Cereal Crop

Unit 1: Introduction of cereal, oilseed, Grain, legumes and Industrial crops

Crop Production: Production

It is a branch of agriculture science that deals with growing different types of crops,
cereals, oil seed (mustard, sunflower, ground nut), legumes (cowpea, black gram) and
industrial crops( cotton, jute, tobacco) for the purpose of food and fiber.
u
Subsistence agriculture:

It can be defined as the primitive types of agriculture in which traditional knowledge,

skills, ideas of homely available equipment’s and tools are used. The production which is
obtained from the agriculture is mainly consumed by the family members. It is done in a
small area. It is not an income generating agriculture. It is a system in which large part of
final yield is consumed by producer. The surplus food after consumption in only used for
sell .In Nepal major farmers have subsistence farming. (Commonly practices in hilly
region of Nepal)

Commercial agriculture:

It can be defined as the agriculture practices of production, distribution and marketing of

agricultural products in relation with the income generation.

Generally cultivation of crop is done in large area only for sell to earn cash. The main
objective of commercial agriculture is to sell the production in the market. Now a day
commercial agriculture is also common in Nepal. (Commonly practice in Terai region of
Nepal) (Its product is market oriented).

Importance of crop production

1. Nutritional importance
The agronomical crops have nutritional importance eg, rice is the major source of
carbohydrate in Nepal. Some rice variety eg, Bt- rice is major source of vitamin ‘A’
among the other varities.
2. Income generation
The agronomical like sugarcane , cotton, tobacco, ginger, etc. Higher income as they are
produced in large scale. So, they are called industrial crops.
3. Food security
About 29 district of Nepal are at the risk of food deficient. In the hilly, areas of Nepal like
Karnali . The production of only can meet the food demands of that people only for three
months. In this severe condition the agronomical production can play vital role to solve
this emerging issue of food security and nutrition supply.
4. Ecological balance
Agricultural crops have ecological balancing power, with the cultivation of diversity or
diversified crops; the nature gets balanced helping with the supply of O2 gas.
5. Improves soil properties
The crop stubbles, residues after decomposition supply nutrients like N, P, K and so on.
Some of the Nitrogen fixing crops like legumes naturally supply atmospheric nitrogen into
the soil, which improves soil PH, texture, structure and other properties.
6. Conservation of traditional skill knowledge and idea.
The trend of doing agricultural practices helps to conservation the traditional skills, ideas,
knowledge which is of great importance as a heritage view point.

Scope of food crops in Nepal

1. Climatic suitability
In Nepal, there are various climatic variability eg, tropical climate, sub-tropical climate
with these variation different crops can also be produced at different places. Eg paddy can
be grown in tropical, sub-tropical, temperate climate while millet cannot be grown in
temperate region.
2. High demand of food grains.
With the increasing population rate other food demand rate is also increasing. In the
country the cultivated land are contracting day by day which has put a serious challenge in
front of agronomist to meet the food demand.
3. Development of infrastructure
The principles and plans which are being formulated by the government of Nepal mostly
are inclined towards road construction, and development of necessary infrastructure. This
can be faciliated for huge agricultural production.
4. Availability of improved and modern technology
The problems which are faced by farmers are carried by extension officers to research
station ( NARC) from where the solution is again given to the farmer through extension
workers as improve technology.
5. Increasing irrigation facility
To meet the water requirement of different crops number of irrigation projects like Kankai,
Koshi, Mahakali, Bagmati and other minor irrigation projects have been undertakes.
6. Availability of manpower.
The agricultural industry involves the unemployment people into income generation
works.

Cash crops:
Grown to sell off earn hard cash. These are such crops which may be sold directly from
the field without processing. Examples: oil seed, legumes etc.

Industrial crops:

Crops are grown in large area and processed in industries before they used. These are the
crops which required industries. Examples: Jute, cotton, sugarcane etc.
Importance of cash crops and industrial crops:

1. As industrial crops is the major source of export potential and import substitution.
2. They occupy 13.4% of the total cultivated area for the crop production and
contribute 8% of the total agricultural production.
3. They provide raw materials for the agro-based industry.
4. It increases more employment opportunities for the people from field to processing
unit.
5. It increases the level of income for growers / producers as well as processor.
6. It minimizes the soil erosion and helps in soil conservation.

Cereals:
Cereals crops are those crops, which are use both staple food for human beings and feed
for animals and belong to Graminae family. E.g rice,wheat, maize, wheat etc.
Importance of cereals:
1. Cereals are inexpensive and widely available source of energy.
2. Among cereals crops rice is a staple food for 40% of the world population
3. Cereals crops like barley has got religious value in hindu religions
4. Cereals are rich source of carbohydrate, fat, and minerals.
5. Cereals grains are used to prepare flour from which we can prepare different food
items like bread, roti,dhido etc.
6. Alcoholic drinks can also be prepare from some cereals like rice, finger-millet,
barley etc.
7. Cereals crops are also used as an animal feed.
8. Cereals like rice are used to prepare beaten rice.
9. Rice straw is used as animal feed. It is also used for making mats, hats, compost,
used as mulching etc.

Legumes:
Legumes are those crops which are grown primarily for their seeds for pulse, for livestock
forage and silage and for green manuring. E.g Peas, Beans, Soyabean etc

Importance of legumes
1. Grain legumes are the major source of protein for both rural and urban population
of Nepal.
2. Grain legumes particularly helps to prevent and cure malnutrition particularly in
children.
3. It supply both proteins and calories to human and animals.
4. Legumes are adjusted in different cropping system due to their wider adaptiability.
5. Legumes improves soil fertility by biological fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in
the soil.
6. Legumes in cropping system improve the total economics yield per unit area and
increase nitrogen uptake.
7. Both grain and straw are nutritious which are used as livestock feed.
8. Grain legumes are the income generating short duration crops.

Oils seeds

Oils seed are those crops which are grown primarily for the oil content in the seeds. E.g
mustard, sunflower, rapeseed etc.

Importance of oils seed crops:

1. It is use as condiments in the preparation of pickles and for flavoring curries and
vegetables.
2. The oils are use for the human consumption in cooking and frying purpose.
3. It is used for preservation of pickles.

Geographical distribution of food crops /cash and industrial crops in Nepal

Nepal is one of most probable country for various agricultural productions. This great
diversity of climate which favors the production of different crops moreover some crops
has possibility of cultivation in different geographical regions due to similarity of climatic
condition in different season through the area.

Generally, terai belt area mainly suitable for cereal crop production. Hill’s for vegetable
production and high hills for medicinal plants and fruits. Apple production in Jumla.

Food crop diversify in different agro-climatic zones.

 Terai (60-1000m): rice, maize, wheat, sugarcane, tobacco, mustard, potato, lentil,
pegion pea, gram, sesame.
 Hills (1000-2000m): rice =, wheat, maize, buckwheat,barley,millet,sesamum,
cowpea, soyabean, potato etc.
 High hills > 2000m: rice, wheat, maize, soyabean,potato,buckwheat

Geographical distribution of Cash crops and industrial crops with districts

Tea: Ilam, Dhankuta, Jhapa, Terathum, Pachthar

Coffee: Rukum, Baglung, Arghakhanchi, Palpa, Gulmi,Parbat, Kaski, Syangja, Tanahau,

Gorkha Dhading, Rasuwa, Sinduli,

Cardamom: Pachthar, Ramechap, Dolakha,Iilam, Terathum,Dhankuta, Gorkha, Lamjung

Sugarcane: Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari, Saptari,Mohatari,Bake, Bardiya, Bara, Dang etc

Jute: Morang , Sunsari, Udayapur

Cotton: Bardiya, Rukum, Jajarkot, Kailali, Surkhet,Dailekh, Doti, Baitadi

Tobacoo: Dang, Kapilvastu, Rupendehi, Nuwakot, Chitwan, Dhanusa,Siraha, Saptari

Unit 2: Cultivation Practices of Rice

1. Rice
S.N: Oryza sativa

Family: Gramineae

Introduction/Importance

Rice or paddy is one of the ancient food crops. In Nepali, paddy is called “Dhan” and rice,
i.e. dehulled paddy,-“chamal”. Rice is the major staple food of the people living in the hot
tropical and subtropical regions of the world, particularly in the South East Asia. Rice is
the number one cereal crop grown extensively in Nepal.

Rice is a high-energy food. It is used to manufacture varieties of food items. The

straw is an excellent feed for the cattle, and the by-products of rice milling are used as
cattle and poultry feed. Rice hulls are used as litter in poultry houses.

 Origin and distribution

It is believed that rice originated in the hot tropical regions of Asia and Africa.

Distribution of rice in Nepal

In Nepal, rice occupies the first position among the cereals crops. Nepal has the only
rice variety that is grown in high altitude mountains like Jumla.

In Nepal, rice is cultivated from Terai (tropical/subtropical climate) to hills/mountains

(subtropical/temperate climate). However, its coverage is highest in Terai and lowest in
the mountains. Average yield of rice is the highest in Terai. Distributions of area and
production of rice in Nepal ecological belts are presented in followings:
 Ecological Area in Production in Yield in
Belts 1000 hac 1ooo(MT) MT/ha
Mountain 65288 143035 2.19
Hills 382203 1442102 2.73
Terai 1094238 3104690 2.84
NEPAL 1541729 4289827 2.78

Varieties of rice
Mainly the varieties of rice are classified on the basis of planting season and recommend
for different agro-climatic regions of Nepal. These are spring rice and main season or
monsoon season rice.

A) Spring season rice

S Name Recomme Mat Product Recomme
. of nded year urity ivity nded area
N variety (BS) days
.
1 Hardina 2068 125 4.8 Terai, inner
terai and
th-2 valley
2 Hardina 2060 110 5.0 ”

th-1
3 Chaite- 2044 125 4.8 ”
2
4 Chaite- 2044 118 4.5 ”
4
5 Chaite- 2048 123 4.8 ”
6
6 Mallika 2039 128 4.0 ”
7 Bindesh 2038 128 4.0 ” (Upland)

wari
8 Laxmi 2036 135 4.5 ”
9 Chandi 2035 128 3.8 ”
na
1 IR-24 2032 135 3.8 ”
0
1 Parwani 2030 135 4.0 ”
1 pur-1
1 CH-45 2023 118 3.5 ”
2
B) Main season rice
S. Name of Re M Pro Recommended
N. variety co a duct area
m t ivit
me u y
nd r (t/h
ed it a)
yr y
d
a
 y
s
13 Sookhadh 20 1 5.1 Terai, inner terai and
foot hills
an-4 70 3
0
14 Sookhadh 20 1 5.0 Terai, inner terai and
foot hills
an-5 70 3
2
15 Sookhadh 20 1 4.8 Terai, inner terai and
foot hills
an-6 70 2
9
16 Swarna 20 1 5.0
Sub 1 68 5
3
17 Sookhadh 20 1 4.5 Terai, inner terai and
foot hills
an-1 68 2
5
18 Sookhadh 20 1 4.7 Terai, inner terai and
foot hills
an-2 68 2
8
19 Sookhadh 20 1 4.8 Terai, inner terai and
foot hills
an-3 68 2
8
20 Barkhe- 20 1 5.3 Terai and inner terai

1027 68 3
2
21 Ram Dhan 20 1 5.6 Terai and inner terai

63 3
5
22 Mithila 20 1 5.5 Terai and inner terai

63 3
5
23 Chandann 20 1 6.0 High hill (2300 m)

ath-1 58 9
1
24 Chandann 20 1 6.3 ”

ath-3 58 9
4
25 Manjushre 20 1 8.3 Kathmandu valley

e-2 58 4
9
26 Khumal- 20 1 10. ”

11 58 4 0
4
27 Rampur 20 1 5.7 Upto 900 m altitude

Mansuli 56 3
5
28 Khumal-6 20 1 7.8 Kathmandu valley

56 5
5
29 Mahchpuc 20 1 5.0 1300-2000 m

hre-3 53 7
4
30 Radha-11 20 1 4.0 Mid terai (rainfed)

51 4
8
31 Radha-12 20 1 4.6 Terai and inner terai
(irrigated and
51 5 rinnfed)
5
32 Radha-4 20 1 3.2 Mid western and far
western
51 2
5
33 Radha-7 20 1 3.5 Terai and inner terai
(rainfed)
48 4
8
34 Radhakris 20 1 3.8 ” (irrigated)

hna-9 48 5
0
35 Chhomron 20 1 4.2 Histern and western
hill (cold tolerance)
g local 48 6
4
36 Khumal-9 20 1 6.7 Mid hill

47 4
8
37 Khumal-7 20 1 7.0 Mid hill

47 4
6
38 Khumal-5 20 1 6.7 Mid hill

47 5
4
39 Palung-2 20 1 6.1 High hill

44 7
2
40 Ghaiya-2 20 1 3.4 Terai and inner terai
(upland)
44 1
3
41 Khajura-2 20 1 3.8 Mid western terai

44 4
0
42 Barkhe-2 20 1 4.3 Terai and inner terai

44 4
8
43 Makwanp 20 1 4.8 Terai and inner terai

ur-2 44 5
0
44 Khumal-2 20 1 5.6 Mid hill

44 4
2
45 Khumal-4 20 1 6.3 Mid hill

44 4
 4
46 Khumal-3 20 1 6.5 Mid hill

41 3
0
47 Kanchan 20 1 7.6 Mid hill

39 4
3
48 Himali 20 1 6.4 Mid hill

39 4
9
49 Sabtri 20 1 4.0 Terai and inner terai

36 4
0
50 Janaki 20 1 4.5 Terai and inner terai

36 3
5
51 Durga 20 1 4.3 Terai and inner terai

36 3
0
52 Jaya 20 1 4.3 Terai

30 3
0
53 Mansuli 20 1 3.5 Terai

30 5
5
54 IR-20 20 1 4.0 Terai

29 5
3
55 IR-22 20 1 3.5 Terai

29 4
6
56 IR-8 20 1 4.0 Terai

25 3
8
57 Chainan-2 20 1 7.8 Mid hill

24 4
3
58 Tainan-1 20 1 6.6 Mid hill

24 4
4
59 Chainung- 20 1 7.3 Mid hill and valley

242 24 4
4
60 Taichung- 20 1 7.9 Mid hill and valley

176 24 4
4
C. Registered Hybrid Rice Varieties

61 Tara 20 1 5.1 Terai and inner terai

11 1
 6
62 Suraj 20 1 5.7 Terai and inner terai

11 2 7
3
63 Prithivi 20 1 6.0 Terai and inner terai
(irrigated)
11 2
4
64 Arise- 20 1 4.4 Terai and inner terai
(irrigated)
6444 11 2 3
2
65 PHB-71 20 1 5.2 Terai (irrigated area)

11 2 6
9
66 US-312 20 1 5.4 Terai and inner terai

11 3 6
2
67 Champian 20 1 5.1 Sarlahi to Banke
(Terai & inner)
11 3 5
6
68 Raja 20 1 4.9 Sarlahi to Banke
(Terai & inner)
11 2 4
6
69 R.H-257 20 1 4.9 Terai and inner terai

11 2 9
3
70 Gorakhnat 20 1 4.8 Terai and inner terai

h-509 11 2 2
3
71 P.A.C-801 20 1 7.7 Terai and inner terai

11 2 9
3
72 Loknath- 20 1 4.7 Terai and inner terai

505 11 2 9
9
73 Reshma- 20 1 4.9 Eastern Terai
(Irrigated area)
786 11 2 1
0
74 Baishali 20 1 6.3 Eastern Terai
(Irrigated area)
11 2 5
1
 Climate and temperature

Rice demands a high temperature (30-32 ℃ ) for optimal growth. The minimum
temperature for germination is 18˚c for tropical varieties and 10-12˚c for subtropical types.
Rice cannot tolerant frost at any stage of growth. The most cold –tolerant rice varieties are
those (Jumli marsi) cultivated in Jumla district (1950m above sea level) of Nepal.

Agro-techniques

Cropping patterns:

Commonly practiced cropping patterns in rice-based cropping system in the hills

/mountains and terai/inner –terai of Nepal are as follows:

In hills or mountains:

Rice -Wheat (fertile land rainfed or with irrigation)

Rice- mustard (rainfed medium fertile land)

Rice- buckwheat (rainfed medium fertile land)

Rice- barley (rainfed marginal land)

In terai and inner terai:

Rice – fallow (rainfed marginal land)

Rice/lentil-wheat or barley (rainfed fertile land)

Rice/lentil-chickpea (fertile land with irrigation)

Rice - mustard or buckwheat (rainfed medium fertile land)

Rice-rice-wheat (fertile land with irrigation)

Season of rice growing: There are two seasons of rice growing in Nepal:

Summer season (chaite dhan): seedlings time is Falgun (February/March),

transplanted in Chaitra (March/April) and harvested in Ashad/Shravan(June/July).

Rainy Season (barkhe dhan): seedlings time is Ashadh/Shravan) (June/July),

transplanted in Shravan/ Bhadra (July/August) and harvested in Kartik/Margshir
(October/November).

Methods of cultivation

In Nepal, rice is grown is grown mainly on two types of soil i.e. upland and low land.
The season of cultivation in a region depends largely on factors such as topography of
land, types of soil, irrigation facilities, availability of laborers, and intensity and
distribution of rainfall. Based on the availability of water (rainfall or irrigation) method of
rice cultivation is broadly divided into two types:

 Rainfed Upland cultivation.

 Irrigated lowland cultivation.

Both of these types are further sub divided based on the methods of seedlings or
transplanting.

Rainfed upland cultivation

Direct seedlings: In the area with low rainfed or lack of irrigation facility the land is
properly ploughed to remove all weeds to create good seed bed for better germination of
seeds. Bunds are prepared properly. After onset of monsoon the seeds are sown or
broadcasted @ 100 kg/ha. Rain water is stagnated in bunds. Generally short season variety
like Ghaiya (60 days), Laxmi, Durga are planted using this methods.

Drilling/sowing the seeds behind the plough:

In upland areas, where no irrigation facility is available, this method is used .In this
method, the land is ploughed properly and the bunds are maintained. Seeds are sown by
seed drill or behind the plough with the help of funnel in rows. The row-to-row distance
should be20 cm. The seed rate is about 60-75 kg/ha.

Irrigated/lowland /wetland cultivation

Direct seedlings (broadcasting) of sprouted seeds in puddle soil

This method is adopted in areas where there is a shortage of laborers or it is expensive. In

this case, the land is ploughed properly, the bunds are maintained, and the field is irrigated.
About 100 kg seed is required per hectare.

Scatter planting: It is being adopted in many countries. It is a common practice in city

area of China. In this method, seedlings are raised in the plastic disc. Dry after
germination, the disc is taken to the field for sowing the germinated seeds. The field is
prepared as in other methods. Then the germinated seedlings are uprooted and thrown on
the land. Since the seedlings contain soil, the thrown seedlings are in upright condition.
Final spacing of 15-20 cm between plants is maintained. In this method, labor requirement
is low.

Transplanting methods: Much of the success in this system depends on seedlings. If

nursery is good and the seedlings are healthy, then one can hopefully look for a good crop.

Raising seedlings in the nursery for transplanting

 A well fertile upland field near the source of irrigation is selected. For transplanting
in one hectare, a nursery of about 500 m2 is sufficient. In case of late sown area 750-1000
m2 area will be required.

Seed selection:

Good quality seed should be selected for seedlings production. Seeds should be true to
type (99% ),free from soil borne diseases or insects, weed seeds or other foreign materials,
should be bold, viable and have standard germination capacity (>90%).

To select the bold seeds, take water in the container. Mix 5-10% salt in water and then
put seeds in it. Stir gently the solution along with the seeds. The grains that are unfilled
will come to the surface of water. Remove them. The seeds setting at the bottom are the
bold seeds.

Seed treatment:

Rice seeds should be treated with chemicals to prevent from seed-borne diseases. Most
commonly used chemical is Bavistin @ 2-2.5 g/kg seed.

Methods of raising seedlings

There are various methods of raising seedlings. These include the followings:

1. Dry bed method

2. Wet bed methods

3. Dapog method

4. Modified dapog method

5. Bubble tray methods

1. Dry bed method

This method is practiced in the areas, where water is not enough to grow seedlings in
wet nurseries. The field is ploughed 3-4 times with mould bold plough or local indigenous
plough at a depth of 20-25 cm, and then 2 harrowing followed by planking is to be done.
The seedbed is raised 5-10 cm above ground level. Breadth of the seedbed should be 1-
1.5m and length should preferably be 10-15 m. The distance between two beds should be
30-50 cm.

Compost or well decomposed FYM@ 10-20 ton/ha should be applied 15-20 days in
advance of seed sowing. Nitrogen and phosphate fertilizers should be applied @ 2.25 g/sq.
m.

The seed rate depends on size of seed, spacing, seedlings/hill, and germination
percentage. In general, seed rate is 50 kg/ha. Seeds should be sown uniformly over the
bed and covered immediately with a layer of soil. Special care should be taken for water
 management in those beds. Birds may cause damage if seeds are not sown in appropriate
depth (1.5-2 cm).Seedbed is covered with rice straw ,after 5-6 days the straw is removed
from the bed.

In case of short duration variety, seedlings become ready in 20-25 days after sowing but
seedlings of long duration varieties are ready in 30-35 DAS. The seed bed needs to be
irrigated 2-3 days before uprooting the seedlings. Within 24 hours of uprooting the
seedlings should be transplanted in the main field.

2. Wet bed method

This method is preferable in the areas, where irrigation water is not a constraint or
the field is wet due to constant rainfall. In this method, the soil bed is prepared as
mentioned in dry bed method. The soil is puddle with the help of puddler. Seedbed
dimension, manuring and seed rate is same as in the case of dry bed methods.

Raising seedlings in wet nursery:

 Soak the seed for 24-48 hours. In jumla, it can be up to 4 days of soaking.
 Then drain excess of water.
 Keep seed in heap at room temperate covering with moist gunny bag for 24 hours.
 Sow the incubated seeds uniformly over the bed.
 Keep the seedbed saturated with water for first five days.
 Increase gradually the level of water up to 5 cm as seedlings grows.
 Drain the excess water during heavy rains and during the first week of sowing.
 Uproot the seedlings as in dry bed method.

3. Dapog method:
This method of raising nursery has been introduced in Nepal from Philippines. Now some
research station of Nepal has adopted it for experimental purpose only. The method as
follows:
 There is no need to plough the seed bed. Only, make the bed tied or compact because
the seedlings are not raised in the soils.
 It is raised in the polythene sheet or in the cemented floor or aluminium or steel tray.
 All sides of the beds are protected by bananas stem cuts or by wood so that the seeds
will not go away from the seedbed after irrigation.
 Then the pre-sprouted seed are broadcasted on the bed. About 5o kg of seeds can be
broadcasted.
 After 4 days maintain the depth of water upto 1 cm i.e the water should always be 1-2
cm in the seed bed.
 The seedlings will be ready for transplanting within 12-14 days.

4. Modified Dapog method

This method was developed keeping in view the disadvantage of dapog method. The bed
is prepared as in case of dapog method but the nursery area should be more (200-300 sq.
m.). The surface of the bed is packed tightly and bed is covered with polythene sheet or
sand or ash up to the thickness of 2-5 cm. Incubated seed are sown in sand or ash media
uniformly at single grain thickness. The seeds are covered with gunny bags for first three
days and kept moist by sprinkling water twice or thrice daily. Both in the morning and
evening the germinated seed are gently pressed with hands so that root system may not be
exposed. Water level of 1-2 cm should be maintained over the bed for 4 days after
removing the gunnies. From the 8th DAS, 25-30 g of ammonium sulphate dissolved in
water should be sprayed over seedlings everyday up to 12 th day. Seedlings are ready to
uproot after 12th day onwards.

Advantages of this method:

 Seedlings will be till, healthy, and robust.
 There is no difficulty in uprooting the seedlings as they are planted in sand or ash
media.
 The seedlings will be ready for transplanting from 12 days onwards. If water is not
readily available in the main field, the seedlings can be allowed growing for more than 3
weeks in nursery beds.

5. Bubble tray nursery:

The bubble tray nursery is a good system to develop 12-15 day old seedlings with “root
balls”. The seedlings are raised on plastic trays of 59 cm by 34cm with 434 embedded
holes. You will need 750 trays per hectar of paddy.

Land preparation for transplanting

The field should be ploughed at a depth of 20-25 cm by MB plough or indigenous

plough in summer. Well decomposed FYM or compost @ 10-15 t/ha should be applied
and mix with the soil. The field is then flooded with water for about one fortnight before
transplanting. Pudding should begin about two weeks ahead of transplanting. Before
pudding, an earth bunds; about 30 cm high should be made around the field. The field is
puddle by three to four runs of puddler in standing water. Half dose of nitrogen and total
dose of phosphorus and potash should be applied on drained surface at the time of last
puddling and incorporate in the top 10-15 cm deep soil.

Advantage of puddling

Puddling does the mechanical mixing of soil, compost/FYM and water to make soil less
permeable. It is effective in soil having a minimum of 20 percent clay particles and is the
main feature of wetland cultivation.

 It helps to kill the weeds and barriers them in puddle layer.

 The rate of germination of weeds is also reduced in subsequent growing period of
rice and thus there is fewer incidence of weed infestation.
 It helps to create better physical, biological and chemical condition for rice plant
growth.
 Soil surface is brought to even condition.
 It helps to create hardpan which in turn helps to reduce water and leaching losses
during the subsequent flooding stages.
 It increases the micro porosity of soil, thereby increasing its water holding
capacity.

Transplanting

It should be done when seedlings are ready for transplanting. The seedlings should
be uprooted from the nursery at an optimum age. For early varieties, it should be 20-25
DAS while in case of late maturing varieties, it should be 30-35 DAS with 15-20 cm plant
height and 3-4 true leaf stage. Delay transplanting leads to poor tillering, early flowering
of the main tiller and eventually the reduction of yield. Though several factors determine
the spacing between plants and rows, in general 20 ˣ 10-20 cm spacing is preferred. If the
seedlings are healthy, 2-3 seedlings per hill should be transplanted.

Transplanting is advantageous because:

 It enables the cultivators to have an opportunity to give a through cultivation and

pudding operations in the field which keep weed down.
 It enables the cultivator to have optimum plant population at desired spacing in the
field.
 Since the nursery occupies only a small area of land, the control of diseases, pest,
irrigation and manuring become easy and cheaper.

Manure and fertilizers

About 10-15 t/ha of will decomposed FYM or compost is to be applied one

month in advance of transplanting. Location’s specific fertilizer recommendations are to
be devised. Fertilizer management in lowland rice is different than that of the upland rice.
The recommended doses of fertilizer are given as under:

Upland rice: 40-60: 30-40: 20-30 kg NPK/ha

50% N as the basal dose

50% N as top dressing at tillering stage (35-40 DAS)

Low land irrigated condition: 100: 30-40: 20-30 kg NPK/ha

50% N as the basal dose,25% N as the top dressing at tillering stage (35-40 DAS), 25% N
at the time of panicle initiation stage (60-70 DAS)

In Zinc deficient soil, 20-30 kg zinc sulphate/ha is recommended and should be

applied at the time of final puddling.

Water management
 The water requirements of rice varies which depends upon the soil types, growing types,
growing season, nature of varieties, climate etc. Continuous deep flooding of the water,
practiced in rice cultivation, consumes huge quantities of water. Rice, being the semi-
aquatic plant, requires water (2-5 cm) for its whole life period. A study suggests that a
total of 1250 mm of water is required for a variety that matures in 135 days although it
depends on several factors. Water requirements at different growth stage of rice are as
follows:

At transplanting:

A shallow sheet of water (2-3 cm) in the puddled field;

After transplanting:

Water should not be applied for 3 days; and after that establish and maintain a level of 5
cm of water. Stop watering for 5 days in between weeding and top dressing of fertilizer;

Tillering Stage: Maintain a shallow depth of 2-3 cm. Drain the field for 5-7 days at
maximum tillering stage if there is assured supply of water;

Panicle initiation and flowering stages: Increase the level of water from 5-10 cm during
these stages, reduce the water level gradually, and drain the field 10-15 days before
harvesting.

Intercultural operations

Intercultural operation in rice field is mainly confined to weed management. The extent of
yield reduction due to weed is around 15-20 percent in transplanted rice, 30-35 percent in
direct seeded puddled rice and over 50% in direct seeded upland rice. Maintenance of 5 cm
water in the field continuously helps in reducing the weeds in rice field. As it is the annual
crop, first weeding should be done at 3 weeks of transplanting and second weeding at 6
weeks of transplanting. Critical period of weed competition of rice is 30-40 days after
transplanting or sowing.

In small fields, manual weeding is the best method of weed management. Weeds can
be managed effectively by the use of herbicides also. This practice is good for bigger
commercial farms. A list of effective pre-plant, pre-emergence and post-emergence
herbicides is given below.

Pre- plant herbicides: Basalin (Fluchloralin): It is soil incorporated herbicide, which is

sprayed or broadcasted in standing water of 3-5 cm after final pudding at the rate of
1kg/ha.

Pre-emergence herbicides: Butachlor (Machete): Effective against annual grasses and

broadleaved weeds, use @ 1-2 kg/ha immediately after transplanting. Care should be taken
that weeds have not emerged at the time of application because those already emerged are
not controlled by this herbicide. Before application water should be drained.

Post-emergence herbicides: Propanil (stam F 34): @ 3-4 kg/ha, called rice associated
herbicide, sprayed 6-8 days after transplanting. Before spraying herbicide, water should be
drained out.

Fluorifen@2kg/ha.

Harvesting and storage

Harvesting of the crop should be done as soon as it matures .The right stage of
harvesting is when about 80 percent panicles have about 80 percent ripened spikelets. The
upper portion of the spikelet should be straw colored at the time of harvesting and the
grain moisture should be around 20%. In Nepalese context, a majority of the operation
from harvesting to threshing is done manually. The harvested rice should be bundled and
stacked in a dry place for 3-5 days. Threshing is done manually by striking the bundles on
the ground or by bullock are driven to move around on it until the straw is free from
grains. It can also be threshed by running the tractor over the layer of unthreshed straw.

A well- managed crop of mid to late duration (135-150 days) like Jaya, IR-8, IR-20
gives grain yield of about 6-7 t/ha and straw yield of about 6.5-8 t/ha. Short duration
varieties yield about 5-6 t/ha of grain under ideal management conditions.

System of rice intensification (SRI)

In the early 1980s, a Jesuit priest Father Henri de Laulanie with Malagasy farmers
discovered – somewhat accidentally – that local rice production was miraculously
booming. Although the resulting methodology for increasing yields, called the System of
Rice Intensification (SRI)

1. Young seedlings: Seedlings are transplanted early. Rice seedlings are transplanted
when only the first two leaves have emerged from the initial tiller or stalk, usually when
they are between 8 and 15 days old. Seedlings should be grown in a nursery in which the
soil is kept moist but not flooded. The seed sac should be kept attached to the infant root,
because it is an important energy source for the young seedlings. The young seedlings
should be planted so carefully that the root tip is not left pointing upward.

2. Single seedling: Seedlings are planted singly rather than clumps of two or three or
more. This means that individual plants have room to spread and to send down roots. They
do not compete as much with other rice plants for space, light and nutrients in the soil.

3. Wider spacing: Seedlings are planted in a square pattern with plenty of space between
them in all directions. Usually, they are spaced at least 22.5 cm × 22.5 cm. It helps for
vigorous root growth and more tillering. The square pattern facilitates in situ incorporation
of weeds by Conoweeder (weeding machine).
4. Lesser seed rate: SRI method requires much lower seed rate (5–8 kg ha -1) than
traditional methods (75–100 kg ha-1).

5. Moist but unflooded soil conditions In SRI method, soil is kept moist but not flooded
during the vegetative period, ensuring that more oxygen is available in the soil for the
roots, occasionally the soil should be allowed to dry to a point of cracking except in saline
soils. This will allow oxygen to enter the soil and also induce the roots to grow and search
for water. In SRI method, unflooded condition is only maintained during vegetative period
and from flowering to harvest, 1-3 cm of water is kept in the field as is done in the
traditional method.

6. Cono-weeding: Weeding can be done by cono-weeder. First weeding should be done

on 14 DAT and this should be continued up to 40 days at 7–10 days interval. At least two
or three weeding is recommended. If cono weeder is not available, rotary weeder can be
used.

Insect pest and diseases of rice

Insect, pest of rice

1. Stem borer
Control:
 Use light trap
 Spray with furadon 3G 1-2 kg per Ropani
2. Rice hispa

Control:

 Spray with chloropyriphos @ of 1.25 ml per liter of water

3. Rice bug

Control:

 Spray with Cypermetherine 1.5 ml per liter of water.

4. Leaf roller

Control:

 Spray BT 1.5 per liter of water per hectare `

 Spray cypermethrine 1.5 ml per liter of water

Diseases of rice

1. Blast (leaves are drying)

Control:
 Carbendazim 3 g per kg (seed treatment)
 Hinosan(50EC) 1.5 ML of water and applied with difference of 15 days interval (2-
3 times.)
2. Foot rot
Control:
 Cultivated with treated seed
 Used of diseases resistant varieties.
 Use of carbendazim 3g per kg of seed.
3. Brown leaf spot
Control:
 Use disease resistant varieties
 Seed treated with Thiram 2.5 g per kg of seed
 Spray with Mancozeb 3.5 g per liter of water with different of 10-12 days.
4. Bacterial leaf blight

Control:

 Seed treated with Carbendazim

 Use of disease resistant varieties
 Use sufficient amount of chemical fertilizer
 Agrimycin-100, 0.25 g per liter of water for seed treatment
 Cultivation Practices of Wheat

Wheat

S.N: Triticum aestivum

Family: Gramineae

Introduction and Importance

Wheat is the most widely cultivated food crops in the world. In Nepal, wheat is the
third important staple food crop after rice and maize. It is called “Gahun” in Nepali.

Wheat grain is use as human food, and bran is use as livestock feed. Wheat flour is
use in preparing various food items. The absorption rate of wheat protein is 95 percent.
Wheat straw is use for cattle feed and as a roofing material in rural areas.

Origin and distribution

Wheat is one of the ancient cereal crops. It is originated from south western Asia.

In Nepal, the total area covered by wheat at present is 675,807 hectares and the total
production is 1442442 MT/year (2006). Data about the area, production and average yield
of wheat in various ecological belts are present as follows:

Agro Area hectare Production Average yield

ecological MT MT/ha
region
Mountain 53142 84336 1.59
Hills 241246 467178 1.94
Terai 38149 890928 2.34
Total 675807 1442442 2.13
Source: NARC 2006.

Varieties

Each wheat species has many varieties. More than 40000 varieties of wheat have been
produced in the world. Department of Agriculture and Nepal Agriculture Research council
of Nepal have released more than 25 varieties of wheat for various eco-systems. Grain
yield of improved varieties has been increased to a level of 5.5 MT/ha (var. Annapurna
1&3) and 6.7MT/ha (var. Pasanglhamu).

Recommended varieties of wheat and their characteristics:

S Variety Recommended Yield Average

N region MT/ha crop
duration
days
1 Gautam Terai, valley 5.0 110
2 BL-1473 Terai, valley 4.0 110
3 Kanti Hills 5.5 174
4 Pasanglhamu Mid hills 6.7 178
5 Rohini Terai, vallry 4.1 119
6 Achyut Terai, valley 4.5 125
7 BL-1135 Terai 5.0 115
8 Annapurna-4 Hills 5.0 161
9 Bhrikuti Terai 5.0 120
10 BL-1022 Western terai 5.0 120
11 Annapurna-3 Hills 5.5 165
12 Annapurna-2 Mid hills 5.0 161
13 Annapurna-1 Hills 5.5 168
14 Nepal-251 Terai 5.0 118
15 Nepal-297 Terai 5.0 117
16 Bhaskar Mid-western terai 5.0 125
17 Binayak Terai 4.0 120
18 Sidhhartha Terai 4.5 118
19 Tribeni Terai 4.0 124
20 Lumbini Terai 4.0 120
21 UP-262 Terai 4.0 122
22 HD-1982 Western Terai 5.0 120
23 RR-21 Terai, hills 4.0 116-160
24 Pitic-62 Mid hills 5.0 166
25 Lerma Rojo- Mid hills 5.5 168
64
26 Lerma-52 Mid hills 5.0 176

Climate and temperature

Wheat can be grown successfully in tropical, sub-tropical and temperate zone. It can
tolerate very cold temperature and even the snow during early stage of growth and
resumes growth and development with the setting of warm weather. Winter wheat seed
can germinate in the lower temperature regime of 1-2˚c and the process of assimilation
starts with the temperature regime of 3-4˚c. The optimum temperature regime for ideal
seed germination, growth and development of wheat is 20-25˚c. Wheat plant requires a
temperature regime of 13-15˚c during seed formation and ripening. Temperature above
25˚c during the period of grain filling depresses grain weight.

Cropping patterns:

In Nepal, wheat is grown in various crop combinations and rotations. Here are some of
the most common cropping patterns including wheat as crop components:

Rice-wheat-maize or summer vegetables

Rice-wheat+ mustard

Maize-wheat-fallow

Maize-wheat-mustard

Maize-wheat-peas

Maize-potato-wheat

Land preparation

Wheat crop requires a well-pulverized but compact seedbed for uniform germination
and growth. After the harvest of previous crop the field should be ploughed twice or thrice
depending upon the soil structure and availability of irrigation. Under rainfed conditions,
special attention should be given to conserve soil moisture. Zero tillage and minimum
tillage technologies are found useful under rainfed conditions.

Manure and fertilizers

Well decomposed manure (FYM, compost) @ 10-15 tons per hectare should be
applied at least three to four weeks prior to land preparation for wheat. The recommended
dosage of fertilizers for irrigation and rainfed conditions are as follows:

Under irrigated conditions:

N: P: K 100:50:50 kg/ha 50 percent N + whole P+ whole K dose should be applied

during field preparation. Rest 50% of N should be applied during first irrigation.

Under rainfed conditions:

N: P: K 60:40:25 kg/ ha should be applied during field preparation. Under rainfed

condition, whole amount of the recommended dosage of all fertilizers should be applied as
basal dose.

Seed and sowing

Bold free from disease and damage should be selected for sowing. Seed should be
taken from an authorized source with germination capacity of at least 85 percent. The
optimum time for sowing wheat in Nepal is 15 October to 15 November. Usually under
irrigated conditions, a seed rate of 100 kg/ha is ideal. For varieties like RR-21 and Lerma
Rojo and late sowing condition a seed rate of 125 kg/ha is ideal. For sowing the wheat
with a dibbler, a seed rate of 25-30 kg/ha is sufficient.

Under favorable climatic and soil conditions a spacing of 20-22 cm between rows and
5-7 cm between plants is ideal. When sowing is delayed a closer spacing of 15-18 cm
should be adopted.
 Broadcasting, behind local plough, drilling (using seed drill), and dibbling (using
dibbler) are most common and effective methods of sowing wheat. Therefore the depth of
sowing should be 3-4 cm.

Water management

Under irrigated conditions, irrigation should be applied during the following growth
stages:

1st- Crown root initiation (20-25DAS)

2nd- Tillering stage (40-45DAS)

3rd- Late jointing stage (70-75DAS)

4th- Flowering stage (90-95DAS)

5th dough stage

If irrigation water is not available for the whole crop duration, irrigation water should
be managed at least to apply during the following critical stages:

If only one irrigation available, give at CRI stage.

If only two irrigation available, give at CRI stage and flowering stage.

If three irrigation available, give it at CRI stage, late jointing stage and milking stage.

Intercultural operations

One or two intercultural operations are essential for weed management and soil
aeration improvement. Use of herbicide should not be practiced.

Harvesting threshing and storage

Wheat should be harvested at the stage of maturity (leaves and stem turn yellow and
become dry). Threshing should be done in a clean and dry floor. Before storage, the
harvest should be cleaned and dried to have moisture content of the seed at 10-12 percent.

Common insect pest and diseases of wheat

Common Insect pest

1. Aphide
Control:
 Use female lady beetle and hover flies
 Spray with malathion 1ml per liter of water
2. Rice ear cutting weevil
Control:
 Mancozeb 0.5 ml per liter of water
 Maintain proper irrigation
 Spray with deltamathrine 0.5 ml per liter of water

Common diseases of wheat

1. Leaf blight
Control:
 Seed treated with vitavax-200, 2gram per kg of seed.
 Use potash fertilizer
 Planting in time and manage irrigation
 Spray with mancozeb 2-2.5 gram per liter of water at 15 days interval of 2-3 times.
2. Brown rust
Control:
 Use disease resistant varieties eg: Rhohini, Achyut, BL 1473
 Use recommended dose of fertilizer
 Spray mancozeb (Dithane.M-45) 1.5-2 kg per 750 liter water per hectare.
3. Yellow Rust
Control:
 Use disease resistant varieties Eg.: BL 1473, Pasanglhamu
 Planting in time
 Use recommended dose of fertilizer
 Spray Mancozeb 2-2.5 gram per liter of water at 15 days interval for2-3 times in
disease affected parts of plant.
4. Loose smut
Control:
 Use treated seed
 Seed treated with vitavax-200, 2gram per kg of seed.
 Use in smut resistant varieties eg. Annapurna-4
 Remove affected plants

Unit 4: Cultivation Practices of Maize:

Maize

S.N: Zea mays

Family: Gramineae

Introduction/Importance

Maize or corn (in USA) is one of the most commonly grown cereal crops in the tropical
and sub tropics. It is use both as human food and livestock feed. It is called Makai in
Nepali. It is the second important cereal crop in Nepal whereas it ranks third after wheat
and rice in the world. Besides staple food, maize is used to prepare many food items and
beverage called Jand (fermented boiled maize kernels) and raksi. Maize grits or plain
bread (rotee) serves to be the ideal food for diabetic persons.

Origin of maize

Maize is originated from Central America and Mexico.

Distribution of maize in Nepal

In Nepal, maize occupies the second position after rice. It is cultivated from terai
(tropical/subtropical Climate) to high hills/mountains (subtropical/temperate climate).
However, its coverage is the highest in the hills and the lowest in the mountains. Average
yield of maize is the highest in terai. Distribution of area and production of maize in Nepal
by ecological belts are presented as follows:

Distribution of area and production of maize in Nepal by ecological belt, 2004/o5

Ecological Area in hectare Production in Yield in

Belts 1000 MT MT/ha
Mountain 89379 161181 1.80
Hills 596487 1207652 2.03
Terai 164026 347209 2.12
NEPAL 849892 1716042 2.02
Classification of maize

Based on the shape, size, color and chemical composition of grains maize is classified in to
following different groups

1. Dent corn (Zea mays indentata): contain both hard and soft starch , more common
in USA

2. Flint corn (Zea mays indurata): Kernel soft and starchy and covered with hard
coat layer, usually round may be flat also, white and yellow in color, common in India.

3. Pop corn (Zea mays everta): small in size, endosperm hard

4. Pod corn (Zea mays tunicata): grain enclosed in pod or

5. Sweet corn (Zea mays sachharata): contain sugar and sweet in taste, used as
vegetable, when the grains are immature. More common in South and North America,
China, Korea and India

6.Soft corn/ flower corn (Zea mays amylacea): posses soft endosperm, white and blue
color are most common, shape is like flint corn.
 7. Waxy corn (Zea mays certina kulesh): contain waxy endosperm, waxy due to
presence of amylopectin, used for manufacture adhesives.

Varieties

Characteristics of recommended varieties of maize released of maize released by the GoN

during the last 33 years are presented as follows:

Recommended varieties of maize and their major characteristics

SN Variety Recommend region Year of Crop Yield MT/ha

release duration
days
1 Rampur yellow Terai, valley 1965 105 4.7

2 Kakani yellow High hills 1965 195 3.0

3 Khumal yellow Mid hills 1965 125 4.9

4 Hetauda composite Vally, mid hills 1973 115 4.3

5 Rampur composite Terai, mid hills 1975 108 4.4

6 Sarlahi white Terai 1975 115 4.1

7 Janaki Terai (winter) 1978 155 6.5
8 Arun-2 Terai, valley 1982 97 2.2
9 Makalu-2 Pokhera area 1984 145 4.0
1o Manakamana-1 Mid hills 1987 125 4.o

11 Rampur -2 Terai, valley 1989 1o8 4.o

12 Ganesh-2 High & mid hills 1989 165 3.5

13 Rampur-1 Terai, valley 1995 115 3.8

14 Arun-1 Terai, valley 1995 100 4.0
15 Ganesh-1 High hills 1997 175 5.0
16 Manakamana3 Mid hills 2002 142 10.6
17 Gaurav Hybrid Terai, inner terai 2003 110 9.0
18 Shitala Mid hills 2006 135 6.1
19 Deuti Mid hills 2006 135 5.7
Source: NARC, 2009.

Temperature

 Optimum temperature for germination is 21 c and minimum is 10 c

 Optimum temperature for growth 32 c and maximum temperatures is 46 c.

Rainfall.

 600mm rainfall with even distribution is sufficient for good cultivation but can
tolerate up to 2500-4000mm.
Soil Requirement:

 Maize can be grown on a variety of soils, but it grows best on well drained soils
which are rendered fertile by adequate supply of manures.
 Ideal soil- well drained sandy loam to silty loam with deep, fertile and water
retention capacity.
 P.H 6.5-7.5

Cropping patterns

Most common maize-based cropping patterns prevalent in different ecological regions

in Nepal are as follows:

Maize-wheat Terai/hills

Maize-mustard Terai/hills

Maize-finger millet-wheat/barley Hills

Maize-potato Hills

Maize+ beans-barley Hills

Field preparation:

Maize crop need a well aerated, most and weed free field. The first plowing is done
with an inverting plough for loosening 20-25 cm deep soil. Two to three harrowing or
intercrossing plowing with indigenous bullock driven plough should follow it. A properly
leveled and uniformly graded field is necessary for proper water management in maize
field.

Methods of sowing:

1. Broadcasting
2. Sowing behind the local plow
3. Drilling
4. Dibbling
5. Pit method
6. Ridge and furrow method
7. Flat bed

Manure and fertilizer

About 10-20 tons of well-decomposed organic manure should be applied in the maize
field at least 2-3 weeks before field preparation.

Recommended doses of fertilizer:

 N: 120-150 Kg/ Ha (irrigated condition) and 80-100 kg/ha in rainfed condition.
 P: 60-75 kg/ha (irrigated condition) and 40-50 kg/ha in rainfed condition
 K : 35 kg/ha (irrigated condition) and 35kg/ha rainfed condition
ZnSo4 (once in a season) 25-35 (irrigated and rainfed condition)

Seed and sowing

In Nepal, farmers use their own seed or recommended composite varieties. Seed lot
should be free from disease and damage seeds as well as other impurities; and should have
good germination percent (85-90%). It is also advisable that the seed lot should be change
every three to five years.60-70 thousand plants per hector during harvesting ensure higher
yield. For pure crop 20-25kg seed/ha (60*25cm or 75*20cm)

Seed is sown at a depth of 3-5 cm. However, the depth of sowing would depend on
the soil type and availability of moisture.

Time of planting differs from place to place. For winter maize(Oct-Nov), spring
maize(Late Jan-end of Feb) and summer maize(March- May)

Water management:

In Nepal, maize is grown in rain fed farming system. It is therefore advisable to

manage for proper drainage of excess water.

In irrigated conditions, maize would require three to four irrigations, i.e. during
emergence, vegetative growth, and tasseling/silk stage. Tasseling and silk stages are more
critical to water deficit conditions.

Intercultural operations

One or two intercultural operations are required, i.e. during vegetative growth period.
During the second intercultural operation earthing up is done. Weeds are removed during
intercultural operations. From the environmental and economic perspective application of
herbicides is not available.

Harvesting, threshing and storage

Maize crop is ready to harvest when the husk turn yellow and the kernels are
hard enough having less than 30 percent of moisture. Harvesting should not be delayed to
have all leaves turn yellow or dry.

Traditionally maize is dried without removing husk either direct in sunlight or in

shed for few days and then husk is removed and dried in sunlight for seven to nine days
depending on the intensity and duration of sunlight. The kernels are removed either by
beating the cobs by sticks or with the help of maize shellers. For seed purpose, maize cobs
are completely dried and stored in a special open shed without removing the husk or in the
outer side of the houses just beneath the roof.

Yield

Yield depending on the different factors. Composite maize yield can be increased to 4-5
MT/ha in irrigated condition and up to 3 MT/ha in rainfed condition.

Insect pest and diseases of maize

Insect pest of maize

1. Cutworm
Control:
 Use in chloropyriphos or malathion 1 kg per Ropani during field preparation

2. White grub
 Use fully decomposed manure
 Use chloropyriphos @ of 1kg per Ropani before sowing
3. Army worm
Control:
 Spray with Deltamethrine @ of 2ml per liter of water
 Spray BT @ of 1 gram per liter of water
4. Rice ear cutting Caterpillar
Control:
 Spray with DeltaMethrine 2 ml or Malathion 1.25 ML per liter of water
 Spray with Bacteria (Bt) 1 gram per liter of water
5. Stem Borer
Control:
 Use predator (Tricograma) 50000- 100000 per hectare
 Destroy the borar affected plant
 Spray with Malathion 1.5 ML or Carbaril 2 gram per liter of water

Other insect pest

1. Field Cricket
2. Black Beetle
3. Leaf Folder
4. Chickpea Pod Borer
5. Grey Weevil
6. Maize Aphids
7. Maize shoot fly

Diseases of Maize

1. Leaf Blight
Control:
 Cultivated with disease resistant varieties eg. Mankamana-3, Ganesh-1, Ganesh-2)
 Use in crop rotation with different year
 Destroy the old plant residues
 Seed treated with Thiram or Captan 2 gram per kg seed
 Spray with Mancozeb 2.5- 3 gram per liter of water with interval of 15 days
2. Stalk rot
Control:
 Give proper drainage facilities in maize cultivated field
 Give proper sanitation
 Use in carbofuran which is controlled rot
3. Downey Mildew
Control:
 Use in disease resistance varieties like Rampur composite, Rampur-2
 Give proper sanitation
 Destroy the disease affected plant or plant parts

4. Stalk and Root Rot

Control:
 Use in crop residue and destroy the old plant residues
 Applied in recommended dose of fertilizer
 Cultivated with disease resistance varieties and give proper drainage facilities
 Seed treated with Carbendizim 2 gram per kg seed

5. Smut
Control:
 Collect and destroy the disease affected plant
 Use in crop rotation and give proper sanitation
 Seed treated with Carbendizim 2 gram per kg seed
6. Rot (seed or Ear rot)
Control:
 Seed treated with Carbendizim 2 gram per kg seed
 In cob filling stage spray Mancozeb 2-3 gram per liter of water with interval of 15-
15 days in 2-3 times
 In storage time maintained proper moister on grain
7. Grey leaf spot
Control:
 Use in disease resistance varieties like (Ganesh-1, Mankamana-3, Mankamana-1
Dauti)
 Destroy the disease affected plant and its residues
 Use recommended dose of fertilized
 Spray with Carbendizim 1 gram or Mancozeb or carbendizim 2 gram per liter of
water
Cultivation Practices of Fingermillet

Finger millet

S.N: Eleusine coracana

Family: Gramineae

Introduction and Importance

Finger millet is an important minor cereal crop grown in the hills and high hills of
Nepal. It is one of the staple food crops in these areas. It is cultivated successfully up to an
altitude of 2100 m above sea level. It is the second important cereal crop of upland; and it
is grown in monsoon season. The crop is also grown in terai in a very limited area of
marginal land.

Finger millet is grown for both grain and forage. The grain is used for making flour,
which is used to prepare dishes like porridge (Dhindo) and varieties of rotee. It is also used
to make beverage/alcohol (jand/ chhang and raksi). It has been estimated that in Nepal,
about 70-80 percent of total millet production goes for making beverage. The straw is used
as fodder for the cattle and as roofing material. It is regarded as an ideal food for the
patients suffering from diabetes and anemia.

Origin and distribution

It is originated from Uganda.

In Nepal finger millet is now cultivated in a total area of 258,840 hectare with the total
production of 289840 metric tons.

Table: 1: Distribution of area and production of finger millet in Nepal by development

region 2004/2005

Development region Area in 1000/ha Production in 1000 MT

Eastern 68.41 77.26
Central 64.20 68.64
Western 93.50 108.59
Mid-western 20.92 23.30
Far-western 11.81 12.06
Nepal 258.84 289.84

Table: 2: Distribution of area and production of finger millet in Nepal by ecological belt
 Ecological belt Area in 1000 ha Production in Yield
1000 MT MT/ha
Mountain 41.76 45.43 1.08
Hill 203.14 228.21 1.12
Terai 15.o4 15.27 1.01
NEPAL 259.94 288.91 1.07

Most of the area (78%) covered by finger millet lies in the hills, where 79 percent of the
total production of finger millet is produced (table 2). Average yield of finger millet in
Nepal is about 1MT per ha. The average yield of the crop is relatively higher in the hills.

Varieties

Table3. Recommended varieties of finger millet

SN Variety Recommended region Release year Crop duration Yield MT/ha

day
1 Okhle Mid,high hills 1980 154-194 3.3
2 Dalle-1 Mid,high hills 1980 125-151 3.3
3 Kabre kodo-1 Mid hills 1990 167 2.3

Climatic requirement

 Temperature
Prefer tropical and subtropical climate. Millet seeds start germination in a temperature
regime of 8-10 degree absorbing moisture about 25 percent of its weight. However the
ideal temperature regime for its normal germination and growth is 20-25 degree Celsius.
Vegetative Young plants of millet cannot withstand temperature below 2 degree Celsius.
 Rainfall
700-1200mm
 Soil
P.H 4.5-7.5

Cropping patterns

Most common cropping patterns with finger millet as a crop component prevalent in
different ecological regions in Nepal are as follows:

Finger millet+ maize- barley or linseed Terai/hills

Finger millet- mustard or barley Terai/hills

Finger millet+ sweet potato- barley Terai/ hills

Finger millet+ maize –wheat/barley/mustard High hills/hills

Finger millet- potato Hills/high hills

Field preparation

Finger millet need a well aerated, moist and weed free field. For growing finger millet as
a sole crop, the first ploughing is done with an inverting plough to loose upper layer of
soil, i.e. 20-25 cm deep soil. Two harrowing with indigenous bullock driven plough should
follow it. A properly leveled and uniformly graded field is a must for proper water
management.

Manure and fertilizer

At least 2-3 weeks before field preparation, about 5-10 tons of well decomposed organic
manure should be applied in the field for raising a sole crop of finger millet. A general
recommendation for finger millet has been made which is as follows: 50-60 kg of N, 30-40
kg of p and 20-30kg of k per hectare. Generally total amount of the nitrogenous fertilizer is
applied at planting and the remaining amount of N is applied in two splits during tillering
and heading (about 30 and 50DAS).

Seed and sowing

In Nepal, farmers use their own seed. It is advisable that the seed lot should be free from
diseased and damped seed as well as other impurities; and the seed lot should be changed
every three to five years. A population of 500-625 thousand plants per hectare during
harvesting would be needed to attain maximum yield. The appropriate plant spacing is 20-
25 cm between rows and 8-10 cm between plants. Seed rate calculate to maintain this
population by line sowing or broadcasting is 8-10 kg per hectare. For raising the crop by
transplanting method, 4 kg of seed is enough for raising nursery to have seedlings for one
hectare as the seed size is very small, i.e. 1000 seed weight ranges between 1.5 to2.5 g.

Seed is sown at a depth of 3-4 cm. However, the depth of sowing would depend on
the soil type and availability of moisture.

Finger millet is sown either by broadcasting, line sowing or by transplanting in

rows. Transplanting is a better method as it needs lower seed rate and facilitates
intercultural operations that consequently increase the yield. In most of the hills, it is
transplanted either as a sole crop or as a relay crop in the standing maize field, i.e. before
harvesting the maize.

Time of planting differs from place to place. In the rainfed farming system, it is
advisable to plant finger millet in nursery with the inception of monsoon when at least 10-
20mm rainfall occurs. In irrigated farming system, planting is recommended to be done
one week prior to onset of monsoon.

Water management
 In Nepal, finger millet is grown in rainfed farming system and in maize based cropping
system. Finger millet is sensitive to water logged condition. It is therefore essential to
manage for proper drainage of excess water.

In irrigated conditions, finger millet would require three to four irrigations, i.e. during
emergence, tillering, heading and the flowering stages. Tillering and flowering stages are
more critical to deficiency of water. If there is no rainfall during these growth stages then
irrigation should be given for obtaining better yield.

Intercultural operation

One or two intercultural operations are required, i.e. during early vegetative growth
period (initiation of tillering ) and prior to heading. Millets do not compete well against
problems prior to planting. Weeds are removed during intercultural operations as well.
From the environmental and economic perspective application of herbicides is not
available. However, in case of heavy infestation of broadleaf weeds, 2, 4-D amine
(herbicide) can be applied when the crop is 10-15 cm tall.

Harvesting, threshing and storage

Finger millet is ready to harvest in about 120-135 DAS depending on climatic

condition and variety. It is judged by the colour of ear heads. When the ear heads turn
brown and the grains are hard enough having less than 30 percent of moisture then the
crop is ready for harvest. Harvesting should not be delayed to have all leaves turn yellow
or dry. The ear heads are harvested with indigenous Nepali sickles and after a week or so
the straw is cut close to ground. Traditionally finger millet, i.e. ear heads are kept in heaps
for 3-5 days to cure, and dried in sunlight for few days before threshing. Threshing is
usually done manually beating the ear heads by sticks. Grains are separated by winnowing.
The threshed grains are then dried in sunlight properly to lower moisture content to 13
percent or less before storage. The grain or seed should be stored in a dry, clean and
airtight seed bin or container.

Insect pest and diseases of finger millet

Insect pest

1. Cutworm
Control:
 Soil treated with chloropyriphos or malathion 1 kg per ropani.
2. Seed bed beetle
Control:
 Soil treated with malathion 20 kg per hectare before planting.
3. White grub
Control:
 Soil treated with malathion and furadon powder 20kg per hectare.
4. Stripped borer
Control:
 Spray Deltamethrine 2ml per liter of water

Disease of finger millet

1. Cercospora leaf spot

Control:
 Seed treated with captan
 Spray with mancozeb 3 gram per liter of water at interval of 10 days.
2. Seedling blight
Control:
 Seed treatment with captan or thiram 2.5 gram per kg of seed.
 Spray mancozeb or, Zenab 2.5 gram per liter of water.
Unit : Cultivation Practices of Buckwheat

Buckwheat

SN: Fagopyrum esculentum

Family: Gramineae

Introduction and Importance

Buckwheat is regarded as a cereal crops. Nepali people use buck wheat (phapar in Nepali)
kernel as human food, cattle and poultry feed, and the “straw” as bedding, fuel and
packaging material. The buckwheat kernel is used as cereals, and the young shoot and
leaves are used as green vegetable.

In the district of Mustang, Manang and Dolpa, buckwheat is widely cultivated and used
as major cereals. In mustang, the foot hills of Annapurna and Dhaulagiri Himalayas, there
are a tradition of celebrating buckwheat sowing as a community festival. Tartary
buckwheat has high content of rutin as regulator of blood pressure, and lysine as one of the
essential amino acids compared to common buckwheat.

Origin and distribution

Buck wheat is originated in south Eastern part of china and was distributed to other parts
of East, south East and South Asia. Some wild relatives are found in Nepal also.

In Nepal, buckwheat is widely distributed throughout all hill and mountain districts
covering an altitudinal range of 300 meters to 4500 meters above sea level. The total area
covered by buckwheat in Nepal is estimated to be around 50000 ha. For the last few years,
farmers have started growing buckwheat commercially in some terai district like Jhapa,
Chitwan, Makwanpur,and Nawalparasi owing to its better marketing value.

Varieties

The cultivated species include fagopyrum esculentum (common buckwheat) and

fagopyrum tataricum (Tartary or bitter buckwheat). Common buckwheat is widely grown
in Europe, Asia and North America. In China, India and Nepal, tartary buckwheat is also
grown in higher altitude and used for both food and feed.The common buckwheat in Nepal
is tite and mithe. In Nepal, improved buckwheat variety is not yet released.

Climate and temperature

Minimum temperature required for germination is 6-8˚c. But under such temperature
regime germination occurs very slowly and emergence is very poor. Ideal temperature for
good emergence of buckwheat is 16-22˚c. Under such temperature regime, emergence
would occur in 4-5 days after sowing. Temperature below 13˚c and above 35˚C has
negative effect on growth of buckwheat plants. Critical temperature for buckwheat during
flowering and insufficient moisture is 30˚C. Frost with temperature ranging from 1.5-
2.0˚C may cause devastating effect on growth resulting to even complete crop failure.
Ideal temperature regime throughout the growth development stage of buckwheat is 17-
20˚C.

Cropping patterns

Common cropping patterns:

Rice- buckwheat Terai/hills

Maize-buckwheat Terai/hills

Buckwheat-wheat or barley Hills/mountain

Land preparation

A well prepared seedbed is necessary to ensure better emergence and good crop stand.
Wet spots should be avoided because buckwheat will not recover from flooding. Hard
seedbed prevents the fine roots from roots from growing. One deep plowing followed by
cross harrowing is recommended for making good seedbed. A firm moist seedbed is
required for uniform rapid emergence.

 Soil

Can be cultivated in a wide range of soil and cannot tolerate water logging condition

P.H of 6.5-7.5

Seed and sowing

Only high quality pure and bold seed lot should be placed at a depth of 4 to 5 cm and the
seed rate is 40-80kg/ha.The deeper seedling depth should only be used under rainfed
conditions. Deep seeding delays emergence and decreases uniformity of the crop. A plant
population of 66 to 80 plants per square meter with crop geometry (R-R and P-P) of 15-10
cm or 25ˣ5 cm is desirable.

The seeding date for buckwheat will vary slightly from eco-zone to another depending on
the date when the risk of the frost commences. The range of seeding date in Nepal varies
from mid-April/early May in high altitudes to late July/mid-August in hills and late
October/mid-November in Terai. Buckwheat is commonly sown by broadcasting method.

Manure and fertilizer

Buckwheat is not considered a high nutrient user; and responds well to a balanced
fertilizer program. 5-7 t/ha FYM should be applied at least two weeks prior to land
preparation. General recommendations for added nutrients (N: P: K) are as follows: 20:
40: 30 kg/ha.

Intercultural operations
 Volunteer plants of mustard, barley, and wheat can be serious weed problems in
buckwheat. Intercultural technique is somewhat later in the season; a number of tillage
operations are possible prior to seeding. Use of herbicides is not recommended as it will be
harmful for the pollinator insects.

Water management

Generally buckwheat is grown as rainfed crop. However, at the time of flowering and
seed formation irrigation should be supplied if soil moisture is deficient.

Harvesting, storage and marketing

Harvest should begin when 75 percent of the seed have reached physiological maturity,
and the plants have lost a majority of their leaves. Harvesting the crop at slightly higher
moisture will result in less shattering. A safe temperature for harvesting for both seed and
commercial grain is 45˚C. Buckwheat may be swathed or straight combined. Either
operation must be done carefully otherwise shattering would cause substantial yield loss.
The harvested product should be dried for 1-2 days on the threshing floor. Then it is
threshed using various indigenous techniques.

Grain drying is necessary before storage. Buckwheat can be safely stored at 16 percent
moisture.

Yield

In Nepal, buckwheat occupies about 50,000 hectares of marginal lands. Its average
yield in Nepal is as low as 800 kg/ha. With improved agro-techniques the crop can give a
grain yield of 1.5-2.0 MT/ha. Beekeeping in the field may produce 50 to 100 kg of honey
per hectare.

Insect pest and disease

Insect pest

1. Cutworm
Control:
 Soil treated with chloropyriphos or malathion 1 kg per ropani.
2. Aphide
Control:
 Use female lady beetle and hover flies
 Spray with malathion 1ml per liter of water

Common disease

1. Collar rot
Control:
 Spray mancozeb 1 gram per liter of water
2. Cercospora leaf spot
Control:
 Seed treated with captan
 Spray with mancozeb 3 gram per liter of water at interval of 10 days.
Cultivation Practices of Barley

Barley

S.N: Hordium vulgare

Family: Gramineae

Introduction and Importance

In Nepali, barley is called “Jaun”. Barley is one of the important cereals of the world
and ranks fourth globally in terms of area harvested. It is an important food crop in many
temperate countries. It is cultivated in almost all parts of the world except the tropical
regions. The crop is major source of food for large number of people living in the cooler,
semi-arid areas of the world, where wheat and other cereals are less well adopted. It is a
staple food of the people in Tibet, higher hills of Nepal and Bhutan.

Barley is used as a common food items, sometimes consumed in malted from. Barley
flour is used in preparing “rotee”. Grain is roasted and ground; and used as sattu (ready-or-
eat flour). In developed countries, barley serves as a major animal feed crop. Half of the
United States’ barley production is used as an animal feed. A large part of the remainder is
used for malting and is a key ingredient in beer and whisky production.

Origin and distribution

Barley is originated in south Asia.

Barley is grown in many countries of the world especially in the temperate regions. The
leading producing countries are the farmers of Canada, Germany, France, Ukraine,
Turkey, Australia, USA, etc. The world area under this crop is 55516 thousand ha with
average productivity 2.50 t/ha in 2006.

High altitude people in Nepal grow this crop as staple food crop as other cereal crops
do not thrive there due to unfavorable weather condition.

Table: Area and production of barley in Nepal by Developmental region (2004/05)

Developmental Area, ha Production, Average yield,

region MT MT/ha
Eastern 1950 2072 1.00
Central 511 601 1.18
western 4660 5221 1.12
mid-western 11459 13915 1.21
Far western 5733 5185 0.90
Total 26428 29341 1.11

Varieties
 List of the recommended varieties of barley for different agro-ecological regions of
Nepal along with their crop duration and grain yields is presented in following:

Table: Recommended Varieties of barley

S Variet Recommende Releas Crop Yield

N y d region e year duratio ,
n day MT/h
a
1 Solu High hills 1990 177 1.9
uwa
2 Ketch Terai, inner 1974 112 2.5
terai
3 CI- Terai, inner 1973 125 2.6
10448 terai
4 Galt Terai, inner 1973 157 2.3
terai
5 HBL- Terai, inner 1973 135 3.0
56* terai
6 Bouns Kathmandu 1973 162 3.6
* valley
Source: NARC 2007. * Varieties with high yield potential.

Temperature

Barley is grown throughout the temperate regions of the world as well as in sub-
tropical regions. It likes bright cold winter days and nights free from frost during
flowering. However, it is not as cold tolerant as the winter wheat (Triticum aestivum). This
crop requires cool weather during early growth and warm and dry weather at maturity.
Floret numbers are reduced at higher temperature of 24˚c in comparison to 18˚C. The crop
requires 12-15˚C during growing period and around 30˚C at maturity.

Cropping patterns

Common cropping patterns used by farmers in eari and hills/mountains are as

summarized below:

Rice- barley Terai/inner terai (rainfed farming system)

Rice-lentil+ linseed+ barley Terai/inner terai(rainfed farming

System)

Maize+ bean-barley Terai/hills (rainfed farming)

Rice+ black gram-barley Terai/ hills (rainfed farming)

Maize+ finger millet –barley hills/mountain (rainfed farming)

Maize + soya bean-wheat or barley hills/mountain (rainfed Farming)

Field preparation

it is common to plough land to a depth of 15-25 cm. Barley is mostly grown on light soil
where 4-5 ploughings with local plough or 3-4 ploughings followed by planking are
sufficient to prepare good seed bed. In areas where crops are attacked by termites, mix
aldrin 5% dust in soil at the rate of 25 kg/ha at the time of last ploughing.

Seed and sowing

Seed selection and treatment: The seed grain should be free from seed borne diseases,
which may necessitate treatments with hot water or a systemic fungicide like vitavex or
bavistin @ 2-3 gm/kg of seed. Before use, seed should be dressed to control soil born
fungal pathogens and possibly insect pests.

Seed rate:

The plant density depends on the location and season. When soil moisture limits growth,
it is sown thinly. With late sown spring barley, the seed rate is increased. The seed rate
varies between 90-125 kg/ha. It is preferable to maintain nearly 2 million plants/ha which
provides a good crop stand.

Sowing time and spacing

Spring barley is sown in February or March in the European countries. In mildly warm
areas, spring barley and alternative varieties are autumn sown in September or October.

For normal sown irrigated crop, a spacing of 22-25 cm*5-7cm is recommended.

Sowing should be done at a depth of 4-5 cm. Sowing should be done at a depth of 6-8 cm
depending upon soil moisture.

Methods of sowing

Methods of sowing are an important aspect particularly under rainfed conditions. Seed
should be dropped with the help of a seed drill to ensure uniform distribution of seed at the
optimum depth. In irrigated areas; seed may be dropped by hand into the furrows.

Manure and fertilizer

When barley is grown as irrigated crop, about 10-15 t/ha of compost or FYM could be
applied a month before sowing.

 Irrigated condition: 60: 30: 10 kg NPK/ha

 Rainfed condition: 30: 20: 10 kg NPK/ha
 Late sowing: 40: 30: 10 kg NPK/ha

Half of the nitrogen and total amount of phosphorus should be applied at the time of
sowing. The remaining half of nitrogen should be top dressed at the time of first irrigation.
In rainfed crop, the whole amount of nitrogen and phosphorus should be applied 8-10 cm
deep in furrow at the time of sowing.
Water management

Barley is generally grown as rainfed crops because it has low water requirements. It
needs two to three irrigations to give good yields. One additional irrigation shall be
required on sandy soils. If supply of water is inadequate, applying it at critical stages of
growth increases its efficiency. If only one irrigation is available, it should be given during
active tillering stage (30-35DAS). When two irrigations are available, one should be
applied at active tillering and the other at flowering stage. It is often recommended to
irrigation barley fields at 50% soil moisture. On highly saline and sodic soils, frequent
light irrigation give better results than fewer heavy irrigations. Repeated irrigations,
particularly in the later phase of the crop, lead to increase lodging. In soils with greater salt
proportion it can result in salinity problems.

Intercultural operations

Weeds are usually a problem in barley causing reduction in yield of almost 30-50
percent. Crop-weed competition is somewhere in between 30 to 40 days of sowing of the
crop. Broad leaved weeds can be controlled by an application of 2, 4-D sodium salt (80%)
or 2, 4-D amine salt (72%) at 0.75 kg/ha in 700-800 liters of water/ha in 35-40 DAS of the
crop. Under rainfed conditions the rate of herbicide should be slightly lower, i.e. 0.5 kg/ha.

For the control of wild oats in barley, spray Avadex at the rate of 2.5 liters/ha in 600-
700 liters of water on a well prepared seedbed just before sowing. Barley should be sown
immediately afterwards or within a few days at a depth of 5-7 cm.

Harvesting and threshing

The maturity indices of barley are:

 Plants turn yellow and dry up

 Grains become hard and moisture content is about 18-20%
 Plants become brittle and rigid
 Stem breaks down with slight pressure

Delaying in harvest of the crop may cause severe shattering loss of the crop yield. This
crop shatters more easily than does wheat. It should be harvested before the head becomes
too dry and fragile for handling. Harvesting with sickle by manual labour is common in
Nepal. Threshing is done either by trampling bullocks or by threshers. In developed
countries, combined harvesters that accomplish reaping, threshing and separating the grain
in one operation can be used. Straw left by the combines is burnt in the field and the ash is
produced and applied in the field for the next crop.

Yield

When cultivation of high yielding barley varieties is performed with above-mentioned

scientific methods, they produce about 3-3.5 t/ha of grain and 4-5 t/ha of straw. For safe
storage grain should be cleaned and dried well in sun for a few days so that moisture
content of the grain comes down to 10-12 percent.

Insect pest and diseases of barley

Common Insect pest

1. Aphide
Control:
 Use female lady beetle and hover flies
 Spray with malathion 1ml per liter of water
2. Rice ear cutting weevil
Control:
 Mancozeb 0.5 ml per liter of water
 Maintain proper irrigation
 Spray with deltamathrine 0.5 ml per liter of water

Common disease of barley

1. Yellow Rust
Control:
 Use disease resistant varieties Eg.: BL 1473, Pasanglhamu
 Planting in time
 Use recommended dose of fertilizer
 Spray Mancozeb 2-2.5 gram per liter of water at 15 days interval for2-3 times in
disease affected parts of plant.

2. Loose smut
Control:
 Use treated seed
 Seed treated with vitavax-200, 2gram per kg of seed.
 Use in smut resistant varieties eg. Annapurna-4
 Remove affected plants

3. Powdery mildew
Control:
 Used in diseases resistance varieties.
 Spray dinocap 1 ml per liter of water with interval of 15 days between 2-3 times
 Dusting with sulphur 15-20 kg per hectare with 2-3 times.

Other diseases:
1. leaf stripe
2. leaf spot
3. Molya disease
4. Net Blotch