transformation of the mental level. (c) Finally, we
have the yoga of triple transformation with its three branches of jnana, bhakti and karma, which
lead finally to the yoga of self-perfection.

3.8 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY

We find in his early writings a radical approach to politics. We see that nationalism appears as a
sort of religion for him in the early period of his life. According to him the individual is a value
that cannot be subordinated to society. The individual has a key role to play since it is through
him\her that the supramental is to manifest itself in the world. Although Aurobindo uses organic
analogies to speak of society he always sees that the individual in society is more than a cell in
the body. He does not oppose individual and society. Both are manifestation of the divine reality.
There is a relationship of reciprocity between these two and both tend towards the same goal.
Check Your Progress II
Note: Use the space provided for your answer
1) How does Aurobindo explain his theory of involution and evolution?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
2) Where does Aurobindo situate man in the process of evolution?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
3) Explain Aurobindo’s understanding of ‘yoga’.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
 7

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
4) Explain the social and political philosophy of Aurobindo.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………

3.9 RADHAKRISHNAN’S LIFE AND WORKS

He was born on 5th September, 1888 at Tiruttani, a small village, forty miles northeast of
Madras. He was the second child to his parents. From 1900 to 1904, he studied in Voorhees
College, Vellore. Later he moved to Madras and studied in Madras Christian College. He
rendered his service as a teacher in philosophy in Madras Presidency College and in the
University of Mysore. He was Vice President from 1952 to 1962 that is for two consecutive
terms. Later he became the President of the Indian Union securing 97.98% vote for the term of
five years. His main works include: East And West, Eastern Religion and Western Thought, East
and West in Religion, The Reign of Religion In The Contemparaty Philosophy, Religion and
Society, The Recovery of Faith, Indian Philosophy, An Idealist View of Life, The Hindu View of
Life etc.

Radhakrishnan had deep study of the classical literature. He studied the Indian philosophy in
depth, which had influenced him very much. The study of Upanishads, Bhagavad-Gita,
Commentaries on Brahman Sutra by Sankara, Ramanuja, Madhava, Nimbaraka, and others, The
Dialogue of Buddha and The Buddhist and Jain Scriptures broadened his thought. Western
philosophers such as Plato, Pontinus, Kant, Bradley, Bergson and Whitehaead also influenced
him in his writings. Amongst the contemporary thinkers of India, Gandhi and Tagore were his
friends and they had definite influence on him. Radhakrishnan is a mystic philosopher. His
religious thought serves as the data to his philosophy. Though he had widely read the ancient,
medieval and modern philosophies, still for the real source of his writing he relies on his
personal spiritual experiences.

Nature of his philosophy

His basic philosophical position is of a kind of a synthesis of Advaita Vedanta and the
philosophy of Absolute Idealism. Like Vedanta he believes that the reality is one, like Absolute
Idealism, he shows that everything is a necessary aspect of the One. So, it can broadly be
described as a philosophy of monistic idealism. Since Radhakrishnan conceives reality as
spiritual, he is an idealist. He realized the need for a re-awakening of the soul and a recovery of
the spiritual life. Thus his philosophical thinking seems to be an attempt to illustrate that the
ultimate nature of the universe is spiritual. Because of his tremendous emphasis on spirituality,
he appears to be a mystic too.
 8

3.10 THE ABSOLUTE OR THE BRAHMAN

Radhakrishnan conceives the nature of the absolute as monistic. In other words, the absolute in
itself is essentially one. He has come to realize that the world expresses a unity within its
process. This is the reason why he emphasises the monistic character of the absolute. The
absolute is conceived by Radhakrishnan as ‘Pure Consciousness’, ‘Pure Freedom’, and Infinite
Possibility.’ According to Radhakrishnan, the Absolute has to be spiritual. It is conceived as a
free spirit. It is free in such a way that there is nothing to limit it. Its freedom is uninterrupted.
The absolute is also infinite. It is self-grounded and is the foundation of everything else. Since it
is infinite it is changeless. It is also self-existent and complete-in-itself. It is also eternal in the
sense of being timeless. Radhakrishnan calls the Absolute ‘the whole of perfection’. Because of
these reasons he asserts that the Absolute is beyond all kinds of expression.

Absolute and God

Radhakrishnan distinguishes between the Absolute and God. He feels that in order to explain the
universe it is necessary to think of a principle that would account for the order and purpose of the
universe. He also feels that there has to be a principle, a God- a non-temporal and actual being-
by which the indeterminateness of creativity can be transmitted into a determinate principle. So it
implies that the Divine Intelligence- the creative power- has to be conceived as the intermediary
between the Absolute Being and the cosmic process. It is here that the principle of God appears
in the philosophy of Radhakrishnan. The supreme has been conceived as revealing itself in two
ways; Absolute and Ishwara. God is the Absolute in action; it is God, the creator. The real in
relation to itself is the Absolute and the real in relation to the creation is God. He believes that
the Absolute is the object of metaphysical aspiration and God is of religious aspiration.
Reconciliation between Sankara and Ramanuja
Radhakrishnan reconciles the views of Sankara and Ramanuja by maintaining that the Brahman
of Sankara is Absolute and that of Ramanuja is God. God is a person, but the Absolute is not.
God is an object of the intellect, but the Absolute is known through intuition. The Absolute is
pre-cosmic God and God is the projected power of the Absolute. Intuition is higher than intellect
and it overcomes the dualism of subject and object. Our thought is limited, and when it tries to
grasp the Supra rational Absolute, it imposes its own limitations on the former. Thus, God is the
Absolute pressed into the moulds of thought, which can’t do away with the distinction between
the self and the other; but this distinction is overcome by intuition, which is Supra-rational.
Check Your Progress I
Note: Use the space provided for your answer
1) What is the main philosophical stand point of Radhakrishnan?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
 9

2) What are the factors that shaped the philosophy of Radhakrishnan?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
3) How does Radhakrishnan make a distinction between the Absolute and God?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

3.11 THE NATURE OF THE WORLD AND CREATION

Since he considers God as the creative principle of the world, he presents a spiritualistic account
of creation and the world. The universe is conceived as expressing an aspect of the Divine plan.
The world is created by God. The world has a beginning and an end. God is not separate from it.
God is said to be the past, the present and the future of the world; and yet he is quite different
from the world. This distinction is between the creator and the created. Creation is the
actualization of one of the inherent possibilities of the Absolute. Radhakrishnan explains that the
Spirit enters into the spirit of the non-spirit to realize one of the infinite possibilities that exist
potentially in the spirit. He also speaks of the accidental nature of the world where he affirms
that the creation is a free act of God. In other words, creation is not a necessary act for the
creator. He also says that though the universe is an accident, it is real so far as it is the Absolute’s
accident.

3.12 HUMAN BEING AND THE NATURE OF SOUL

In explaining the nature of soul, Radhakrishnan seems to be a realistic. He accepts the ultimate
spiritual nature of the soul and at the same time, he asserts the reality and value of the biological
life also. He affirms that human being cannot be fully known through the science alone. There is
still something in man\woman which is beyond intellect and senses. So, according to
Radhakrishnan, there are two aspects of human being. They are known as finite and infinite
aspects of man\woman. Radhakrishnan used the word ‘soul’ in a very wider sense; so much as
even those bodily activities which have tendency towards self-transcendence are called as soul-
activities. Human being, unlike other beings, has a peculiar ability to reflect and to plan. He\she
can go beyond himself\herself. Radhakrishnan calls it as ‘self-transcendence.’ For him it is one
of the important aspects of the soul. Radhakrishnan defines the finite aspects of man\woman as
those aspects that are determined by the empirical or environmental conditions. He calls this
aspect of man\woman differently- ‘the empirical man’, ‘the physical man’, ‘the natural man’,
‘the bodily man’ etc. He also speaks of the infinite nature of human being. Beyond his\her
external conditioning, there lies a capacity of self-transcendence. It is different and higher than
the empirical. Radhakrishnan calls it as ‘the spirit’ in man /woman. In other words, the infinite
aspect of man\woman consists in his\her spirituality.
 10

Karma
Everything in the universe is an effect of its past and is the cause of its future changes at the
same time. It embodies the energy of the past as well as causes changes in the future. Karma is
not so much a principle of reward and punishment but as one of continuity. Karma has two
aspects, retrospective and prospective, continuity with the past as well as creative freedom of the
self. The karmas bind us with the past by giving structure to our self and thereby determining it
to that extent, yet man\woman is free in his\her actions and acquires fresh potencies.
Radhakrishnan says that we are both determined and free. Our actions are determined by our past
Karmas. In whatever we do we are determined by the character of our self. The dynamic
organisation of the tendencies of self is evidently a matter of our past karmas. But still we are
free in our actions and have wide scope for fresh activity. Radhakrishnan removes the prevailing
misconceptions by asserting that the theory of Karma is not one based on reward and punishment
and it is also wrong to think that moral and virtuous Karmas lead to success and evil to failure.
Freedom and Self Determination
Free will is action done by self-determination. When an individual performs an action of his\her
own choice, the act done is a self-determined one. Radhakrishnan here explains the meaning of
the word self–determination. A self is an organised whole, it represents a form of relatedness.
Self-determination means action done by the whole of the self’s nature. Only that action is free
or self-determined in which “the individual employs his\her whole nature, searches the different
possibilities and selects one which commends itself to his\her whole self.”
Human Being as Relatively Free
There is no complete freedom in human being’s action; it is only God who is absolutely free.
When the self becomes co-extensive with one’s whole being only then the self becomes
absolutely free. Human being is only relatively free; it is a matter only of degrees. When an
action is done by the whole self, we are most free. But our actions are least free when done by
sheer habit or convention.
A human action is motivated with some ends or purposes. All his\her activities are regulated
towards some purposes, and, therefore, our actions are determined by some external goals or
ends in view. But our actions are also governed by our past. If men\women were free from their
past deeds, there remains no moral responsibility on them. Therefore, no action is absolutely free
either in the human or in the external world. There is the continuity of the past in the present and
the present conditions the future.
Radhakrishnan is against the view of pre-destination, in which God is the sovereign who works
without law or principle. For him life is a gracious gift of God, who expresses his sovereignty
through law. He says, “Such a view of divine sovereignty is unethical. God’s love is manifested
in and through law.”
Check Your Progress II
Note: Use the space provided for your answer
1) How does Radhakrishnan look at the concept of nature?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
 11

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
2) What is the approach of Radhakrishnan to human person?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
3) What is the understanding of Karma according to Radhakrishnan?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
Importance of Rebirth
Dr. Radhakrishnan speaks of rebirth in a concrete sense. According to him rebirths are essential
for the realisation of the distant goal – salvation. It cannot be realised in a single life. As the
span of life is short and realisation of union with God is a far-off goal, pursuit in the series of
rebirths is essential. Radhakrishnan conceives that rebirths are essential for the realisation of the
different possibilities existing in us.
Salvation
Radhakrishnan believes in the simultaneous salvation of all and not individual salvation. As God
is the creator of the world, so long as the world lasts, God must continue as God without
becoming one with Absolute. But the individual (jiv who is a creature of God must remain with
God till the latter enters the Absolute. The world cannot disappear if there is a single soul
without salvation. So individual salvation can only be incomplete salvation.
The self is the most integrated and highest product. The more a human being pursues his/ her
ideals, the more integrated and organised he/she becomes. The highest degree of unity in an
individual self is attained when life is identified with one supreme purpose. The supreme purpose
of human being is to become God. The cosmos is working towards that end; it is rushing for the
union with God. It is by meditation and ethical life that an individual breaks off his/her narrow
individualism and unites with the spiritual universalism. When all selves obtain communion and
oneness with God, when all become prophets and seers, the world realises its destiny. The final
salvation of an individual is dependent on the cosmic salvation. At the ultimate end all the selves
unite with the Absolute. There is achieved then the freedom from rebirth, cessation of worldly
existence and eternal oneness with Saccidananda. The final salvation is attained when the selves
lose their individuality and get united with the all-pervading Absolute. The selves merge in the
Brahman and they lose their identity, existence, name and form.

3.13 HIS RELIGIOUS AND POLITICAL THOUGHT

Man\woman looks for meaning and direction in life. Reason alone cannot give meaning to
him\her. Man\woman has a natural tendency to transcend/go beyond the phenomenal world.
 12

There is an innate impulse for perfection. He also speaks of universal religion, where all
religions come together and contribute towards each other’s growth. Authentic religion is “the
wisdom of love that redeems suffering man”. Religion is not a set of dogmas, beliefs, rituals,
rites, creeds etc., but it must lead to Inner Realization. It is not institutionalized.

He dreamed of a secular India/India as secular nation. Secularism can’t reject religion.

Secularism is an attitude of respect for all religious faith or anything, which human beings hold
as sacred. It is based on the sanctity of individuals. The essence of democracy is consideration
for others, respecting each one as sacred and encouraging the rich variety and diversity. The aim
of democracy is ‘just society’.
Check Your Progress III
Note: Use the space provided for your answer
1) How does Radhakrishnan explain his concept of cosmic salvation?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
2) What is the political philosophy of Radhakrishnan?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

3.14 LET US SUM UP

Sri Aurobindo’s philosophy is the basic philosophy of the twentieth century, Indian philosophy.
His philosophy is a mighty synthesis of the oriental and the occidental, the ancient and modern
thoughts, which can break up into many channels of thought. He presents the ultimate reality as
spiritual. Presentation of God as ‘Sachidananda’ is peculiar to Aurobindo. In his thought matter
is spirit. The integral theory of evolution put forth by Sri. Aurobindo is one of the best theories of
evolution. The higher, spiritual and divine principles of consciousness get unfolded in evolution
process. Sri Aurobindo is the first seer who points out to us the nature of the spiritual principle of
consciousness. He also propounds earthly immortality. But his individual salvation is inseparably
related with the cosmic yoga. Sri Aurobindo envisages spiritual humanism too. So in this sense,
his philosophy contributes much to the philosophical literature.

Radhakrishnan’s philosophy can be termed as monistic idealism. One of his main concerns was
to give a spiritual outlook to everything. He also makes a distinction between the Absolute and
God. The world is considered as the creative work of God. But at the same time both God and
the world are different. The credit goes to Radhakrishnan for providing a holistic understanding
 13

of human person. He affirms the spiritual nature of human soul but at the same time gives due
respect to the value of the biological aspect of human person. He provides a very reasonable and
practical explanation of the theory of karma by removing the traditional misconception regarding
it. While speaking about the self-determination, he assumes that the human being is relatively
free. His explanation on the cosmic salvation explains that cosmic salvation is possible when all
identify themselves with the Absolute losing each one’s identity. Though many consider him as
an interpreter, the greatness of Radhakrishnan lies on the fact that he presented his philosophical
conviction systematically and with an academic precision.

3.15 KEY WORDS

Mysticism: The word mysticism has been derived from the Greek word mystikos. It is the
pursuit of communion with, identity with, or conscious awareness of an ultimate reality, divinity,
spiritual truth, or God through direct experience, intuition, instinct or insight.
Karma; The universal causal law by which good or bad actions determine the future modes of
an individual’s existence. Karma represents the ethical dimension of the process of rebirth.

3.16 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Aurobindo. The Future of Man. Pondicherry: Aurobindo Ashram, 1970.

------------. The Hour of God. Pondicherry: Aurobindo Ashram, 1970.

------------. The Life Divine. Pondicherry: Aurobindo Ashram, 1970.

------------. The Lights on Yoga. Calcutta: Arya Publishing House, 1942.

Chaudary, Haridas. Ed. The Integral Philosophy Sri Aurobindo. London. George Allen and
Unwin Ltd.1960.

Chaudary, Haridas. Sri Aurobindo, The Prophet of Life Divine. Calcutta. Sri Aurobindo Path
Mandir.1951.

Maitra, S K. The Meeting of the East and West in Aurobindo’s philosophy. Pondicherry:
Aurobindo Ashram, 1970.

Naravana, V.S. Modern Indian Thought. Bombay: Asian Publishing House, 1967.

Purani, A.B. Sri Aurobindo, Some Aspects of His Vision. Bombay. Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan.1966.
 14

Sharma, Ramnath. Philosophy of Aurobindo. Lucknow: Bharatiya Prakasan Ltd, 1960.

Arapura, J. G. Radhakrishnan and Integral Experience. Bombay: Asia Publishing
House, 1962.
Dhawan, M. L. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan. Delhi: Bhavanan Prakashan, 1985.

Madhavan, T. M. P. Invitation to Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Arnold Heinemann

publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1982.

McDermott, Robert A. Basic Writings of Dr. Radhakrishnan. Bombay: Jaico Publishing

House, 1981.

Munshi K. M. and etal. Radhakrishnan Reader an Anthology. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya

Bhavan, 1990.

Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. 1996.
Radhakrishnan, S. An Idealist view of Life. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.,
1932.
Radhakrishnan, S. The Hindu View of Life. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.,
1927.
Sinta, Jadunath. Indian Philosophy, I. Delhi: Motital Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1999.

Srivastava, Rama Shanker. Contemporary Indian Philosophy. New Delhi: Munshiram

Manoharlal Publishers, 1983.
 1

UNIT 4 B.R AMBEDKAR AND RAIMUNDO PANIKKAR

Contents

4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Ambedkar’s Life and Works
4.3 Influence and Background to His Thoughts
4.4 Ambedkar’s Social Thought
4.5 Ambedkar’s Political Philosophy
4.6 Concept of Human Person
4.7 His Attitude to Religion
4.8 Life and Works of Raimundo Pannikkar
4.9 Philosophy, Culture and Interculturality
4.10 Multi-Faith Dialogue and Dialogical Dialogue
4.11 The Interconnectedness of the Divine, Human and Nature
4.12 His Understanding of Religion
4.13 Let us sum up
4.14 Key Words
4.15 Further Readings and References

4.0 OBJECTIVES

The main purpose of this unit is to provide a bird’s eyeview on the basic philosophical
understanding of B.R Ambedkar & Raimundo Panikkar. The first part (Ambedkar) will mainly
focus on Ambedkar’s main thoughts which were born out of his social thinking. The second part
introduces Raimundo Panikkar’s main concepts and understanding which have its foundation on
his inter-religious and inter-cultural thoughts.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, popularly known as Baba Saheb Ambedkar, was one of the most learned
among the political and social leaders of the 20th century in India. He wrote many books and
edited many papers. He wrote not only on the problems of the Dalits, but also on economics,
politics, religion, minorities, education, labour, stratification of society etc.
 2

Raimondo Panikkar, a reputed thinker, has been an inspiring presence in the field of multi-faith
and multi-cultural dialogue for over half a century. He occupies a unique place in the history of
both Indian and world history of philosophy and theology by way of coupling Indian thoughts
with the western.

4.2 AMBEDKAR’S LIFE AND WORKS

Ambedkar, the glory of India and pride of Dalits was born on April 14, 1891 in a low caste
family of suppressed Mahar community of Mhow in Madhya Pradesh. After his graduation, he
received scholarship from the king of Baroda for higher studies in USA and England. He
graduated in law and took a doctorate in economics. On account of ill treatment meted out to him
being an untouchable, he left the service and returned to Bombay to practice law. On 14th
October 1935, he declared that he would not die in Hinduism. He served the country as the
chairman of the Constitution Drafting Committee. Ambedkar is regarded as the modern Manu
and deserves to be called the father or the chief architect of the Constitution of India. On August
15, 1947, he was made the minister of law in the Central Cabinet and he resigned that post in
1951 due to the difference of opinion on the bill on Hindu code. He embraced neo-Buddhism
with his three lakh followers on October 14, 1956 just before his death on December 6, 1956. His
works include: Slavery and Untouchabiliity; Which is Worse?; Annihilation of Caste; A Reply to
Mahatma Gandhi; What Congress and Gandhi Have Done to Untouchables?; Who Were
Shudras?; The Buddha and his Dhamma; Annihilation of Caste.

4.3 INFLUENCE AND BACKGROUND TO HIS THOUGHTS

Ambedkar was born in a community of those who have been unjustly treated as the despised
people of the Indian soil. Right from his childhood, he suffered terribly the social evils of caste
discrimination and its holocaust called untouchability. He was a voracious reader and owned one
of the largest personal libraries. He had a vast reading on Karl Marx, Bertrand Russel, Harold
Lasky, Leo Tolstoy and George Bernard Shaw. In a way Ambedkar continued the same tradition
of liberal thought found in the writings of social reformers like Rande. Ambedker’s social theory
was influenced by the British liberal tradition too. Buddhist teaching also made a great impact on
the philosophy of Ambedkar.

Ambedkar’s purpose was practical rather than speculative and his philosophy of life was
essentially a development and evolution under the condition of an inhuman social order and a
wrongly idealized social relationship in India that treated the human existence of Dalits as
subhuman. For him social reform has to come before the political reform. He criticizes violently
the caste system. He feels that the caste system as it stands cannot be the basis of society. He
believes that the caste system should be rejected as basically unjust; it is a social system which
embodies the arrogance and selfishness of a perverse section of the Hindus who were superior
enough in social status to set in fashion and who have authority to force it on their inferiors.
Caste does not result in economic efficiencies. Caste cannot and has not improved the race. The
whole life-ambition of Ambedkar was to regain social equality to the former untouchables
among whom he was born.
 3

4.4 AMBEDKAR’S SOCIAL THOUGHT

The ideal to be realized is of one man\woman, one value in all walks of life, political, economic,
and social. This ideal of one value is to be achieved by stopping religious, social and economic
exploitation of man\woman by man\woman. Absence of exploitation in any form is the essence
of socialism. Socialism does not only embrace economic equality, but also social and political
equality. The foremost hindrance to socialism in India is the caste system in Hinduism and its
byproduct untouchability which denied almost all the human rights to the untouchables.
Following are the characteristics of Ambedkar’s state socialism: Condemnation of existing
social, political and economic order as unjust order, An advocacy of a new order based on the
principle of one man (woman), one value, one vote, A belief that this ideal is realizable through
socialism and parliamentary democracy and constitutional means, A revolutionary way of
establishing social democracy to carry out the programme of social solidarity.

He had expressed his desire in the parliament to establish a social democracy, which would
satisfy the economic, social, educational and cultural needs of the people. In his concluding
speech in the constituent assembly on November 25, 1949 he declared: social democracy means
a way of life which recognizes liberty, equality and fraternity as the principle of life. These
principles of liberty, equality and fraternity are not to be treated as separate items of a trinity.
They form a union of trinity in the sense that to divorce one form from the other is to defeat the
very purpose of democracy. The basic concept of Ambedkar’s political thought is the equality of
all men\women, which is to be achieved by a state socialism of a constitutional and
parliamentary democracy.

Origin of Caste and Untouchability

The concept of the origin of caste and untouchability according to Ambedkar is to a large extent
different from that of the Vedic and the non-Vedic theories of caste. Ambedkar holds that caste
as a closed system has its genesis in the practice of superimposition of endogamy over exogamy.
The practice of untouchability for Ambedkar has its origin in the phase of conflict between the
settled and nomadic tribes and those who were defeated in the war were forced to be the ‘broken
men’. The broken men (women), in the course of history due to the onslaught of Vedic
Brahmanism, were turned into untouchables (Dalits).

Annihilation of Caste System

Annihilation of casteism is one of the most essential elements in Ambedker’s socio-philosophical
frame. It cannot be done just by abolishing the sub-sects, nor by inter caste dining. Ambedkar
proposes a solution on two levels: (a) the proximate, immediate means to remove caste is
intermarriage. (b) But the fundamental remedy consists in bringing about a social reform before
political reforms and in denying the faith in shastras, where he says; “you must not only discard
the shastras, you must deny their authority. You must have the courage to tell the Hindus what is
more wrong with their religion.” According to him the Hindu is the sick man\woman of the
 4

society who makes other people also sick. His protest against Hinduism was expressed by
burning Manusmriti in a public meeting.
Check Your Progress I
Note: Use the space provided for your answer
1) What are the primary assumptions of the philosophical thinking of Ambedkar?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
2) What is the social teaching of Ambedkar?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
3) What is the origin of caste and untouchability according to Ambedkar?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
4) How is the annihilation of caste possible according to Ambedkar?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………

4.5 AMBEDKAR’S POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY

His political thinking seems to revolve around the following two convictions: (a) Rights are
protected not by laws, but by the social and moral conscience of the society. (b) A democratic
form of government presupposes a democratic form of society. Indian constitution remains
indebted to Ambedkar for his significant contribution to the peaceful living in the land of
diversity. For Ambedkar, state is to provide security against internal disorder and external
aggression. The state stands for the welfare of its members. It is the people who make the state
and hence the state is to serve the needs of the people. It is a means to achieve the common good
of the society. Between state and society, Ambedkar would prefer society as the primary and
state as secondary. State, according to Ambedkar, is not of a divine origination but of human
origination. To him, the state is a human organization with its objective being the protection of
the rights of the individuals. One of his major convictions evident in his political philosophy can
 5

be stated as. The state was not an end in itself, but only means for the furtherance of human ends
in the interests of a better future of the society. He greatly emphasized the role of the law of the
state in the growth of the individual. To him, law was an important factor in maintaining social
peace and justice among different groups of people. Thus, he concludes that all are equal before
the law. He upheld right as the basis for the human development and the nation at large.
Ambedkar advocated “One state one language formula”, because he thought it would be a
solvent to radical and cultural conflicts. He also advised his country fellows that if they were
willing to remain united and integrated as a whole and want to develop common harmonious
culture, they should put all the efforts to adopt one language – Hindi, as a common language.
The division of the states on the basis of language has created blocks in realizing the Indianness.
It has given vent to the upsurge of regionalism that has attenuated the integrity of India. People
have confined themselves within the walls of the state. Therefore it is very difficult to accept
others as brothers and sisters.
Idea of Freedom
Ambedkar’s idea of freedom is very different from Gandhi and Nehru. The main concern of
these two national heroes was more of political freedom. But Ambedkar’s main focus was
political freedom with social freedom. For him political freedom was meaningless without the
social and economic freedom. His life was a hope for the hapless people who were exploited
unjustly.
Meaning of Democracy
According to Ambedkar, democracy is not merely a form of government, it is primarily a form of
associated living, of conjoint communicated experience. For him the essence of democracy is
the equal share in the existence of human rights. He realized the incapability of Western pattern
of Democracy and he gave a new meaning to the term Democracy. For him democracy means
the absence of slavery, caste, and coercion. The roots of Democracy are to be searched in social
relationship, in terms of the associated life among people.

4.6 CONCEPT OF HUMAN PERSON

He develops his concept of human being in relation to his understanding of social order.
According to him, a good social order must recognize the individual in the society. By
recognizing the individual, a good social order collectively recognizes the good of the
community. In the absence of the individual, the notion of society or collectivity ceases to exist.
Therefore, the primary role of a good society is that it should treat ‘man (woman) as an
individual’ first. He\she needs to be respected in the society for the reason that he\she is a human
person. He further holds that human existence is not to be treated solely in the physical sense
alone, but it has to be respected in the sense of something higher that a human has spiritual
super-existence through knowledge and love. For Ambedkar respect of the individual devoid of
any caste- class stratification is sacred.

For him the human society is to be built on the foundation of freedom or liberty, equality and
fraternity. These values are based on the notion that the individual human person is not a means
but an end himself. While the concept of liberty emphasizes the inviolability of the human
 6

person, the concept of equality insists that the right of the individual is to be treated as an equal
and to be respected as complete member of the society irrespective of his\her attainments.
Similarly, fraternity, according to Ambedkar, is the disposition of an individual to treat
men/women in reverence and love and dignity and the desire to be in unity with other fellow
beings. Fraternity gives strength for the individual to commit for the welfare of all. Ambedkar
further points out that the tenets of liberty, equality and fraternity are interlinked to each other
and they are rooted in the idea of upholding the totality of the human person as complete
individual in the society.

4.7 HIS ATTITUDE TO RELIGION

His attitude towards religion was not spiritual like that of Gandhi. His approach was intellectual
and socio-political. Ambedkar holds that religion is a part of one’s social life or inheritance;
one’s life and dignity and pride are bound up with it. He believes in the social force of religion;
and that force lies in religion being a unified system of beliefs and practices. According to him,
religion is an influence or force suffused through the life of each individual molding his\her
character, determining his\her action and reactions, his\her likes and dislikes in the society.

Religion for Ambedkar should respond to the problem of human society and promote human
community living. In this sense, Ambedkar recognizes the Marxist frame that religion is a social
phenomenon. However he differs from the Marxist orientation that religion is the opium of
people. Rather he strongly upholds that the religion is natural and necessary for human
community living. In agreement with the Marxian frame, Ambedkar conceives a false religion as
an ideology that could be used as a tool to oppress the Dalits. It is here that Ambedkar makes a
critical approach to Hinduism. According to him, in the name of god the religion, Varnashrama
Dharma and untouchability were advocated in India. It was contended that the given unjust
social structure was God-given and hence cannot be changed. Due to this Ambedkar developed
utmost anger towards Hinduism and Hindu gods and even god-based religions like Islam and
Christianity were not acceptable to him. Perhaps, because of this factor, he could not take a final
decision or conversion until 1956. Buddhism, finally he accepted, was not primarily god-
oriented, but was thoroughly Indian. He looked at religion from cultural dimension. He was on
the assumption that if the depressed classes join Islam or Christianity they not only go out of
Hindu religion, but they also go out of Hindu culture. Conversion to Islam or Christianity would
denationalize the depressed classes. He separated religion from culture and held Hindu religion
responsible for slavery, the practice of untouchablity and exploitation of the depressed classes.
Ambedkar was of the opinion that the social ideals of Buddhism are the best way to be adopted
to promote peaceful social living because the Buddha’s method is based on love, persuasion and
moral teaching.
Check Your Progress II
Note: Use the space provided for your answer

1) How does Ambedkar develop his political philosophy?

 7

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
2) How does Ambedkar look at human person?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
3) What is the approach of Ambedkar to religion?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………

4.8 LIFE AND WORKS OF RAIMUNDO PANIKKAR

Born on 3 November 1918 in Barcelona to the parents who came from diverse backgrounds,
Raimon Panikkar became a reputed figure in the field of theology, philosophy and social
thinking. His father was an Indian Hindu and his mother was a Catalan Catholic. Panikkar was
ordained a Catholic priest in 1946. Later, he undertook studies in Indian philosophy and religion.
For the next fifty years Panikkar pursued his academic career as a professor in European, Indian
and North American universities. Some of his works include; The Unknown Christ of Hinduism,
The Trinity and Religious Experience, Worship and Secular Man, The Vedic Experience, Myth,
Faith and Hermeneutics, The Intra-religious Dialogue and The Cosmotheandric Experience.

Basic Stand Point

Raimondo Panikkar still remains as reputed figure in the field of inter-religious dialogue. So his
primary concern is that of culture, religion and the relationship between the two. Religion,
philosophy and culture are three "elements" of the human reality. If the first could be compared
to the feet with which Man journeys towards his destiny, philosophy could represent the eyes
that scrutinize that journey, and culture, the earth on which human being is walking during
his\her concrete pilgrimage. An intercultural approach shows that one cannot separate
Philosophy from Religion, and that both are dependent on the culture which nurtures them.

4.9 PHILOSOPHY, CULTURE AND INTERCULTURALITY

 8

Philosophy could be understood as the activity by which human being participates consciously
and in a more or less critical manner, in the discovery of reality and orients himself\herself
within the latter. The concept has thus become the unique instrument of philosophy. Each culture
offers to philosophy the language that is essential for the philosophy to formulate its insights. But
it is the philosophy that tries to question the very foundations on which each culture is based.
Philosophy is authentic, revolutionary, protesting and transforming. In other words, each
philosophy emerges from the womb of a culture, and simultaneously by questioning what holds
that culture together, can transform it. In fact, every deep cultural change has emerged from
philosophical activity. It is philosophers who influence most of the destinies of history.

Interculturality
Interculturality is the philosophical imperative of our times. Monoculturalism is lethal and
multiculturalism is impossible. Interculturality recognizes both assertions and seeks a middle
way. Interculturality is inherent to the human being and a unique culture is as incomprehensible
and impossible as a single universal language and as one man alone. Interculturality is a
possibility situated between two (or more) cultures. We cannot claim to define through one
single word what intercultural philosophy is, nor even presuppose that such a philosophy exists.
Each culture is a galaxy which secretes its self-understanding, and with it, the criteria of truth,
goodness, and beauty of all human actions. There are no cultural universals. But there are, for
sure, human invariants. But the way according to which each one of the human invariants is lived
and experienced in each culture is distinct and distinctive in each case. Cultural respect requires
that we respect those ways of life that we disapprove, or even those that we consider as
pernicious.

4.10 MULTI-FAITH DIALOGUE AND DIALOGICAL DIALOGUE

For Panikkar, multi-faith dialogue is both a highly political and highly urgent activity directed
towards creating new forms of human consciousness and corresponding new forms of
religiousness. It involves the crossing-over of traditions in a manner that does not abandon one's
primal tradition, but deepens and extends it. Something new is created at the level of human and
religious consciousness. Panikkar's primary principle for religious encounter is that it must be a
truly religious experience. According to him, it is more an exchange of religious experiences
than of doctrines. The dialogue route is existential, intimate and concrete. Its purpose is not to
establish some universal religion. For the philosopher, it is in order that human relations remain
personal. One cannot have human contact with a computer; a machine is not a person. Genuine
dialogue between religions, therefore, ought to be this dialogue: between you and me, between
you and your neighbour; it should be like a rainbow where we are never sure where one colour
begins and another ends. It must be free from particular and general apologetics.
Those involved in interfaith dialogue should not see their task in terms of defending religion in
general against the non-religious or anti-religious attitudes of secular society. Religious
encounter is a meeting of persons, not simply the meeting of minds. It is not only a theological
symposium but a religious encounter in faith, hope and love.
Dialogical Dialogue
 9

Dialogical dialogue begins with the assumption that the other is also an original source of human
understanding and that, at some level, persons who enter the dialogue have a capacity to
communicate their unique experiences and understandings to each other. There are certain
indispensable prerequisites for dialogical dialogue. These include a deep human honesty,
intellectual openness and a willingness to forego prejudice in the search for truth while
maintaining "profound loyalty towards one's own tradition." Second, one needs a deep
commitment and desire to understand another tradition. Both partners are encouraged to "cross
over" to the other tradition and then "cross back again" to their own. One learns to think and
understand on the basis of the symbol systems of more than one tradition. Symbols are both
bounded and open. Their interpretation is never exhausted. And yet they are concrete, always
tied to a particular worldview.
Check Your Progress I
Note: Use the space provided for your answer
1) In what way, according to Panikkar, philosophy and culture are related to each other?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
2) How does Panikkar explain the concept of intercultarality?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
3) Explain the process of inter-religious dialogue according to Panikkar?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………

4.11 THE INTERCONNECTEDNESS OF THE DIVINE, HUMAN AND NATURE

The individual who is separate from the others, or from the earth or the divine, does not exist.
We belong both to earth and to the divine by our very nature. We are conscious and free parts of
a whole, but not as puppets that can be easily directed by threads, but rather we find ourselves
within a cosmic interweaving or network. The human being is a person, not an individual. I
understand a person as ‘a knot in a net’ of relationships. These threads connect us with our
fellow men, the earth and divinity. The more conscious the person is, the more he\she realizes
that his\her person reaches out to the confines of the world. That is the enlightened man\woman.
Cosmotheandirc Vision
 10

Panikkar develops his cosmotheandric vision of reality with reference to three major religious
traditions: the Christian Trinity; the Vedanta Hindu Advaita; the Buddhist pratityasamutpada. He
believes that the threefold pattern-traditionally Theos-anthropos-cosmos- are invariants of all
religions and cultures. He describes the cosmotheandric principle as an intuition of the threefold
structure of all reality, the triadic oneness existing on all levels of consciousness and reality. In
Christian terms, ultimate reality, the Trinity, is one but also three; in Hindu terms the ultimate
unity of all things is literally neither one (advait nor two (advitya); in Buddhist terms everything
is radically related to everything else (pratityasamutpada).

The cosmotheandric principle could be stated by saying that the divine, the human and the
earthly are the three irreducible dimensions which constitute the real. Everything that exists, any
real being, presents this triune constitution expressed in three dimensions. Panikkar's formulation
of reality as cosmotheandric challenges the assumption that reality is reducible to Being: there is
also Non-Being, the abyss, silence and mystery. We cannot identify even the consciousness with
reality because there is also matter and spirit. Panikkar conceives that reality is not mind alone,
or cit, or consciousness, or spirit. Reality is also sat and ananda, also matter and freedom, joy
and being. In fact, this is for Panikkar the fundamental religious experience; Being or reality
transcends thinking. Panikkar's cosmotheandric vision reveals three assumptions regarding the
reality. Firstly, reality is ultimately harmonious. Secondly, reality is radically relational and
interdependent in such a way that every reality is constitutively connected to all other realities.
Thirdly, reality is symbolic. We do not have a God separate from the world, a world that is
purely material, nor humans that are reducible to their own thought-processes or cultural
expressions.

Concept of Theos
The divine dimension of reality is not an 'object' of human knowledge, but the depth-dimension
to everything that is. Panikkar does not want to confine the divine mystery into mere God-talk.
He identifies divine mystery using non-theistic terms as infinitude, freedom and nothingness.
The mystery of the divine is the mystery of the inherent inexhaustibility of all things, at once
infinitely transcendent, utterly immanent, totally irreducible, and absolutely ineffable.

Concept of Anthropos
Consciousness is the human dimension of reality which is not reducible to humanity:
Consciousness permeates every being. Everything that is, is consciousness. In other words,
consciousness relates not only to humans who know but to everything else that is actually or
potentially known. From the other perspective, if consciousness relates to everything, the human
person can be never reduced to consciousness. Panikkar presents human experience as a
threefold reality: aesthetic, intellectual and mystical. He critiques technocratic culture for
reducing human life to two levels, namely, the sensible and the rational, forgetting the mystical
aspect.
 11

Panikkar's intention is to show that genuine human experience involves the harmony of senses,
intellect and mystical awareness in correlation with matter, thought and freedom. Thought and
mystical awareness are not possible without matter, indeed, without the body. All our thoughts,
words, states of consciousness and the like are also material, or have a material basis.

Concept of Cosmos
The world of matter, energy, space and time is our home. These realities are ultimate and
irreducible. There is no thought, prayer or action that is not radically cosmic in its foundations,
expressions and effects. The earth is sacred. For example, he insists that there is something more
than pure materiality in a simple stone. Through its existence in space and time, the stone is
connected to the entire universe with which it shares its destiny. In Panikkar's terms, there are no
disembodied souls or disincarnated gods, just as there is no matter, no energy, no spatio-temporal
world without divine and conscious dimensions. Every concrete reality is cosmotheandric- a
symbol of the `whole'. It is not only God who reveals; the earth has its own revelations. Matter,
space, time and energy are then co-extensive with both human consciousness and the divine
mystery.

Concept of Human Being

He places human person in the context of culture as his main concern was that of
interculturalism. For him Man\Woman is a cultural animal. He also believes that culture is not
extrinsic to him\her, but natural. He further explains that human is a being that is naturally
cultural – or culturally natural. Culture is the field that makes it possible for us to cultivate the
world that it itself presents to us, so that man\woman may become fully human and achieve his
fullness. Culture is the specific form of human nature. The nature of man\woman is cultural.
Culture is neither artificial nor additive to man\woman. The ultimate criterion for condemning
another culture will therefore consist in showing that it is anti-natural.
Concept of Truth
According to Panikkar, truth does not allow itself to be conceptualized. It is never purely
objective, absolute. To talk about absolute truth is really a contradiction in terms. The pretension
of the great religions to possess all truth can only be understood in a limited and contingent
context. Not to be conscious of our myths leads to integralism. But in order to be aware of our
myths, we need our neighbour, and therefore dialogue and love. The truth is first of all a reality
that permits us to live, an existential truth that makes us free. He says that he is not such a
relativist as to believe that the truth is cut up in slices like a cake. But, he expresses his
conviction that everyone participates in the truth. And the value of dialogue between the various
religions is precisely to help me perceive that there are other windows, other perspectives.
Therefore I need the other in order to know and verify my own perspective of the truth. Truth is a
genuine and authentic participation in the dynamism of reality. He makes it clear that the
dialogue between religions is not a strategy for making one truth triumphant, but a process of
looking for it and deepening it along with others.

4.12 HIS UNDERSTANDING OF RELIGION

 12

Religion is the path that leads one to the state of fulfillment or salvation. Salvation, understood
here in its broadest sense, is anything making one whole, healthy, free, and complete. It could
also be understood by different people as heaven, nirvana, nothingness, just society, etc. Thus, a
religion is that set of practice and\or doctrines which one believes will lead one to the liberation
or fulfillment of one’s being. These practices and doctrines are spatially, temporally and
culturally conditioned. Within each religion one can distinguish three aspects: (1) the socio-
historical expressions in and through which a religion is alive, (2) the sacramental or sacred
structures that mediate a relationship to the transcendent and (3) the transcendent divine reality,
the mystery, the goal of all religions. At the socio-historical level religions are equivalent to each
other; at the sacramental level they complement and supplement each other; and the level of the
mystery, which is neither one nor many, and which is called by many names and is experienced
in many ways, religions bear witness to the infinite richness of the mystery and the impossibity
of any one religion to exhaust it. For him religions are like the different colours of a rainbow,
there are several colours and no colour has a monopoly over the others.
Check Your Progress II
Note: Use the space provided for your answer
1) Explain the cosmotheandric vision of R. Panikkar?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
2) Where does Panikkar place human being in his understanding?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
3) What is the concept of truth according to Panikkar?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
4) How does Panikkar look at religion?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………

4.13 LET US SUM UP

 13

The underlying feature of the philosophical approach of Ambedkar is its praxis-orientedness. His
philosophical thinking, in other way, has something to do with concrete life situations as his
thinking was derived from the dreadful practice of casteism and untouchability. The basis of his
socio-political philosophy is the establishment of a just society which is free from any kind of
exploitation. Even his approach to religion was born out of his social thinking. Though he
criticizes religion, namely, Hinduism for perpetuating the prevailing poor social status of the
backward communities, he also admits the indispensible nature of religion in fostering social
living.
Focus on Panikkar’s experience of Christian-Hindu, Christian-Buddhist and Christian-Secularist
dialogue. It will outline his “rules of the game” for interreligious dialogue and intercultural
encounter. Attention will be drawn to his distinct levels of religious discourse identified as
mythos, logos and symbol. Panikkar’s more adventurous proposal for the meeting of the world’s
religious and cultural traditions will be introduced through elucidation of his “cosmotheandric
vision” of reality—what he now calls “the radical trinity” of cosmic matter, human
consciousness and divine freedom. The conversation will conclude with an overall assessment of
Panikkar’s contribution to contemporary thinking on multi-faith dialogue and religious
pluralism.

4.14 KEY WORDS

Annihilation of Caste: Ambedkar’s social project of rejection of Brahmanical hegemony in

social order

Cosmotheandric Vision: interconnectedness of realities of the Divine, human and the world

4.15 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Ambedkar, B.R. Slavery and Untouchability: Which is Worse?, Dalit Dayal, New
Delhi,1989.

Ambedkar, B.R. Annihilation of Caste: A Reply to Mahatma Gandhi, Dalit Shitya Academy,
Bangalore, 1936.

Ambedkar, B.R. What Congress and Gandhi Have Done to Untouchables?, Thacker and
Company, Bombay, 1945.

Ambedkar, B.R. Who Were Shudras?, Thacker and Company, Bombay, 1946.
 14

Ambedkar, B.R. The Buddha and his Dhamma, Siddharth Publications, Bombay, 1947.

Ahhuwalia, B.K. B.R Ambedkar and Human Rights, Vivek Publishing Company, New Delhi,
1981.

Bharathi k.s. Foundations of Ambedkar Thought, Dattsons Publications, 1990.

Chanchreek K.L. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: Patriot, Philosopher and Statesman [Vol II] H.K.
Publishers & Distributers, New Delhi, 1991.

Bakshi, S.R. Political Ideology of B.R.Ambedkar. New Delhi: Deep and Deep and Publication
Pvt. Ltd, 2000.

Bharathi, K.S. Encyclopedia of Eminent Thinkers. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company,
1998.

Chopra, P.N. ed. Encyclopedia of India. Vol.1. 10th ed. New Delhi: AGAM Prakash
Publication, 1998.

Khan, H. Nazeer. B.R.Ambedkar on Federalism, Ethnicity, Gender and Justice. New Delhi:
Deep and Deep Publication Pvt. Ltd, 2001.

Ambedkar and democracy” July 9 2006, [online]; available at htt:// www. ambedkar. com.

Raimon Panikkar, The Intra-Religious Dialogue, New York: Paulist Press, 1978.

Raimon Panikkar, The Cosmotheandric Experience, New York: Orbis Books, 1993.

Raimon Panikkar, Invisible Harmony Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995.

Raimon Panikkar, The Unknown Christ of Hinduism, New York: Orbis Books, 1981.
 15

Raimon Panikkar, The Trinity and the Religious Experience of Man, London: Darton, Longman
& Todd, 1973.

Gerard Hall, Raimon Panikkar's Hermeneutics of Religious Pluralism, Ann Arbor: UMI, 1994.