JOURNAL OF SPORT & EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY. 1995. 17.

35-53
© 1995 Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.

Toward a New Measure of Intrinsic Motivation,

Extrinsic Motivation, and Amotivation in Sports:
The Sport Motivation Scale (SMS)

Luc G. Pelletier Michelle S. Fortier,

University of Ottawa Robert J. Vallerand
Universite du Quebec a Montreal

Kim M. Tuson Nathalie M. Briere

University of Ottawa RRSSS

Marc R. Blais
Universite du Quebec a Montreal

A new measure of motivation toward sport has been developed in French,

namely the Echelle de Motivation vis-a-vis les Sports. Two studies were
conducted to translate and validate this new measure in English. The Sport
Motivation Scale (SMS) consists of seven subscales that measure three types
of Intrinsic Motivation (IM; IM to Know, IM to Accomplish Things, and IM
to Experience Stimulation), three forms of regulation for Extrinsic Motivation
(Identified, Introjected, and Extemal), and Amotivation. The first study con-
firmed the factor structure of the scale and revealed a satisfactory level of
intemal consistency. Correlations among the subscales revealed a simplex
pattern confirming the self-determination continuum and the construct valid-
ity of the scale. Gender differences were similar to those obtained with the
French-Canadian version. The more self-determined forms of motivation
were associated with more positive responses on related consequences. In a
second study, the SMS was administered on two occasions and revealed
adequate test-retest reliability.

Key words: perceived competence, self-determination, scale development,

scale validation, motivational consequences

L.G. Pelletier and K.M. Tuson are with the School of Psychology at the University
of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON Canada KIN 6N5. M.S. Fortier, R.J. Vallerand, and M.R. Blais
are with the Laboratorie de Recherche sur le Comportement Social, Department de Psy-
chologie, Universite du Quebec a Montreal, P.O. Box 8888, Station "Centre-ville,"
Montreal, PQ Canada H3C 3P8. N.M. Briere is with Regie Regionale de la Sante et des
Services Sociaux Gaspesie-Iles de la Madeleine, Gaspe, PQ Canada GOC IRO.

35
36 / Peiletier, Fortier, Vailerand, Tuson, Briire, and Biais

Motivation is at the heart of many of sport's most interesting problems,

both as a developmental outcome of social environments such as competition
and coaches' behaviors, and as a developmental influence on behavioral variables
such as persistence, leaming, and perfonnance (Duda, 1989; Vallerand, Deci, &
Ryan, 1987). In light of the importance of these consequences for athletes, one
can easily understand researchers' interest in motivation as it pertains to sport
settings. Several conceptual perspectives have been proposed to better understand
athletes' motivation (see Roberts, 1992). One perspective that has been found to be
useful in this area posits that behavior can be intrinsically motivated, extrinsically
motivated, oramotivated (Deci, 1975; Deci & Ryan, 1985,1991). This theoretical
approach has generated a considerable amount of research and appears pertinent
to the field of sports (Briere, Vallerand, Blais, & Pelletier, in press; Deci & Ryan,
1985, chap. 12; Fortier, Vallerand, Briere, & Provencher, in press; Vallerand,
Deci, & Ryan, 1987). Recently, a new measure of motivation toward sport was
developed that is based on the tenets of Deci and Ryan's theory. The scale,
written in French, is entitled l'Echelle de Motivation vis-^-vis les Sports (EMS;
Briere et al., in press). The purpose of this paper is to present the results of two
studies dealing with the validation of this scale into English. The scale is composed
of seven subscales that measure the different forms of motivation outlined in
Deci and Ryan's theory.

Intrinsic Motivation
In general, intrinsic motivation (IM) refers to engaging in an activity purely
for the pleasure and satisfaction derived from doing the activity (Deci, 1975).
When a person is intrinsically motivated he or she will perform the behavior
voluntarily, in the absence of material rewards or external constraints (Deci &
Ryan, 1985). Athletes who go to practice because they find it interesting and
satisfying to learn more about their sport, or athletes who practice their sport for
the pleasure of constantly trying to surpass themselves are considered intrinsically
motivated toward their sport. Deci and Ryan posit that IM stems from the innate
psychological needs of competence and self-determination. Thus, activities that
allow individuals to experience feelings of competence and self-determination
will be engaged in because of IM.
Although most researchers posit the presence of a global IM construct,
certain theorists (Deci, 1975; White, 1959) have proposed that IM could differenti-
ate into more specific motives. Recently, a tripartite taxonomy of IM has been
postulated (Vallerand et al., 1992). This taxonomy is based on the IM literature
that reveals the presence of three types of IM that have been researched on an
independent basis. These three types of IM have been identified as IM to Know,
IM to Accomplish Things, and IM to Experience Stimulation.

Intrinsic Motivation to Know

This type of IM relates to several constructs such as exploration, curiosity,
leaming goals, IM to leam, and the epistemic need to know and understand. Thus,
it can be defined as performing an activity for the pleasure and the satisfaction that
one experiences while leaming, exploring, or trying to understand something
 Sport Motivation Scale / 37

new. For instance, athletes are intrinsically motivated to know when they try to
discover new training techniques for the sheer pleasure they experience while
leaming something new.

Intrinsic Motivation Toward Accomplishments

This second type of IM has been studied in developmental psychology, as
well as in educational research, under such terms as mastery motivation, efficacy
motivation, and task-orientation. In addition, other authors have postulated that
individuals interact with the environment in order to feel competent and to create
unique accomplishments (Deci, 1975; Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991). Thus, IM
toward accomplishments can be defined as engaging in an activity for the pleasure
and satisfaction experienced when one attempts to accomplish or create some-
thing. Trying to master certain difficult training techniques in order to experience
personal satisfaction represents an example of intrinsic motivation to accomplish
things in the sport domain.

Intrinsic Motivation to Experience Stimulation

Finally, IM to Experience Stimulation occurs when someone engages in
an activity in order to experience stimulating sensations (e.g., sensory pleasure,
aesthetic experiences, as well as fun and excitement) derived from one's engage-
ment in the activity. Research on the dynamic and holistic sensation of flow, on
feelings of excitement in IM, on aesthetic stimulating experiences, and peak
experiences is representative of this form of IM. Athletes who participate in their
sport in order to live exciting experiences are intrinsically motivated to experience
stimulation.

Extrinsic Motivation
Contrary to intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation (EM) pertains to a
wide variety of behaviors that are engaged in as a means to an end and not for
their own sake (Deci, 1975). It was originally thought that extrinsic motivation
referred to non-self-determined behavior, behavior that could only be prompted
by external contingencies (e.g., rewards). More recently however, Deci and Ryan,
along with their colleagues (e.g., Ryan, Connell, & Grolnick, 1990), have pro-
posed that there are, in fact, different types of extrinsic motivation that can be
ordered along a self-determination continuum. From lower to higher levels of
self-determination, they are: extemal regulation, introjection, identification.'

External Regulation
This type of motivation corresponds to extrinsic motivation as it generally
appears in the literature. That is, it refers to behavior that is controlled by extemal
sources, such as material rewards or constraints imposed by others (Deci & Ryan,
1985). Athletes who participate in sport in order to receive praise from their
coach or because they feel urged to do so by their parents are motivated by
38 / Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, Tuson, Briere, and Blais

extemal regulation. In this case, the sport is performed not for fun but to obtain
rewards (e.g., praise) or to avoid negative consequences (e.g., criticisms from
parents).

Introjection
With introjection, the formerly extemal source of motivation has been
intemalized such that its actual presence is no longer needed to initiate behavior.
Instead, these behaviors are reinforced through intemal pressures such as guilt
or anxiety. Athletes who participate in sports because they feel pressure to be
in good shape for aesthetic reasons, and feel embarrassed or ashamed when they
are not in best form, represent an example of introjected regulation.

Identiftcation
This last type of extrinsic motivation is in operation when the individual
comes to value and judge the behavior as important and, therefore, performs it
out of choice. TTie activity is still performed for extrinsic reasons (e.g., to achieve
personal goals); however, it is intemally regulated and self-determined. Athletes
who participate in sport because they feel their involvement contributes to a part
of their growth and development as a person represent an example of identified
motivation.

Amotivation
This seventh and final form of motivation is quite similar to the concept
of leamed helplessness (Abramson, Seligman, & Teasdale, 1978). That is, amoti-
vated individuals do not perceive contingencies between their actions and the
outcomes of their actions. They experience feelings of incompetence and lack
of control (Deci & Ryan, 1985). They are neither intrinsically motivated nor
extrinsically motivated. When athletes are in such a state, they no longer identify
any good reasons for why they continue to train. Eventually they may even
decide to stop practicing their sport.
In the last decade, Deci and Ryan's motivational approach has grown in
importance because the different types of motivation have been associated with
important psychological consequences (e.g., leaming, performance), and because
their theory identifies determinants of these different types of motivation.

Motivational Consequences
Because the various forms of motivation are posited to lie on a continuum
from high to low self-determination, and because self-determination is associated
with enhanced psychological functioning (Deci, 1980; Deci & Ryan, 1985), one
would expect a corresponding pattem of consequences. Research supports this
premise in that the different types of motivation are associated with increasingly
positive consequences as one progresses from amotivation to intrinsic motivation.
These findings have been obtained in laboratory settings (for reviews see
Vallerand, 1993; Vallerand & Reid, 1990), as well as in several life domains such
 Sport Motivation Scale / 39

as interpersonal relationships, leisure, education, and aging (see Blais, Sabourin,

Boucher, & Vallerand, 1990; Pelletier, Vallerand, Blais, Briere, & Green-Demers,
in press; Vallerand & Bissonnette, 1992; Vallerand & O'Connor, 1989). As for
the sport domain, the various self-determined forms of motivation (three types
of IM and identification) have been associated with greater persistence (Pelletier,
Briere, Blais, & Vallerand, 1988), positive emotions (Vallerand & Briere, 1990),
and greater interest and sport satisfaction (Briere et al., in press).

Motivational Determinants
According to cognitive evaluation theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991),
people's motivation varies in line with changes in their perceptions of competence
and self-determination. Events that lead to gains in either one of these feelings
should increase IM and identification while decreasing introjection, extemal
regulation, and amotivation. On the other hand, events that undermine one's
feelings of competence or self-determination should lead to a loss of IM and
identification, but to an increase in introjection, extemal regulation, and amotiva-
tion. Over the last two decades, a substantial amount of laboratory and field
research has supported this theory (for reviews see Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991;
Vallerand, 1993). Accordingly, in the realm of sport, Briere et al. (in press) found
that the more athletes perceived themselves as competent and self-determined,
the more they exhibited self-determined forms of motivation toward sport.
Interpersonal behaviors also represent important determinants of motiva-
tion. Past research involving perception of teachers' behaviors (Ryan & Grolnick,
1986), coaches' behaviors (Pelletier et al., 1988), and parents' behaviors (Grol-
nick, Ryan, & Deci, 1991) have shown that informational behaviors, those provid-
ing feedback of competence and a clear structure or rationale for doing an activity,
foster self-determined forms of motivation and undermine amotivation. A similar
effect has been found for autonomy supportive behaviors and interpersonal behav-
iors providing opportunities for choice where the individual's sense of autonomy
is enhanced. On the other hand, impersonal behaviors where, for example, coaches
do not care for athletes, have been shown to undermine IM and identification,
and to foster amotivation.
To study the different relations between determinants, motivation, and
consequences in the sport domain, it is necessary to have an instrument that can
reliably and validly measure the different forms of motivation toward sport.
Existing measures of intrinsic and/or extrinsic sport motivation present conceptual
problems and do not assess all seven constmcts. Weiss, Bredemeier, and Shew-
chuk's (1985) instrument pits IM against EM on the same continuum, whereas
Dwyer's (1988) Sports Intrinsic Motivation Scale and McAuley, Duncan, and
Tammen's (1989) instrument assesses solely intrinsic motivation. Furthermore,
these measures have weak factorial structures.
In light of the importance of conducting research on sport motivation with
an instrument based on a valid theoretical conceptualization, and given that no
existing scale adequately assesses intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and
amotivation toward sport, Briere et al. (in press) developed and validated the
EMS. This scale was originally constructed in French and is made up of seven
subscales of four items each, which assess the three different types of IM (IM
40 / Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, Tuson, Briire, and Blais

to Know, to Accomplish Things, and to Experience Stimulation), three types of

EM (Extemal Regulation, Introjection, and Identification), and Amotivation. In
the EMS, motivation is operationalized as the underlying "why" of behavior
(Deci & Ryan, 1985) and focuses on the perceived reasons for engaging in the
activity. Thus, athletes are asked, "Why do you practice your sport?" and items
represent possible answers to that question, thus reflecting the different types of
motivation.
The preliminary and validation studies, which involved approximately 600
athletes (mean age of 18.4 years) recruited from different athletic teams (basket-
ball, volleyball, swimming, ice hockey, football, handball, soccer, and badmin-
ton), revealed that the EMS has satisfactory intemal consistency levels (a mean
alpha score of .82), as well as moderate to high indices of temporal stability (a
mean test-retest correlation of .69) over a 1-month period. Results of a confirma-
tory factor analysis (with LISREL) also confirmed the seven-factor structure of
the EMS. Finally, the construct validity of the scale was supported by a series
of correlational analyses among the seven subscales, as well as between these
scales and other psychological constructs relevant to the sports domain, such as
interest toward sport, sport satisfaction, and positive emotions experienced during
sport practice. In addition, the EMS was able to predict sport dropout (Pelletier
et al., 1988). The French version of the EMS therefore appears to represent a
reliable and valid measure of IM, EM, and amotivation in sports.
Because the EMS was initially validated in French, it was not available to
researchers conducting research with English-speaking athletes. In light of the
psychometric qualities of the EMS, the findings it has yielded, and the importance
of assessing motivation from a sound theoretical perspective, it was decided to
validate the EMS in English. In Study 1, The EMS was translated from French
to English using the procedures outlined by Vallerand (1989). The English version
of the scale. The Sport Motivation Scale (SMS), was then completed by a sample
of athletes from various sports to ascertain the intemal consistency of the seven
subscales and to provide an exploratory assessment of the seven-factor structure.
In addition, correlations were conducted among the seven subscales to test for
the presence of a simplex pattem, and between the seven motivational subscales
and several psychological scales representing motivational antecedents and conse-
quences to assess the construct validity of the subscales. Finally, a confirmatory
factor analysis (with LISREL) was conducted to provide a further assessment of
the seven-factor structure. We hypothesized that the results from these two studies
would replicate past findings obtained with the French-Canadian version of the
SMS (the EMS) and should show that the SMS is a reliable and valid measure
of sport motivation.

Study 1
The first study had several purposes. A first purpose was to translate the
EMS into English following adequate translation procedures. A second purpose
was to examine the factor structure of the SMS through confirmatory factor
analysis (CFA) with LISREL 7. A third purpose was to assess the intemal
consistency of the seven subscales. A fourth purpose was to assess the construct
validity of the scale. To achieve this task, correlations among the seven subscales
 Sport Motivation Scale / 41

were conducted to test the presence of a self-determination continuum (Deci &

Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Connell, 1989). Construct validity of the scale was also
assessed by conducting correlations between the SMS and various sport and
psychological variables representing antecedents and consequences relevant to
sport. A fifth and final purpose of the study was to verify if the gender differences
on the subscale means observed with the French-Canadian sample would also
be observed with the English sample. Results obtained with the French-Canadian
sample revealed that females had higher levels of IM to know but lower level
of extemal regulation than males.

Translation of the EMS to English

In line with procedures outlined by Vallerand (1989), the translation of the
EMS into English involved the following three steps: preparation of two prelimi-
nary English versions of the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS), the evaluation of
the preliminary versions, and preparation and pretesting of the final experimental
version of the scale.
Preparation of Preliminary English Versions of SMS. The procedure used
in this study followed the parallel back-translation procedure. This procedure
involves translating the scale from the original to the target language by a bilingual
individual. The translated version is then translated back to the original language
by another bilingual individual without the help of the original scale. Two indepen-
dent translators initiated separate back translation sequences, and four bilingual
individuals (one social psychologist and three graduate students in social psychol-
ogy) conducted the parallel back-translation procedure. These individuals were
all very familiar with Deci and Ryan's theory of intrinsic motivation and self-
determination.
Evaluation of Preliminary English Versions of SMS. The second phase
provides an initial assessment of the adequacy of the translated versions of the
scale and a final experimental English version of the SMS. A committee formed
of the individuals who participated in the back-translation procedures and some
of the authors of the original version of the scale (the EMS) scrutinized each
item from both the original scale and the two versions retranslated into French
to see if the original items had been retranslated appropriately in the original
language. When an original item had been appropriately retranslated back into
French, the English item was considered adequate. The committee then focused
on the quality of the English language of the item in question, with the meaning
conveyed by the items being more important than the word-for-word translation.
Following the assessment of each item, an experimental version of the SMS
composed of 28 items was prepared. The same procedures were used to prepare
the scale format and instructions because different format presentations of the
same scale can lead to different results (Converse & Presser, 1986).
Pretest of Experimental Scale. The final step involved pretesting the
experimental version of the SMS to verify that the experimenters' perspective
and language corresponded to that of the target population. Eight junior-college
athletes were asked to read the English version of the SMS and to indicate any
questions they had with respect to the instructions or the items. This step led to
some minor modifications to the scale instructions. The English version of the
SMS was then ready to be used in research (see Appendix).
42 / Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand. Tuson. Briere, and Blais

Method
The experimental version of the SMS was completed by 593 university
athletes (319 males and 274 females) with a mean age of 19.2 years. Athletes
were recruited from different athletic teams (basketball, volleyball, swimming,
ice hockey, football, track and field, cross country running, soccer, and rugby)
from the province of Ontario, Canada. All athletes had at least 2 years of competi-
tive experience at either the high school or college level. Subjects completed the
SMS, along with several scales measuring related constructs in small groups at
the beginning of a workout. Scales used to assess motivational antecedents
included perceived competence^ (based on Vallerand, Blais, Briere, & Pelletier,
1989; e.g., "I consider myself to be a good athlete"; five items, alpha = .59)
and four subscales assessing the coach's interpersonal style (CIS). The CIS
subscales were: the Autonomy Supportive Climate (e.g., "My coach accepts that
mistakes I make are part of a leaming process"; four items, alpha = .76), Caring
(e.g., "My coach cares about me"; four items, alpha = .79), Providing Stmcture
(e.g., "When my coach asks me to do something, he or she gives me a rationale
for doing it"; four items, alpha - .75), and Competence Feedback (e.g., "The
feedback I receive from my coach is constmctive in helping me make improve-
ments"; four items, alpha = .80).
Scales measuring various constmcts thought to represent sport outcomes
were: Distraction in Training (adapted from Sarason, Sarason, Keefe, Hayes, &
Shearin, 1986; three items, alpha = .43), Effort (adapted from Ryan & Connell,
1989; three items, alpha = .51), and Future Intention to Practice Their Sport
(adapted from Pelletier et al., 1988; four items, alpha = .60). All of the above
scales were assessed on a 7-point scale anchored by the end points does not
correspond at all (]) and corresponds exactly (7) with the midpoint corresponds
moderately (4).
Subjects were informed that we were interested in better understanding the
reasons why they practiced their sport. They were told they did not have to
complete the questionnaire but that their collaboration would be very much
appreciated. Finally, athletes were told not to put their names on the questionnaire,
that data from the study would only serve scientific purposes and would therefore
remain strictly confidential.
Analyses
First, the factor stmcture of the SMS was examined with confirmatory
factor analysis. Second, correlations among the subscales are computed to test
for the presence of a simplex pattem. Third, intemal consistency of the subscales
was assessed using Cronbach alphas. Fourth, gender differences for the different
subscales were examined. Finally, correlations between the seven subscales and
the related antecedent and consequence variables were conducted to establish
the constmct validity of the SMS.

Results and Discussion

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). The initial analysis examined sepa-
rately the univariate distributions of all the variables and verified that all were
normally distributed with low degrees of skewness and kurtosis. Then, the covari-
ance matrix was subjected to a confirmatory factor analysis with LISREL 7
 Spon Motivation Scale / 43

(Joreskog & Sorbom, 1989) using a maximum likelihood method of estimation.

A confirmatory factor model that allowed free loadings on the items within each
of the seven factors postulated by the theory and observed in the analyses of the
French scale, was tested. Factor variances were fixed at unity, and all factors
were allowed to correlate freely. The adequacy of fit for the model was based
on the goodness of fit index (GFI), the adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI),
the root-mean-square residual (RMR) (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1989), the normed
fit index (NFI; Bentler & Bonett, 1980), the f Idf raAo (Byrne, 1989), and the
chi-square statistic (Bentler, 1980; Newcomb & Bentler, 1988).
We tested a CFA model that evaluated the adequacy of the measurement
or factor structure and that specified how the measured variables were hypothe-
sized to reflect the underlying latent factors. This was necessary to verify the
adequacy of the hypothesized latent constmcts. In this model, seven factors were
postulated. These factors corresponded to the seven subscales and were made
up of the four corresponding items. No cross-loadings were postulated. As ex-
pected, the model did not fit very well according to the chi-square statistic p
value, y}029, N = 593) = 637.49, p < .001. However, the x7d/ratio was 1.94,
the GFI was .94, the AGFI was .92, the RMR was .048, and the value for the
NFI was .92, indicating that a majority of the variation was accounted for by
the model, and given that a large sample was used, this model is considered
acceptable. Finally, all items had loadings over .70.
Correlations Among the Seven Subscales. Pearson correlations computed
among the seven subscales are presented above the diagonal in Table 1. The
factor intercorrelations obtained with the CFA are presented below the diagonal.
The correlations among the latent constructs presented below the diagonal are
considered disattenuated for measurement error and thus may be conceptualized
as representing the true associations among these latent variables. We expected
to find strong positive correlations among the three types of IM. Indeed, if they
all assess a related construct (intrinsic motivation), they should display high

Table 1 Internal Consistency Values: Cronbach Alpha (On the Diagonal),

Pearsons Correlations (Over the Diagonal), and Phi Values (Below the Diagonal)
for SMS Subscales

Subscales
Subscales 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Amotivation (.75) .11 .10 -.01 -.10 -.11 -.10

2. Extemal regulation .13 (.77) .31 .16 .14 .11 .10
3. Introjected regulation .14 .40 (.74) .23 .18 .18 .15
4. Identified regulation .04 .46 .38 (.63) .20 .20 .14
5. IM-to know -.16 .22 .29 .40 (.80) .48 .53
6. IM-accomplishment -.18 .18 .26 .39 .72 (.80) .41
7. IM-stimulation -.17 .22 .30 .41 .56 .65 (.74)

Note. N = 593. All of the subscales are made up of four items. Correlations of .13 and
above are significant, p < .001. Phi value of .10 and above are significant, p < .01.
44 / Pelletier. Fortier. Vallerand, Tuson. Briire, and Blais

levels of association. In Table 1, the three IM showed the highest positive

correlations among themselves (rs above .50). These correlations were very
similar to those obtained by Briere et al. (in press) with the French version of
the scale (rs above .44). Such correlations reveal that the three subscales assess
similar but not identical constmcts.
Second, correlations among the seven subscales were expected to display
the presence of the self-determination continuum postulated by Deci and Ryan
(1985). As indicated earlier, support for this continuum would be obtained through
the display of a simplex pattem where adjacent subscales (e.g., Extemal Regula-
tion and Introjection) have positive correlations, and the subscales at the opposite
ends of the continuum (i.e., IM and Amotivation) have the most negative correla-
tions. Correlations among the seven subscales generally displayed a simplex
pattem. Adjacent subscales showed higher correlations than subscales farther
apart. Subscales at the opposite ends of the continuum displayed more negative
correlations than immediate subscales. Overall, the present results are in
agreement with those obtained with the French-Canadian version of the scale
(Briere et al., in press) and provide some support for the constmct validity of
the English version of the SMS.
Internal Consistency of the Seven Subscales. The intemal consistency of
the subscales was assessed using Cronbach's alpha, presented along the diagonal
of Table 1. As can be seen, values varied from .74 to .80, except for the Identification
subscale, which had an alpha value of .63. The mean alpha score for the SMS was
.75. These values are slightly lower than the values obtained with the original version
of the scale (EMS), where values were all above .71 and the mean alpha score was
.82. Overall, considering that these subscales are made up of 4 items, they appear
to show adequate levels of intemal consistency and are considered equivalent to
those obtained with the original scale.
Gender Differences Between the Subscale Means. A Gender x Scale
analysis of variance with repeated measures on the scale factor was conducted.
This analysis revealed the presence of a main effect for scale, F(6, 582) =
279.29, p < .001. This effect indicated that most of the subscale means differed
significantly from each other except for the Introjection, Identification, IM to
Know, IM to Experience Stimulation, and the IM to Achieve subscales. As can
be seen in Table 2, the most representative forms of motivation for the athletes
in this sample were, in decreasing order: IM to Experience Stimulation, IM
to Accomplish Something, Identification, IM to Know, Introjection, Extemal
Regulation, and Amotivation.
The main effect for gender was not significant, F(l, 582) = .32, p =.57,
although a Gender x Scale interaction, F(6,582) = 4.34, p< .001, was significant.
Results from the simple main effect analysis revealed that female athletes scored
higher than males on the IM to Know and the IM to Accomplish Something
subscales, but scored lower on the Extemal Regulation subscale.
Globally, these results replicate the results obtained with the French-Cana-
dian version of the SMS by Briere et al. (in press). The only difference between
the two studies is that in the Briere et al. study, no significant difference was
observed for the IM to Accomplish Something subscale. This difference could
be the result of several factors, including the type of activities practiced by the
subjects of both samples or the cultural differences between French and English
Canadians.
 Sport Motivation Scale / 45

Table 2 Means and Standard Deviations of the Motivation Subscales

for Females and Males

Females Males
Motivation subscales M SD M SD

Amotivation 6.89 3.00 6.98 3.10

Extemal regulation* 10.82 3.59 11.56 3.72
Introjected regulation 12.46 4.04 12.29 3.70
Indentified regulation 13.13 3.24 12.90 3.1b
IM-to know* 13.05 3.73 12.42 3.47
IM-accomplishment* 14.88 3.40 14.17 3.30
IM-stimulation 14.57 3.49 14.76 2.99

*p < .05.

Correlations With Motivational Antecedents and Consequences. Correl-

ations betweeti the motivation subscales and a series of psychological variables
that are considered motivational antecedents or consequences appear in Table 3.
Perceived competence and four forms of coaches' interpersonal behaviors (i.e.,
being supportive of autonomy, caring, providing clear structure, and providing
competence feedback) were expected to correlate strongly with the three forms
of IM and the Identification subscale and to correlate negatively with the Amotiva-
tion subscale. Correlations with the Extemal Regulation and the Introjection
subscales should fall between these two extremes. It can be seen that the predic-
tions were generally confirmed.
Finally, correlations were computed between the SMS subscales and moti-
vational consequences (distraction during the activity, effort, and future intentions
of practicing the activity). It was expected that the various positive motivational
consequences would be progressively and positively associated as one moves
from amotivation to IM (Vallerand et al., 1993) and that an opposite pattem
would be observed for the negative consequences (such as distraction).
The hypotheses were basically supported with all the outcome variables.
The positive consequences were correlated positively with the more self-deter-
mined forms of motivation and negatively correlated with the Amotivation sub-
scale. The opposite pattem was observed with the negative consequence,
distraction. Overall these results are very much in line with findings reported by
Briere et al. (in press) with the French-Canadian version of the SMS and with
those obtained with similar scales in other life domains.
In sum, the results with the different types of sport antecedents and conse-
quences confirmed the basic hypotheses and offered support for the self-determi-
nation continuum. In line with past research, perceptions of competence were
related positively to the most self-determined forms of motivation but negatively
to the least self-determined forms of motivation. Similar findings were obtained
with the different forms of informational interpersonal behaviors, as well as those
supportive of autonomy. Finally, the hypotheses were also supported for the
46 / Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, Tuson, Briire, and Blais

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 Sport Motivation Scale / 47

motivational consequences. On a general basis, the most positive correlations

were obtained with the IM and Identification subscales, while the most negative
correlations were found with the Amotivation subscale.

Study 2

The purpose of this last study was to assess the temporal stability of the
SMS. Briere et al. (in press) reported test-retest correlations varying between
.54 and .82 over a 1-month period. Similar values were expected with the English
version. The intemal consistency of the subscales was also reassessed.

Method
Fifty soccer players of provincial level from the Ottawa region (31 females
and 19 males), with a mean age of 18.4 years, completed the SMS twice 5
weeks apart. The questionnaire was completed during a workout using the same
procedures described in the first study, except that athletes were told that they
would be asked to complete the scale twice. To prevent social desirability biases,
athletes were asked to put down their date of birth instead of their name. This
way, the two questionnaires could be linked without using the subject's name.

Results and Discussion

Results from the test-retest correlations and the intemal consistency for
the pretest and posttest appear in Table 4. It can be seen that the correlations
are acceptable, ranging from .58 to .84 with a mean test-retest correlation of
.70. These results are once again very close to those observed with the French-
Canadian version (mean r - .69) and offer support for the temporal stability of
the English version of the scale. The alpha values for the pretest and the posttest
are also acceptable varying from .71 to .85 at the pretest, and from .69 to .85 at

Table 4 Internal Consistency Values (Cronbach Alpha) and Test-Retest

Correlations of the SMS Subscales

Alpha pretest Alpha posttest Test-retest correlations

Amotivation .81 .73 .58

Extemal regulation .80 .85 .78
Introjected regulation .71 .73 .66
Identified regulation .71 .69 .84
IM-to know .85 .73 .62
IM-accomplishment .78 .79 .75
IM-stimulation .81 .76 .66

Note. N = .50.
48 / Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, Tuson, Briire, and Blais

the posttest. These values are very similar to those obtained in the first study
and are consistent with those observed by Briere et al. (in press), thereby offering
further support for the reliability and internal consistency of the subscales.

Conclusion
The purpose of the two studies reported in this article was to validate the
Sport Motivation Scale (SMS) in English. Results from the two studies revealed
that the SMS has adequate levels of validity and reliability. Results from the
confirmatory factor analysis supported the seven-factor structure of the SMS and
provided some support for the construct validity of the scale. Second, correlations
among the seven subscales, as well as between the subscales of the SMS and
variables thought to represent motivational antecedents and consequences, led
to a pattem of results in line with theoretical predictions, with findings obtained
in other life domains (see Vallerand, 1993), and with findings similar to those
obtained with the French-Canadian version of the SMS. Third, results from the
CFA, pattems of means for the IM subscales, and correlations among the IM
subscales yielded support for the discriminant validity of the three IM subscales.
With respect to the reliability of the scale, results from the two studies indicated
that all subscales had adequate levels of intemal consistency and displayed
acceptable levels of temporal stability over a 5-week period. The values obtained
are also very similar to those obtained with the French-Canadian version.
Thus, these results are encouraging. Additional research will be necessary
to further establish the psychometric properties of the scale. For instance, relations
between the SMS subscales and various scales used to assess motivation-like
constructs in sport (e.g., Dwyer, 1988; McAuley et al., 1989; Weiss et al., 1985)
could be analyzed to further establish the concomitant validity of each subscale.
In addition, contrary to other instruments, the SMS assesses seven types of
motivation on an independent basis. Theoretically, this should allow for a finer
analysis of motivational forces than these other instruments, which should lead
to better discriminant, as well as predictive, validity.
Additional research could also focus on theoretical and applied issues.
From a theoretical perspective, it now becomes possible to test some hypotheses
derived from cognitive evaluation theory (CET; Deci & Ryan, 1985). Athletes'
motivation can be enhanced or undermined by factors in the home and sport
environments. In this respect, CET has proposed some dimensions as being
important for facilitating self-determination in athletes: autonomy support versus
control, and involvement. That is, the degree to which parents and coaches
encourage children to initiate and make their own choices rather than apply
pressure to control the children's behavior, and the degree to which parents and
coaches are interested in and spend time relating to the children conceming
experiences and activities, should facilitate self-determination in children. Results
from correlations among the SMS subscales in Study 1, as well as previous
research (e.g., Blais et al., 1990; Pelletier et al., 1988; Vallerand et al., 1989),
would tend to support these hypotheses with respect to coaches. Future research
is needed to better understand (a) whether parents' interpersonal behaviors also
affect athletes' motivation and (b) the nature of the psychological processes
responsible for such effects. Finally, it would be interesting to better understand
how parents' and coaches' behaviors combined in affecting athletes' motivation.
 Sport Motivation Scale / 49

From an applied perspective, self-determination has been linked to im-

portant outcomes in sport, such as dropout. For example, Pelletier et al. (1988)
indicated that athletes' perceptions of the autonomy support was positively associ-
ated with self-determined forms of motivation (i.e., intrinsic motivation and
identified regulation) and athletes' perceptions of control was positively associ-
ated with less self-determined forms of motivation (i.e., extemal regulation and
amotivation). In tum, the swimmer's level of motivation predicted persistence
in the sport a year later. Future research should try to replicate these results with
other activities. Research should also attempt to assess motivation at different
points in time to better understand the specific circumstances leading to a drop
in athletes' motivation.
Implicit in the preceding discussion is the assumption that intrinsic motiva-
tion and self-determination are advantageous in sports. In several studies, it has
been found that controlling events (e.g., competition, deadlines, imposed goals)
led to poorer perfonnance and less creativity than informational events. Appar-
ently, when people are intrinsically motivated and self-determined, they are more
fully involved in the activity itself and, therefore, display better performance.
For instance, it has been shown that self-determined goal setting leads to enhanced
perfonnance relative to imposed goal-setting (Alexander & Schuldt, 1982). Re-
search also reveals that, when extrinsically motivated, people generally do the
minimum work that will allow them to receive the reward, avoid the punishment,
or defeat an opponent (Kmglanski, Stein, & Riter, 1977; Pittman, Emery, &
Boggiano, 1982). Thus low levels of self-determination may create a passive set
such that the behavior will occur only when the individual is prodded by the
environment. The extra effort that may be needed for optimal performance would,
therefore, not be forthcoming. There is, however, little evidence that directly
links intrinsic motivation and self-determination to athletic perfonnance. Further
research on this issue is needed as it should further knowledge on the interaction
between real-life environments, motivational orientation, and performance.
In sum, the SMS represents not only an adequate adaptation of the French-
Canadian version, but a reliable and valid scale in its own right that should be
useful for research on sport motivation. Although results of the present studies
provide support for the adequacy of its psychometric properties, further evaluation
should be pursued in future research.

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Appendix

Why Do You Practice Your Sport?

Using the scale below, please indicate to what extent each of the following items corre-
sponds to one of the reasons for which you are presently practicing your sport.
Does not
correspond Corresponds Corresponds
at all moderately exactly

1. For the pleasure I feel in living 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

exciting experiences.
2. For the pleasure it gives me to 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
know more about the sport that I
practice.
3. I used to have good reasons for do- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
ing sports, but now I am asking my-
self if I should continue doing it.
4. For the pleasure of discovering 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
new training techniques.
5. I don't know anymore; I have the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
impression that I am incapable of
succeeding in this sport.
6. Because it allows me to be well 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
regarded by people that I know.
7. Because, in my opinion, it is one 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
of the best ways to meet people.
8. Because I feel a lot of personal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
satisfaction while mastering cer-
tain difficult training techniques.
9. Because it is absolutely necessary 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
to do sports if one wants to be in
shape.
10. For the prestige of being an athlete. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
11. Because it is one of the best ways 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
I have chosen to develop other as-
pects of myself.
12. For the pleasure I feel while im- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
proving some of my weak points.
13. For the excitement I feel when I I 2 3 4 5 6 7
am really involved in the activity.
14. Because I must do sports to feel 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
good about myself.
15. For the satisfaction I experience 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
while I am perfecting my abilities.
16. Because people around me think it 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
is important to be in shape.
 Sport Motivation Scale / 53

17. Because it is a good way to leam 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

lots of things which could be useful
to me in other areas of my life.
18. For the intense emotions that I feel 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
while I am doing a sport that I like.
19. It is not clear to me anymore; I don't 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
really think my place is in sport.
20. For the pleasure that I feel while 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
executing certain difficult move-
ments.
21. Because I would feel bad if I was 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
not taking time to do it.
22. To show others how good I am at 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
my sport.
23. For the pleasure that I feel while 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
leaming training techniques that I
have never tried before.
24. Because it is one of the best ways 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
to maintain good relationships with
my friends.
25. Because I like the feeling of being 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
totally immersed in the activity.
26. Because I must do sports regularly. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
27. For the pleasure of discovering 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
new performance strategies.
28. I often ask myself; I can't seem 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
to achieve the goals that I set for
myself.

Notes
'Deci and Ryan (1985) also include integrated regulation as one type of extrinsic
motivation. However, integrated regulation was not initially included in the EMS and
therefore is not assessed in the SMS. Pilot data revealed that integrated regulation did
not come out as a perceived reason for participating in sport. Future research would appear
necessary on this issue.
^Although the alpha reliability values of some of determinants and consequences are
low, it was decided to use these measures since they were also used with the French version.

Acknowledgments
This paper was prepared while the first author was supported by research grants
from the Tri-Council of Canada (SSHRC-NSRC-MRC) and le Fonds pour la Formation
des Chercheurs et I'Aide a la Recherche (FCAR Quebec). The third author was supported
by grants from SSHRC, FCAR Quebec, Le Conseil Quebecois de la Recherche Sociale,
and the University du Quebec a Montreal, while the second and fourth authors were
supported by SSHRC fellowships.
Manuscript submitted: November 30, 1993 Revision received: August 24, 1994