Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 966

Jerzy Charytonowicz
Christianne Falcão Editors

Advances in Human Factors

in Architecture, Sustainable
Urban Planning and
Infrastructure
Proceedings of the AHFE 2019
International Conference on Human
Factors in Architecture, Sustainable
Urban Planning and Infrastructure,
July 24–28, 2019, Washington D.C., USA
Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing

Volume 966

Series Editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences,
Warsaw, Poland

Advisory Editors
Nikhil R. Pal, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
Rafael Bello Perez, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Computing,
Universidad Central de Las Villas, Santa Clara, Cuba
Emilio S. Corchado, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
Hani Hagras, School of Computer Science & Electronic Engineering,
University of Essex, Colchester, UK
László T. Kóczy, Department of Automation, Széchenyi István University,
Gyor, Hungary
Vladik Kreinovich, Department of Computer Science, University of Texas
at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA
Chin-Teng Lin, Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chiao
Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
Jie Lu, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology,
University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Patricia Melin, Graduate Program of Computer Science, Tijuana Institute
of Technology, Tijuana, Mexico
Nadia Nedjah, Department of Electronics Engineering, University of Rio de Janeiro,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Ngoc Thanh Nguyen, Faculty of Computer Science and Management,
Wrocław University of Technology, Wrocław, Poland
Jun Wang, Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering,
The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
The series “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” contains publications
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Jerzy Charytonowicz Christianne Falcão
•

Editors

Advances in Human Factors

in Architecture, Sustainable
Urban Planning
and Infrastructure
Proceedings of the AHFE 2019 International
Conference on Human Factors
in Architecture, Sustainable Urban Planning
and Infrastructure, July 24–28, 2019,
Washington D.C., USA

123
Editors
Jerzy Charytonowicz Christianne Falcão
Faculty of Architecture Catholic University of Pernambuco
Wroclaw University of Science Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
and Technology
Wroclaw, Poland

ISSN 2194-5357 ISSN 2194-5365 (electronic)

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing
ISBN 978-3-030-20150-0 ISBN 978-3-030-20151-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
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Advances in Human Factors
and Ergonomics 2019

AHFE 2019 Series Editors

Tareq Ahram, Florida, USA
Waldemar Karwowski, Florida, USA

10th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics and the
Affiliated Conferences

Proceedings of the AHFE 2019 International Conference on Human Factors in

Architecture, Sustainable Urban Planning and Infrastructure, held on July 24–28,
2019, in Washington D.C., USA

Advances in Affective and Pleasurable Design Shuichi Fukuda

Advances in Neuroergonomics Hasan Ayaz
and Cognitive Engineering
Advances in Design for Inclusion Giuseppe Di Bucchianico
Advances in Ergonomics in Design Francisco Rebelo and Marcelo M. Soares
Advances in Human Error, Reliability, Resilience, Ronald L. Boring
and Performance
Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics in Nancy J. Lightner and Jay Kalra
Healthcare and Medical Devices
Advances in Human Factors and Simulation Daniel N. Cassenti
Advances in Human Factors and Systems Isabel L. Nunes
Interaction
Advances in Human Factors in Cybersecurity Tareq Ahram and Waldemar Karwowski
Advances in Human Factors, Business Jussi Ilari Kantola and Salman Nazir
Management and Leadership
Advances in Human Factors in Robots Jessie Chen
and Unmanned Systems
Advances in Human Factors in Training, Waldemar Karwowski, Tareq Ahram
Education, and Learning Sciences and Salman Nazir
Advances in Human Factors of Transportation Neville Stanton
(continued)

v
vi Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics 2019

(continued)
Advances in Artificial Intelligence, Software Tareq Ahram
and Systems Engineering
Advances in Human Factors in Architecture, Jerzy Charytonowicz and Christianne
Sustainable Urban Planning and Infrastructure Falcão
Advances in Physical Ergonomics and Human Ravindra S. Goonetilleke and Waldemar
Factors Karwowski
Advances in Interdisciplinary Practice in Industrial Cliff Sungsoo Shin
Design
Advances in Safety Management and Human Pedro M. Arezes
Factors
Advances in Social and Occupational Ergonomics Richard H. M. Goossens and Atsuo
Murata
Advances in Manufacturing, Production Waldemar Karwowski, Stefan
Management and Process Control Trzcielinski and Beata Mrugalska
Advances in Usability and User Experience Tareq Ahram and Christianne Falcão
Advances in Human Factors in Wearable Tareq Ahram
Technologies and Game Design
Advances in Human Factors in Communication Amic G. Ho
of Design
Advances in Additive Manufacturing, Modeling Massimo Di Nicolantonio, Emilio Rossi
Systems and 3D Prototyping and Thomas Alexander
Preface

The discipline of human factors in architecture, sustainable urban planning and

infrastructure provides a platform for addressing challenges in human factors and
engineering research with the focus on sustainability in the built environment,
applications of sustainability assessment, demonstrations and applications that
contribute to competitiveness and well-being, quantification and assessment of
sustainable infrastructure projects, and the environmental, human, social and
economic dimensions of sustainable infrastructure. A thorough understanding of the
characteristics of a wide range of people is essential in the development of
sustainable infrastructure and systems and serves as valuable information to
designers to help ensure the design will fit the targeted population of end users.
This book focuses on the advances in the human factors in sustainable urban
planning and infrastructure, which are critical aspects in the design of any
human-centered technological system. The ideas and practical solutions described
in the book are the outcomes of dedicated research by academics and practitioners
aiming to advance theory and practice in this dynamic and all-encompassing
discipline.
A total of four main sections are presented in this book:
Section 1 Building and Architecture
Section 2 Material Environment Design
Section 3 Urban Design
Section 4 Sustainable Urban Planning and Infrastructure
Each section contains research papers that have been reviewed by members
of the International Editorial Board. Our sincere thanks and appreciation to the
board members as listed below:
Clinton Aigbavboa, South Africa
Agata Bonenberg, Poland
Wojciech Bonenberg, Poland
Bogdan Branowski, Poland
Alexander Burov, Ukraine

vii
viii Preface

Alina Drapella-Hermansdorfer, Poland

Klaudiusz Fross, Poland
Anna Jaglarz, Poland
Bronislaw Kapitaniak, France
Ludmila Klimatskaya, Russia
Vladko Kolbanov, Russia
Robert Masztalski, Poland
Andrej Szpakov, Belarus
Romuald Tarczewski, Poland
Elżbieta Trocka-Leszczyńska, Poland
Joanna Tymkiewicz, Poland
Edwin Tytyk, Poland
We hope that this book, which is the international state of the art in architecture,
urban planning and sustainable infrastructure domain of human factors and
ergonomics, will be a valuable source of theoretical and applied knowledge
enabling human-centered design for global markets.

July 2019 Jerzy Charytonowicz

Christianne Falcão
Contents

Building and Architecture

Building as a Primary Means of Preventative Care.
Postulate of Certification of Buildings Intended for Use
by the Elderly in Multi-family Housing and Collective Housing . . . . . . . 3
Agata Bonenberg
T-House in Shaping Sustainable Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Alicja Maciejko and Bogusław Wojtyszyn
Ergonomics for Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Elzbieta Trocka-Leszczynska and Joanna Jablonska
Reconstruction with a Change of Function – Ergonomics
of the Hotel Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Joanna Jablonska and Elzbieta Trocka-Leszczynska
T-House. Shaping Ergonomic and Flexible Interiors in Modular
Form Connected to Horticultural Therapy Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Jerzy Charytonowicz, Alicja Maciejko, and Agnieszka Skrzypczak
Ergonomics of Sound in a Hotel Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Joanna Jablonska and Elzbieta Trocka-Leszczynska
Landscape-Solutions of Sports and Tourist Complexes
in the Karkonosze Mountains - Examples
of Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Anna Wojtas-Harań
Hygienic-Sanitary Zones in Hotel Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Elzbieta Trocka-Leszczynska and Joanna Jablonska
Public Toilets: Determinant of the Progress of Civilization
and Consciousness of Societies or a Necessary Evil? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Anna Jaglarz

ix
x Contents

Designing Public Toilets in the Historic Urban Landscape.

Analysis Based on the Polish Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Anna Jaglarz

Material Environment Design

Ideas Behind the Changes in the 20th c. Avant-Garde Architecture . . . . 113
Teresa Bardzinska-Bonenberg
The Role of Cultural Heritage in Sustainable Development. Values
and Valuation as Key Factors in Spatial Planning of Rural Areas . . . . . 124
Wojciech Bonenberg
The Application of BIM in the “China Beautiful Rural” Design
Project–Yangyou Village River Ecological Landscape Reconstruction
Design Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Xia Wei, Wojciech Bonenberg, and Mo Zhou
The Method of Designing an Architectural Composition Applying
Images Reflected in Water Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Zdzislaw Pelczarski
Inclusive Healthcare Waiting Rooms: A Comparison Study
for Improving the User Experience Within Built Environment . . . . . . . 158
Claudia M. Fernández-Rivera, Carlos Aceves-González, Matteo Zallio,
and Mario Mireles-Ramirez
Human Scale in Architecture of Buildings for the Performing Arts . . . . 167
Paweł Amałowicz
Serrated and Finned Glazed Facades’ Impact on the User’s
Visual Comfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Marcin Brzezicki
Renovations of Public Spaces at Junctions with Water – Boulevards.
Case Studies in a Spatial, Visual and Usable Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Andrzej Sobolewski and Roman Czajka
Preference for Chinese Vernacular Windows: Combined Effects
of Shape and View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Man Zhang, Jiangtao Du, and Yuyang Tang
Ergonomic Shaping of Functional and Spatial Program of Housing . . . 208
Przemyslaw Nowakowski

Urban Design
Landscape Parks in China: Steering and Handling
Growing Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Teresa Bardzinska-Bonenberg and Shoufang Liu
Contents xi

Smart Village as a Model of Sustainable Development.

Case Study of Wielkopolska Region in Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Wojciech Bonenberg, Ling Qi, Mo Zhou, and Xia Wei
“The Growing House” - the Way to Solve the Housing Problem
in Interwar Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Jadwiga Urbanik
Architectural Challenges of Designing Front Entrance Area
at City Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Andrzej Dudzinski
Smart Eco-Villages and Tourism Development Based on Rural
Revitalization with Comparison Chinese and Polish Traditional
Villages Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Ling Qi, Mo Zhou, Wojciech Bonenberg, and Zixuan Ma
Management Balance Between Nature and Rural Settlements
in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Shoufang Liu, Lin Li, Wojciech Bonenberg,
Teresa Bardzinska-Bonenberg, and Mo Zhou
Active City for Healthy Ageing and Anti-globesity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Cristiana Cellucci and Michele Di Sivo
Users Preferences in Land Use and Architecture of Rural Areas . . . . . . 295
Wojciech Bonenberg, Ling Qi, Mo Zhou, and Xia Wei
Accessibility of the Open Public Space in Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Alicja Maciejko and Roman Czajka
Architectural and Urban Spaces for Creative Thinking. Visual Data
and Questionnaire Analysis Methods in Support of Design Process . . . . 313
Agata Bonenberg
Possibilities of Using Architecture in Striving to Maintain Balance
Between Natural and Built Environment: Architecture in the Invisible
Borders of Greenery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Anna Wojtas Harań
Functional and Aesthetic Aspects of Modernization of Large Panel
Residential Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Przemyslaw Nowakowski
The Influence Factor for Walkability of Street Furniture:
In Case of Turin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Xiaolei Shi, Daniela Bosia, and Lorenzo Savio
xii Contents

An Attempt to Assess the Need and Potential of Aesthetic

Regeneration to Improve Walkability and Ergonomic Experience
of Urban Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Tanima Bhattacharya, Suparna Dasgupta, and Joy Sen
Design and Thinking of Urban Ecological Symbiosis Community
Under the Background of Globalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Chen Liexue and Zhou Wuzhong
The Perception Reshaping Strategy of Campus Public Space . . . . . . . . . 381
Huifang Shang, Maiqi Lin, and Yongtao Zheng
Dynamic Façades: Optimization of Natural Light at Workplaces . . . . . 392
Sandra Preto

Sustainable Urban Planning and Infrastructure

A Sociotechnical Systems Approach for Assessing University
Campus Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Eduardo Navarro, Graeme Bowles, and Guy H. Walker
Village Regeneration Through Cultural Creativity.
Polish Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Wojciech Bonenberg
Synergistic Processes in Functional-Spatial Development
of Communes in a Metropolitan Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Hanna Borucińska-Bieńkowska
The Various Factors Affecting Occupants’ Satisfaction
in the Open-Plan Shared Office . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Shaoning Ren and Linong Dai
Effects of the Urban Form on the External Thermal Comfort
in Low-Income Settlements of Guayaquil, Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Virginia Ricaurte, Byron Sebastián Almeida Chicaiza,
Jesús Rafael Hechavarría Hernández, and Boris Forero
Research on the Transformation Model of Spiritual Requirements
in Elderly-Oriented Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Maiqi Lin, Huifang Shang, Chuanshun Wang, and Yongtao Zheng
Current Situation and Countermeasures of Chinese Street Furniture
Design in Intelligent Development Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Tongwen Wang and Wuzhong Zhou
Inspiration Mining: Intersecting Improbable Connections
in a New Landscape of Cultural Reflection and Influence . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Paulo Maldonado and Leonor Ferrão
Contents xiii

Identification of Residential Well-Being Factors in Urban

Community Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Xintong Wei, Guangtian Zou, and Kin Wai Michael Siu
Planning Regenerative Infrastructure of the Szczecin Metropolitan
Railway – ad hoc Urbanism and Glocal Activity Development . . . . . . . 500
Leszek Świątek
Mountain Home Eco Hotel - Diversity and Sustainability
of Green Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Huang Anjun and Zhao Shengxuan
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Building and Architecture
 Building as a Primary Means of Preventative
Care. Postulate of Certification of Buildings
Intended for Use by the Elderly in Multi-family
Housing and Collective Housing

Agata Bonenberg(&)

Faculty of Architecture, Poznan University of Technology,

ul. Nieszawska 13A, 61-021 Poznan, Poland
agata.bonenberg@put.poznan.pl

Abstract. The aim of the publication is to introduce and explain new Envi-
ronment Assessment Tool for Longevity (ETAL) - author’s philosophy, advo-
cacy tool and certification standard in building environment for the elderly.
According to the definition of health by World Health Organization, in con-
temporary architectural design and planning a building can be seen as a means
of preventative care. It means designing in such way, to make a healthy lifestyle
the easiest possible choice. In this context, being able to effectively assess the
needs of the elderly persons in terms of building environment becomes crucial.

Keywords: Environment Assessment Tool for Longevity (ETAL)

Preventative care
Housing architecture
Disabilities
Universal design

1 Introduction

Implementation of the principles of a healthy lifestyle, proper nutrition and physical

activity are the basis of health and the way to maintain long active life. In the face of
the demographic and social phenomena of the 21st century, related to the changes in
the age structure of western societies, the improvement of medical care and, even more
importantly, the drive of the elderly persons and persons with disabilities towards self-
reliant and satisfactory lives, the design of environment to overcome the physical
limitations has become an imperative.
The definition of health by World Health Organization states that “health is a state
of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity.” It is an important statement, because it does not stop at claims
negating the disease but emphasizes the active aspect of the problem: striving for well-
being, strengthening health. In architectural design this has an important consequence.
Architect’s task is to shape the living spaces so that, in addition to meeting demands of
accessibility and security, it motivates pro-health decisions. Building as a means of
preventative care means building in such way that a healthy lifestyle is the easiest
possible choice and source of pleasure: encouraging fitness activities, healthy cooking
at home, and good level of personal hygiene.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 3–11, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_1
4 A. Bonenberg

2 Highlights of Modern House Design for the Elderly

and Persons with Disabilities

Looking at important case studies of housing for the elderly and persons with mobility
problems, one can refer to historical house for Kenneth Laurent by Frank Lloyd Wright
of 1948. Harmoniously composed with strong forms, the house was built for an elderly
veteran and a wheelchair user before the contemporary standards and solutions have
been codified. The house has been planned around central oval route leading from the
interior of the house to the terrace immersed in greenery allowing contact with the
garden. Custom-made furniture located below strip-windows allows to store books and
other items at low level, easy to access. The plan of the house is relatively open,
making the circulation easier and vast spaces allow turning around on a wheelchair.
The most important feature, however, is the sense of openness, light and stimulation
with colors of nature well perceived through the vast glazing located at the garden
façade. The possibility to go out into the nature reduces the sense of being “immured”.
This relationship between the interior and exterior and its psychological impact has
been one of the characteristics, which had inspired the holistic approach applied in
Environment Assessment Tool for Longevity (ETAL).
Another example of a house for a person with reduced mobility is the Maison à
Bordeaux, by OMA Rem Koolhaas built in 1998. The heart of the house is the
3  3.5 m elevator platform that moves freely between the three floors, becoming a
part of the living space or kitchen, or transforming itself into an intimate office space,
and granting access to books, artwork, and the wine cellar.1 The space of the house and
the functional layout is wrapped around the platform, making it one of these rare cases,
where mobility problem of the user results in great formal and functional solution and
innovation in architecture.
Both houses are unique, isolated examples which, however, do not represent the
standard or normal living conditions of elderly people or people with mobility prob-
lems. The aim and target would be to increase the number of buildings, especially
multi-family and collective housing for the elderly, that respect their needs. The
increase of investments that apply spatial, conceptual, accessibility-related and tech-
nical solutions addressed to the elderly persons is of key importance.

3 Genesis of the Concept: Assessment Tools

and Certifications

The general situation of building houses for persons with mobility problems or persons
with disabilities can be compared to the one faced by pro-ecological architecture in the
80’s and 90’s. There were interesting examples, case studies applying the approach, but
the concept was not wide-spread and was not accessible for an average property buyer.
After the political interest, the awareness of governments and people rose and so
standards, assessment tools and certifications have been put in place. The well-known

1
Source: http://oma.eu/projects/maison-a-bordeaux access: 13.07.2018.
 Building as a Primary Means of Preventative Care 5

LEED, BREEAM certification systems concentrate on the building’s environmental

impact. Relatively newest is the Well Movement, people-centered certification,
developed around the themes: air, water, nourishment, light, fitness, comfort, mind. In
Poland there is a certification for architecture oriented on people with limited mobility,
issued by Integracja Association, but their certification is oriented on measuring
accessibility, and the main assessment tool is architectural audit.
The research carried out by the author in the past, together with the knowledge of
architectural practice and housing market has led to the proposal for a new Environment
Assessment Tool for Longevity (ETAL) - a philosophy, certification and advocacy tool
for standards in building environment for the elderly and persons with mobility problems.

4 Environment Assessment Tool for Longevity (EATL)

Philosophy

Environment Assessment Tool for Longevity (EATL) follows the human-centered

approach - the holistic approach and has been based on 3 aspects vital for human
performance: a good condition of mind, body, and environment.
• MIND research area concerns all psychological aspects of architectural design and
planning. It covers the subject of motivation and opportunity for healthy lifestyle,
psychological comfort, staying happy in spaces which inspire, and are considered
beautiful by the users.
• BODY research area concerns physical wellbeing – opportunities for physical
activities, fitness but also principles of physical safety, comfort, accessibility
requirements according to universal design concept.
• ENVIRONMENT research area concerns living in a non-polluted environment
resulting in better health. In this area the ecology of maintenance, cleaning materials
is evaluated as well as construction materials, as long as they affect air/water quality
inside the building (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. EATL philosophy: 3 aspects vital for human performance: a good condition of mind,
body and environment. Source: A. Bonenberg
6 A. Bonenberg

5 Environment Assessment Tool for Longevity (EATL)

Objectives

Environment Assessment Tool for Longevity (EATL) serves both the developers and
their clients. It provides design indications and guarantees the quality of final design
with the EATL certificate issued following post-completion testing. The main questions
EATL provides answers to are:
• Will the target group want to pay more (3–5%) for healthy living?
• Will the target group want to pay more (3–5%) for longer self-sufficiency in their
home?
• What is the price tag for healthy design strategies?
• Will the developer make a profit complying with the EATL concepts for a particular
project?
EATL aims to prove to business that it is worth complying with its concepts,
supporting health and longevity.

6 EATL Research Methods

EATL target is to create, promote and popularize knowledge about building for the
elderly persons. Sharing know-how from the very beginning of design process is one of
the key issues.
Research methods include questionnaires addressed to project managers and users,
architectural audit, documentation including photographic survey, document survey,
data collection and measurements.
• EATL Questionnaires are used to obtain feedback regarding most of the subjects in
the certification. They are particularly important, for mind research area, wellbeing,
but also for universal design, sustainability – health, maintenance. Questionnaires
are tools of support and feedback throughout the entire investment process: from
design phase, through construction phase to maintenance.
• EATL Architectural audit is crucial for confirming accessibility and application of
universal design principles and is performed as a post-completion testing.
• EATL Documentation consists of photographic survey and description, data col-
lection with measurements. It can be introduced during the construction phase but
even more importantly during post-completion testing (Fig. 2).
 Building as a Primary Means of Preventative Care 7

Fig. 2. EATL feedback, Questionnaires, Architectural audit, Documentation in investment

process. Source: A. Bonenberg

7 EATL Questionnaires

The questionnaire consists of 60 questions, divided into 3 groups: MIND (blue),

BODY (red), and ENVIRONMENT (green). YES/NO responses given are awarded
with 1, 2 or 3 points, depending on the importance of the question.
Further control of weights of particular subjects is set by indices U, A, I and can
vary from project to project. The index weight depends on variable aspects of a project:
context of building, scale of building.
• Index U refers to urban context and assigns more points when the investment is
located in dense, historical or protected urban context.
• Index A refers to the architectural scale of investment, in this case multi-family
housing and collective housing.
• Index I refers to the scale of interior design.
In questionnaire regarding environment: I Construction, project, materials as long
as they have an impact on air quality. This topic can be researched using question-
naire + data collection (Figs. 3, 4 and 5).
8 A. Bonenberg

MIND: MOTIVATION - PSYCHOLOGICAL COMFORT

no index points
1. U Is the development enabling / encouraging creation of custom
communities, building small-scale communities? YES/NO 1/0
2. A/U Is the development providing at least 20% of shared, common,
semi-public spaces? YES/NO 1/0
3. A/U Does the architecture of the building maintain stylistic relationship
with the region in which it has been situated? YES/NO 2/0
4. A/U Does the building or/ and its interior match the local character of
architecture in which the majority of users (target group) grew up?
YES/NO 1/0
5. A Does the architecture of the building support the sense of identity?
YES/NO 2/0
6. I Are buildings’ private areas (interiors) easy to individualize?
YES/NO 1/0

Fig. 3. Example of a MIND research area questionnaire by A. Bonenberg

BODY: WELLBEING – FITNESS, ACCESSIBILITY – UNIVERSAL DESIGN

no index points
13. A Does kitchen area have direct natural light source? YES/NO 3/0
14. U Is the building located close to a park or public gym? YES/NO 2/0
KEEPING HYGIENE

15. A/I Does the building have defined areas for exercise? YES/NO 1/0
16. I Has the flat possibility to be equipped with steam shower? 2/0
YES/NO
17. I Has the bathroom possibility to be equipped with sauna? 1/0
YES/NO
18. I Has the bathroom possibility to be equipped with chromother- 1/0
apy equipment? YES/NO
19. I Is the shower curbless or is there a bath lift in place? YES/NO 1/0
20. I Are grab-bars in place? YES/NO 1/0

Fig. 4. Example of a “Body: moving, keeping hygiene” questionnaire by A. Bonenberg

ENVIRONMENT: ENVIRONMENT – SUSTAINABILITY - HEALTH

no index points
42. I Are cleaning and maintenance products chosen not to pollute 3/0
MAINTENANCE

environment inside the house? YES/NO

43. I The elderly and people with disabilities often require higher 3/0
temperature in living spaces – does the building use renewa-
ble/clean energy resources? YES/NO
44. I Are there water conservation measures in place? YES/NO 2/0

45. I Is there a recycling / composting collection program? YES/NO 2/0

Fig. 5. Fragment of a “Environment maintenance” questionnaire by A. Bonenberg

 Building as a Primary Means of Preventative Care 9

8 Case Studies

Most of the ideas and concepts presented above, have already been implemented in
realized buildings, proving that it is possible to introduce them as a standard.
An interesting case study is a residential care home realized in Graz, Austria,
designed by Dietger Wissounig Architekten and completed in 2015. Modern, timber
cladded building has been constructed on a vast, green estate. Its simple architectural
form reflects harmony and order of the internal arrangement, and it is based on the
creation of shared common spaces in order to establish small-scale communities. This
is an architectural response to the idea of “country squares” which encourage
encounters and gatherings. The bays open nicely to the green surroundings, creating
visual openings. This enhances the sense of familiarity and belonging. The building is
an interesting answer to the questions included in the MIND research area question-
naire regarding small-scale communities and supporting the sense of identity (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Residential Care Home in Graz, Austria designed by Dietger Wissounig Architekten
completed in 2015, as an example of creation of small-scale communities within a large
residential complex. Source: archdaily.com, access 15.05.2018

The second example is Green Mountain Ranch, designed by Cynthia Leibrock in

Colorado, USA. The house combines universal design concepts with pro-environmental
and sustainable approach. It contains over 200 functional solutions promoting accessi-
bility for wheelchair users, with solutions adaptable for tall and short persons, short-
sighted people, where all elements are visually integrated. In the EATL ENVIRONMENT
research area questionnaire there is a question regarding demand for warmer
environment for the elderly. In the main building of the Green Mountain Ranch there are
4 passive greenhouses to preheat air in the house. Glazing from the south provides natural
light, and water is preheated with sun collectors. Pitched roof retains snow in winter for
isolation. In this example one can notice that the pro-environmental approach combines
well with the design for longevity for reasons that are both technical, like energy saving,
but also psychological - deriving from close relation with nature (Fig. 7).
10 A. Bonenberg

Fig. 7. Green Mountain Ranch, designed by Cynthia Leibrock in Colorado, USA, combines
universal design concepts with pro-environmental and sustainable approach. Source: http://www.
agingbeautifully.org/ranch.html, access 15.05.2018

9 Conclusions

Architectural designs addressed to the elderly and persons with mobility problems are
becoming more and more important, as life expectancy in the western World grows.
And even if there already are some very interesting examples – the case studies of such
designs, it is not enough only to observe and learn from them. The necessity of putting
together a holistic philosophy and an advocacy tool for standards in building
environment for the elderly and persons with mobility problems seems obvious.
A certification system, similar to the pro-environmental ones should be introduced to
the advantage of both the developers and their clients.
Even small changes in functional solutions can lead to the prolongation of the
independence of an elderly person at home. The proposal for Environment Assessment
Tool for Longevity (EATL) could provide a good framework for future designs and
raise awareness regarding living space dedicated to the elderly.

References
1. Bonenberg, A., Zabłocki, M.: Residential architecture for health and longevity. Universal
kitchen design i Architektura mieszkaniowa sprzyjająca zdrowiu i długowieczności. Projekt
kuchni uniwersalnej Space & FORM | Przestrzeń i FORMa ‘31_2017 red. https://doi.org/10.
21005/pif.2017.31.b-02
2. Bonenberg, A.: Aiding Self-reliance of the elderly and the disabled - modular cupboard with
mobile internal units. In: Universal Access in Human-Computer Interaction. Universal Access
to the Built Environment, pp. 403–412. Springer International Publishing, New York (2015).
ISSN 0302-9743. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-20687-5
 Building as a Primary Means of Preventative Care 11

3. Bonenberg, A.: Designing a functional layout of a kitchen for persons with disabilities –
concept of optimal access points. In: 6th International Conference on Applied Human Factors
and Ergonomics. Advances In Human Factors and Sustainable Infrastructure, pp. 4329–4336,
vol. 3. Elsevier B.V. Procedia Manufacturing (2015). ISSN: 2212-0173
4. Branowski, B., Zabłocki, M.: Kreacja i kontaminacja zasad projektowania i zasad konstrukcji
w projektowaniu dla osób niepełnosprawnych, Ergonomia produktu. Ergonomiczne zasady
projektowania produktów, red. Jabłoński J., Wydawnictwo Politechniki Poznańskiej, Poznań
(2006)
5. Hall, R., Mace, R.: Design for physical and mental disabilities, In: Wilkes, J.A., Packard, R.T.
(ed.) Encyclopedia of Architecture: Design Engineering and Construction, p. 755, New York
(1998)
6. Nagamachi, M.: Kansei/Affective Engineering. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2011)
7. Mori, N.: Rough set approach to product design solution for the purposed “Kansei”. The
Science of Design Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Kansei Engineering (2002)
8. Pilch, A.: Poziom motywacji osób starszych a efekty rehabilitacji (Motivational predictors of
successful rehabilitation in elderly patients) https://doi.org/10.2478/v10109-011-0029-z,
Fizjoterapia 2011, 19, 4, 17-25 ISSN 1230-8323, dostęp 18.11.2017
 T-House in Shaping Sustainable Housing

Alicja Maciejko(&) and Bogusław Wojtyszyn

Department of Architecture and Urban Planning,

University of Zielona Gora, ul. Prof. Z. Szafrana 1, 65-516 Zielona Gora, Poland
alicjamaciejko@wp.pl

Abstract. Architecture is becoming an increasingly realistic response to the

doctrine of sustainable development. The quality of life is influenced not only by
the comfort, form and economy of the house, but also by the appropriate
location and value of urban solutions, especially in small communal or social
buildings, where architectural solutions have economic limitations. The issues
will be discussed on the basis of the project of modular houses designed by
architect Alicja Maciejko, author of this paper and architect Miroslaw Strzelecki,
called T-Houses [1]. The idea assumes the possibility of connecting houses into
complex urban-planning systems. The special shape of the T letter plan offers
unique possibilities for shaping small housing arrangements in systems of
connected houses in accordance with building regulations and urban planning
law. This article presents selected design proposals as a response to human and
nature-friendly design, improving the comfort life in the family and society, in
an economically accessible standard.

Keywords: Architecture
Human factors
Urban planning
Plan T

Modular building
Sustainable housing
Housing for refugees
Social housing

1 Introduction

Urban planning and architecture is increasingly becoming a real response to the pos-
tulates of the doctrine of sustainable development. Balance in proper design of the
space of coexistence with the social group and nature favors the creation of life-friendly
dwellings. The psychological aspect of living in a neighbouring community while at
the same time ensuring the right to privacy and individuality must be taken into account
in contemporary design. This can be achieved in the planning of single-family houses
in arrangements combined into small residential complexes, on the suburbs of cities or
in small towns, as opposed to multi-storey apartment buildings.
The idea of single-family housing is generally focused on the individualisation of
forms and the construction of free-standing buildings with large residential areas per
inhabitant. However, in the light of the increasing population and the global trend of
moving from rural to urban areas, fewer families can build such a house, especially in
cities where plot prices are the most expensive. The proposed T plan house system
transfers the standards known from multi-family apartment buildings to suburbs or to
small towns, where land prices are still economical for one-storey buildings. It is a
small residential area, interior ergonomics, economics and organisation in a group of

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 12–22, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_2
 T-House in Shaping Sustainable Housing 13

flats serviced by shared spaces, no individual fenced plots of land, no individual

garages. For obvious economic reasons it is not a solution for residential districts
located in the centres of large cities. Such housing can be used as social housing, but
according to the authors, it is also a reasonable, indirect alternative between single and
multi-family housing for the less affluent and offers a quality of life in harmony with
the local community and nature.
T-house is architectural proposal for single-family single story house designed in
T-shape plan by architects Alicja Maciejko and Miroslaw Strzelecki [1]. The authors of
this article, as members of a scientific design team from Department of Architecture
and Urban Planning of the University of Zielona Gora using this architectural idea
focused on the aspect of shaping a sustainable form of urban planning which is just as
important as the form of a modular house. This was a response to a government
competition addressed to practicing architects and scientific institutions in the field of
architecture [2]. The aim was to search for modular, produced as a series and standard
houses with residential areas 70 and 80 m2, suitable for families of maximum 5 people.
The special shape of the modular T-shaped plan offers unique possibilities for creating
small housing arrangements. It allows to design very interesting urban forms of
housing, which not disturb the scale of small towns and is proposal to emerge from the
most characteristic for recent years in Poland homogenous linear serial forms of
housing which are not suitable for free, open plan landscapes. Despite the fact that the
house is repeatable, it allows you to individualize both the interior space as well as the
forms of houses and their arrangement. Even with strict requirements regarding lighting
and communication accessibility, these systems can be designed in various ways,
depending on the terrain shape and the urban concept.

2 T-House and Idea of the Modular Building

Module in construction is generally recognised and used for many solutions as a rule of
organization. Since antiquity, the module had a direct reference to the anatomical
structure of man (Vitruvius, Leonardo da Vinci, Albrecht Dürer, Giacoma Barozzi da
Vingola, Andrea Palladio, Le Corbusier). It was connected with the search for ideal
proportions. Modular structures in architecture are particularly useful when they
combine technical benefits, e.g. strength and lightness of the structure with the influ-
ence of the architectural form. It enables prefabrication and easier, precise or dry
erection of structures on site. It is most common in the optimal static organisation of
structural elements in long spans buildings or high structures. The use of the module
also involves the visual search for grids and rhythms, which are the basis for archi-
tectural composition in the plan or in the shape. It is sometimes conditioned by
opposing factors that influence the final solution, allowing maximum variability and
versatility of the building. Attempts to determine the size of the module for residential
architecture involved both structural, material and functional aspects.
T-shaped houses are also designed in history of architecture, especially as indi-
vidual houses. There are many houses used plan T to create various functional solu-
tions. On narrow plots of land, both tracts are often narrow, which determines the
amphibious connections of rooms without an internal corridor. As an example T can be
14 A. Maciejko and B. Wojtyszyn

mentioned an American house designed on plan T, whose special feature was the
entrance through a roofed veranda (in the recess) and the outer wall parallel to the street
with a characteristic gable roof. Many T-plans houses built in the last quarter of the
19th century feature polygonal bay windows on the facade, and ornamentation like
brackets at the cornice and porches what is characteristic of American housing that
times (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5).

Fig. 1. Architectural idea of separating from the rectangular solid of the house two external
terrace spaces integrated into the functional structure of the houses. The resulting form is
symmetrical. Separated spaces can be both as entrance terraces on which can designed e.g. a
place for storing bicycles, as well as in the back part as green areas closed in a partialy open (two
or one sides) courtyard, which can be roofed. Drawing: Alicja Maciejko [1].

1 2 3

Fig. 2. Architectural idea. Functions located in external spaces: (1) entrance and back terraces
with space for horticultural therapy, (2) windows, (3) entrances. Drawing: Alicja Maciejko [1].

Fig. 3. Architectural idea. Houses can be connected to each other with any external wall.
Drawing: Alicja Maciejko [1].
 T-House in Shaping Sustainable Housing 15

Fig. 4. Architectural and structural modules for a house with an area of 70 m2 and for a house
with an area of 80 m2. Drawing: Alicja Maciejko [1].

Fig. 5. Orientation house variants for optimum daylight illumination of the daylight zones. In the
central, low-light part of the house, the bathroom and kitchen area is located with all installations
blocked. Depending on the orientation, the entrance and green areas can be used alternately, which
is also possible thanks to the flexible interior design. Drawing: Alicja Maciejko [1].

T-house is symmetrical in plan. This means that they can be used in any layout in
relation to the directions of the world and in relation to the street. For example, a living
room can be located in four variants, both from the front and back of the house.
Acceptable scale of building construction for such small flats requires homogeneous
urban form, therefore the most optimal for the proposed system is to combine houses in
systems composed of many houses, although technically they can also create single and
twinned buildings. The universal shape of the plan allows connecting houses into
complex systems, because they can be connected with any external wall. Variants of
such solutions will be presented later in the text.
16 A. Maciejko and B. Wojtyszyn

The architectural and constructional T-House system has a high internal functional
and spatial flexibility, which gives unlimited possibilities of creating attractive free-
form housing development systems of housing estates, in addition to the most fre-
quently created monotonous regular systems. The construction of single-family houses
in the T-House system on free symmetrical and asymmetrical layouts significantly
increases the aesthetic values of the housing environment in housing estates, without
lowering their economic, ecological, social and spatial values at the same time. High
functional and flexibility of the system significantly broadens the possibilities of
integration of the community through easy creation urban systems. Free symmetrical
and asymmetric systems in the T-house system obtain net residential housing intensity
indices I = 0.24 to 0.26 for the weighted average number of stores S = 1, with a
population density of D = 160 to 165 P/ha.

3 Urban Arrangements

Modular T-Houses can be combined and arranged into complex urban layouts. It is an
assumption used in various fields, also in architecture and urban planning, in order to
be able to model unique, flexible systems with the help of repeatable components,
using specific arrangement algorithms. Architectural and structural system of single-
family houses construction has a high internal functional and spatial flexibility. This
gives unlimited possibilities for creating attractive irregular (atypical) layouts resi-
dential building settlements emerging alongside the most monotonous regular systems.
The acceptable scale of buildings for such small flats requires a homogeneous
urban form. There is a high concentration of flats for single-family, one-story buildings.
Organized form of development requires treating it as a complex of houses, because it
is difficult to be realized by individual investors who build independently. Houses do
not have individual garages, but urban layouts make it possible to create parking spaces
relatively close to the house. This also applies to waste collection areas. It is also not
assumed to design access roads for each house, however, they are possible depending
on the shape of the estate and the plot, as well as the transport accessibility of public
roads. Wide pedestrian accesses are designed, which, if necessary, can be used as
access points for an ambulance or delivery van. An important element are also public
spaces free from road traffic, where greenery is usually designed, as well as places for
rest, meetings and games for children.
Housing settlements are small, with several dozen flats, solutions result from the
spatial context, the size and shape of the plot, existing buildings, sunshine conditions
and communication. The possibility of almost free shaping and combining houses gives
the possibility to integrate them into different shapes of plots. Regular, compact and
rectangular, as well as free, irregular, triangular. The shape of plots of land is not
always connected with the course of geographical directions. Houses can be shaped
orthogonally, on the plots in the north-south direction, which is the traditionally pre-
ferred layout, allowing for the location of the entrance zone to the north (communi-
cation zone with increased noise) and the living room zone to the south (silence zone).
However, the optimal, symmetrical shape does not favor the form of the house, because
it is identical on both sides, which makes it possible to enter from the north and south
 T-House in Shaping Sustainable Housing 17

(in the north-south position) and from the east (communication zone) and west (silence
zone) in the case of such a direction of building location.
Thanks to the possibility of connecting the houses with each side, a high efficiency
of land use is applied, with a high proportion of biologically active surfaces at the same
time. This is possible due to the applied minimum dimensions of buildings and mini-
mum permissible distances between buildings and other elements of land planning. At
the same time, however, this tendency sometimes leads to an excessive approximation
of house walls, which violates the principle of intimacy. In this project, the windows are
intentionally designed so that they are located in the terrace area. This each time shifts
the visual boundary between the house and the external space into the interior of the
house. Hardened areas are also limited by means of a rational parking system, which
makes it possible to obtain the maximum number of flats in relation to the smallest
possible area of communication serving them (Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14).

Fig. 6. Architectural idea. Houses can be connected by internal walls in a traditional row system
and in a double row system, where they are connected by an internal wall and through external
walls. It shows also the possibility of parallel connection in one line, moving by the depth of the
terrace (11° – one house and 20° – 2 houses). It is also possible to combine both systems.
Drawing: Alicja Maciejko [1].

Fig. 7. Architectural idea. Atrial an around courtyards arrangements in four different possible
layouts. Drawing: Alicja Maciejko [1].
18 A. Maciejko and B. Wojtyszyn

Fig. 8. Central, opened arrangements around courtyards Drawing: Alicja Maciejko [1].

Fig. 9. Houses connected in mix regular systems. Entrances to houses also from internal
courtyards. Drawing: Alicja Maciejko [1].

Fig. 10. Houses connected in mix regular systems. Atrial and semi open atrial arrangements in
regular systems. Drawing: Alicja Maciejko [1].
 T-House in Shaping Sustainable Housing 19

Fig. 11. Architectural idea. Atrial an around courtyards arrangements in free form systems.
Drawings: Alicja Maciejko [1].

Fig. 12. Houses connected in free form systems. Drawing: Alicja Maciejko [1].
20 A. Maciejko and B. Wojtyszyn

MN-GA: group buildings of community housing single-family in the layout of a courtyard

MN-GZ: group buildings of community housing single-family in the layout of a bend
MN-GG: group buildings of community housing single-family in the layout of a cul-de-sac
MN-SK: serial buildings of community housing single-family in the layout of a corridor
MN-SZ: serial buildings of community housing single-family in the layout of a bend
KDD: street area of internal access roads to the buildings of the housing complex
KDL: street area of internal local roads to housing complexes

Fig. 13. Free symmetrical and asymmetrical layouts, drawings: Boguslaw Wojtyszyn, [2]
 T-House in Shaping Sustainable Housing 21

Fig. 14. Proposals for urban arrangements. Drawings: Alicja Maciejko [1].

4 Conclusions

Analysis of architectural design T-House show that the T letter plan is optimal for
ergonomic functional solutions, has economically planned rooms and minimal com-
munication area. This applies both to functional architectural solutions and urban
arrangements. The special shape of the T letter plan offers unique possibilities for
shaping small living spaces on a human-accepted residential scale, friendly to psy-
chophysical possibilities and in harmony with nature. Residence in separate flats in a
neighborhood community allows for a balance between privacy and access to social
contacts. In addition, each apartment has access to its own space with living vegetation.
The proposed single-family housing architecture meets the technical, functional and
aesthetic requirements set for modern construction. It is a proposal aimed at low-
budget, social construction, with high modular standardization and economics.
Addressed to the recipient who is close to the values of natural, simple life in a utility
standard, not luxurious. An integral part of the concept is the use of natural materials
for construction and reduction of operating costs and energy consumption as low as
possible for the construction sector, the impact on the environment, in the broad sense
22 A. Maciejko and B. Wojtyszyn

of the term, also related to the utilization and reuse of materials after the end of life
cycle. The design idea can be used in the construction of social housing estates,
housing estates for refugees, housing estates for lonely and older people, due to small
usable areas. Despite the fact that such proposals are often designed, the idea of
T-House stands out among other such solutions, in particular through the following
aspects.

Technical aspects:
– a symmetrical solid with a characteristic plan of the letter T
– possibility of arrangement ensuring proper sunlight and illumination of rooms
– economy and values resulting from building standardization
– simplicity of construction
– economic installations, concentration of installations in one vertical for each
apartment.
Functional aspects:
– flexibility of interior functional layouts and house layouts
– possibility of connecting any external wall, because the functional arrangement
allows for interior lighting only from internal terraces
– shaping of buildings enables to ensure favourable conditions of daylight illumi-
nation and sunshine for every house.
Aesthetic aspects:
– freedom for urban composition
– the architectural form results from the adopted general modular concept, but
through the variability of solutions can integrate with the surrounding buildings, in
accordance with the guidelines of urban plans and landscape. Both flat and sloping
roofs with different angles of inclination have been proposed.
Numerous examples of small housing architecture in similar systems have been
realised all over the world. They referred primarily to the search for an architectural
form. The proposed solution explores technological, functional and aesthetic cohesion
with the doctrine of sustainable development and a harmonious place to live in a
community, which, with an economic standard accessible to all, will be conducive to
contemporary architectural challenges, in the balance between privacy and openness.

References
1. Maciejko, A, Strzelecki, M.: Architectural design of a house in the T-house system. Maciejko
& Strzelecki Biuro Architektoniczne (2018)
2. Maciejko, A, Strzelecki, M. Wojtyszyn, B.: Competition for a single-family house
MIESZKANIE PLUS. Universiy of Zielona Gora (2018)
3. Charytonowicz, J., Maciejko, A., Skrzypczak, A., Wojtyszyn, B.: T-House. Shaping
ergonomic and flexible interiors in modular forms connected to horticultural therapy zone.
In: 10th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics (AHFE 2019)
 Ergonomics for Children

Elzbieta Trocka-Leszczynska and Joanna Jablonska(&)

Faculty of Architecture, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology,

B. Prusa 53/55 st., 50-317 Wroclaw, Poland
{elzbieta.trocka-leszczynska,
joanna.jablonska}@pwr.edu.pl

Abstract. Nowadays polish towns’ and villages’ public spaces are being
infilled with new solutions for children and young adults. There are different
small architecture elements, which purpose aims at increasing the physical
activities and stimulating education or mental development of kids. Also, there
are occurring places enabling relaxation, rest or cultural growth. Due to that,
new types of playgrounds are formed, with varied technically certified equip-
ment. Yet, this kind of warranty should not be enough, hence it seems crucial to
study, whether all novel concepts are ergonomic and safe, depending on the age
groups of children. At the same time a review of installation elements and
flooring was done, in order to establish the overall features of proper playground
design. Hence, this article was devoted for presenting of outcomes of research
on this issue.

Keywords: Ergonomics
Design for children

Safety on the playground
Children in public spaces

Accessibility for youngest

1 Introduction

Nowadays in Polish cities’ and villages’ public spaces are being willingly reconstructed
and renewed. This process is especially visible in the urban areas created since 60. till
80. of XX century, which have been mainly planned on the modern assumptions. One
of the rules, was providing large recreation areas, flat and covered with grass, which
supposed to be used by the residents for meetings and recreation. However, as it was
proven, among others by Gehl [1], due to a vast space, without any small architecture
elements, utilities or proper greenery arrangements, this areas never served properly
their purpose. Therefore, the general activity in this zones dropped down or was to
speeded, not to be noticed and to be attractive for inhabitants.
Aforementioned regenerations are nowadays introduced in public spaces, especially
between modern block of flats, with the use of varied playgrounds meant for children in
all age groups. Theme parks, sport courts, open-air assembly spaces, cultural com-
plexes and such, contain wide offer of active rest toys and utilities. Their design aims at
stimulation of physical and mental growth of kids, at the same time providing learning
through fun actives. Moreover, these solutions are enabling children and their parents
to formulate a sense of being “rooted” into the local community and landscape. The
latter is no longer nameless, empty and dull spaces, which can be found anywhere [2].
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 23–33, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_3
24 E. Trocka-Leszczynska and J. Jablonska

Hence, contemporary playgrounds are interesting study material, perceived not only as
a remedy for renewal of cities and villages public spaces, but mostly as a place where
children should play safely in an ergonomically adjusted environment. Therefore, this
issue states the main focus of presented article.

1.1 Purpose of the Article

Purpose. This work is continuation of previous research on this subject, which was
disseminated in Poland [3]. Since this publication appeared, a lot of new, complex
implementations have been noticed, thus a study needed to be continued. The variety of
playground types, offer of devices and toys have enriched in a substantial manner ever
since. In light of aforementioned phenomenon it was crucial to focus on new solutions
and check, whether the postulates from previous conclusions where implemented.
Method. Firstly, a literature study of both sources and aforementioned publication of
authors was reviewed, in order to set the categories for case studies. Secondly, new
examples of recently erected playgrounds was selected, and the main focusing point
was to pursuit for types of complexes, which have not been researched before. The
cases were as following, playgrounds connected to: culture, physical actives with the
use of lines – so called line parks, sensory or mental development, particular themes
and water.
Scope. Selected samples of implementations have been studied in the issues, that were
outlined in the previous work [3] and they were: physical and mental development of
the child, possibilities of establishing contacts between peers, favoring positive attitude
and emotional balance, relaxation, shaping the correct body posture, and finally pre-
venting the occurrence of a number of diseases in adulthood, i.e. obesity, diabetes [2].

2 Discussion

A piercing matter that has been highlighted in the study, was a wide variety of
occurring playground, their types, functions and specialized equipment. Currently, the
areas are clearly divided for particular youngsters age groups, allowing them to
exercise and use equipment in an ergonomic and safe manner. Following, there was
posted a presentation of discovered kinds of spaces, categorizing them due to the
leading purpose and most vivid architectural solutions.

2.1 Types of Children Parks and Playgrounds

Culture Area. In city Stalowa Wola, located in the eastern-south part of Poland, there
have just been finished renovation of a large playground area, founded in modern
period, fitted with courts for volleyball, areas for the youngest and large open-air
amphitheater. This space is used by children and young adults for performances, dances,
singing or theater presentations, either in a spontaneous way, or more organized, as a
part of local community culture house activities. Nowadays, the concrete-structured
 Ergonomics for Children 25

auditorium was fitted with new wooden benches for seating, stage received comfortable
and useable wooden flooring and highly functional roofing. New architectural mem-
brane shape, stretched on steel-profile frame in an organic form, creates local landmark
for this area. The solution is very worthy, especially taking into account, recurrent
context of block of flats urban scape (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Summer amphitheater for children and youngsters on the playground area in front of the
local cultural center in Stalowa Wola (Poland) – stage covered with membrane roof, as a part of
large-scale housing estates deprived until the end of the 20th century of recreational areas and
playgrounds.

As it was noticed, in the city there are other public spaces connected to open-air
cultural functions, like: smaller amphitheaters (without roofing), event square, sensory
and music paths. Such spaces give children great opportunity for mental and movement
development, provide them with cultural and art interests, stimulating working in
teams, assemblies, and allowing to exercise different talents. There is also chance for
building up community, not only among children but their parents and guardians as
well [1, 2].
Line Park. Very popular, yet still quite novel solution in Poland are line toys on
playgrounds and whole parks, which enable usage of all children mussels, during open-
air play. The complexes are being created with the: rope ladders, bridges, pyramids,
climbing walls and at some occasion other geometric forms, like: spheres, diamonds,
natural hills. An example of such solution can be a rope park in Stalowa Wola, which
was installed between trees in the forest-park in the cities’ center. It is a set of stairs,
slides, bridges, pergolas, protected with strong mesh or wooden posts at all heights,
providing space to walk above ground, over the path ways, towards a hill. Wrapped
around the tree-banks and meandering between greenery, states an exceptional space
for physical activities and imagination usage (Fig. 2), [4, 5].
26 E. Trocka-Leszczynska and J. Jablonska

Analogical solution was found in Polkowice, a city in the western part of the
country, which was also built over intensively in the modern period, with the resi-
dential block-of-flats. Here, as well, among estates, a lot of playgrounds have just been
founded or renovated. The line park of Polkowice, is settled on the tartan flooring, in a
complex with other playgrounds for younger kinds. Line pyramids, ladders, bridges
with complementary slides, are raised on high poles, between toy towers. Here, again,
all structure is protected with strong mesh or have been built over, for users’ safety. The
playground was surrounded by elastic tartan flooring (Fig. 3).

Fig. 2. Line park between the trees in Stalowa Wola (Poland).

Fig. 3. Line parks’ details – from the left, following: playground in Polkowice (Poland), the
climbing sphere in Polkowice, (Poland), playground of the river park in Stalowa Wola (Poland).

In both mentioned cities – Stalowa Wola and Polkowice – line exercise toys and
devices have been supplemented on other playgrounds. These are smaller forms of
climbing pyramids, hills or spheres (Fig. 3).
Playground equipped in lines can be also designated for young adults and such
solutions can be usually found in the vicinity of recreational areas, i.e. Sobótka town
near Wroclaw. Here, a rope park was established – wrapping devices for climbing and
moving above the ground, between trees – in an existing forest. The level of difficulty
of physical activities is quite high. In order to ensure safe use, there are detailed
guidelines, service, instructors, as well as helmets and securities with special handles
and belts (Fig. 4).
 Ergonomics for Children 27

Water Park. Next type, which was revealed during research was a water park in
Stalowa Wola. It is a composite of large, shallow open-air pool, which was formed as
stretched, meandering lake, surrounded by wooden rim for seating and walking.
A small depth of pan, is meant for children of all ages, without the risk of accidental
drowning. The premise is complemented by showers and toilets, accessible, clean and
safe. Water park is surrounded by other equipment, like: external gym and chess
playing tables for elders, educational toys or climbing wall for young children, ping-
pong tables, gastronomy pavilion, benches, basket beans and bike racks (Fig. 5).

Fig. 4. Rope park in Sobótka near Wroclaw. Ropes and footbridges with a high degree of
difficulty are stretched in the forest between existing trees.

Fig. 5. Water park for children with shallow lake-like pools (here protected for winter season) in
Stalowa Wola (Polska).

Sensory and Educational Path. Sensory and educational paths are devoted to dif-
ferent experience, like: optical illusions, musical experiments, time measuring methods,
math. Also such solutions can be found in the larger recreation complexes, i.e. river
parks, which can vary covering particular themes, following: ecology, species of ani-
mals, plants.
28 E. Trocka-Leszczynska and J. Jablonska

This paths are supplemented with explanatory boards, on which usable information
have been included. They state both on current use of space, types of equipment, their
operation methods, nature of phenomena, but also can recall the historical background
on presented equipment (Fig. 6).
Standard and Theme Playground. Positively surprising was the number of themes
of playgrounds for youngest children. Slides and creeping tunnels created in forms of:
bees, cater pillars, imagination stimulating equipment, designed as ships, pirate ships,
castles, busses, fire engines, boats, octopuses, frogs, etc. All furnishing in contrast,
bright colors, which are easy to see, but also are known for being stimulation for
children’s development (Figs. 7, 8). It is important to stress, that all presented sets are
accessible to everybody, free of charge, of course within the defined regulations. The
playgrounds are illuminated with artificial light during the night time, either with city
lighting system, so lanterns, or with dedicated fixtures (currently less popular).

Fig. 6. Sensory path with music instruments and optical illusion circles Stalowa Wola (Polska).

Fig. 7. Pirates’ ship and castle on the playgrounds in Polkowice (Poland).

 Ergonomics for Children 29

Fig. 8. Imagination developing toys, from left: fire engine in Polkowice (Poland), a bee in
Rozwadów (Stalowa Wola district, Poland).

2.2 Diversity and Activity

All of aforementioned elements may occur in one space as well. However, these case
solutions have jet not been popularized commonly in Poland, they are already
implemented world-widely, i.e. Copenhagen, Shanghai. In first aforementioned city,
there is example of cities’ center square development, where spaces for active rest have
been designed. The stone and concrete solutions introduced here, constitute: a skate-
park, seating areas, an arena, and the facilities located at green squares, near the
adjacent park, provide additional elements for children and adolescents. As it was
stated also grown-ups are willing to do activities in spaces designed in this way
(Fig. 9).

Fig. 9. The solution of public space for fun in Copenhagen, near the park at Linnésgade

A great example of such innovations is design by 100Architects in Shanghai,

binging vibrant place for children of all ages (245 m2 of surface), created as a part of
commercial complex. Notable by red color usage, contrasted with overall gray
appearance of shops and pedestrian areas, the space have been furnished with a number
of toys and equipment like: pyramids for drawing in chock – enabling artistic and
learning development of youngsters, running track and court – providing space for
30 E. Trocka-Leszczynska and J. Jablonska

sport within a nearness of parents and guardians, gentle slopes of terrain – for spon-
taneous fun and physical activity of small kids. The decoration of playground are
graphical numbers, shapes and geometrical forms, which stimulate mental growth,
during other fun-actions taking place. This arrangement is supplemented with benches
and sun-protecting umbrellas for parents and LED light system, providing safety and at
the same time being cost efficient. It is worth mentioning, that the flooring system is
adjusted to the physical needs of children and accidental falls [6].
This diversity, as discussed in polish. Copenhagen or Singapore solutions, allow to
strengthen the activities in the social self-reinforcement process, described by Gehl.
The variety of toys and ways of mental and physical stimulation of children, attracts
youngsters, which is “magnetic” for other kids to join in and place in their creativity to
overall fun. As aforementioned author indicates, the final process will be much more
complex and will have more elements, then the one assumed, taking into account
particular devices and toys [1].

3 Safety

3.1 Equipment and Flooring

Equipment. It must be stressed, that all the case-studied playgrounds and parks, are
fitted with a proper instructions, use regulations, limitations of numbers of users and
emergency contacts. The boards with directives are placed in front of areas, are large,
clear, spelled with substantial font and easy to read. In case of more complex utilities,
there are additional drawings, with use or restrictions explanations.
Elevated parts of line parks, like: bridges, pergolas, towers, are protected with mesh
or solid elements from all sides, to avoid risk of fall. In the case of devices in which
children come out at moderate heights, the use of safety handrails and comfortable
handles has been found. At the same time passages are wide enough, so grownups can
access all places, in case of emergency [7, 8].
Not all studied solutions had proper fence, protecting from animal access to space
(i.e. risk of parasite, droppings), but also facilitating better guardians control over kids.
Hence, barriers usually where omitted, when equipment where planed for children
actives on specified elevations or it was meant for older age groups [7, 8].
Flooring. There are four basic types of floors used in the researched spaces:
• Grass – usually as a supplementing material around the appropriate playground,
• Sand – in fenced playgrounds,
• Tree bank – in fenced and open playgrounds,
• Tartan or other synthetic payment – in open playgrounds (Fig. 10).
 Ergonomics for Children 31

What was stated, was that covering was being properly placed and mounted,
depending on the age of children, for which the playground was designed for and the
elevation on which the children may play. They were also adjusted to expected kind of
activity, so if it is metal or more physical action. Aforementioned flooring types were
also following regulation of polish norms (at least in the scope of assessment without
additional measuring and test equipment), which were created in order to regulate the
safety issues connected to children’s playgrounds [9]. Also, all pavements and loose
material surfaces, have been treated with boundary rims, to prevent material from sliding
and falling out of the playground. At the same time the water was properly cleared from
the terrain, so there was no paddle occurrence on the playgrounds themselves.

Fig. 10. Toy and flooring types, from left: a soft, synthetic material octopus on sand in
Polkowice (Poland), a set of educational equipment on the tree bank in Stalowa Wola (Poland),
slide on tartan pavement in Polkowice (Poland).

3.2 Safety – Structural and Material Solutions

Especially well done are soft large-scale toys, from synthetic materials, which are safe
for individual use even of very young children. There is no risk of bumping against the
toy, and all the landings are elastic. At the same time solutions manufactured with
wood or tree bank in cultural, art, river and line parks, give ecological, natural aspect to
the overall design of playgrounds (Figs. 1, 2, 5, 10).
Additional element of toys, flooring, foot paths, bridges, platforms, can be expected
from this resource, with the use of proper fire and biological mordant, which should be
non-toxic and safe in direct contact. Their surfaces must be carefully finished, so that
there is no risk of splinters or sharp edges during intensive use.
Attention was turned towards high quality of all the materials, that was encountered
in research case studied. As it follows:
• plastic elements and finishing,
• steel structural elements,
• profiles and lines,
• handles and hooks,
• installation joins,
where: clean, stiff, firm and maintained at an impressive level. It was especially visible
in case of complex of line park in Stalowa Wola, that there were no sharp or protruding
parts in places that can be used by kinds, which was especially vivid in way of
protecting all foundation elements with proper fittings and floorings (Fig. 11).
32 E. Trocka-Leszczynska and J. Jablonska

Fig. 11. Installation and structural solutions, from left safe floor around foundation of the
equipment in Polkowice (Poland), fixing system in line park in Stalowa Wola (Poland).

4 Conclusions

Studies have shown the great diversity of theme parks for children in all age groups. In
such parks devices and toys are grouped in order to fit the selected kind of games or
aimed at achieving specific development form. The typology is as follows (alphabetical
order):
• Culture area,
• Line park,
• Playground,
• Sensory and educational path,
• Standard and theme playground,
• Water park.
Presented diversity of offer, solutions, enables youngsters a full development on
physical, mental and educational level. Stimulation of team work, culture and art
growth of kids, serves building up more accomplished, aware, active and as an effect
happy society in our cites in the future. Also, renovation of up till now, neglected and
empty spaces between modern block of flats, and transformation of them into vivid,
vibrant informative and active leisure places for younger and older cities residents, is a
proper, desirable process.
Moreover, it should be pointed out that ergonomic solutions of case studied
examples, in rage of: selection of toys towards different age groups, equipment material
and structural solutions, user safety, as well as flooring and installation solutions are
done in a normative and proper way. Also high maintenance standards, indicate pos-
itive perceptions of contemporary playgrounds.
 Ergonomics for Children 33

References
1. Gehl J.: Życie między budynkami. Użytkownie przestrzeni publicznych, Wydawnictwo
RAM, Kraków (2013)
2. Dwornikiewicz, K.: Plac zabaw – dlaczego to takie ważne? Stowarzyszenie Grupa Marki
2020. http://www.marki2020.pl/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/Plac-zabaw.pdf. Accessed 28
Oct 2016
3. Trocka-Leszczyńska, E., Jabłońska, J.: Ergonomiczna przestrzeń publiczna aktywnych. Cz. 2,
Dzieci. In: Charytonowicz, J. (ed.) Ergonomia w architekturze i urbanistyce: kierunki badań w
2017 roku, pp. 153–162. Wydawnictwo Polskiego Towarzystwa Ergonomicznego PTErg,
Wroclaw (2017)
4. FreeKids. http://www.freekids.pl. Accessed 28 Oct 2016
5. Place zabaw inne niż wszystkie, PLAYpark, the information brochure of the producer.
Accessed 28 Oct 2016
6. Sinopoli, D.: Bright Idea. Shanghai’s 100Architects animates a drab plaza with a vibrant
playspace for kinds. In: Azure, no. 68, p. 40 (2018)
7. Place zabaw, Centrum kontroli placów zabaw. http://placezabaw.org/. Accessed 24 Oct 2016
8. Wachowiak, F.: Architektura i bezpieczeństwo publicznych placów zabaw. In: Zawód
Architekt, no. 04, pp. 71–73 (2012)
9. Polish norms, i.e.: from PN-EN 1176-1:2017-12 to PN-EN 1176-4:2017-12, PN-EN
1176-6:2017-12, PN-EN 1176-5:2009, PN-EN 1176-7:2009, PN-EN 1176-10:2009, N-EN
1176-11:2014-11, PN-EN 1177:2018-04. https://placezabaw.org/info/normy-place-zabaw.
Accessed 09 Jan 2019
 Reconstruction with a Change
of Function – Ergonomics
of the Hotel Environment

Joanna Jablonska(&) and Elzbieta Trocka-Leszczynska

Faculty of Architecture, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology,

B. Prusa 53/55 st., 50-317 Wroclaw, Poland
{joanna.jablonska,
elzbieta.trocka-leszczynska}@pwr.edu.pl

Abstract. Recycling of building tissue in historical European cities is an

indispensable activity, allowing the introduction of the new, profitable solutions
in urban centers, often being gradually emptied by residents and service func-
tions. Reconstruction of existing buildings with an introduction of new, attractive
purposes i.e. hotels and hostels; seems to be particularly economical in this
respect, as it allows to derive more and more profits from tourism, attracting back
the residents and center-creating activities. As a result, very interesting projects
are created, which are characterized by unique architecture and exceptional
character. An example of such objects that will be discussed in the work are
Molino Stucky – Hilton hotel and hostel Generator, both located on the island of
La Giudecca, Venice (Italy) and Vienna House Andel’s Lodz in the city Łódź
(Poland).

Keywords: Ergonomics
Recycling of architecture
Hotels’ design

Contemporary ergonomic solutions
Accessible buildings

1 Introduction

Nowadays European cities’ centers continuously are being emptied by their residents,
who are moving towards suburbs, perceived as more comfortable, safe and hygienic to
live. As an effect, large amounts of residential fiber is being unused or inhabited by
squatters and homeless. Analogical process takes place in bygone industrial and
manufacture buildings, which are no longer profitable or needed. Hence, substantial
central areas of urban organisms, become neglected and dangerous in particular cases,
despite their unique historical or even monumental character [1].
Therefore the process of re-urbanization seems crucial in contemporary city centers
and downtowns, based on regeneration of existing architecture, not only by refur-
bishments, but most of all on introducing new gainful functions. Likewise, there must
be highlighted the requirement of adjusting building to physical and psychological
needs of today’s human beings as well as providing the accessibility for people with
disabilities [2].

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 34–44, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_4
 Reconstruction with a Change of Function 35

Overall process of such activities was generally named ‘architectural and urban
recycling’ for the needs of this article. At many occasions, especially in the historical
cities, which are being massively visited by tourists, very profitable business willingly
being settled in existing building fiber, are hotels and hostels [3, 4]. For example
development like this was observed in Venice, Italy, where every possible space was
and is being transformed into an accommodation enterprise.
As an outcome of recycling process, successful hospitality industry, brings back:
services, shops, craftsmanship, gastronomy and in effect – tourists. Moreover, such
approach allows creation of new urban structure, which is attractive and desirable
among younger and older city residents or new-comers, who are willing to settle
lastingly in old city centers.

1.1 Purpose of the Article

Purpose. The main persistence of this article was to show the variety of approaches
towards refurbishments in hotels’ field of study, with a carful focus on showing unique,
original architecture, formed as a result of connection between old and new. Such
approach provides hotels with diversity and exclusiveness, especially searched
nowadays by hospitality industry [4].
Aim. In connection to the latter, important aim was to find out, if renovated buildings
are properly adjusted to the nowadays psychological and physical needs of people also
with disabilities. So, it can be said that the ergonomics and accessibility was resear-
ched. Next aim was presentation of good-practice examples, to reveal and highlight
most important areas, where refurbishment should take place. Direct inspiration to this
section were case studies, carried out in situ in European cities. Just to point out
examples most elaborated here: Molino Stucky Hilton hotel and Hostel Generator, both
located on the island of La Giudecca, Venice (Italy) – the first one was arranged in a
former mill and the latter one in an old granary and Vienna House Andel’s Lodz in the
city Łódź (Poland) – situated in the old spinning manufacture. They are characterized
by distinctive architectural solution and exceptional character of interior spaces, with
the careful approach towards users’ safety and comfort [5, 6].
Case studies, supplemented by literature review, served for formulation of con-
clusions, which sum up this presentation, on the feasibility of historic architecture
recycling with designation to hotels and hostels.

1.2 Scope and Method for the Research

Scope. As part of the research task, a study was carried out on the architecture of
associated with a specific cultural setting – in European centers, downtowns and old
towns. Particular emphasis was placed on the solutions selected in the light of the
building tradition of a given area, despite if it was residential or industrial tissue. Most
interest was devoted towards all public spaces of studied building, for these zones are
36 J. Jablonska and E. Trocka-Leszczynska

crucial to the overall building accessibility and safety [7, 8]. What is more, the revi-
sions also included looking for those features, that are common to all recycled hotel
establishments, regardless of their region of location.
Method. First, research question was posed, assuming that examples of contemporary
recycled architecture should present feasible solutions for accessible spaces. After-
wards data to this study was gathered on-site in form of digital photographs and
available documentation and information, complemented with literature studies and
graphical material review. All research were done with the use of critical and com-
parative analysis of: buildings documentation, digital graphical material and source
information. For conclusion formulation synthesis was used. All photographs and
drawings presented in this study have been made by the authors.

2 Discussion

2.1 Case Studies

Old Mill. The system of La Giudecca islands, which are part of the city of Venice
(Italy), which history is related to the Jewish community that once existed here, is
characterized by a large share of post-industrial buildings. Next to the harbor buildings
and docks, attention attracts the size of the old mill Molino Stucky. The edifice was
commissioned by investor Giovanni Stucky in years 1895–1897 and it was designed by
Ernst Wullekopf. The building received a simple, cubic shape on a square plan, flanked
at the corners with rectangular towers [5, 6].
The relatively austere, industrial architecture was erected in red brick in the eclectic
style. Decorative details in the form of window frames, arches, pinnacles and attics,
indicate the inspiration of both roman and gothic styles. The front façade of the
building is turned towards the northern side of the island and dominates over the
surface of the water. The side elevation was erected along the canal. Originally, the mill
was a large workplace, i.e. in 1887 year, 1,500 people were employed there, in a shift
system operating 24 h a day. Next to the flour, the mill was famous for pasta [5, 6].
Currently, in the former mill, the hotel Hilton has been located, with a five-star
category. The new function has been infilled in existing building tissue, respecting
history and attention to the display of past details. Despite the luxurious, modern
character of the building, the old architectural value is exposed. Façades and external
architectural elements have been completely preserved, it was not decided to introduce
any contemporary details. Even pool located on the roof top, is completely invisible to
passersby or passengers of the boats. Both solutions effect in the intact context. Also
emergency staircases added for nowadays evacuation and fire safety purposes, were
located in courtyards, so they would be invisible from the perspective of water and
neighboring islands (Figs. 1, 2).
 Reconstruction with a Change of Function 37

Fig. 1. Molino Stucky Hilton Hotel, La Giudecca (Venice) – front and side façade. The tilt and
inclination of the building is characteristic for all estates at the island.

Fig. 2. Molino Stucky Hilton Hotel, La Giudecca (Venice) – the safety and ergonomic
adjustments.

Apart from the care about historical truth, a hotel must be adapted to the needs of
people with disabilities. At Molino Stucky Hilton Hotel all these changes, including
those in wheelchairs, are made in a restrained, almost transparent manner. Good
example of such solutions may the non-slippery ramp, allowing people with move
limitations to change levels. The surface of the floor is ergonomic, functional, and
38 J. Jablonska and E. Trocka-Leszczynska

marked with characteristic transverse stripes in dark color, matching surrounding

flooring patterns. Protecting railings are made of thin metal profiles, again in the
natural, darker color, placed only where needed – i.e. the decorative pillar is composed
into this boundary system. The overall solution is filled into the character of the space
in almost invisible to the eye manner, yet it is noticeable for the people with impaired
sight. Also it can be noticed that surface changes – like walls or ramps – have been
marked with small light sources, which emit delicate, non-glaring light. It not only
shows the space geometry for sand-blind or disoriented people, but at the same time
highlights evacuation way (Fig. 2).
Historic Granary. On the island La Giudecca in Venice there is also a Generator
hostel, which was created as part of the modernization of the existing building tissue. In
this case, a three-story building of the former grain warehouse from 1855 was used,
situated in the frontage with a view of pl. St. Mark [9]. Elevations during the renovation
were left in the original form, so was the main entrance. It has not been additionally
exposed, as it is usually done in hotels. The external walls of the building were erected
from unpainted, red brick, against which the white bands around the window and door
openings are cut off, as well as the rustication of the corners, located only on the ground
floor. The whole is topped with a stepped, modest attic with a relatively flat peak.
Attention is drawn by numerous, small rectangular windows, completed with a seg-
mental arch and on the ground floor there are three pairs of doors, relatively wide and
finished analogously to windows (Fig. 3). The project preserves original, stone con-
struction poles made from white marble, supporting wooden ceilings, with thick beams.

Fig. 3. Generator hostel, La Giudecca (Venice) – old granary façade in the panorama of the
island’s buildings.

The main entrance was located behind a pair of middle doors, where a large
vestibule was created, entirely glazed with the use of wooden woodwork. Attention
should be paid to the anti-panic handle, in red, which not only prevents danger during
evacuation, but can also be noticed by people with damaged or weakened eyesight. The
whole building is serviced by two symmetrical staircases (in the vicinity of the front of
the façade), which provide a vertical escape route. Also two elevators, which was
located on the right and left side of the entrance, was designed for people with dis-
abilities and to transport i.e. luggage. Adjustment is also done with creation of
accessible toilets (Fig. 4).
 Reconstruction with a Change of Function 39

Fig. 4. Generator hostel, La Giudecca (Venice) – scheme of the layout with adjusted elements to
user’s safety and needs people with disabilities (self-elaboration on the basis of [9]).

The interiors are equipped with: armchairs, wooden tables, recovered metal chairs.
Long dining tables, also gained from the secondary market, are planned in this
arrangement to integrate guests with each other. The rustic and eclectic character of the
interiors was contrasted using modern lighting fixtures: reflectors, hanging lamps and
sconces. An important accent is the contemporary neon with the name of the hostel,
placed above the bar in the main entrance area. It is worth noting that arrangement was
formulated as a joke from convention, existing conditions and famous Italian design.
A great example of such a solution is a neon sign in the fireplace with the Italian
word fuoco – meaning fire. [9].
The combination of decorative, historical chandeliers with modern reflectors or
industrial lamps can be regarded as jocular, followed by visible ventilation pipes of
dubious aesthetics and a circular antique coffee table standing against a sofa with torn
and worn upholstery. Such approach allowed designers to bring recycling idea to the
furniture and equipment.
Spinning Mill. Similar solutions can be found also in Poland – a great example in this
range would be a former spinning mill turned into the luxurious network enterprise
4-star Vienna House Andel’s Lodz in one of the central cities of the country – Łódź.
Original building substance dates back to XIX century, where businessman Izrael
Poznański own a spinning manufacture [10, 11], (Fig. 5).
40 J. Jablonska and E. Trocka-Leszczynska

Fig. 5. Vienna House Andel’s Lodz, Łódź (Poland) – under the construction in 2008 – visible
structure of the roof pool, not interfering with historic building tissue.

Author of the original project was Hilary Majewski (documentation form 1878).
The contemporary design by OP Architekten – Wojciech Popławski and Andrzej
Orlinski, was carried out between 2007 and 2009. It assumed careful preservation and
renovation of an old building substance (according to the conservation guidelines),
especially in case of facades and interesting introduction of novel elements. The only
exposed new structure is a glazed pool on the roof, which volume is extended in front
of the external walls. However, also this accent was added without any interference
with historic building. In the interior 277 rooms can be found, with one or two level
suites. Among them there have been implemented solutions for people with disabilities.
Accommodation is supplemented by: entrance hall, bars, sky lounge, cafes, relaxation,
SPA, wellness, fitness spaces, ballroom and substantial conference area. The place is
accessible by cars, therefore there have been created parking for 100 vehicles. In the
interiors old secondary divisions, connected to past functioning of factory have been
removed, in order to revel the original building tissue [10, 11], (Figs. 5, 6).

Fig. 6. Vienna House Andel’s Lodz, Łódź (Poland) – in 2017 – visible original brick façades
with large industrial windows, the contemporary pool on the roof top, covered with full glazing
states a delicate accent in the historic volume.
 Reconstruction with a Change of Function 41

Nowadays in public spaces and hotel rooms historic elements, like: ceilings, cast
iron columns have been exposed, which adds exceptional value to the outlook of the
hotel. Large windows, brick walls and industrial steal elements are a part of unique
objects character. By such background contemporary designer elements look very
representational – great example here would be a reception counter in almost laboratory
style. It is a simple elongated piece of furniture, in light blue and white colours,
highlighted with lighting strip. Behind it wall is finished with dark-blue cladding and
above original brick and beams have been revealed. At the same time rooms have been
treated in similar approach, however with the use of much more warm and contrast
colours [10, 11].
It is worth mentioning that Vienna House Andel’s Lodz is a part of larger refurbished
commercial complex called Manufaktura. All building within this area are distinguished
by careful treatment of historic elements and their contemporary exposition. Among
them interesting public spaces have been arranged, willingly used by city residents and
hotel visitors (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Historic elements and details of the facades and passages through the buildings in
Manufaktura, where Vienna House Andel’s Lodz, Łódź (Poland) have been situated.

2.2 Development Possibilities

Layout and cross-sections of post industrial buildings (like the ones presented above),
due to their substantial sizes of widens, deepness and height enable easy adjustment to
hotels. Most of such accommodation enterprises, must follow high requirements
towards surfaces of the rooms or arrangement of public spaces and program or services
offered. For example in Europe such regulations are enclosed in the document called
“HotelStars.eu”, prepared by HotelStars Union (within the HOTREC organization) and
at the same time must follow specific national law and building code of each country
[12–15]. Thus, usually vast surfaces are needed with high openings, supplemented by
sufficient space for adding evacuation staircases, escalators and elevators.
42 J. Jablonska and E. Trocka-Leszczynska

Hostels. At the same time other buildings, like historic residences or houses, have
rather small interiors and a lot of wall-divisions of space, for example due to the
structural forming possibilities in the past times. Such fabric, at many occasions, can be
easily transformed into hostels or micro-hotels, designated to the young travelers with
limited budget [9]. In this case some examples can be named, like: The One Hostel in
Wroclaw (Poland) – which was settled in the tenement house in historic market square
of the old town and contains capsule sleeping system, the Grand Hostel in Berlin
(Germany) – located in historic residential building and offers traditional beds or St
Christopher’s Inn – London Bridge in London (UK) – infilled in XVI century building
and providing bunk beds.
Hotels. During the literature review it was correspondingly proved, that residential
historic housing is feasible for implementation of luxurious and vast hospitality
function. However the buildings used, were performing usually other than just
domestic functions. Great examples of such solutions, would be: Le Dokhan’s in Paris
(France) – settled in the private house of local nobles, Chateau de Massillian in Uchaux
(France) – located in the XVI century hunting house, Villa d’Este in Como (Italy) –
converted from XVI century cardinals’ residence and XIX century Queen’s Pavillion,
Villa San Michele in Florence (Italy) – adapted from XV century monastery, Kens-
ington House Hotel in London (UK) – created in XIX highly decorative building [3, 4].
Summary. Selected for this passage case studies show, that there is a great diversity of
building types in the European city centers and downtowns, in past neglected, which
can nowadays serve as a hospitality enterprise. Among them there can be listed:
• post-industrial tissue, which does not carry any remaining pollution, (i.e. granaries,
windmills, looms),
• residential buildings of aristocrats (preeminent or summer residences, town houses,
town palaces, etc.),
• common residential housing (usually tenement houses of XIX and beginning of XX
century),
• past sacral tissue (like monasteries)
Moreover, the diversity of hospitality building allows adjustment of function to
spatial form of the existing architecture. Among possible solutions there can be named:
• hotels,
• hostels,
• micro-hotels,
• capsule hostels.

3 Conclusions

It was confirmed, that despite specific spatial layout of old post-industrial and resi-
dential historic buildings, it is possible to effectively adjust them to the new use as a
hospitality enterprise. All nowadays needed elements like:
 Reconstruction with a Change of Function 43

• enlarged number of evacuation staircases,

• elevators and ramps for movement of people with disabilities, wheelchairs, strollers
and languages,
• fire- and panic- safe doors,
• adjusted toilets,
• hygienically speared zones.
Can be introduced without any loos to the historic character of architecture,
especially external façades and their details. At the same time, there is the possibility to
enrich hotel or hostel function with: gastronomic zones, leisure and recreation area,
entertainment function, etc.
It can be also stated that introduction of new hospitality functions to the old urban
fiber is economic, ergonomic and architecturally attractive. Recycling of the existing
urban tissue, allows to attract new investors, employees and in effect re-settle the
residential neighborhoods. This seems like a really feasible approach.
As it was proven at the example of presented case studies one of the most important
advantages of refurbishment of existing and neglected urban tissue for the new hos-
pitality business purposes, is possibility of preservation and active use, of a really
important and interesting historic buildings. In other circumstances, old post-industrial
warehouses, mills or granaries may not become monuments, which would at some
point effected in demolition of such exceptional historic substance. Hence, within the
new use stream, all old brick or stone building, gain a chance of being left in the
panorama of contemporary European cites.

References
1. Bonenberg, W.: Research aspect in urban revitalization. Selected problems of renewal of
poznan downtown. In: Przesmycka, E., Trocka-Leszczynska, E. (eds.) Culture of the City,
pp. 113–120. Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej, Wrocław (2012)
2. Błądek, Z.: Hotele bez barier. Przystosowanie do potrzeb osób niepełnosprawnych, Zakład
poligraficzno-wydawniczy M-Druk, Poznań (2003)
3. Kunz, M.N. (ed.) Cool hotels USA. teNeues, Kempen (2008)
4. Minguet, J. (ed.) Hotel Design. Instituto Monsa de Ediciones, Barcelona (2007)
5. Hilton Molino Stucky Venice. https://www3.hilton.com/en/hotels/italy/hilton-molino-
stucky-venice-VCEHIHI/index.html. Accessed 20 Dec 2018
6. Own materials of the Molino Stucky Hilton Hotel, available in situ. Accessed 20 May 2018
7. Błądek, Z., Tulibacki, T.: Dzieje krajowego hotelarstwa. Od zajazdu do współczesności,
Albus, Poznań–Warszawa (2003)
8. Błądek, Z. (ed.) Nowoczesne hotelarstwo. Od projektowania do wyposażenia. Oficyna
Wydawniczo-Poligraficzna Adam, Warszawa (2010)
9. Wilson, C.: High-design Hostels. A Toronto firm refurbishes old buildings with design-
savvy interiors for an expanding chain of European hostels. In: Canadian Architekt. https://
www.canadianarchitect.com/features/high-design-hostels/. Accessed 17 Aug 2018
10. Rumińska, A.: Hotel Andel´s w przędzalni Poznańskiego. In: Bryla.pl (2009). http://www.
bryla.pl/bryla/1,85301,6714135,Hotel_Andel_s_w_przedzalni_Poznanskiego.html. Acces-
sed 31 Jan 2019
11. https://www.viennahouse.com. Accessed 31 Jan 2019
44 J. Jablonska and E. Trocka-Leszczynska

12. Hotel Quality Standards, AA Hotel Services, AA Media Limited (2011)

13. Hotelstars.eu 2015–2020, Hotelstars Union – Classification criteria 2015–2020
14. Rozporządzenie Ministra Gospodarki i Pracy z dnia 19 sierpnia 2004 r. (tekst jednolity Dz.
U. z 2006 r. Nr 22 poz. 169) z późn. zm., Wymagania co do wyposażenia, kwalifikacji
personelu oraz zakresu świadczonych usług, w tym usług gastronomicznych dla hoteli
15. Watson, H.: Hotel Revolution. Wiley-Academy John Wiley & Sons, Chichester (2005)
 T-House. Shaping Ergonomic and Flexible
Interiors in Modular Form Connected
to Horticultural Therapy Zone

Jerzy Charytonowicz1,2(&), Alicja Maciejko3,

and Agnieszka Skrzypczak4
1
Angelus Silesius University of Applies Sciences in Walbrzych,
Zamkowa 4, 58-300 Walbrzych, Poland
jerzy.charytonowicz@pwr.edu.pl
2
Faculty of Architecture, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology,
Wybrzeze Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
3
Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of Zielona Gora,
ul. Prof. Z. Szafrana 1, 65-516 Zielona Gora, Poland
4
Gardens, Wolverhampton, UK

Abstract. Architecture is increasingly becoming a real response to the postu-

lates of the doctrine of sustainable development. Ergonomics and the ecology of
architectural solutions applied in the closest material human environment, such
as its space for living, equally contribute to improving the quality of life. As
important as the correct solution of functional space and elements of interior
design, both in terms of selection of materials, shape, colour and texture of the
surface that the user is in direct contact with, is the connection of the interior of
the building with elements of living vegetation. This article shows a design
proposals for such solutions. The issues will be discussed on the basis of the
project of modular houses designed by architect Alicja Maciejko, author of this
paper and architect Miroslaw Strzelecki, called T-House System [1].

Keywords: Architecture
Human factors
T–House
Plan T

Single family house
Ergonomic design
Interiors
Horticultural therapy

Modular building
Sustainable housing
Settlements for refugees

Social housing

1 Introduction

T-house is the architectural proposal for single-story houses designed in T-shape plan.
This project is a response to a government competition addressed to practicing
architects and scientific institutions in the field of architecture. The aim was to search
for a modular, standard sustainable 70 and 80 m2 house suitable for a family of 5
people. Project is also suitable for the small residential complexes for older people, in
which living spaces can be divided into separate areas of 35–40 m. The special
modular form of the T-shaped plan offers unique possibilities for shaping small housing
arrangements. The authors of this article analyzed what are the new possibilities of
ergonomic and flexible interior design offered by a house on plan T. The linear

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 45–56, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_5
46 J. Charytonowicz et al.

arrangement of houses results in the creation of internal, partially open courtyards,

spaces accessible from the inside of the houses, which are integral part of the house.
Planning around this courtyards offers possibilities for the people to relate directly to
earth and nature, because in such defined space include plants as a part of living. And
can become multipurpose rooms where most of activities of the family take place. The
article discusses several variants of house interiors divided into functional zones,
typical for residential buildings, such as the entrance, living, bathroom, kitchen and
sleeping areas, but also pays special attention to the arrangement of the green areas of
courtyards, which can be used as an element of horticultural therapy. This is an attempt
to create appropriate psychophysical conditions for the residents in order to prevent
modern civilization diseases such as neuroses and depressions. The construction sys-
tem and construction technology have been designed to give the greatest possibilities of
interior rearrangement without disturbing the structure of the building.

2 T-House and Architectural Idea of the Modular Building

Module in construction is generally recognised and used for many solutions as a rule of
organization. Since antiquity, the module had a direct reference to the anatomical
structure of man (Vitruvius, Leonardo da Vinci, Albrecht Dürer, Giacoma Barozzi da
Vingola, Andrea Palladio, Le Corbusier). It was connected with the search for ideal
proportions. Modular structures in architecture are particularly useful when they
combine technical benefits, e.g. strength and lightness of the structure with the influ-
ence of the architectural form. It enables prefabrication and easier, precise or dry
erection of structures on site. It is most common in the optimal static organisation of
structural elements in long spans buildings or high structures. The use of the module
also involves the visual search for grids and rhythms, which are the basis for archi-
tectural composition in the plan or in the shape. It is sometimes conditioned by
opposing factors that influence the final solution, allowing maximum variability and
versatility of the building. Attempts to determine the size of the module for residential
architecture involved structural, material and functional aspects.
T-shaped houses are also designed in history of architecture, especially as indi-
vidual houses. There are many houses used plan T to create various functional solu-
tions. On narrow plots of land, both tracts are often narrow, which determines the
amphibious connections of rooms without an internal corridor. As an example T can be
mentioned an American house designed on plan T, whose special feature was the
entrance through a roofed veranda (in the recess) and the outer wall parallel to the street
with a characteristic gable roof. Many T-plans houses built in the last quarter of the
19th century feature polygonal bay windows on the facade, and ornamentation like
brackets at the cornice and porches what is characteristic of American housing that
times.
Presented modular house designed on the T plan can be combined and arranged
into complex urban layouts. It is an assumption used in various fields, including
architecture and urban planning, to enable the modelling of unique, flexible systems
with repeatable components, using specific layout algorithms.
 T-House. Shaping Ergonomic and Flexible Interiors 47

Fig. 1. Architectural idea of separating from the rectangular solid of the house two external
terrace spaces integrated into the functional structure of the houses. The resulting form is
symmetrical. Separated spaces can be both as entrance terraces on which can designed e.g. a
place for storing bicycles, as well as in the back part as green areas closed in a partially open (two
or one sides) courtyard, which can be roofed. Drawing: Maciejko [1].

1 2 3

Fig. 2. Architectural idea. Functions located in external spaces: (1) entrance and back terraces
with space for horticultural therapy, (2) windows, (3) entrances. Drawing: Maciejko [1].

Fig. 3. Architectural idea. Houses can be connected to each other with any external wall.
Drawing: Maciejko [1].

In the presented idea, squares with 3.2 m sides for 70-m houses and 3.4 m for a
80 m houses were adopted as a modular unit. (Figure 4) This is the result of the search
for the optimal cell for a standard living room or comfortable bedroom. In the above
spans, further modular divisions are possible for the use of common building materials.
The choice of structural module has created the basis for functional solutions in
48 J. Charytonowicz et al.

architecture and urban planning. The modular grid refers to both residential interiors
and urban solutions. Design on modular grids is also standardized by technical needs
related to media infrastructure. Shaping on a modular frame allows the implementation
of serial, twin, central, arched and atrial systems in several different variants and the use
of different shapes of roofs depending on terrain conditions and location in relation to
the directions of the world [2]. Sloped roofs in combined systems are designed with a
slope to the interior so as to allow water to drain to the plot of land [1] (Fig. 5).

Fig. 4. Architectural and structural modules for a house with an area of 70 m2 and for a house
with an area of 80 m2. Drawing: Maciejko [1].

Fig. 5. Orientation house variants for optimum daylight illumination of the daylight zones.In the
central, low-light part of the house, the bathroom and kitchen are located with all installations
blocked. Depending on the orientation, the entrance and green areas can be used alternately,
which is also possible thanks to the flexible interior design. Drawing: Maciejko [1, 2].
 T-House. Shaping Ergonomic and Flexible Interiors 49

T-Houses are small-scale houses with a minimum usable area for a maximum 5-
person family, but there are also shown versions with 2 bedrooms suitable for smaller
families or single parents. In the case of flats for childless couples or single people, the
living area is relatively large for the proposed standard of living, so that the installation
layout allows for a further division of the flat into two with an area of about 35 m2 with
one bedroom, a living space with an open kitchen and an entrance terrace. It is also a
proposal for the residential complexes for the elderly. The proposed sizes of the basic
module are such as to create 70 and 80 m2 of living space.
The idea assumes the possibility of connecting houses into various urban-planning
systems [3]. Usually in linear systems, due to the lighting conditions of the flats, they
are connected with only two internal walls. External flats can also be lighted from the
sides. The innovation of this solution is the fact that houses can be connected with any
external wall. This is possible because the windows that bring light to the living rooms
and bedrooms and indirectly to the kitchen areas are moved away from the external
walls through which the next house is connected. This solution is based on the idea of
an atrial closed house, where the lighting of the house is mainly provided by an atrium
or a house organized around the inner semi-open courtyard. However, in the T-house
the opening to the outside is preserved. In house arrangements it is possible to obtain
intimate partially open courtyards with accessibility from one or both sides. One of
them is the entrance space, which is also moved deep into the house. So the entrance to
the house is not just from the street but from the inner patio. Such solutions are also
found in many realizations, e.g. there are entrances from external roofed terraces,
although traditionally in Europe closed verandas, vestibules or entrance porches were
used. (Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 6).

Fig. 6. Architectural idea and examples of arrangements. Houses can be connected by internal
walls in a traditional linear serial systems and in a double row system, where they are connected
by an internal wall and through external walls. It shows also the possibility of parallel connection
in one line, moving by the depth of the terrace (11° – one house and 20° – 2 houses). It is also
possible to combine both systems. Drawings: Maciejko [1, 3].
50 J. Charytonowicz et al.

3 Ergonomic and Flexible Interiors

The interior design philosophy was based on flexibility and ergonomics. By definition,
these buildings move the standard of living from flats in apartment blocks. It relates
both to functional solutions as well as material, construction and installation design. All
these solutions are designed as economical and consuming the smallest possible
amount of energy for the construction sector. The aim is to use the space as much as
possible, which is why open living rooms, alternatively open kitchens connected to the
living room or amphibious passages are used. By using the core of the building for the
living area, it is possible to illuminate them from two opposite sides. Separation of the
corridor along the building is also possible with the solution of sleeping rooms in the
shorter building layout. Another rule, which is the essence of the idea, is a very close
connection of interiors with external terraces, which play the role of additional space of
the same weight as residential interiors, complementing the functional space of the
house. These zones are located in the functional contours of the house and are its
integral part. Appropriate arrangement is important because it is a zone from which the
whole house is day light illuminated, therefore it is also not recommended to com-
pletely roof these spaces. Solutions for the horticultural therapy zone are presented in
the following part of the text. Due to the limited space, heating is carried out by a
multifunctional boiler located in the bathroom, where appropriate cubic capacity is
provided for such a solution. There is also no kitchen background, but in each variant,
the kitchen is equipped with a spacious set of kitchen cabinets, designed in accordance
with the principles of ergonomics. There is also no separate dining room. Each variant
has in or near the kitchen, in the living room, a comfortable place for a table, which
plays the role of an integrating family during common meals. At the tables, there are
tableware cupboards (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Examples of the layout of functional zones in selected variants. Drawing: Maciejko [1].

The house has neither a storage room nor a garage, so in the entrance area it is
proposed to make a small, unheated room for bicycles and small garden equipment.
The addressees of the housing are people who do not have a car or who prefer a
solution of shared ownership, which is also related to the postulated quality of life in
accordance with environmentally friendly solutions. In the central, low-light part of the
 T-House. Shaping Ergonomic and Flexible Interiors 51

house, the bathroom and kitchen area is located with all installations blocked.
Depending on the orientation, the entrance and green areas can be used alternately,
which is also possible thanks to the flexible interior design. Examples of houses with 2
and 3 bedrooms are presented, but it is also possible to create an open plan house,
because all internal walls, apart from the installation walls between the kitchen and
bathroom located in the middle of the house, are partition walls. Only columns in the
exterior walls are structural (Fig. 8).
The presented variants show solutions for a house with an area of 70 m2. The plan
of the letter T created two tracts, one shorter, occupying two construction fields and
longer, which consists of four squares with a side of 3.2 m. The communication for the

Fig. 8. Examples of arrangements in different functional variants for the for T-House 70 m2.
Drawing: Maciejko [1].
52 J. Charytonowicz et al.

whole house is planned in the central part through a separate corridor or from the open
space of the living room. The entrance zone on the side of the entrance terrace is
equipped with access to the wardrobe, in variants 3 and 5 the possibility of separating a
vestibule with a minimum area is shown. Media were designed only on one side of the
house, on a shared wall between kitchen and bathroom. In each variant, the bathroom is
the same, but the layout of the kitchen changes, it can be placed on a transverse or
longitudinal wall. Due to the lighting concept of the house, the kitchen is not illumi-
nated by a direct window, so it is open and connected to the living room. When
determining the individual location of the house for exterior houses it is possible to
design a window in the kitchen in the longitudinal wall. The kitchen can then be
separated by a partition wall. In the presented examples, the living zone is designed in
two systems, both in shorter and longer tracts (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9. Examples of arrangements in different functional variants for the for T-House 80 m2.
Variants 4 5 and 6 show a solution for side houses, where you can additionally illuminate the
kitchen and bathroom. Drawing: Maciejko [1].
 T-House. Shaping Ergonomic and Flexible Interiors 53

Fig. 10. Architectural idea. One of the example. Visualisations: Miroslaw Strzelecki. Drawings:
Maciejko [1, 3].

There are also examples for a house with an area of 80 m2. The rules are the same,
the basic layout is similar, but the rooms are proportionally enlarged. The side of the
modular square is 3.4 m. The difference between this house and a house with an area of
70 m2 is the separation of a toilet and the possibility of building a fireplace in the
central part of the house (Fig. 10).

4 Horticultural Therapy Zone

As important as the correct solution of functional elements of interior design, both in

terms of selection of materials, shape, colour and texture of the surface that the user is
in direct contact with, is the connection of the interior of the building with elements of
living vegetation. It should be an integral part of the house design, because human
contact with nature is its most fundamental need, and the influence of plants, their
smells, shapes, forms, geometry and growth force, can play an decorative, functional
(herbs and eaten plants) and therapeutic role in the house. It is related to both direct
contact, such as touch and smell, and the benefits for the eyesight, which is widely
discussed or values intangibles, such as experiencing pleasure and beauty. Contem-
porary architectural solutions for even the smallest houses can implement these func-
tions, making them an integral part of the project, on a similar basis as sanitary
installations, air conditioning, especially if a plant irrigation system is used. It is also
important to use vegetation for oxygen production and to create a good indoor
microclimate, e.g. they can contribute to the natural lowering of indoor temperatures
and reduce the negative effects of the sunlight. They are largely cost-free.
54 J. Charytonowicz et al.

Design proposal for the mini garden horticultural therapy zone, design guidelines:
1. Individual designing for specific users, their preferences, age and diseases.
2. Ergonomic accessibility by coverage zones. Appropriate height range for raised
arms with watering can or pot (standing eye height), appropriate depths for people
with limited leaning ability.
3. Mini garden plan for comfortable passage and access from all sides.
4. Mobile boxes for plants with ergonomic depths and heights.
5. Manual watering system. No automatic water supply system, water intake and
manual watering from a source located in the terrace area.
6. Minimize holding weighted objects in hands - weights corresponding to the capa-
bilities of physically weak or elderly people with limited mobility, for example, pots
in ergonomic shapes with handles and non-slip materials. Weight to one or two
kilograms.
7. The use of different cultivation technologies, including hydroponic, the use of
various structures for vertical gardens, ornamental plants, climbing plants, etc.
8. Diversified design of a mini garden for the bedroom area and in connection with the
living room and kitchen area.
9. Vegetation selected according to the conditions of sunshine, health problems of
users, health properties, tastes for decorative qualities and fragrances, and coexis-
tence of different species.
This recommendation limits the full use of therapeutic plants because the root
system and growth need to be adapted to a small scale. The design proposal was not
shown, because by definition it is a space with such huge possibilities of plant selection
and arrangement that it is designed individually after consultation with future users. If it
is a standard solution for every home, it will lose its therapeutic character to a large
extent and may even become a burden for the users.

5 Conclusion

Analysis of architectural design T–House show that the T letter plan is optimal for
ergonomic functional solutions, has economically planned rooms and minimal com-
munication area. This applies both to functional architectural solutions and urban
arrangements. The user has easy access to all rooms, the house is economical to build
and has comfortable layout. An additional advantage is that interior has not structural
limitations, what make it easy is transform.
The special shape of the T letter plan offers unique possibilities for shaping small
living spaces on a human-accepted residential scale, friendly to psychophysical pos-
sibilities and in harmony with nature. Residence in separate flats in a neighborhood
community allows for a balance between privacy and access to social space and is so
far the most popular form of housing. Practice and numerous studies have shown that
the change in the scale of residence, the accumulation of flats in too large dehumanized
complexes of multi-family buildings leads to the breaking of relations and emotional
isolation of the people living there. Moreover, an important element of the project is
real contact of each apartment with the natural area. The ability to walk “barefoot” on
 T-House. Shaping Ergonomic and Flexible Interiors 55

the natural surface in own home is also a measurable form of quality of life and can be
therapeutic. The inclusion of greenery in a private zone or day zone has been treated for
a long time as a huge advantage of single-story homes located in natural landscape and
an increasingly valued design principle. New trends in the design of multi-family
buildings in high-urbanized cities also transfer this concept to multifunctional terraces
even at very high floor levels. Greenery introduces the human factor into technical
solutions and people’s emotional needs become necessary to be taken into account in
modern architecture.
T–House idea allows to design very interesting urban forms of housing, which not
disturb the scale of small city and are proposal to emerge from the most characteristic
for recent years in Poland homogenous linear form. Despite the fact that the house is
standard, it allows you to individualize both the interior space as well as the forms of
houses and their arrangement. Even with strict requirements regarding lighting and
communication accessibility, these systems can be designed in various ways,
depending on the terrain shape and the urban concept [3].
Separated and designed as an integral part of the home, the horticultural therapy
zone as mini garden gives the opportunity to use living vegetation to improve the
quality of life and prevent civilization diseases. Selected tasks of the garden are:
1. Influence for health and possibility of use in rehabilitation and treatment support.
The mental measure of the benefits is large, e.g. in oncological rehabilitation or
depression can help to find the meaning of life.
2. Pro-ecological education.
3. Cultivation of herbal crops and selected fruit and vegetables, depending on the
season and preferences.
4. Interest in medicinal and edible plants, their inclusion in life.
5. The use of plants in home cosmetics.
6. Knowledge of biology, biochemistry and biological activity of plants.
7. Knowledge of the use of herbs and other plant products in diet and home therapies.
The proposed architectural and structural module shortens the time of building
erection and reduces the cost of work. Structural montage elements can be assembled
by hand, the longest structural element is 5.5 m long, all designed materials are gen-
erally available, but in the further design phase it is recommended to look for inno-
vative solutions and materials to reduce the energy consumption of buildings,
especially in terms of new materials and installation solutions using renewable energy
sources. At the same time, it is left free to use a variety of finishing materials, which can
be shown in the design as a variant according to the standard.
This architectural idea is design proposal as a response to human-friendly design,
improving the comfort life in the family and society in an economically accessible
standard, and in nature.
56 J. Charytonowicz et al.

References
1. Maciejko, A., Strzelecki, M.: Architectural design of a house in the T-House system.
Maciejko & Strzelecki Biuro Architektoniczne, Wrocław (2018)
2. Maciejko, A., Strzelecki, M., Wojtyszyn, B.: Competition for a model single-family house
Mieszkanie Plus. University of Zielona Gora (2018)
3. Maciejko, A., Wojtyszyn B.: T-House. Shaping T-House in shaping sustainable housing. In:
10th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics (AHFE 2019)
(2019)
4. Latkowska, M.J., Miernik, M.: Ogrody terapeutyczne – miejsca biernej i czynnej “zielonej
terapii”. Architektura. Czasopismo techniczne Politechniki Krakowskiej. 8-A/2012. Zeszyt 30
(2012)
 Ergonomics of Sound in a Hotel Environment

Joanna Jablonska(&) and Elzbieta Trocka-Leszczynska

Faculty of Architecture, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology,

B. Prusa 53/55 St., 50-317 Wroclaw, Poland
{joanna.jablonska,
elzbieta.trocka-leszczynska}@pwr.edu.pl

Abstract. Sound in a hotel environment is one of the basic parameters deter-

mining the comfort of guests, which also has a big impact on users’ safety and
health. Isolation of rooms from air and shock sounds, protection against noise,
optimal reverberation time in public zones, reduction of nuisance of conversa-
tions in restaurants, are issues related directly to the ergonomics of modern hotel
facilities. In this study they will be discussed theoretically and on selected
examples, to present the most interesting solutions, combining good architecture
with optimal acoustics.

Keywords: Architectural acoustics
Acoustics in hotels

Sound comfort and safety in a hotel
Architecture of contemporary hotels

Sound and architecture in hotel
Building acoustics
Noise reduction

Noise isolation

1 Introduction

Hotels among a number of public building types should, more than others, provide
guests with stay, rest and at occasion work, in most favorable and safe environment. One
of the factors influencing overall users’ well-being are optimal conditions of acoustical
filed parameters, created in particular rooms, depending on their purpose and main
architectural function. This topic is especially crucial, yet still mostly neglected by
architects and designers, at many occasion in enterprises of budget and standard cate-
gories from 1–3 stars classifications or in buildings localized in the city centers and
downtowns. Also hostels, youth shelters, are places of accommodation, adjusted from
historic substance, sometimes with exception from selected contemporary building code
or local law regulations. Lack of acoustical comfort is at many occasions replaced with
lower prize of stay. This process seems to be enough for rewarding users. However, for
human organism noise is injurious and should be perceived this way by investors,
designers and by the guest themselves. Hence, even short time exposition of person on:
external noise or internal excessive reverberation, occasional loud sound occurrence,
humming, low frequency waves emittance, vibrations, rattles and knocks, may be
dangerous, harmful and in extreme situation even deadly for particular being [1].
Hence, the importance of creating proper acoustical condition in case of building,
architectural and interior design will be presented for environment of contemporary

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 57–65, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_6
58 J. Jablonska and E. Trocka-Leszczynska

hotels. The focus will be on theory and practice of solutions, here good practice
examples, which should be promoted and widely propagated among scientist and
patricians of architecture field.

1.1 Aim and Scope

Architectural and building acoustics is vast field of study and a number of definitions,
notions and issues, hence, it was necessary to limit scope of research. Main focus was
sound insulation of interiors from external noise and between each other and rever-
beration time limitation, aiming at creating safe and quiet hotel environment. All
aspects connected to: conference rooms, assembly halls, music clubs and other venues
meant for speech or performance, will be element of separate research and articles.
It was crucial to offer a practical guidance of design, which is based on theory of
architecture, acoustics and fundamental notions of sound. Authors point of view was
kept on architectural side of consideration, and by such acoustical issues were treated
on certain level of generality.
Studies were carried out on both literature and web references – especially for the
topic of novel building solutions and material. All was supplemented by suitable case
studies, in the range of popular interior solutions, like ceiling and floor finishing.

1.2 Definitions
In order to talk about hotel acoustics it is crucial to shortly elaborate on notions, that
will be needed for further considerations.
Sound. Sound is hearing impression created as a result of periodic movements of air
caused by particular sound sources, i.e. vibrating or falling objects, steps, instrument
strings or vocal cords. The oscillation of matter introduces the air molecules into
motion and if it is of periodic nature, than the acoustic wave occurs. It propagates
through air by the vibration of particles, but the air does not move at the same time.
[1, 2] When the wave hits the obstacle, depending on the structure of the material that
the compartment is built form, it is: reflected or diffused, absorbed (transformed into the
heat energy) or it may arouse the particle of the material itself and in this way may be
propagated inside the element [1, 3, 4]. In case of optimal room acoustics formation,
the difference between absorbing and isolation material is substantial. Moreover, sys-
tems combining both elements can be used in the hotel project in order to provide good
isolation and limitation of reverberation noise in the interiors.
Isolation Material. Isolation materials are of a dense structure, and in effect res-
onating particles of air, do not pass through material. At the same time molecules of
material itself, do not arouse well under the influence of vibrating air particles and the
acoustical wave is not transmitted to the other room [1, 3]. Example of such product
would be: concrete, stone, vinyl, brick, etc.
Absorbing Material. The absorbance of acoustical wave is enabled by the soft, fiber,
porous, products where there is no surface, that the wave may reflect, but there is a
substantial amount of friction. Air particles rubbing against fibers, loose their energy,
 Ergonomics of Sound in a Hotel Environment 59

thus sound gradually dies out. Absorbing materials seems crucial, when there is a need
for decreasing acoustical energy in the room and lowering the reverberation noise in
space. Example of such products in a hotel would be: mineral wool, carpeting, curtains,
upholstery of furniture, particular ceilings and so on.

2 Discussion

Hazards. Noise can be very dangerous for human beings and taking into account that
loudness of heard sound is dependent on its frequency, the number of potential threats
grows. Not only permanent exposure but also short and very intense impulses, are
threatening to people. Starting from sound intensity between 35–70 dB, which can
cause: fatigue, tension, decrease of work efficiency, sleep and relaxation disorders,
towards higher parameters (around 80 dB), which may end up in: hearing damage
(permanent or temporary), disorders of systems of: circulation, nervous, orientation,
cardio-vascular disease, high blood pressure, vibration of internal organs, fear, nausea,
paralysis, balance disorders, permanent damage to the organism and finally even may
cause death. Moreover around 120–140 dB (again, depending on frequency) there is a
sound level marking human threshold of hearing, also called pain threshold, because it
causes physical pain. Sound intensity approaching this parameters, may effect in
damaging ear membrane, which is permanent. [3, 5, 6] Just to give an orientation sound
intensity around 70 dB is measured by vacuum cleaners and hair dryer produces about
60 dB [6] – appliances used commonly in hotels.
Recommendation and Standardization. Taking into account these issues, it seems
that design low-noise environment is crucial, not only for hotel buildings. Fortunately
national building codes, standards and norms are implementing more documents,
obligating designers to be conscious about building and architectural acoustics in their
projects. For instance in Poland, the nowadays acoustical norm (i.e. polish norm PN-B-
02151-4:2015-06, currently also recalled in national building code) force architects not
only to isolate rooms form external and internal noise (i.e. created by technical
installations, equipment and devices), but also require limitation on reverberation time
and thus reverberation noise [7, 8]. Similar recommendations can be found in other
European documents, also devoted directly to the hotel design. Just to recall Hotel
Quality Standards by AA Hotel Services [9] which state about external building
solutions (like: double or triple glazing of facade in order to limit sound transition to the
guest rooms), internal room design (by proper wall and doors selection) or indicate
internal solution (i.e. care for quiet ventilation, fans, etc.). A great example of afore-
mentioned standards are Hotelstars Union – Classification criteria 2015–2020 [10],
where in the document evaluation of hotel standard, thus number of stars, is dependent
on architectural and acoustical solution.
Sound Propagation. The noise is propagated by air – so called airborne sounds – and
can be produced by external and internal sources, like: traffic, underground and air
transport, mechanical, electrical and electronic devices, talks, steps, falling objects,
elevators and escalators, ventilation, media installation, and as well can be transmitted
60 J. Jablonska and E. Trocka-Leszczynska

in materials – so called material (shock) sounds – by the: ground, structure of the

building, it compartments (Fig. 1). The vibrations can be propagated in the same way.
What is more, acoustical wave may bounce many times inside the rooms, until it will
not be heard, and by such phenomenon reverberation is created. This occurrences may
additionally intensify unbeneficial parameters of the acoustical field in the room [1, 3].

Fig. 1. Heavy street traffic, as one of the noise sources for downtown and city centers, here
example of Mercure Hotel in Wroclaw (Poland).

Quietness. Relaxation and good rest in a hotel, is one of the basic features that each
enterprise should enquire. Needless to say, that not all reverberation or sounds penetrating
the hotel rooms are disadvantageous and at the same time it must be stressed, that to quiet
spaces as well as to muted ones, are perceived by the users as unpleasant, frightening and
disorienting. However, the properly balanced quietness in one room, will positively
influence overall sound field in the building and outside [11]. Unfortunately, at many
occasions designer has no influence on external noise, but there is always a possibility to
create exceptional comfort inside of the building.

3 Examples and Case Studies

Mainly there are two methods for protecting inner environment form noise: airborne
sound isolation and material (shock) sound isolation. Third action that should be taken
is limitation of reverberation time, which is introduced with the use of absorbing
materials into the interiors.
 Ergonomics of Sound in a Hotel Environment 61

3.1 Building Acoustics

Exterior Wall. At many occasions thermal insulation of external walls in the building,
is serving as an acoustical isolation. Hence, it is so important to consider its use and
proper thickness of the layer, even in the countries, where weather conditions are very
favourable. Nowadays, polish regulation oblige designers to create air-tight structures,
which positively influences not only energy saving process, but also allows interiors to
be protected in a better way from external clatters. Careful installation of windows and
door in the facade, sealing the space under the window sills, enveloping balcony slabs
with insulation and careful solutions for connections between roof and wall – these are
all elements that provide proper acoustical comfort inside. Also selected doors and
windows should be optimized for acoustical isolation of building element, confirmed
by proper information in the products technical card [1, 8] (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. The detail of building solutions, general and joints aiming at limiting sound
transmittance form one volume to another [self-elaboration based on: 1, 12, 15–17].

Wraths and Slabs. Standard wraths and slabs of contemporary buildings are manu-
factured on site or prefabricated, with the use of reinforced concrete. These long-
lasting, durable, bearing load, building elements are the cause of sound transmission
between rooms. Steel rods are elements that propagate acoustical wave very well. What
is more material may generate, additional osculation and as an effect produce new
sounds (i.e. rattles). Therefore, they should be isolated between the volumes, with the
use of floor insulation and proper filling of floating floor expansions joints and, if
possible ceiling isolation made with suspended systems or even additional lightweight
isolation over the panelling, if needed [12, 13].
62 J. Jablonska and E. Trocka-Leszczynska

Floating Floor. System of floating floor is especially effective in protection of the

interior form air-produced sounds, steps and dropping objects – so material sounds –
and this solution should not be omitted in hospitality business. Finishing of upper floor
surface with additional soft material like carpeting, rugs adds extra acoustical isolation
to complete design. The setup works in solutions, where acoustical isolation is elastic –
like a spring – and the ceiling slab is massive and heavy. The selected isolation has to
be designated towards working in floating floor system, hence not all products can be
used in such configuration. It is also very important to properly solve all the expansion
joints, in order to avoid side sound transmittance through the wraths [12].
Interior Partition Wall. Structural walls of the building, depending on the material
will provide isolation, which can be establish on the basis of producers card. If needed,
additional muting can be provided by the use of additional mineral wool panels, which
can be protected from interiors with brick, plywood, drywall or other type of cladding.
It must be stressed, that particular products may require provision of ventilation
gap. Cladding is usually installed on steel or aluminium grate, depending on structural
solutions. It should be remembered that supporting metal sub-structure, ought to be
additionally isolated from floor and ceilings with elastic acoustical spacer. If not, the
structure will propagate sounds and vibration, which will lower system’s performance.
The grates from wood are not recommended for public or accommodation buildings,
due to the fire safety requirements.
The interior light, partition walls can be manufactured from drywalls and gap
between them is filled isolation or absorbing material. Among the latter lightweight
mineral wool is advised, with proper (dependant on the particular project) fire safety
parameters. On building market, there are already the fiber-cardboard boards, with have
the acoustical parameters, allowing to additionally lower the sound transmittance in the
light-wall solution. Depending on the product it can be 6, up to 12 dB, of confirmed
isolation, with the product technical card [14]. While designing such solution, again the
support structure of drywalls must be acoustically isolated (Fig. 2).

3.2 Architectural Acoustics

The room acoustics comes in hand with interior design of hotel spaces. By the selection
of proper products, not only exceptional space character may be obtained, but there can
be built also quiet or more lively sound field. Hence, it is crucial that architects
designing particular interiors, while solving each singular element, took into account
not only its: fire and user safety, colour, texture and patter, but also consider what role it
will play in overall room sound ambient.
Ceilings. In general hotel design there are two ceiling types used – reflecting and
absorbing ones. All painted, plastered concrete slabs, i.e. in rooms are in the first
group. If there is a need for higher quietness in the space or in corridors, halls,
absorbing products would be required. Currently there is a vast variety of products,
which will have parameter of proper fire safety, can be cleaned, washed or even
 Ergonomics of Sound in a Hotel Environment 63

disinfected. Also a range of products design is attractive, i.e. panels which look like
manufactured from wood. If such solution seems still not sufficient, the additional
suspended absorbing islands can be considered.
Walls. External surface of wall, in standard solutions is mainly covered with plaster
and paint, wallpaper (from: paper, textile, vinyl) or at rare occasions: ceramics, stone,
architectural concrete. Such solutions provide additional reflection or diffusion of direct
acoustical wave and favour elongating reverberation time. If the last phenomenon is
excessive, the reverberation noise may be stated. If needed, walls may be additionally
noise-dampened with the use on absorbing materials, as it was aforementioned in the
chaptered about interior partition wall, with additional coverage by textile. However,
such solution will favour gathering dust, humidity and biohazard agents, at the same
time being very hard to clean.
Floor. Much more sensible solution than absorbing walls are different types of soft
carpeting installed on already elaborated floating floor. Number of products offer
additional isolation on the bottom surfaces or can be layered over particular acoustical
films. Again, it is crucial to select a product that is fire safe, non-toxic and does not
occur as a barrier for people on wheelchairs or using canes.
Furniture and Fixtures. Last group of elements designed and selected in hotel
planning process are furniture and fixtures. If they contain a lot of absorbing materials
like: upholstery of chairs, armchairs, sofas, beds, etc., curtains form thick, soft textile
(i.e. plush, satin), cushions, quilts, covers, they can help in sufficient excessive rever-
beration time improvement (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Portus Cale Hotel in Porto (Portugal) – public spaces design with absorbing furniture
and diffusive ribs, serving as acoustical system hidden in decoration.
64 J. Jablonska and E. Trocka-Leszczynska

4 Summary

There are two groups of solutions, enabling an architect to provide hotel guests with
acoustical comfort. They are as following:
• building acoustical solutions – including external and internal wall, wraths and
slabs, floor design.
• architectural (room) acoustical solutions – including ceiling, wall and floor solution,
furniture and fixture types.
And in both couple different types of materials can be used:
• isolation materials – i.e. concrete, stone, brick,
• absorbing materials – like: mineral wool panels, synthetics, upholstery.
With careful design of building and its structure, mining the acoustical perfor-
mance, there can be proper isolation of hotel form exterior and its interiors from each
other. Additionally, selection of interior finishing materials and equipment, may fur-
thermore favor creation of quiet and relaxing environment inside the guest rooms,
corridors and public spaces of the enterprise. Such ergonomic approach is crucial
nowadays, when people are living in the cities, which year by year are becoming more
distracting and loud. Thus, the discussion about man in hotel architectural and
acoustical environment is needed between scientists and professionals.

References
1. ArAc Multibook (ed.): International Partneship ArAc Multibook, project LLP of transfer of
innovation no. 2013-1-PL1-LEO05-37588 (2015). http://arac-multibook.com/www/.
Accessed 18 Jan 2019
2. Massalski, J., Massalska, M.: Fizyka dla inżynierów. Część I. Fizyka klasyczna.
Wydawnictwo Naukowo-Techniczne, Warszawa (1971)
3. Everest, A.F., Pohlmann, C.K.: Master Handbook of Acoustics, McGraw-Hill Educa-
tion TAB (2014)
4. Kulowski, A.: Akustyka sal. Wydawnictwo Politechniki Gdańskiej, Gdańsk (2007)
5. Nathanson, J.A., Berg, R.E.: Noise pollution. In: Encyclopaedia Britannica, https://www.
britannica.com/science/noise-pollution. Accessed 19 Jan 2019
6. Wpływ hałasu na zdrowie człowieka. In: Dziennik.pl. https://zdrowie.dziennik.pl/
aktualnosci/artykuly/537346,jak-halas-wplywa-na-zdrowie.html. Accessed 19 Jan 2019
7. Polish Norm: PN-B-02151-4:2015-06 Building acoustics – Noise protection in buildings –
Part 4: Requirements for reverberation and speech intelligibility in rooms and test guidelines
8. Polish building code: Rozporządzenie Ministra Infrastruktury z dnia 12 kwietnia 2002 r. w
sprawie warunków technicznych, jakim powinny odpowiadać budynki i ich usytuowanie.
(Diary Act no. 75, item 690, with following changes) (2002)
9. Hotel Quality Standards, AA Hotel Services, AA Media Limited (2011)
10. Hotelstars.eu 2015–2020, Hotelstars Union – Classification criteria 2015–2020
11. Mosor, P.: Biurowa akustyka dwa w jednym. In: Zawód: Architekt, no. 63, pp. 92–93 (2018)
12. Izolacyjność akustyczna. In: Paroc.pl. http://www.paroc.pl/knowhow/akustyka/izolacyjnosc-
akustyczna. Accessed 21 Jan 2019
 Ergonomics of Sound in a Hotel Environment 65

13. http://mcgrawimages.buildingmedia.com/CE/CE_images/2014/Nov_Kinetics-Noise-Contr
ol-8.jpg. Accessed 21 Jan 2019
14. Ciszej za ścianą, the product note Knauf. In: Zawód:Architekt, no. 63, p. 23 (2018)
15. http://www.ekspertbudowlany.pl/images/photos/24/2932/__b___b_izolacje-akustyczne-rys
11.jpg. Accessed 21 Jan 2019
16. http://styropiany.pl/sites/default/files/images/rys5.gif. Accessed 21 Jan 2019
17. http://www.tempus-halas.pl/jak-poprawic-izolacyjnosc-akustyczna-sciany-w-mieszkaniu/.
Accessed 21 Jan 2019
 Landscape-Solutions of Sports and Tourist
Complexes in the Karkonosze Mountains -
Examples of Sustainable Development

Anna Wojtas-Harań(&)

Faculty of Architecture, Technical University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland

anna.wojtas-haran@pwr.wroc.pl

Abstract. The exploitation of the Earth and the alienation of people from
the environment prompts us to take up the subject of sustainable planning
and design. While new devices, innovations in construction seem to be more
and more doubtful, it is worth reaching back to the times when the first initia-
tives to protect the natural and cultural landscape were created under the
influence of the nascent industrialization and urbanization. It is advisable to
analyze what principles were followed and how they affected the environment.
The idea of building surrounded by greenery is visible in villages, transforming
into summer and winter resorts at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth
century in the Karkonosze Mountains.

Keywords: Urbanization
Sports facilities
Mountain settlement

1 Introduction

The aim of the work is to propose a vision to reduce the excessive use of natural
resources, which could be applicable and contributed to the preservation of mountain
regions.
The method of observation and study of individual cases was adopted. Sports
facilities of the Karkonosze Mountains in connection with tourist buildings and nature
is an interesting research material.
Based on the above analyzes, it can be concluded that sustainable design is possible
and necessary.
Currently, the Karkonosze Mountains are subject to new trends, often ignoring
the original assumptions, the more the topic of the borderline of ergonomics and
sustainable development matters. Sports grounds in the mountain landscape is an issue
related to the physical culture that gives health and joy of life. However, the inherent
aspect of sports grounds should be the beauty of the surroundings, which we would like
to experience in the mountains and protect.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 66–77, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_7
 Landscape-Solutions of Sports and Tourist Complexes 67

2 Dilemmas of the Anthropocene

The time of difficult to reverse changes that affect the Earth, makes us reflect
on the relationship between man and the environment1.
The environmental crisis has become a pretext for discussing multiple problems
from various areas in the context of the doctrine of sustainable development. However,
the criticism of current policies for the protection of the Earth has meant
that the philosophy of sustainable development is perceived as a cosmetic with
no effects.
Skepticism about the ideas that make up the concept of sustainable development
is deepened by the dispute about the genesis of the planetary crisis. Some researchers
perceive it in extraordinary human interference of geological significance to the planet.
The time from the industrial revolution, they define the human era – otherwise called
the Anthropocene epoch. Others approach with reserve to the theory of human influ-
ence on climate, global warming. It weakens the actions taken to stop decisions harmful
to the planet. The lack of working out an effective way to protect the environment,
the seemingness and contradiction of many debates and actions cause frustration.
However, nothing disappoints more than: greenwashing practices, promotion
of beneficial green technologies, dubious eco-friendly innovations, camouflaging
lucrative interests, socially and ecologically problematic. It is not enough to “dye
in green” to create an antidote to the problems of the twenty first century, emphasize
the supporters protagonists of radical action.
Without going into any disputes as to whether all planetary changes are essentially
anthropogenic, the question of transforming natural structures as a result of urban-
ization processes should not appear as a figment. It is obvious that the building
infrastructure affects hydrological relations, geological layers, the functioning of zoo-
cenos, the world of plants, landscape geocomplexes. Therefore, the search in the sphere
of architecture and urban planning of pro-environmental solutions is justified.
The reflections on the nature, climate, future of civilization and the health of
societies have already taken place at the beginning of the industrial revolution. It is
worth confronting with modernity the views that contributed to the emergence of
balanced settlement forms and ergonomic at the same time. They result from a har-
moniously introduced sports and recreational function in relation to greenery to
mountain settlements.

1
Ewa Bińczyk, in her work “Retoryka i marazm antropocenu” [1] analyzed the philosophies, views,
debates, campaignes, challenges of the era of climate change.
68 A. Wojtas-Harań

3 Interest in Sport, Nature, Landscape in the Nineteenth

Century in the Area of the Present Lower Silesia
3.1 Nature, Landscape, First Conservation Initiatives
The period of the end of the eighteenth century and the nineteenth century marked
the beginning of a significant disappearance of green space in growing European cities
[2, 25]. Compaction and growth of buildings, appropriation of green reserves inside
cities and suburban nature areas resulted in progressive isolation of people from
the surrounding nature.
In the eighties and the nineties of the nineteenth century, many organizations were
established in the German lands for the protection of the natural landscape within
the framework of the movement of homeland protection (the Heimatschutz move-
ment). Its initiators were the idealist Ernst Rudorff and the pragmatist Hugo Conwentz.
They drew their views on the basis of observations of nature and architecture, and
assessment of landscape transformations [3, 177]. Architect Paul Schultze Naumburg
combined Rudorff’s idealistic thinking with Conewntz’s pragmatism. He noticed the
connections of nature with a man expressing himself through the landscapes enriching
architecture2. In 1904, they contributed to the formation of the Association for the
Protection of Homeland, with the support of such people as: architect Hermann
Muthesius, architect and urbanist Theodor Fischer, poet and publicist Ferdinand
Avenarius, as well as writer, poet, popularizer of natural knowledge Wilhelm Bölsche.
The first landscape regulation was the act against distorting the outstanding in
terms of landscape areas from 1902, and then the act against distorting of the out-
standing in terms of landscape villages and surroundings from 1907. Architects tried to
create architectural principles that would express the ideal of movement – to achieve a
symbiosis of landscape, nation and culture [3, 237]. Despite the diversity of views, it
was recognized that architecture should be based on rural construction patterns char-
acteristic of a given region (attempts were made to maintain such features as: func-
tionality, simplicity, honesty of material) [3, 241]. In 1910, the Silesian Association of
the Homeland was founded.
The special influence of the Heimatschutz movement was visible in the circle of the
artistic colony established at the turn of the nineteenth and the twentieth century [3, 241]
in the Karkonosze Mountains. Artists, intellectuals have fled here to nature and folk3.
They chose old houses, subjecting them to adaptations, or erecting new ones with native
features, inscribed in climatic conditions, greenery of gardens. “Entering a building in
nature orienting towards the sun and greenery was one of the assumptions of the then life
reform movement - a return to nature” [3, 250]. The idea of Heimatschutz had a fun-
damental impact on German architecture before the First World War.

2
After the First World War his views took on a less progressive, pejorative, racial sound, becoming
valuable to the Nazi culture [3, 189].
3
Carl Hauptmann, Gerhart Hauptmann, Wilhelm Bölsche, Bruno Wille, Hans Fechner, Georg
Wichmann and others.
 Landscape-Solutions of Sports and Tourist Complexes 69

The architecture of the Heimatschutz movement was in harmony with the move-
ment of city-garden, which was born in England at the end of the nineteenth century on
the initiative of Ebenezer Howard. The idea of self-sufficient, well-connected, satellite
cities surrounded by greenery combining the advantages of city life and the coun-
tryside, was also implemented in the German lands from the beginning of the twentieth
century [3, 253]. “Howard’s contacts with German architects Hermann Muthesius and
Bruno Taut resulted in the application of humanistic patterns in the design of many
housing estates in the Weimar Republic period” [3, 276].

3.2 The Birth of Modern Sport

In Germany in the second half of the nineteenth century, the interest in nature and
the way of shaping greenery was also influenced by new forms of spending free time.
One of the consequences, changing the morality of European societies, was the fashion
for practicing various kinds of sports.
The birth of modern sport4 took place at a breakthrough time, or rather stemmed
from the peculiarities of the time of Europe overwhelmed by the industrial revolution
and political crises. On the one hand, the process of technological, economic, social
and cultural changes, initiated in England and Scotland in the eighteenth century, was
accompanied by enthusiasm and faith in progress and science, on the other hand
doubts, consternation and reluctance. In response humanistic efforts to protect man
from negative influences, including industrialization, urbanization, environmental
pollution, appeared, which has just opened the era of modern sport and modern
tourism.
Under the influence of Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, there were created Turn-Plätze
in Germany, in Sweden - sports halls under the influence of Pehr Henrik Ling, in
Poland - sports parks under the influence of Henryk Jordan [4, 32]. With the
advancement of technology and the emergence of new sports disciplines, new sports
facilities have been erected.
In particular in the mountain environment, such areas of life as sport, tourism
and recreation developed and permeated at the same time, becoming difficult to extract.
Just as often difficult to disconnect are fun and competition, fascination with mountain
nature and the fight to conquer the next summits. Sport tourism developed as a new
direction of tourism. Goals and either health and educational functions of tourism and
sport were similar5.
Increasing sports, tourist and recreational activity has translated into the develop-
ment of villages in attractive mountain areas, including in the Karkonosze Mountains in
Jelenia Góra County6.

4
The nineteenth century began the era of modern sport and modern buildings and sports equipment.
“In a very significant way in the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century
when the negative conditions of urban existence reach their peak, there is a tendency to more and
more common. They are supposed to replace, hastily, in a side and condensed form, those factors
that affect a person living outside the city” [2, 32].
5
The end of the nineteenth century brought the birth of modern tourism [5, 38].
6
The elegant resorts in which Berliners were eagerly stayed increased [6, 151].
70 A. Wojtas-Harań

3.3 The Symbiosis of Sport, Nature, Landscape and Architecture

Interests in modern sport have been developed since the early nineteenth century
in England. From the forties of the nineteenth century, in addition to sports facilities,
English parks were adapted to sports needs. The Germans followed them. From
the twenties of the nineteenth century7, rides on watercourses and water bodies were
organized in cities (e.g. in Wrocław), and in the summer boats were sailed. This type of
entertainment was a continuation of the tradition from the existing private parks. From
the sixties of the nineteenth century, German public parks were adapted to sports
functions [8, 51]. Gustav Meyer - landscape architect and historian, garden designer
introduced sports and playgrounds, developing the program of city, landscape parks of
his teacher Joseph Lenné. He created green places in cities that served recreation,
supplementing them with tennis courts, pitches and bicycle lanes. The first of this type
was the Bürgerpark in Bremen from 1866. Since the eighties, parks have been widely
equipped with bicycle paths and tracks, and from the nineties (on)with tennis courts.
The reform of education, which appreciated hygiene and physical education, consoli-
dated this trend.
Landscape parks8 were particularly suitable as a background for sports activities.
Especially the wide glade has become an important component of the park.9
Initially, in a landscape park, with an entertainment character, intended for walks
and social life, geometric squares and a system of winding alleys were separated.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, the modernist park concept was even closer
to the needs of active users by simplifying the system of paths and creating spacious
glades in terms of the requirements of athletes. The glades were formed for team
games. The paths were used for horse riding, vehicles and pedestrians surrounded
by greenery.
In addition to the flower, walking and contemplative spaces, an important element
of the composition of the park were entertainment facilities (inns, beer houses,
restaurants, viewing pavilions, cafes) skillfully inscribed in the landscape.
Housing estates were located around a centrally placed public park (or a smaller
complex of greenery - a square).

7
Iwona Bińkowska in her work “Nature and City Public Urban Greenery in Wrocław from the End
of the Eighteenth to the Beginning of the Twenties Century” discusses issues related to greenery
created in Wrocław. Works on the history of Wrocław architecture (then the provincial capital) may
be complementary and comparative material for extra-urban areas lying within the province
boundaries. On the other hand, the impact of architecture and Berlin art on the areas of Silesia may
speak for the necessity of getting acquainted with the works and models from Berlin (the then
capital of the Prussian monarchy) [8, 51].
8
Landscape parks were created from the second half of the eighteenth century in European countries,
and from the beginning of the eighteenth century in the British Isles. The beginning of the
nineteenth century was a period of formation of the public park model in German countries [8, 27].
9
In the public part of the park in Brühl near Cologne, Lenné already designed the hippodrome
shaped Volkstummelplatz in 1842. (The solution was replicated, among others, in Wrocław’s South
Park). From the parks in Wroclaw, Szczytnicki Park best met the new needs (places for several
gastronomic facilities, horse racing track, courts, bicycle track and bicycle paths) [8, 140].
 Landscape-Solutions of Sports and Tourist Complexes 71

The park complexes together with the buildings were perfectly embedded
in the configuration of the area.
The components such as: springs, watercourses with winding channels (serpentine
river), water reservoirs or systems of connected reservoirs, waterfalls, caves, ruins,
rocks, boulders, hills were willingly used. The water element was used as a skeleton of
compositions [8, 143] for recreational purposes.
Complexes of greenery in the park and in its immediate surroundings permeated
each other. A network of walking and cycling routes connected the park with neigh-
boring riverside areas, groups of natural greenery or housing developments, blurring
the boundaries. The treatment created an impression of the universality of the green
space [8, 141].
Romantic complexes were characterized by: a variety of layouts, moodiness, ele-
ment of surprise. The convention of the romantic landscape park used: “… painting
forms of space shaping, distant scenic perspectives going beyond the area of the park
itself, symbolism of old trees, love of tradition” [8, 135]. “The first who tried to define
the features of the picturesque beauty of the essence of style was William Gilpin.
He found the most important to be the sudden changeability, severity, as well as
the uniqueness and irregularity “[9, 31].
The Jeleniogórska Valley and the surrounding mountain ranges create picturesque
landscapes: raw forest massifs, unusual rock formations, irregular contours of river
gorges. Man has transformed this original beauty by establishing landscape parks
accompanying aristocratic residences.
Once instilled liking, have become a tendency to treat nature surrounded by less
spectacular objects, such as tourist facilities (guesthouses, villas, hotels) and sports
facilities in the Karkonosze Mountains10.

4 The Sports and Tourist Complexes of the Karkonosze

Mountains

4.1 The Sports Square in Szklarska Poręba

In Szklarska Poręba, among the large open green spaces that pervade the town,
attention was paid to the play and games ground [10] Fig. 1. The universal playground,
currently a stadium, is an example of a landscape solution using a complicated
topography, park and villa surroundings. It was created on the exposed surface of the
southern slope, connected with serpentine paths for walking with the city park, the
restaurant building (today’s Esplanade), the concert bowl, the viewing terraces.
Rhythmically spaced villas flanked from three sides (from the north, west and east) a

10
“Like in whole Europe, also in the Jeleniogórska Valley, a new style in shaping gardens, drawing
inspiration from following currents of thought (enlightenment and romanticism), was subject to
changes in time – first exposing the sentimental wots, then as if simplifying itself in the spirit of
classicism, then to put more emphasis on creating dramatic moods and the romantic picturesque
nature of the park. Sometimes these trends permeated with each other, creating systems with the
dominance of one of them” [9, 45].
72 A. Wojtas-Harań

trapezoidal plan of sports grounds, opening, from the south, to the impressive panor-
ama of the Karkonosze range.
Beside, in the frontage of the western housing line, in 1929 the sports hall was put
into use [11, 145]. A hip roof, fragmented with dormer windows, a prominent cornice,
a massive stone pedestal going into the entrance portico, high rung windows hidden
in deep recesses, a balanced cubage made the detached building find itself surrounded
by sophisticated villas from the turn of the century.

Fig. 1. The Stadium (drawings by author)

4.2 The Orlinek Hotel in Karpacz

In 1913, a mountain hotel – the Orlinek Hotel (the Taichmannbaude) Fig. 2 - was built
on a vast glade of the mountains near Karpacz. The building of the hotel, for 200 beds,
despite the incomparable large scale, replicated a typical repertoire of forms which
ensured a fitment to the historic buildings: gable roof, steep roof, dark brown planks of
attic floors, dormers, loggias, verandas, white plaster of lower floors, arched topped
window and door openings of basement.

Fig. 2. The Orlinek Hotel, signs as in the drawing Fig. 1 (drawings by author)
 Landscape-Solutions of Sports and Tourist Complexes 73

The building exquisitely towered, cutting off at the same time against the monstrous
range of the northern slopes of the Karkonosze Mountains. The place was crossed by
tourist and sports routes descending from the highest mountain ranges. The routes
started here spiraling towards the center of Karpacz. The large tourist and sports
complex consisted of facilities and routes such as: the ski jump Orlinek (Schneekop-
penschanze) built in 1912, the bobsleigh track built in 1909, the ski trails from hostels:
refuge the Nad Małą Łomniczką (the Melzergrunbaude), refuge the Pod Sněžkou (the
Schlesierhaus) and refuge the Strzecha Akademicka (the Hampelbaude), the toboggan
runs: one long way running along the trail Śląska Droga (the Schlesierhausweg) and a
network of others, shorter descents to Karpacz and also the tennis court, the small water
reservoir extensively used in winter and summer.
In winter, the meadow in front of the hotel turned into a great ski and toboggan
slope. Skiing courses, ski and tobogganing events were organized. In the summer
season, tennis tournaments were organized here, modeled on the famous resorts.

4.3 The Łomnica Reservoir in Karpacz

The Talsperrenbaude in Karpacz Fig. 3 – the restaurant and the shelter was established
in 1915 on the bank of the Łomnica reservoir. It was a one-story building with an attic
topped with a gable roof, wooden structure, with a large open porch, later glazed. His
small scale it gently blended into the natural green of the wild and winding in this place
the Łomnica. A sports life was buzzing on the dam lake in the Łomnica. In the winter
on the ice rink there was the possibility of practicing hockey, curling, skating,
in the summer the marina for boats and kayaks was organized. Not far from the
restaurant, there was a finish of the bobsleigh track. The cross-country ski trail led
the way there and the toboggan run round the corner.

Fig. 3. The Łomnica reservoir, signs as in the drawing Fig. 1 (drawings by author)
74 A. Wojtas-Harań

4.4 Swimming Pools in Szklarska Poręba

When choosing a place for swimming pools, it was undoubtedly decided by natural and
scenic considerations. Usually they were created in the vicinity of natural watercourses
- for example in Szklarska Poręba11
– Heinzelbad next to the Kurzacka Woda stream Fig. 4,
– Waldschwimmbad in Szklarska Poręba Dolna near the inflow of the Szklarski
Potok,
– swimming pool at Hala Szrenicka (located at an altitude of 1190 m.a.s.l), in the
basin of the Kamieńczyk stream.
Swimming pools were inscribed in gentle depressions of the terrain and the world
of unpolluted nature. The last two with irregular edges of the coast differed from
the geometrical, spatial complex of Heinzelbad. In Heinzelbad, premeditated the whole
layout was oriented to the mountain scenery. The arrangement of the rectangular pool
basin, the surrounding wide strip of grassy recreational area, limiting the forest wall on
one side and the escarpment, with the traditional architecture of the Heinzelbaude
hostel, on the other were subordinated to this concept. The axis of the complex was
emphasized by a minimalist one-story pavilion combining the features of the prairie
style and elements of the native craftsmanship.

Fig. 4. Swimming pool Hainzelbad, signs as in the drawing Fig. 1 (drawings by author)

4.5 The Snieżynka Hotel in Szklarska Poręba

The Snieżynka Hotel (the Hotel Lindenhof) Fig. 5 once called as the Pearl of Szklarska
Poręba is a large object located on a wide plot of land. The first postcards with the
image of the building come from the late nineteenth century. Originally, the building
was planned on the projection of juxtaposed rectangles. A two-storey central structure

11
Schematic city plan from the prospectus “Heilklimatischer Kurort Schreiberhau im Riesengebirge”
shows the location of pools: Heinzelbad i Waldschwimbad [12].
 Landscape-Solutions of Sports and Tourist Complexes 75

with a two-storey usable attic dominated asymmetrically over the remaining one and
two-storey cubatures. The south elevation with a view of the Karkonosze peaks, the
garden, the pond, the creek and the sports grounds was adapted to take advantage of its
orientation. The tripartite arrangement of glazed verandas, loggias and dormers was
flanked by twin towers. Horizontal cornice strips of individual floors, arched windows
frames, boarded gables and lots of turrets above the eaves line, wooden construction of
veranda, contrasted vividly with the face of the brightly plastered facade. The geo-
metrized shapes of the gable roof were softened by pediments, dormers with metal
finials, arcades.
In the twentieth century, the building has undergone expansion. The 40-room hotel
has become the 60-room hotel with extensive social spaces - the concert hall, the
conference room, the club room, the viewing terraces. Almost twice the exterior
of the central body was widened by absorbing one of the side buildings. The whole has
been unified with the formwork of the tops of the attic storey with wood distinctive in
color. The floors with exposed ceiling beams were gently suspended. The change
deprived the building of its original subtlety, which was characteristic of the architecture
of Swiss hotels popular at that time. In the new version one can see the aspiration to
minimize the detail while at the same time cultivating traditional building forms, which
makes the building, despite a large scale, fits into the existing surroundings.
Initially, the recreation center offered mainly summer sports activities, such
as the tennis courts on the grass in the idyllic hotel garden. The Bednarz creek floodplain
was an additional asset that offered water recreation in the summer and ice skating in the
winter. Already at the beginning of the twentieth century, it was advertised as a “winter
sports station” (Station für Wintersport) due to the interesting neighborhood of, among
others: the bobsleigh track, which ended its course vis-a-vis the front of the southern
facade, surrounding the ski and tobogganing routes (among others, the toboggan run
from the shelter Under Łabski Szczyt and the ski trail from Hala Szrenicka and Szre-
nica), omnipresent gentle slopes - ski meadows. Nearby there was the ski jump at the
edge of the Kamieńczyk stream. As one of the few tourist building had garages. It was a
nod to the enthusiasts of trips, car and motorcycle races. As it appears from the pre-war
folders, the object was a station - a headquarters of the Imperial Automotive Club.

Fig. 5. The Śnieżynka Hotel, signs as in the drawing Fig. 1 (drawings by author)
76 A. Wojtas-Harań

The place was aptly chosen because Szklarska Poręba in the thirties of the twentieth
century was considered to be the center of car tourism in the Karkonosze
Mountains. There was a friendly harmony between roads and tourist routes [7].

5 Summary

The consequence of views on the relationship of nature with man, landscape shaping of
greenery, new forms of recreation and the search for architecture that harmonizes with
the landscape, is the appearance of holiday resorts in the Karkonosze Mountains from
the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth century.
Analysis of the complexes arising at that time, which included the architecture
of tourist facilities, sports facilities and green areas, allowed to select the principles that
make them recognizable and characteristic of the Karkonosze:
– Adapting to the characteristic features of the landscape (topography, hydrography,
flora) through among others selection of greenery, land development, type
of architecture;
– The stylistics of tourist buildings architecture, bearing the rite of folk architecture
and alpine pensions, contributing to the climate of idyllicness and perfection
associated with the mountain environment;
– Inclusion of spa architecture motifs with orientation to the sun, landscape and na-
ture marked by modernity, associated with hygiene and health - hardly achievable
in urbanized city;
– Taking into account physiographic conditions such as: insolation, ventilation,
topography, greenery, water:
(a) ensuring full solar exposure of sports grounds, in particular summer sports
(swimming pools, playing fields, tennis courts), southern exposure of facades of
residential buildings; exposure of the north or north-east ski slopes,
(b) taking care of the natural cover against strong and cold winds (location on the
leeward slopes or in the depression of the area, or in covering the mass of high
greenery),
(c) leaving larger, unpaved and undeveloped spaces, for free ventilation, allowing
fogs to flow, run-off of cold air stagnation,
(d) limiting interference in the natural configuration of the area only to the nec-
essary minimum, modeling the terrain with preservation of naturalness,
resulting from inherent conditions,
(e) preservation of watercourses and reservoirs in a natural form;
– The use of natural elements such as: water (an enrichment element), green
(as a background, filling, interior limitation) to shape a spatial composition;
– A wide meadow, a grassy surface, a water reservoir, a flattened terrain
oriented to the panorama of the Karkonosze Mountains or basin areas as a
central element of the spatial composition;
– A reference to distant views usually: the silhouettes of the Karkonosze
Mountains, spectacular hills, vast areas of the Jeleniogórska Valley;
 Landscape-Solutions of Sports and Tourist Complexes 77

– The penetrating system of forest paths, tourist routes, tobogganing and

skiing routes between tourism and sport facilities and neighboring greenery
complexes.
Following these principles, innovative solutions have been created that meet the
expectations of modern tourism, recreation and sport. Due to the survival of the nature
and beauty of the landscape and nature, they can be classified as sustainable, with the
perspective of forwarding to the next generations. Perhaps the inspiration of the con-
vention of the romantic landscape park made it possible to achieve the uniqueness,
naturalness and individuality of the complexes. By operating sets of similar elements
(open space, green mass, terrain configuration, architecture, recreational areas), the
tourist and sports complexes became a function of the local climate and took on a
specific appearance.

References
1. Bińczyk, E.: Retoryka i marazm antropocenu. Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa
(2018)
2. Tołwiński, T.: Urbanistyka. Zieleń w urbanistyce. Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe,
Warszawa (1963)
3. Nowosielska-Sobel, J.: Od ziemi rodzinnej ku ojczyźnie ideologicznej. Ruch ochrony stron
ojczystych (Heimatschutz) ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem Śląska (1871–1933). Zieleń w
urbanistyce. Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Wrocław (2013)
4. Wirszyłło, R.: Urządzenia sportowe. Projektowanie i budowa. Wydawnictwo Arkady,
Warszawa (1966)
5. Gaj, J.: Dzieje turystyki w Polsce. Wydawnictwo Almamer, Warszawa (2008)
6. Przerwa, T.: Między lękiem a zachwytem. Sporty zimowe w śląskich Sudetach i ich
znaczenie dla regionu (do 1945 r.). Oficyna Wydawnicza ATUT, Wrocław (2012)
7. Wohnungs-Verzeichnis. Sommer 1939. Winter 1939-40. Heilklimatischer Kurort und
Wintersportplatz Schreiberhau im Riesengebirge. Hrsg.von der Ortsstelle Schreiberhau der
Wirtschaftsgruppe Gaststaetten und Beherbergungsgewerbe in Zusammenarbeit mit der
Kurverwaltung Schreiberhau, Hirschberg (1939)
8. Bińkowska, I.: Natura i miasto. Publiczna zieleń miejska we Wrocławiu od schyłku XVIII
do początku XX wieku. Wydawnictwo VIA NOVA, Wrocław (2006)
9. Ploch, M., Napierała, P.: Parki romantyczne Kotliny Jeleniogórskiej. Fundacja Doliny
Pałaców i Ogrodów Kotliny Jeleniogórskiej, Wrocław (2011)
10. Plan von Schreiberhau 1: 5000. Alexander Rath – Special Büro für Bebauungspläne, Breslau
(1913)
11. Łaborewicz, I., Wiater, P.: Szklarska Poręba: Monografia historyczna. Wydawca Ad Rem,
Jelenia Góra (2010)
12. Heilklimatischer Kurort Schreiberhau im Riesengebirge. Hoffmann & Reiber, Görlitz (1938)
 Hygienic-Sanitary Zones in Hotel Objects

Elzbieta Trocka-Leszczynska(&) and Joanna Jablonska

Faculty of Architecture, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology,

B. Prusa 53/55 St., 50-317 Wroclaw, Poland
{elzbieta.trocka-leszczynska,
joanna.jablonska}@pwr.edu.pl

Abstract. In hotel objects, especially of lower categories, like 1–2 stars, hos-
tels, motels, the properly solved hygienic-sanitary zones, may not occur. This is
especially difficult for people with disabilities, also using wheel-chairs. The
purpose of this article is to show the good practice in the area of design, with
taking into account: ergonomics, safety, functionality and exceptional design,
but also presenting way of development for hygienic-sanitary zones. The case
studies of presented research were done in: Sweden, Germany, Italy, Spain,
France and Poland. All presentation is supplemented with thorough survey
through literature recommendations with their conformation and critics. Hotels,
even of lower categories are important element of tourism industry and public
use buildings, hence they require representational design which is accessible and
secure for all potential users.

Keywords: Architecture of hotels
People with disabilities in architecture

Adjusted hotels
Architecture of public sanitary areas
Wheel-chairs

1 Introduction

The discussion on people with disabilities towards civic spaces of public use buildings,
is intensive and ongoing. However, still there can be encountered a substantial number
of psychological and physical barriers in all contemporary cities and a lot of solutions
seemingly adapted, does not work. It appears, that specially important group of such
edifices, are hotels, meant for hosting guests from all over the world, despite their:
cultural or religious background, and regardless of their temporary or constant
disabilities.

1.1 Purpose of the Article

Purpose. This work is continuation of previous research on this subject [1–3], aiming
at actualization of knowledge on modern hotels sanitary zones solutions, especially as
far as humane and interesting design for people with disabilities is taken into account.
Both hospitality industry and interior enterprises are developing quickly, therefore
information on architectural spatial solutions, materials and equipment is advancing,
which is direct inspiration for undertaking a another review of the topic.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 78–86, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_8
 Hygienic-Sanitary Zones in Hotel Objects 79

The main aim of the authors was not only to seek for ergonomic and functional designs
for people suffering from dysfunctions in physical and mental health, but to present
good practice in this range and exceptionally aesthetical and interesting projects and
equipment.
Scope. Selected samples were done in: Sweden, Germany, Italy, France and Poland,
for main focus was placed on Europeans anthropomorphic measurement. As it is
known, each ethic group may vary in this issue, so in future similar research may be
carried out. However, due to the broad field of study, there was need for introducing
limitations. The measurements given in this elaboration, coming from literature and
practical examples review, are also set for European society.
Method. Firstly, there was general survey of previous findings [1–3] carried out, in
order to establish which information should not be repeated and what matters have
been most vital so far. Next, a broad review of case studies, on over 50 examples of
hotels, was done in situ in European enterprises. Thirdly, a review on literature,
websites and catalogues of producers of sanitary equipment was carried out in order to
establish the new findings, trends and changes in the subject of interest. At this point
analysis and cooperative analysis could be used in assessment and evaluation of
gathered material, which was later on described and presented below. As these
activities were followed by synthesis used for formulation of conclusions.

2 Discussion

It is essential to stress, that design based on minimums of: required space, recom-
mendations from standards, guidelines and building code, are at many occasion not
enough. An example in this matter can be a requirement to use handles in the acces-
sibility toilets, yet exact type of this amenity is not described. On the product market
there is a vast selection of products made from varied materials, with different surface
finishing or additional soft or ribbed grips. At many occasions particular equipment is
selected due to aesthetical outlook or desired color, yet in practice the handle may turn
out to be slippery or to short. Hence, the role of an architect or interior designer in
providing optimal, well-solved space, is substantial. Aspect discussed, becomes even
more valid, when into account are taken hotels, which should be representational,
interesting and distinguished by a good, functional planning.

2.1 Types of Architectural Design

General Recommendations. Certain requirements and demands are regulated by

national building codes, norms or standards. For example polish building code [4],
requires designing free space of a bathroom – without any devices, which measures
1,5  1,5 m. This dimensions, allow people moving on the wheelchairs to turn around
freely. However, it should be stated that, at many occasions, an accompanying person
may be required for help (also some people with disabilities may need guiding dog), so
additional free-floor surface may be needed. As sources state [5] the straight arms
80 E. Trocka-Leszczynska and J. Jablonska

position for standing person extended in front of that person ranges in: 63–75 cm – for
women and 69–82 – for men, while on the sides 40–49 cm – for females and 44–53 cm
– for males. The bending position for average women – towards front of the person –
takes about 86 cm. So the additional surface for helping person, should enable mini-
mum movement in the field around 80  90 cm.
Doors. The doors to the toilet, cannot measure less than 90 cm of wideness, after
opening, due to the standard span of wheelchair, which is from 70 to 80 cm. People
moving on the basis of additional equipment prefer sliding doors instead of traditional
opening systems, because less weight is pulled or dragged by the user. Also movement
rage is more comfortable. Such solution is advised in the hotel rooms, where privacy
and high sanitary security is by design provided. In the publicly accessed toilets, where
more demanding health norms ought to be abided, additional handles may be installed.
They are longer than traditional and mounted in a way to be comfortable for person
seating on a wheelchair. At many occasions vertical or diagonal doorknobs can be
selected, for serving both seating or standing users (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Sliding doors and additional door knobs serving people with disabilities in the
contemporary hotels – here in Hotel Finn, Lund (Sweden) and jotel Winmühle in Seifhennersdorf
(Germany) – the last photograph.

Measurements. As it was concluded in previous studies, currently sold wheelchairs

dimensions can vary between:
• wideness: 60–75 cm for manual wheelchairs and 58–72 cm for electrical ones,
• length: 78–83 cm for manual wheelchairs, 94–122 cm for electrical ones,
• main wheel diameter: around 60 cm,
• turn radius of the device about 70–80 cm,
which is significant and none of the passages – i.e. among utilities and fixed handles –
cannot be smaller than 85 cm. However it must be stressed that a person using cane
needs 90 cm for passage. Recommendations for height of operation level state the
working surface top edge at 80 cm and 1,10, 1,30 cm for shelf’s, buttons, door
 Hygienic-Sanitary Zones in Hotel Objects 81

handles, that can be easily reached from the seating position. However vertical range of
hand movement can reach elements at elevations from 40 up to 150 cm (maximum),
this is where additional handles, basket beans and other useful bathrooms amenities can
be installed. It is crucial to provide access and operation space in front of each utility.
As far as hanging of the mirrors is considered the comfortable sight line of average
person on wheelchair is set on height 1,25 m form the floor surface. The general
recommendation is that surface of the mirror should have a possibility of inclination of
10° form the vertical position towards the user [7–9]. Summing up of all these con-
sideration can be found in the photograph below (Figs. 2 and 6).

Fig. 2. Sufficient space for wheelchair movement, non-slip handles at all amenities and all
equipment at comfortable heights in hotel Winmühle in Seifhennersdorf (Germany).

2.2 Equipment
In the previous research [1–3], issue of aesthetics was aforementioned, stressing that
standard “hospital-like” outlook of bathrooms is not a proper design [10]. Of course,
this aspect cannot overwhelm care for functionality and visibility of all toilet amenities
and equipment. Adjusted sanitary areas are also used by people with weak sight and
marking handles or zone changes is considered a good practice (Figs. 1 and 2).
Washbasin. The sinks are usually wider than typical, thus, dimensions are ranging
from 55 up to 100 cm, which is connected to comfort of use. It allows not to drip water
over clothing, while washing hands (it can be noticed, that during using washing-basin
in standing position, people tend to stand is certain distance, form the edge of device).
Additionally, front edge of selected sinks is bended in concave arc (in standard this part
is convex), so user can get closer to the water source, and thus limit the water splash.
Another favorable current phenomenon was noticed, on the market of sanitary
equipment, namely, design allowing to avoid lateral handles. Traditionally, they are
made from steel, with additional non-slippery corrugations and are being handy while
driving under the washing-basin. Currently, producers offer ceramic sinks, that have
82 E. Trocka-Leszczynska and J. Jablonska

either handles formed in basing itself. Under the sink, not only the space of at least
67 cm – to drive underneath it, but also the way plumbing is solved, should prevent
user form hitting their legs against it. Measurement of a drive under the sink should be
at least 80 cm wide. These solutions are very aesthetical, designed as a part of overall
utility project and at the same time, allow to avoid optical effect of hospital-like design
[6, 10] (Figs. 3 and 6).
Such solutions would be heartily recommended for toilets accompanying SPA and
Wellness centers, pools, gyms, leisure centers, luxury rooms, and so on.
Toilet Bowls. Next issue is the type and dimensions around the toilet and shower. The
height of the toilet upper rim and shower seating must enable comfortable transferring
from the wheelchair, preferably without any need form third-party. This distance
reneges from 45–50 cm (in some books minimum 39 cm and maximum 55 cm – not
recommended by the authors, unless this dimensions are intended for particular user),
depending on the anthropometric features of the user and a literature source [6–9, 11].
In case of doubts, it is worth mentioning, that according to the anthropometric sources
[5] the standard seating surface for women is set at 38–45 cm with average at 42 cm
and for men 41–49 cm with average at 45 cm. The toilet bowl should be accessible
from one side, where free space should have wideness of minimum 115 cm. It is also
said, that length of utility should be 75 cm, so that there are no problems of transfer
from the wheel chair towards facility seating, with the helpful use of usually wall-fixed
opposite side handle. At the same time there should be possibility of firm back-support
from the elevated toilet flap and lowering the second, lateral handle (raised and placed
from the wheel chair driving side), in order to gain fully strengthened seating position
of the user. The toilet flaps are either structured in the way, to offer additional support
or there are special backrests installed at back wall [7, 8] (Figs. 4 and 6).

Fig. 3. Sinks in a contemporary design – handles for people with disabilities as a part of overall
facility design [drawing based on: 12, 13].
 Hygienic-Sanitary Zones in Hotel Objects 83

Fig. 4. A contemporary design of sanitary utilities, from left: toilet with additional back rest,
drive-in shower with low water-tight door and shallow pan [based on 14, 15].

Showers. For shower solutions there are recommended drive-through, non-slip pans,
with additionally installed raised chair, allowing bathing in the seating position and
without need for additional wet wheel chair. Suspension height for upper rim of
equipment is similar to the toilet bowl parameters. If threshold for pan is required, it’s
height ought not to exceed 2 cm [5, 11].
Cabin cab be locked with low water-tight doors or can be covered with curtain. The
closed cabins are not recommended, due to the user safety [15]. For minor disabilities
non-threshold shower cabins can be fitted with additional handles and sufficient free
floor space for comfortable moving. If needed extra movable seating can be provided
and used according to hotel guest preferences (i.e. for dressing, by the sink or bathtub).
It is important, that the bottom of the legs of stool provide firm and non-slip support,
whiteout the risk of tipping under the user’s weight (Figs. 4 and 5).

Fig. 5. Shower solutions, from left: drive-through shower with curtains in Winmühle in
Seifhennersdorf (Germany), no-pan shower with amenities for people with minor disabilities in
Hotel Finn, Lund (Sweden), additional, movable but safe seating from Winmühle.
84 E. Trocka-Leszczynska and J. Jablonska

Amenities. The flush button must be accessible, and usually is placed on the side wall,
within the wheelchair driving space. Non-slippery surfaces of floors, facilities or
handles is advised. Discussing the equipment would be worth mentioning, that ele-
ments may have rounded edges, which protects people moving on wheelchairs, with
cane or balconies or just disoriented form bumping against utilities. Similar rule should
be applied for other amenities like: hand dryers, soap dishes and feeder, towel handles
and feeders, etc. [5]. Needless to say, that nowadays a lot of bathroom amenities is
manufactured on rectangles, due to fashion. It is an architect’s responsibility to be
aware that outlook cannot dominate functionality and safety.
For the final issue, it must be highlighted that especially in hotels in rooms and
bathrooms for people with disabilities it is recommended to install emergency buttons
in visible, easy to access places and at comfortable, reachable heights. As it was
aforementioned the accessible design should be consequent, elegant and harmonious,
with adjusted elements immersed into general project idea. However this rule does not
apply to emergency equipment, which must be exposed, visible and diversified in the
bathroom space. The ability to handle this equipment should be provided, even for
people with significantly reduced psychophysical fitness.

Fig. 6. Publicly accessed toilet in a hotel – a summary of measurement and equipment

recommendations.
 Hygienic-Sanitary Zones in Hotel Objects 85

3 Conclusions

The summary of this study are recommendations that can be successfully applied in
sanitary zones both in newly built and existing, yet not universally accessible hotels,
hostels or motels. Even in lower category 1, 2-star or non-categorized buildings, there
is a chance to increase the safety of use and comfort of guests by:
• use of interesting, yet optimized color and texture design – aiming at highlighting,
but not brutally exposing the adjusted elements – i.e. handles, buttons, knobs, zone
changes and helpful fixtures or equipment,
• selection of sanitary equipment, which is safe (i.e. rounded edges), ergonomic (like:
build-in handles) and highly aesthetical,
• design of movable doors, closes and flaps, that do not require use of a lot of
operation strength, like sliding or automatic,
• taking care of proper seating places, like: back rests for the toilet bawls, shower
chairs, movable chairs, etc.,
• attention for non-slip floors, pans, bathtubs (if used), surfaces of handles and
settings,
• providing sufficient space for movement supported by wheelchair, walking cane or
accompanying person.
The universality of all proposed design recommendations is about planning of all
spaces to be accessible for all possible users, not only those moving on wheelchairs, but
also seniors, pregnant women, people with sight limitations or temporarily disoriented.
Memorable is also that providing convenience, ergonomics, functionality and safety for
users cannot be enough. All hotel spaces, including universal sanitary zones, must
provide unique character of spaces, friendliness towards guests and highly humane
design.

References
1. Jabłońska, J., Trocka-Leszczyńska, E., Kopczyk, D.: Humanizacja środowiska hotelowego –
nowe możliwości projektowania dla osób z niepełnosprawnościami. In: Ergonomia w
architekturze i urbanistyce, ed. Charytonowicz J., Wydawnictwo Polskiego Towarzystwa
Ergonomicznego, Wroclaw, pp. 57–66 (2015)
2. Trocka-Leszczyńska, E., Jabłońska, J.: Design of modern hotels – humanization of the
residential environment. In.: Stephanidis, C., Antona, M. (eds.) Universal Access in Human-
Computer Interaction, Design Methods, Tools, and Interaction Techniques for Elnclusion,
pp. 358–367. Springer, Heidelberg (2013)
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Springer, Cham (2015)
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technicznych, jakim powinny odpowiadać budynki i ich usytuowanie. (Diary Act 2002,
no. 75, item 690). http://prawo.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20020750690#
collapse_12. Accessed 12 Jan 2019
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6. Lorczyk-Osipowicz, A.: Wymagające sanitariaty. In: Zawód: Architekt, no. 63, pp. 94–95
(2018)
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Palladium Architekci, Poznań (2003)
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Poznańskiej, Poznań (2009)
9. Mayer-Bohe, W.: Budownictwo dla osób starszych i niepełnosprawnych, trans. Piliszek E.,
Arkady, Warszawa (1998)
10. Brawley, E.C.: Design innovations for aging and Alzheimer’s. Creating caring environ-
ments. Wiley, Hoboken (2006)
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12. Ergonomic Family Basin. In: Disabled Toilets. http://www.disabledtoilets.co.uk/acatalog/
Ergonomic_Family_Basin.html. Accessed 12 Jan 2019
13. Bathroom: delightful handicapped bathroom sinks grab wall basin with shelf luxury disabled
bathrooms. Handicapped bathroom sinks. In: Dreamascream. Home and Bathrooms
Furnishing and Decorarion. https://www.dreamascream.com/cR4t-16402/delightful-handica
pped-bathroom-16430/. Accessed 12 Jan 2019
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white_grande.jpg?v=1426732540. Accessed 16 Jan 2019
15. https://i.pinimg.com/736x/c4/a0/c7/c4a0c76eb12bf864bde7cf4b3c1ff4ac–shower-seat-
bathroom-ideas.jpg. Accessed 16 Jan 2019
 Public Toilets: Determinant of the Progress
of Civilization and Consciousness
of Societies or a Necessary Evil?

Anna Jaglarz(&)

Faculty of Architecture, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology,

Prusa Street 53/55, 50-317 Wroclaw, Poland
anna.jaglarz@pwr.edu.pl

Abstract. Public toilets evoke negative associations among the majority of

their users. Due to doubtful sanitary and aesthetic conditions the use of public
restrooms is often an extreme experience. Also, the design of these places is
regarded as a necessary evil by architects. It seems, therefore, that public toilets
are doomed to eternal disgrace. But they do not have to be uncomfortable,
unpleasant and unfriendly. Public toilets can bring relief to a community not
only in one obvious way, so not only by meeting the basic requirements in terms
of human rights to sanitation. If they are rightly included in the structure of the
environment, properly located, marked, well-organized and designed can pro-
vide much more benefits. These objects may allow greater use of public spaces,
preserving their proper functioning, cleanliness and aesthetics. They can also
increase foot traffic in commercial areas affecting the improvement of the local
economies, support local recreation and entertainment, and better use of green
areas. However, the lack of adequate amount of toilets, wrong location and
arrangement, poor organization, lack of efficient operation, low level of hygiene,
as well as vandalism and other antisocial behavior may negate the benefits of
public toilets. Such public toilets may become unusable or their usefulness may
be limited. But breaking all stereotypes - public toilets do not have to be a
nightmare for users, and they can use them with pleasure. Also the design of
these places can be an interesting experience, occasion to demonstrate ingenuity
and skills and at the same time a source of prestige for architects. Public toilets
can even become a tourist attraction. If we want to prevent that the public toilets
are the reason for resentment and shame, we can’t be afraid and ashamed to
undertake this issue.

Keywords: Architecture
Ergonomics
Public toilets design
Public hygiene

1 Introduction

The dynamically changing world, along with the lifestyle of societies and the social
relation to freedom, privacy, comfort, principles and social norms, cause also that
personal issues, such as using the bathroom, are subject to change. The results of
research and analysis show the not-so-friendly image of public toilets, which is seen by
most societies. These facilities leave much to be desired and much to catch up, not only

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 87–97, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_9
88 A. Jaglarz

in terms of the appropriate level of cleanliness, aesthetics, technical condition, but also
to ensure a sense of privacy [8, 11].
One of the possibilities of increasing the utility, aesthetic and technical standards of
public toilets is the use of appropriate materials at their construction. These materials
should be resistant to destruction, mechanical damage, and at the same time aesthetic,
safe and easy to clean. Functional and spatial organization of public bathrooms can also
contribute to the comfort of their use. It is also necessary to take care of users’ needs in
the area that goes beyond the basic standard of use and to treat their expectations more
individually and in many aspects. It is required to change the thinking of designers and
contractors about these issues, which really result from the necessity to ensure proper
conditions and circumstances accompanying the meeting very personal and intimate
needs. Ensuring a proper privacy space or a sense of privacy that users desire in public
toilets is not always easy, but minimizing, ignoring or even overlook this problem will
not change the image of these facilities or public opinion about them, and public
restrooms will still not be encouraging for users [5, 8, 11].

2 The Attitude of Societies to Public Toilets

Considering the demand and the necessity to use public toilets under different cir-
cumstances and conditions, it turns out that there are still too few of them, or access to
them is difficult due to the lack of clear information about their location. Often, these
facilities that are available have the reputation of neglected places, the use of which is a
last resort, and sometimes a nightmare for the user. A typical public toilet usually differ
from the required and desirable utility, aesthetic and technical standards. Among the
most common accusations directed to public sanitary and hygienic facilities, which
show that their quality is insufficient, we can find: unpleasant odor associated most
often with inadequate ventilation, lack of adequate cleanliness, poor technical condition
of devices, lack of hygiene, lack of privacy, visible vandalism effects. In addition,
users’ unwillingness is caused by difficult access (queues before public toilets),
improper functional and spatial organization that makes difficulties in use, lack of basic
facilities and improvements. Considering the type of public places that are equipped
with hygienic and sanitary facilities, the reasons for the biggest complaints can usually
be found in: restrooms at railway and bus stations, public toilets in bars, pubs and less
luxurious restaurants, public urban restrooms for example located in city parks and
sanitary facilities located by the highways. On the other hand, among the amenities that
enjoy the greatest trust of users, we find public toilets at airports [1, 11].
The social relation to gender segregation in the organization of public toilets is
dictated by various conditions, including the type of public zones. It turns out that in
many public places this aspect is not important for the comfort of users and many
people consciously use facilities without sex separation. However, especially in the
work environment, most people feel the need to be able to use toilets that are gender-
specific. Gender is also important when it comes to the perception of public sanitary
facilities. Women more often pay attention to the hygienic aspects of using them and
 Public Toilets: Determinant of the Progress of Civilization 89

those factors that are related to the sense of privacy. The most onerous are: low
hygiene, unpleasant odor, lack of proper equipment, lack of hygiene products, lack of
proper sound insulation. Women also complain about the queues in front of the toilets,
which is due to the insufficient number of devices. Men focus more on convenience of
use and they “forgive” public toilets much more than women. Women show greater
attachment to the traditional gender-segregated model of bathrooms. Also taking into
account the sphere of manners and etiquette, ladies are more concerned about the
subject. Most ladies feel uncomfortable using “unisex” toilets. For men, it turns out to
be less important [11].
The approach to public toilets changes with age. The youngest people (18-24 years
old) have the biggest requirements regarding their condition and quality. Most users in
this age group consider public sanitary facilities as unhygienic. This opinion changes
with increasing age. Younger users, unlike older people, declare that they feel com-
fortable using toilets without gender separation [11].

3 Toilet Taboo

Public toilets, as well as their functions and related personal needs, are treated as a
“taboo” in a social context. Despite their importance and obviousness, they are a topic
that people rarely want to think about. Talking about them and even admitting to using
them is not common. And although they are universal and natural elements of human
existence, most people want to keep them deeply hidden and private. This behavior
probably results from the fact that these processes remind us of our primal instincts [6].
Although the issue of public toilets turns out to be a unpopular topic, activities
involving the implementation of physiological needs related to excretion, i.e. defeca-
tion and urination, appear quite often in the public context, causing numerous diffi-
culties and psychological problems. Medical psychology indicates and defines anxiety
called paruresis, which is a kind of phobia manifested by difficulties, inhibitions or
inability to use the toilet in the presence of other people, causing stress and a sense of
observation. Research shows that about 7% of the world’s population suffers from
paruresis. But even for the part of society whose paruresis fears do not touch, a public
bathroom is a place where being and using is associated with specific behaviors and
canons resulting from social norms. From the social and cultural side, it may be a fear
of something foreign, stranger, others, something that in the face of direct confrontation
may exert various effects on users. Ultimately, we are all condemned to “discomfort” in
this peculiar place, and our specific behaviors are complicated reactions resulting from
a sense of shame, self-awareness, gender segregation and design methods. These
extremely important in terms of psychological, sociological, social and cultural
mechanisms determine the conditions and practices related to the use of public sanitary
and hygienic spaces. The above factors also prove to be important considering the
organization and shaping of public sanitary and hygienic objects. Conscious consid-
eration of these elements can be significant in the context of the ergonomic design of
public toilets, with a view to ensuring maximum comfort for their users [5, 6, 8].
90 A. Jaglarz

4 Lack of Toilet Facilities – a Hidden Problem

It is only recently, though still with timidity, that public toilets slowly cease to be
inconspicuous, bashfully hidden objects. Still, in many places, the overriding problem
is not their unattractiveness, poor technical condition or improper sanitary conditions,
but simply insufficient or complete lack of such facilities [14].
And although this is a difficult to imagine and embarrassing topic, the lack of toilets
is a global problem affecting one-third of humanity. In the world, around 2.5 billion
people do not have access to adequate sanitary infrastructure, including toilets and
latrines, which has dramatic consequences for human life, health, dignity and safety
[2]. More than 1 billion people are forced to deal with their physiological needs in the
open space, and the hygiene and privacy offered even by the simplest toilet solutions
are beyond their reach [2]. Toilet shortage is a serious social problem - it causes the
spread of diseases and water pollution. In those places where there are no toilets, waste
and sewage go straight to lakes, rivers and water reservoirs from which drinking water
is drawn, which results in the spread of diseases, mainly those related to the digestive
tract, including very dangerous infectious diseases. Under such conditions it is
impossible to maintain proper hygiene [2, 15]. The World Health Organization also
gives alarming statistics, mainly concerning areas of Africa and Asia. The problem also
affects some areas of South America [14]. The United Nations calls for “breaking the
taboo, which makes us keep silent about the toilets” [15]. Lack of decent toilets also
brings measurable economic losses, deepening poverty in poor regions. The World
Bank points out the losses of the Third World due to the lack of a basic sanitary system.
They are caused mainly by epidemics, reduction of profit from trade and tourism and
poisoning of water. The time devoted to finding a discreet place in Africa brings 550
million losses annually [15]. Women who usually take care of children, the elderly and
the sick more often lose more time. Additional costs are generated by personal shame
associated with the necessity to meet physiological needs [15]. In India, many women
do it only once a day and before dawn, because then it is easier to find a safe, secluded
place [9]. Generally, the issue of the lack of toilets is particularly affecting women -
girls stop going to school when they enter puberty, because there is no private place
where they could care for cleanliness. The problem is particularly severe when it comes
to hygiene during menstruation, pregnancy or puerperium. Women are forced to deal
with physiological needs in public places and at the same time exposed to risk of sexual
attacks [2]. Although seemingly access to toilets in the West is equal, the women are
also in a worse position than men. The view of queues in front of women’s toilets is
quite common, while men enter toilet stalls without any problem. It was not until the
beginning of the 21st century that architects understood that women should be given
more space in toilets. In New York and several other US states, this is a warrant. All
newly established bars, restaurants and concert halls should have twice as many toilets
for women as for men [15]. In many countries, ways to plan, design and organize
public toilets are developed to allow equal access for women and men. The result of
continuous disputes, postulates and opinions that women should not wait longer than
men to use the toilet, are changes in building regulations regarding the required pro-
portions in men’s and women’s sanitary equipment. In a situation where men’s and
 Public Toilets: Determinant of the Progress of Civilization 91

women’s public toilets are of the same size in terms of area, men are provided with
twice as many places to urinate, because they have toilet stalls and additionally a row of
urinals along the wall. Women, due to anatomical and biological reasons and due to the
type of clothes, need more time to use the toilet than men. In addition, women often use
toilets together with babies and young children. For the above reasons, they have far
more complex needs when it comes to the use of public toilets. They use them more
often than men. They also require more space inside the toilet stalls [6, 10].
The use of one toilet stall with two entrances - for women and for men seems to be
a rather controversial idea that can help in at least partially solving the problem of
accessibility of toilets for men and women depending on the circumstances and
demands. Such an idea may prove useful in buildings with a small area, where it is
difficult to find more space for a toilet. The idea is all the more interesting due to the
fact that the vestibules of the toilets can be traditionally gender separated. Only the
toilet stall is designed as unisex cabin. It is equipped with two doors - the entrance from
the vestibule of the women’s toilet and the entrance from the men’s toilet along with
the light signaling of accessibility [4].

5 History Written in Restrooms - Analysis of Changes

in Sanitary Space Against the Background of the History
of Urbanization

The history of toilets over the centuries, although in fact their form and way of using
them were similar in particular periods, they can say a lot more about the condition of
every civilization than inquisitive philosophical dissertations. Toilets, although they are
usually despised, turn out to be one of the most important inventions in history [3].
Similarly, the idea of a toilet in the form of a piece of furniture for sitting with a hole
directly above the prototype of a potty is probably one of the most enduring ideas of
humanity. It has survived, in almost unchanged form, from the earliest Egyptian times
to the 21st century. The needs of the developing humanity were unchangeable in this
respect, as well as the ways of their implementation. The original form of toilets was
refined with the development of technology. Their social context has also changed. It is
worth paying attention to the moments that were crucial for history and culture in this
respect [7]. The first evidence for the actual functioning of public toilets comes from
the Cretan Knossos, and their history goes back to around 1700 BC. Public toilets
enabled the efficient functioning of large ancient cities. The Sumerians, Babylonians,
Egyptians, Cretans and Chinese benefited from their comforts [3]. Municipal sanitary
facilities were supposed to replace and supplement the shortage in private bathrooms.
They were intended for the local population and available to tourists. In ancient Rome,
public toilets, as well as terms, were favorite meeting places for many citizens. They
were intended for both women and men. Because of the idea of democracy and
equality, they were not separated neither by gender nor by social status. They were
eagerly built and conveniently equipped as popular places for social meetings, chats
and even business transactions. Each latrine was usually equipped with about 20 stone
seats located next to each other. Sometimes the number of seats reached up to 50 places
92 A. Jaglarz

located in one room, which favored social contacts [3]. In the first century AD Roman
Emperor Vespasian initiated the building of urban urinals for public convenience. They
were called pissoir or Vespasienne.
In contrast to the antiquity, in the Middle Ages, the “social” role of the toilet has
disappeared, as well as the interest in the development of devices supporting the
meeting physiological needs. The condition of public sanitary facilities and hygienic
practices has remained unchanged for a long time [3]. Primitive solutions in the form of
special pits excavated at the end of streets or in alleys, or dingy privies were popular in
much of western Europe. Areas located on the rivers were used as a natural form of
toilets. Wealthy travelers used special pots - chamber pots that was equipment for
carriages. In the times of Louis XIV, the inhabitants of Parisian streets were looking
forward to dusk to take advantage of the open spaces. Street view reminded of human
weaknesses. The hygiene of dealing with physiological needs was still ignored. The
sloppy habit of pouring the contents of chamber pots straight into the street was
maintained [3]. Analyzing the issue of the customary use of the toilet and the social
behavior associated with it, it can be said that the idea of privacy and intimacy of
dealing with personal physiological needs turns out to be quite a contemporary
occurrence. It was not until the end of the 16th century that some recommendations
were made in this direction. However, according to the recommendations, more than
one ruler treated his special chair to handle his needs as a throne, from which he gave
audience to privileged persons. Such treatment was considered a high honor [3, 7]. The
16th century turned out to be a kind of turning point in terms of public toilets, but their
rapid increase and development began not earlier than in the mid-19th century. Then
the first sophisticated public urinal and toilet pavilions appeared on the streets of large
European cities.

6 Cultural Relativism in Shaping Public Sanitary Facilities

In some countries, meeting physiological needs in the open space is still common. This
is not considered a violation of public order, so it can be considered legal. Many
cultures require privacy and gender segregation. This is rigorously enforced by both
social and legal sanctions, and meeting physiological needs in random places is
associated with severe penalties [8]. Separation of the female and male parts in public
hygienic and sanitary facilities is not observed in all cultures. This is due to the
diversity of attitudes towards personal hygiene analyzed from a global perspective.
Positions - body positioning while using the toilet is also culturally conditioned, which
affects the form of sanitary devices. Using the toilet in a squatting position, not sitting,
is common in much of the world. Muslim culture and some Far Eastern cultures
consider western-style toilets to be dirty and unacceptable because the seats are shared
by strangers. Squatting position is perceived not only as definitely more hygienic than
sitting, but also as a healthier and more comfortable position from the anatomical point
of view [5]. Also activities related to the specificity of locating public sanitary facilities
are culturally conditioned. In some countries, male urinals, which are completely open
and exposed to public view, are quite common. Cultural relativism is also visible in
relation to interior design of public toilets. For this reason, in different societies, the
 Public Toilets: Determinant of the Progress of Civilization 93

degree of isolation (separation, closure) of internal sanitary facilities, for example, toilet
stalls, is differently required [8].
Cultural influences can also be found in the technological development of sanitary
equipment. Special interest in this subject is manifested in Japanese culture. Japanese
public toilets are equipped with all technological novelties, which are amenities that are
not only useful for users, but also those with various ailments, diseases (e.g. stoma), as
well as children of all ages. Also Scandinavian societies, especially Norwegians, attach
great importance to public sanitation. Examples of public toilets located along national
roads and highways indicate a strong commitment to providing amenities for travelers.
The architecture of these buildings is a confirmation that even a small toilet pavilion is
worth building according to a thoughtful and accurate design regardless of the isolation
and distance from a large audience [13].

7 The Role of Public Toilets in the Daily Life of Societies

Functioning of public hygienic and sanitary facilities is important in the context of our
life, health, well-being and hygiene. It turns out, however, that these objects can foster
the community not only in this one obvious way and not only in meeting the basic
requirements that are part of human rights to sanitation. If they are properly integrated
into the structure of the environment, properly located and marked, as well as designed
and organized taking into account the diverse needs of users representing the full age
and physical fitness cross-section, they can provide much more benefits to modern
communities. Such objects allow for greater use of public areas, maintaining their
proper functioning, cleanliness and aesthetics. They can affect the development and
improvement of the local economy, facilitate the functioning of educational institu-
tions, buildings of collective residence, and support leisure, recreational, entertainment
and commercial spaces. They can also increase pedestrian traffic in these areas, as well
as significantly improve the use of green areas. Public toilets can even become a tourist
attraction or a promotion of a city or place. Toilets have business sense as a place often
visited by customers. They contribute to the development of public health. They
support activity and physical fitness, enabling people to move and stay freely in
external spaces away from home conditions. Public sanitary facilities help to activate
downtown areas and promote urban vitality. Users feel safe and comfortable, having
the certainty of the availability of toilet facilities in public places, regardless of whether
they are shopping malls or city parks. Unfavorable impact on health and mental
condition results in the inability to meet needs. Public toilets can inspire to give up
using cars for the use of public transport, cycling or walking. People moving regularly
to a place of employment need sanitary facilities on their way to work. Without them,
the vast majority of commuters use car transport. The availability of hygienic and
sanitary facilities can have a decisive impact on the daily choices of people regarding
the type of transport, as well as the place of rest and entertainment. It can also be a
factor supporting active aging, supporting movement and physical fitness in childhood
and youth, as well as the determinant of urban livability [7, 12].
94 A. Jaglarz

8 Public Toilet Available and Friendly to Everyone

Public sanitary facilities serve people who especially need toilets when they are away
from home. The problem concerns people who due to specific ailments or circumstances
require frequent access to them. They may be people of different ages, mostly older,
children, pregnant or menstruating women, also people with special health problems,
which can often be unnoticed. There is a group of people for whom the need to use the
toilet becomes urgent, without warning. It includes most people with chronic diseases,
e.g. Crohn’s disease, colitis, as well as people temporarily affected by digestive system
diseases. Another group are disabled people, for whom physical access to the toilet and
its use requires more time and effort. Defining user groups and their individual needs,
expectations and requirements is particularly important in the process of designing
public toilets. Designers should remember to ensure the availability of toilets for users of
all ages and users of different psychophysical abilities, including those who require
additional care and additional improvements and facilities - the elderly, disabled, people
with various ailments, diseases, phobias, pregnant women, mothers with infants and
children of all ages. It is important to provide basic amenities and toiletries (soaps, toilet
paper, dryers or paper towels for hands), with convenient access for all users. In order to
promote hygiene and public health of societies, it is necessary to ensure an adequate
level of safety and cleanliness of facilities and their equipment [7, 12].

9 Toilets in Public Space

Public toilets fulfill their social role if they are properly integrated into the structure of
the environment. When choosing a location for public toilets, areas with the highest
activity should be considered in order to optimize their use. These are places where
public traffic is concentrated - city squares, places near public buildings, shopping
areas, but also city parks, playgrounds, promenades, pedestrian streets, rest areas where
people spend their free time, play sports (bike paths, health paths), green areas.
Strategic from the point of view of the location of public toilets are also characteristic
communication and transfer places. The selection of the public toilets location should
also be considered taking into account providing all users with safe and clear access,
without confusing camouflage. Direct access from outside space is important. Popular
vestibules often turn out to be unnecessary or dangerous if they are hidden, complicated
or inadequately illuminated [7, 12].
In the process of designing toilets in the public space, the ability to combine
aesthetics with usability and functionality turns out to be extremely important. In order
to adapt the designed objects to the environment, it is advisable to shape structures that
do not cause a significant visual impact. The use of forms and materials that help in
reference, increases the chance that the building will correspond with the context and
history of the place, culture, landscape and local community. A well-thought-out
selection of materials is recommended, with a view to integrating with the environment
and, at the same time, resistance to vandalism, graffiti and destruction [16]. It happens
that public toilet facilities, due to their extraordinary architecture, become characteristic
points in space, they can be a kind of decorative setting and even a tourist attraction.
 Public Toilets: Determinant of the Progress of Civilization 95

They can also complement other functions (information, tourism, recreation, catering).
They can also be equipped with additional elements - small architecture, seats, bicycle
racks, greenery, etc. The interior of toilets, not only hygienic, but framed in an inno-
vative design, can satisfy the most sophisticated tastes of users [1].

10 Sustainable Architecture of Public Toilets

as a Manifestation of Social Consciousness

A manifestation of social consciousness in shaping public toilets is not only care for
comfortable use of them, but also respect for the natural environment. According to
environmentally-friendly considerations and sustainable design principles, many solu-
tions can be applied to them, which will help in saving natural resources. Designers
should consider energy-efficient light sources using solar or on-site energy and the use of
renewable materials. In public sanitary facilities, sustainable water management is par-
ticularly important, for example the use of economical flushing of low-flush toilets,
water-saving taps and, if possible, collection and use of rainwater for flushing toilets [16].
Previous standard portable toilets are slowly becoming a thing of the past. Popular
plastic portable toilets characteristic of all festivals and outdoor events, are starting to
be replaced by natural toilets. They are usually different types of dry composting
toilets. Green innovation is a response to the modern trend of living in harmony with
nature. Special nano-membrane toilets that can be used without connections to the
water, sewage and electrical systems are tested for developing countries where toilets
are an age-old problem. The toilets do not have a flushing mechanism and they separate
solid and liquid waste. Solid waste is processed into fertilizer [4].

11 Technology in the Service of Public Hygiene

It turns out that available technology can help solve the many social problems related to
public toilets. A special phone application that informs the user about the location of
the nearest toilet can be used in many cities. This is a very useful solution, because
searching for a toilet in an unknown place can be a complicated task. Led indicators of
the availability of toilets, which are displayed on special maps before entering the
objects have an informative function, which is useful in the case of uncomfortable
queues in front of the toilets. There are many different concepts of “self-cleaning
toilets”. One of them is a solution based on technology using UV rays. Toilets have a
non-touch cleaning system, and UV rays destroy even 99.9% of bacteria. In a public
toilets, users can use the wifi, charge the phone and even an electric car, find container
for recycling, and take advantage of the entertainment - listen to music or watch TV.
These are only examples of technological curiosities that find their application in public
toilets [4].
96 A. Jaglarz

12 Conclusions

There are still many issues regarding public toilets and their social context that are
important and need to be addressed. However, the most important thing is that in
addition to research and analysis, effective actions are taken in response to the current
and changing needs of societies. In some cases, these are the basic needs, the satisfaction
of which affects the improvement of living standards and conditions, improves the
quality of everyday functioning, and even decides about health and life. In other cases,
these are needs related to convenience, privacy, aesthetic sensitivity, and entertainment.
Considering the universal functions of public toilets and their usefulness, the
general demand for this type of facilities is undeniable. We are not able to escape the
problem and we cannot treat it as a taboo subject. It is necessary to take up the
challenge and draw attention to its complex, broadly understood social meaning. The
functioning of public toilets is important in the context of our lives, health, well-being
and it is not questionable.
The undeniable social significance of public toilets, both on the scale of the indi-
vidual and the entire population, testifies to their rank, which is sometimes overlooked
and underestimated. Marginalizing a problem that is really global and bothering society
in macro-scale, causes that all issues related to the topic of public toilets are barely
tolerated and treated as an unpleasant duty, which often results in their repugnant
image. Considering the issues of health, safety, comfort and aesthetics in the process of
planning and building public toilets, these places can be full-fledged objects, co-
existing and correspond with other elements of the environment. They do not have to
be discouraging and using them can be a pleasure. Designing these objects may be an
opportunity to demonstrate initiative and ingenuity, interesting creative experience, and
even a reason for pride and prestige for architects.

References
1. Architektura Non Olet. http://www.sztuka-architektury.pl
2. Brak Toalet – Przemilczany Problem. http://www.national-geographic.pl
3. Chomczynska, A.: Fascynujaca Historia Toalety. http://www.woda.edu.pl
4. Funkcji z Przyszlosci w Toaletach Publicznych. http://kabinysanitarne.pl
5. Gershenson, O., Penner, B.: Ladies and Gents: Public Toilets and Gender. Temple
University Press, Filadelfia (2009)
6. Haslam, N.: Psychology in the Bathroom. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke (2012)
7. Jak Powinna Wygladac Wzorcowa Toaleta. http://www.kolociebie.com
8. Kira, A.: The Bathroom. The Viking Press, Nowy Jork (1976)
9. Kruczkowska, M.: Hinduski Czekaja na Toaletowa Rewolucje. http://www.wyborcza.pl
10. Molotch, H., Norén, L.: Toilet: Public Restrooms and Politics of Sharing. New York
University Press, Nowy Jork (2010)
11. O Podejsciu Polakow do Toalet Publicznych – Czyli o Czym Pamietac przy ich Planowaniu
i Projektowaniu. http://www.aktualnosci.forumfirm.pl
12. Public Toilet Advocacy Toolkit. http://www.phlush.org
 Public Toilets: Determinant of the Progress of Civilization 97

13. Public Toilets in Contemporary Architecture: Coups de Théâtre or Real Issues? http://www.
farestudio.it
14. Swiatowy Dzien Toalet. https://archirama.muratorplus.pl
15. Szczygiel, J.: Smierdzacy Problem. http://www.focus.pl
16. The Importance of Buildings, Shelters and Toilets. http://www.aucklanddesignmanual.co.nz
 Designing Public Toilets in the Historic Urban
Landscape. Analysis Based on the Polish Cities

Anna Jaglarz(&)

Faculty of Architecture, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology,

Prusa Street 53/55, 50-317 Wroclaw, Poland
anna.jaglarz@pwr.edu.pl

Abstract. The issue of the provision access to public toilets in the centers of
Polish cities is a topic eagerly discussed and undertaken in project activities
related to the improvement of the quality of life of residents and tourists.
However, the deficiency of toilet facilities in urban spaces is still being
observed. The problem is particularly pronounced, taking into account the need
to locate these objects in the vicinity of historic buildings, historic city parks.
The article discusses the subject of designing public toilets in the context of the
historic urban landscape, including the possibility of its revitalization and the
development of urban space. The idea of combining the art of creating urban
space with the response to real needs of people is a special challenge for
architects, especially when it comes to the need to preserve, respect and
emphasis the historical and cultural heritage. The examples of projects presented
in the paper are the basis for the analysis of principles and ways of shaping the
architecture of public toilet facilities in reference to the historical surroundings.

Keywords: Architecture
Public toilets design
Urban space

Historic landscape

1 Introduction

Despite the development of the functional and spatial structure in Polish cities and the
transformations of public space, aimed at improving the quality of life of both residents
and tourists, the deficit of public toilets in city centers is still visible. This problem
concerns cities of various sizes. The answer is the actions taken to solve it through the
construction of new facilities and the modernization of existing sanitary and hygienic
buildings. The shaping of public toilets in historical city centers, surrounded by his-
torical buildings, where a harmonious inclusion into the urban structure and cityscape
along with respect for the historical and cultural heritage is particularly important,
proves to be a particular challenge for urban planners and architects. This task requires
commitment because it is not always easy to combine the art of architectural creation
with the answer to the real life needs of users without interference in the existing
environment. Among the concepts and realizations that appear as an answer and
solution to this problem, various design approaches can be observed.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 98–109, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_10
 Designing Public Toilets in the Historic Urban Landscape 99

2 Designing Public Toilets in a Historical Context

When designing public toilets in urban areas, architects often use ready-made solutions
selected from a wide range of examples of popular sanitary and hygienic objects,
adapting them to a specific place according to the needs and requirements. However,
the areas in which historical buildings dominate are often covered by legal architectural
conservation protection, which imposes requirements and restrictions on the designed
and modernized objects, in order to preserve and restore historical and cultural heritage.
This activity is closely related to respect for the environment, urban areas and land-
scape. Restrictions and recommendations refer to the location of buildings, their form,
size and height, shape of their roofs, but also the type of materials used, colors, style,
type of lighting.
The basic principle of the design of toilet facilities located in the close vicinity of the
historic landscape is a skilful combination of the internal functional system and sanitary
equipment with the form of the building and its material finishing, which in turn is
adapted and fitted into the environment without intrusion and disturbance of harmony
and spatial order. The guarantee that the building corresponds with the particular history
of the place, its culture, style, identity and expectations of the local community is
extremely important. It confirms respect for historical and cultural heritage. Selection of
forms and materials should be made with a view to proper interpretation and reference to
the surroundings. Exterior claddings and finishing materials should correspond with the
characteristic features of the historical urban landscape. In city centers where the risk of
vandalism can be predicted, it is recommended to choose materials that will help limit
the possibilities and consequences of devastation, for example materials with resistance
to damage and graffiti. The solution to these problems should be balanced with the
method of locating the toilet facility, preferred as inviting and friendly, and not hidden in
the out of reach or camouflaged out of sight. Sometimes the toilet is placed in an
invisible and unmarked place. Hidden placement makes it difficult to find the toilet
without additional instructions. A disguised, unfriendly location can cause anxiety
among some users, especially women and children [1, 2, 5].
In the historic centers of Polish cities, the location of public toilets below ground
level, underground, is quite popular. This discreet way of placing toilet facilities is
beneficial in order to avoid undesirable interference with the existing urban structure,
but requires proper marking, guidelines and easy access for various users. Examples of
underground public toilets are located in the Old Town of Krakow. Some of them are
strategically located around the historical center of the Old Town. They are situated
underground, on the periphery of the green ring of Planty Park - the city park and
gardens that were built on the site of the former fortifications [6–8]. In the area of
Planty or in their close vicinity there are many historic buildings, but also precious
small architecture - numerous monuments, chapels, sculptures, fountains and extremely
valuable mostly historical tree stands, shrubs and plants [6]. Both the inhabitants of
Krakow and tourists can walk around the historical center of the city, rest on a bench in
the shade, with a sense of comfort and certainty that in the event of a need, the toilet is
nearby. Public toilets were located below ground level to avoid disturbing the structure
of this part of the city and to preserve the beauty of the historical urban landscape.
100 A. Jaglarz

Lifts facilitate access for the elderly and the disabled [7]. Toilets on the main Krakow
Market Square, near the Cloth Hall, with the entrance from the north end of the
building, function in a similar way [8].
Other characteristic Polish examples of underground public toilets located in the
vicinity of historic buildings can be found in the center of Wroclaw. Near the Main
Square, on Solny Square, in the place of a former shelter from the time of World
War II, there is a toilet, to which the entry is possible by stairs. Another public toilet
functioning in a similar way is located on the square at Wita Stwosza Street, in the
close vicinity of the Cathedral of Saint Mary Magdalene.
Many of the old toilet facilities have been modernized. Restored, equipped with
modern sanitary and hygienic equipment, public toilets still have their former function.
Their external form remains unchanged. Colors and material finishes are subject to
certain modifications, but as before they still interact with the surroundings (Fig. 1).
Some of the historic toilet facilities undergo transformations and change their previous
purpose. Change is the result of ongoing changes and social processes. Another way to
deal with public toilets in a historical context is to design and build new objects that, by
the appropriate form and the well-chosen materials, details, colors and styles, are able
to harmoniously compose and integrate with the surroundings. Noble, elegant material
solutions - stone and wooden cladding, architectural concrete finishes are desirable in

Fig. 1. Example of historic city toilet, Pionierow Wroclawskich Square/Jednosci Narodowej

Street, Wroclaw, Poland. Creation date: around 1900, architect: Karl Klimm. Modernization and
renovation date: 2002 [10]. (Source: own work)
 Designing Public Toilets in the Historic Urban Landscape 101

Fig. 2. Modern city toilet as part of the gastronomic pavilion surrounded by historical buildings.
Market Square, Katowice, Poland. Creation date: 2017. (Source: own work)
102 A. Jaglarz

this case. Smooth, polished, reflective materials, such as glass, mirror surfaces, polished
steel, cause a reflection of the historical landscape, and thus a spontaneous reference to
it, without intrusion (Fig. 2).
An alternative to urban locations, both in the vicinity of historic buildings and
historical city parks, is the creation of a neutral, simple block of the toilet building that
does not borrow anything from the environment, but through its subdued and restrained
form and uncomplicated material solutions becomes an element suited to the envi-
ronment. The new facility occupies the second place in relation to the neighboring
buildings and landscape and does not compete with them [2].
It happens that newly created public toilet facilities built in the centers of Polish
cities become their showcase, a characteristic element of small architecture, a tourist
attraction, and even a work of art appreciated by residents and tourists, which becomes
a source of satisfaction and prestige for their creators [1]. An interesting example is the
public toilet by Schleifer and Milczanowski Architects, which was established in 2012
in the city center of Gdansk. The skeleton steel structure of the object is clad in rust-
colored patinated sheet metal. The form of the toilet, designed as a contemporary urban
furniture, refers to the materials from the nearest historical surroundings through
details, although in the assumption an object matching everywhere was planned [9].

3 Public Toilets in the Historical Urban Areas - the Kolo

Competition as a Response to the Problem of the Public
Toilet Deficit in Polish Cities

Despite many activities related to providing access to public toilets, both residents and
tourists visiting Polish cities complain about the troubles resulting from the insufficient
number of toilets in the city centres. The problem of the lack of public toilets concerns
both large and small towns in Poland. Various initiatives are taken to improve this
inconvenient social situation.
For 20 years, the Polish manufacturer of bathroom fittings, the Kolo company
belonging to the international group Geberit the European leader in sanitary technol-
ogy, is the organizer of the annual competition addressed to young architects and
architecture students. The Kolo contest draws attention to the problem of public toilet
deficits in Polish cities. Every year, as part of the competition, several hundred design
works are submitted, the subject of which are public toilets in the particular place.
Young designers are involved in changing the public space in Polish cities and creating
for them designs of buildings with the function of a public toilet. The aim of the Kolo
contest is to pursue the winning design of a toilet facility, which will not only fit into
the city structure, but will also contribute to the improvement of the quality of life of
the residents [3].
In 2018, the subject of the competition was a conceptual design of a detached
building with the function of a public toilet in the Polish city, Slupsk. The design of the
building was planned in a historical context, in relation to the planned revitalization of
the Slupia river boulevards. The Slupia River boulevards are a recreational route
connecting the city center with natural green areas located at its ends. A fragment of the
 Designing Public Toilets in the Historic Urban Landscape 103

boulevards is covered by the revitalization project. According to the design assump-

tions, the main idea was to emphasize the value of the existing fragment of the his-
torical defensive wall of the city and mark the old course of the now defunct walls [4].
The competition task included:
• Designing a building with a public toilet along with additional functions for the
facility, intended for residents of the city and tourists (according to the needs of
users).
• Providing the function of a public toilet, friendly to people with disabilities or
limited mobility.
• Providing additional facilities to residents, such as a small gastronomy, a bicycle
rack or a City Hall informer.
• Designing a free-standing building with the function of a city toilet in the historical
context, as part of the program of the planned revitalization of the Slupia River
boulevards.
• Organizing urban space that fits in the historical surroundings, emphasizing its
historical character, and at the same time supporting the recreation of residents and
tourists - leisure, walking, access to the river, the opportunity to admire the
attractiveness of the place [4].

3.1 Design Assumptions

Visual, aesthetic design assumptions:
• The location the object emphasizing the original course of the city walls of Slupsk.
• The display of a fragment of the historical wall as a medieval relic, for example
through the use of a neutral background - a curtain, the background may be a
subdued facade of a new building.
• The use of formal, material, color and stylistic solutions on the facade that will
evoke the spirit of the past. The designed facade may be a reminiscence of former
buildings, once located along the walls.
• Creation of a concept that will correspond with the natural landscape of the
boulevard and the panorama of the Slupia River. Indication of the important role of
water and greenery.
• Presentation of the architectural concept that organizes the space in close relation to
the historic surroundings.
• Creating an alternative city route, enriched with additional visual qualities, enabling
the perception of new frames, new perspectives.
• Arranging clear, attractive scenery for various social activities in the urban space.
• Ensuring visual effects enriched with elements of small architecture, forms of urban
furniture [4].
Functional design assumptions:
• The creation of a place that, in connection with the planned boulevard revitalization,
will encourage the residents of the city to spend their free time on the Slupia River.
• Creating a structure that allows rest not only during summer and sunny days, but
also during the winter and rainy months - a partially covered and sheltered terrace,
104 A. Jaglarz

pergolas, fragments of a green roof, benches, seats, bicycle racks, lighting elements,
additional greenery and other elements of small architecture. Providing external
shady places to shelter.
• Providing additional functions - a small gastronomy (cafe, bar), information point,
meeting space for residents, city authorities, tourists (equipped with souvenirs and
symbols related to the city’s history, e.g. pictures, models, etc.) A permanent
exhibition, updated on a regular basis, can become an important element for the
identity of the local community, depicting all changes taking place in the city space,
for example, the progress in the field of urban investments. It can allow observation
and monitoring of the development of the urban structure. The exposition can also
have a tourist purpose, as an alternative to traditional maps and information points,
facilitating getting to know the city and better orientation in the new area. The
indication of the main attractions, monuments, new investments, characteristic
points and communication lines, hotels can be an important support for tourists. The
projection can also be used to promote the city.
• The addition of a gastronomic function ensuring the possibility of integration of
residents and facilitating tourists’ leisure.
• Following the principles of universal design - for everyone, for all users and their
needs - also for the disabled, parents with children and babies, children of all ages.
• If possible, ensuring a balanced building architecture - adherence to energy-efficient
design principles and sustainable water management [4].

3.2 Design Concepts

As part of the Kolo 2018 competition, students of the Faculty of Architecture of the
Wroclaw University of Science and Technology on the course Ergonomic designing of
sanitary and hygienic areas and rooms made designs of buildings with the function of
a public toilet for the city of Slupsk, taking into account the competition guidelines.
The presented concepts present individual approaches of young designers to guidelines
and competition assumptions. They illustrate different responses to the needs, expec-
tations and preferences of the local community and different sensitivity to the beauty
and value of the historical urban landscape.
Project 1 (Fig. 3)
The idea of the project is to create an active, vibrant urban space oriented around the
historic medieval defensive wall. The wall is the central point of the composition, and
its proportion and location gives rhythm and shapes the newly designed structure. In
order to expose the course of the former wall route, a glass-enclosed fossa was
designed to allow the viewing of hidden relics. The wall was treated with respect,
giving it a former construction function, and not just the role of an aesthetic relic.
Wooden beams are based on it combining the old wall with the first segment with a
technical function. From the top, the beams are covered with glass. The newly designed
part is finished with polished steel sheet covered with a wooden structure. In this part
there is a public toilet and facilities for the catering point located in the second part of
the building. The gastronomic part was organized as an open free space with light
 Designing Public Toilets in the Historic Urban Landscape 105

poufs, which on sunny days allow for recreational use of the space in front of the
building. The interior finishing materials (birch plywood, steel sheet) emphasize the
closeness to nature. In the last zone, it is possible to rent bicycles, kayaks or electric

Fig. 3. The concept of modern public toilet as part of the historical urban landscape on the Slupia
River in Slupsk, Poland. (Source: student project depicted by K. Placzek, tutor - A. Jaglarz)
106 A. Jaglarz

vehicles. There is also a service center. Kayaks are moored to a wooden jetty by the
river. There is also a customer service zone, a space for storing oars and vests, and a
place to park and repair bikes. This part is connected with a wooden platform on the
boulevard, which is a kayak harbor and a meeting place. With a view to sustainability,
it is planned to recover rainwater used to supply the sanitary system and to heat the
water used in the building by the solar installation (Fig. 3).
Project 2 (Fig. 4)
The main assumption of the concept is to incorporate a multifunctional facility into the
existing urban environment and to consider the design of the reconstruction of the
boulevards along the Slupia River. The object’s solid is designed in relation to urban

Fig. 4. The concept of modern public toilet as part of the historical urban landscape on the Slupia
River in Slupsk, Poland. (Source: student project depicted by D. Radlinski, tutor - A. Jaglarz)
 Designing Public Toilets in the Historic Urban Landscape 107

composition lines in the immediate surroundings, to harmonize and arrange the existing
area (the nearest buildings, the course of the historic wall). Two functions - a city toilet
and an open-air restaurant with a view of the river boulevards - invite guests. In
contrast to the light glass form of the restaurant, the city toilet is a massive solid, with
an entrance designed on the opposite side - it provides intimacy. Building facade is
made of architectural concrete, which is a reference to the material finishing of
buildings located in the immediate vicinity. The whole composition is completed by
passages at ground level covered with a wooden floor. Two blocks on the ground floor
are a structural stem for a plate cover with a green terrace. On the terrace there is a
summer bar, giving residents and visitors the opportunity to relax on the grass among
trees. The green terrace at the same time improves the microclimate in the city, collects
and filters rainwater, the excess of which can be collected in lower-seated tanks and
used for the needs of servicing the public toilet (Fig. 4).
Project 3 (Fig. 5)
The idea of the project is based on the harmonious incorporation of the object into the
environment while emphasizing the individual character of the urban composition. The
architectural form of the building and its location underline the historical course of non-
existent defensive walls and accentuate the existing fragment of fortifications. The front
facade of the object was planned in accordance with the direction of the old city walls.
The building is situated at the back of the site. Such location allowed to create an
obvious public space. The pavement goes along the old defensive walls. The unique
character of the object was obtained by using Corten steel panels on the facade. From
the side of the historical fragment of the wall, the panels pass into glass, which imitates
the wall. The building consists of two parts: a public toilet and a cafe. Both functions
are separated from each other with a covered passage, which allows the pedestrian
route to follow the original concept of land development. Under the cover there are
seats arranged on the arch plan. The relaxation zone, which is open to the gastronomic
part, is located next to the existing fragment of the historic wall. Thanks to the designed
rainwater recovery system, it can be used for flushing toilets, urinals and for watering
green areas (Fig. 5).
108 A. Jaglarz

Fig. 5. The concept of modern public toilet as part of the historical urban landscape on the
Slupia River in Slupsk, Poland. (Source: student project depicted by K. Radna, tutor - A. Jaglarz)

4 Conclusion

Convenient access to public toilets in the city center is important for most societies.
Sanitary facilities located in city centers provide a number of benefits that support the
human needs, and thus ensure comfort to the functioning and life of both residents and
tourists.
 Designing Public Toilets in the Historic Urban Landscape 109

Designing, situating and organizing public toilets in a historical context, both in the
surroundings of historic buildings as well as historical green areas, city parks and
boulevards, is a great challenge for designers because there is a risk of visual impact on
the surroundings and disturbances of the historical urban landscape and its perception.
The ways of shaping hygienic and sanitary facilities in a historical context, both in
terms of their location, functional and aesthetic solutions, are different. Diversity results
from the individual attitude and approach of designers to this topic. Often, certain
conditions and restrictions are imposed in advance. However, the guarantee that
architects will show respect for the historical and cultural heritage, appreciate and
protect it, and the designed buildings will be sensitive to the historical urban landscape,
is the main goal. Their form, scale, materials used, colors, stylistics, lighting, as well as
the choice and manner of their location have a significant impact on the specific, subtle
features of the place, its identity, individual character, history, culture, and its com-
munity. Shaping hygienic and sanitary facilities in such places should be preceded by
numerous observations and analyzes, in order to ensure the effect of positive partici-
pation and harmonious complementation of the urban structure, with clear respect for
its historical characteristics and meeting the needs, requirements and expectations, both
functional and aesthetic of a diverse group of users [5].

References
1. Architektura Non Olet. http://www.sztuka-architektury.pl
2. Bell, S.: Design for Outdoor Recreation, pp. 72–84. Spon Press, Taylor & Francis Group,
London (2005)
3. Jubileuszowa Edycja Konkursu Kolo to Szansa by Zmienic Przestrzen Publiczna Slupska.
http://www.kolo.com.pl
4. Konkurs Kolo (2018). http://konkurskolo.pl
5. The Importance of Buildings, Shelters and Toilets. http://www.aucklanddesignmanual.co.nz
6. Planty. https://pl.wikipedia.org
7. Planty. https://trasadlabobasa.pl
8. Public Toilets in Krakow. http://www.krakow-info.com
9. Publiczna Toaleta w Gdansku. http://www.bryla.pl
10. Szlak Wroclawskich Szaletow: Trasa 2. Srodmiescie. http://www.dolnoslaskosc.pl
Material Environment Design
 Ideas Behind the Changes
in the 20th c. Avant-Garde Architecture

Teresa Bardzinska-Bonenberg(&)

Faculty of Architecture and Design, University of Arts in Poznan,

Al. Marcinkowskiego 29, 60-967 Poznan, Poland
teresa@bardzinska-bonenberg.pl

Abstract. Architects and civil engineers from the earliest times have strived to
overcome the technical barriers limiting effects they have imagined. The idea of
well-being of communities as a reference point for designers and planners began
to develop in the sixties of the 20th c. In this respect the century brought the
breakthrough, disuniting modernism into many diversified flows based on dif-
ferent axioms put forward by the multiple architectural theories. Together with
the third technical revolution it gave a new lease of life to architecture.

Keywords: Ideas
Theories
Architecture
Technical barriers
Changes

Modernism
Science
Architectural trends
Arts trends
Paradigm

1 Introduction

In every epoch attempts to codify the principles for creating architecture entailed the
principles for aesthetic shaping of structures and cities as well as practical issues. The
oldest treatise by a Roman architect discovered in 1415 sets down the architecture
paradigm, which became the reference point for the next centuries. In subsequent
epochs, the discussion revolved around searching for the “right” forms for architecture.
An example of this search is the activity of visionary architects who rejected technical
constraints, anticipated a different way of life subject to new social relations and
conducted aesthetic experiments.
In the nineteenth century, art together with architecture exceeded the boundaries set
by a realistic convention for presenting space while social and political changes took
place in the background. The new modernist architecture paradigm was associated with
revolutionary changes in fine arts, an opportunity to industrialize the construction
process and a necessity to answer the problems of overcrowded cities. Since the 1910s,
spatial consequences of technical solutions in modernist buildings were synthesized,
and abstract art sanctioned the aesthetics of modernism.
In the twentieth century, after two cataclysmic wars and social problems on two
continents, sciences dealing with the human social environment began to play an
increasingly important role. Grassroots social movements convergent with it appeared
in the middle of the century. Foundations were being formed for rational, non-intuitive
shaping of spatial relations in a modern city and in buildings. At the same time, the
third technical revolution shifted the limits of that which until recently was still

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 113–123, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_11
114 T. Bardzinska-Bonenberg

impossible to build. As a consequence, in the second half of the twentieth century, a

spectrum of architectural movements emerged, referring to various theories based on
different assumptions and contributing to the diversity of architecture.

2 Theoretical Solutions and 20th Century Architecture

in Practice

The turn of the nineteenth century is a time of gradual departure from the current
understanding of art. Cubism was the movement which broke away from the tradi-
tional, perspective presentation of objects in the first decade of the twentieth century.
When analysing objects, Cubists broke them down into constituent elements, which
they then depicted in another, abstract arrangements from a multitude of viewpoints.
At the same time, there was a growing feeling among the young architects, that
architecture is not following art, whose avant-garde in 1914 recognized abstraction as
the highest form of art [1].
Artistic publications and manifestos were the tool for cooperation and building
common theories. Since 1888 in Brussels artists of various options and views opposed
to the official academic trend in art would see their works in L’art moderne published
by Octave Maus and Edmond Pickard. De Stijl (1917–1931) a magazine which
appeared later, published by Theo van Doesburg played the same role. The group’s first
manifesto was put together in 1918. The discussion was joined by Paul Hankar, an
architect who designed in the spirit of Art Nouveau. Clearly, the search for new means
of expression took place in an artistically diverse environment. Apart from artists such
as Amédée Ozenfant (1886–1966), Max Bill (1908–1994) and Vilmos Huszár (1884–
1960), the De Stijl group also brought together a number of younger architects: Jacobus
Johannes Pieter Oud (1890–1963), Gerrit Rietveld (1888–1964), Robert van’t Hoff
(1887–1979) [2].
In 1918, Corbusier and Amadee Ozenfant published the Après le cubisme (After the
Cubism) manifesto and established a new artistic movement - Purism. Ozenfant and Le
Corbusier began writing for a new journal, L’Esprit nouveau (revue) [3] https://fr.
wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27 Esprit_nouveau_(revue) and promoted the ideas of art and
architecture. At the time, Le Corbusier was working on the Schwob villa in La-Chaux-
de-Fonds, a project which did not foretell the changes that would take place in the
architect’s work or the fact that the dom-ino (1915) concept was already in existence [4].
In the field of urban planning the early twentieth century saw Ebenezer Howard’s
To-Morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform (1898) publication which was updated in
1902 and appeared as Garden Cities of To-morrow. In it, Howard proposed a scheme
for regulating urban functions enabling comfortable living in a city and its develop-
ment. Two satellite cities of London were designed in the 1920s based on these
assumptions, which did not fully embrace the author’s concept, and particularly the
social concept, but which did give rise to the concept of suburbia [5].
Patrick Geddes (1854–1932), a Scottish urbanist, thanks to his education (he was a
biologist, geographer, sociologist), time spent in India in contact with the Buddhist
culture, as well as the British urban planning tradition, treated the city and people as an
integral whole. His book, Cities in evolution: an introduction to the town planning
 Ideas Behind the Changes in the 20th c. Avant-Garde Architecture 115

movement and the study of civics (1915) contains many of today’s urban planning
postulates. He put them into practice in his 1925 plan for developing Tel Aviv [6].
In 1917, Une cité industrielle: Etude pour la construction des villes, an illustrated
book by architect and urbanist Toni Garnier was published in Paris. Written before
1904, it is considered the most important moment of urbanism in the 20th century [7].
A city was inscribed in the landscape, with specific functions connected by road and
rail transport. Garnier’s assumption of social relations, presuming integrity of the
residents was utopian. In the buildings Garnier used reinforced concrete in accordance
with its qualities: extended cantilevered flat roofs, slender columns, smooth walls.
Architecture almost devoid of details announced what is to come in architecture any
day now. The young Le Corbusier met with Garnier during the 1908–09 period [8].
Through him, probably, echoes of Garnier’s theory can be found in the works of CIAM
and on the pages of the Athens Charter of 1933.
At the same time (1908), the book-manifesto of Adolf Loos Ornament und Ver-
brechen - Ornament and crime was published in Vienna. The Goldman & Salatsch
bank headquarters, “house without eyebrows” with a residential part, was devoid of
ornaments too, and the separation of functions was exposed. It was the first reinforced
concrete structure building in Austria [9]. Loos promoted his ideas of shaping archi-
tecture and towns as he travelled across Europe and gave lectures.
At the turn of the nineteenth century architecture conservation circles began taking
shape. The conservation doctrines changed with the situation and current politics.
Following the destruction of World War I, discussions took on a fundamental
importance. This gave rise to searches for local, home-grown idiosyncratic qualities of
architecture and its preservation. In consequence rural, provincial motifs were noticed:
in Poland, Podhale architecture became the point of reference, in Germany Heimat Still
was developed, in Slovenia Jože Plečnik began his efforts and the Swiss chalet was
built all over Europe.
More or less at the start of the 1920s, the architect Charles-Edouard Jeanneret - Le
Corbusier emerged in the Paris architectural circles. His articles published since 1920
in Esprit Nouveau, influenced young architects’ community, shaping the movement of
the modernist avant-garde. Gradually more and more publications referred to the
concept of simple architecture, based on structural solutions and interiors connected
with each other and the space outside in sequences. Negation of the nineteenth-century
city: narrow, dirty and devoid of greenery laid the basis of Corbusier’s urban planning
and professional activity. The Plan Voisin for Paris (1922–29), La Ville Radieuse
(1935), or the Immeubles-villas concept (1922) proved to be solutions that were
interpreted around the world for the next 30 years. The “machine for living in” idea,
most precisely implemented by Le Corbusier in the homes within the “Housing Units”
permeated architecture and design in the next decades [10]. “Less is more” became a
motto, by Mies van der Rohe, of golden decades of modernism.
In Weimar, in 1919 Walter Gropius established Bauhaus. After moving the school
from Weimar to Dessau, he created a curriculum that integrated theory and practice.
Together with the team, he designed and built experimental buildings and settlements.
The ideas of Bauhaus were similar to what was happening in other centres: Paris and
Brussels [11].
116 T. Bardzinska-Bonenberg

The buildings at the Deutscher Werkbund architectural exhibitions marked the

emergence of new ideas to which some architects gravitated in the second decade of the
twentieth century. The first Werkbund exhibition in 1914 presented a complicated and
heterogeneous picture of architectural movements. The second (1927) was devoted to
housing and focused mainly on the achievements of modern architecture. Subsequent
exhibitions, including the WuWA in Wrocław in 1929, stood testament to the adoption
of new theoretical (modernistic) assumptions which coincided with the technical
possibilities and housing needs in Europe [12].
Outside Europe, new concepts of art and architecture emerged in the US and
Russia/USSR, coinciding with what was happening in artists’ and architects’ circles in
Europe.
In 1910 a portfolio of drawings presenting the achievements of American architect
Frank Lloyd Wright was published in Berlin. Over the following years, Frank Lloyd
Wright established his professional, didactic and publishing activity on the European
stage. He expressed his credo in the three-volume Frank Lloyd Wright Collected
Writings publication. Although for him brick was the basic building material, he used
reinforced concrete and concrete in a novel way where it was necessary or interesting
for various reasons [13]. His influence on European architecture was notable, as cross-
Atlantic bonds with America grew stronger.
At the eastern fringes of Europe, in Tsarist Russia, and then in the USSR, an art and
architecture movement called Constructivism developed. Schools of architecture,
bringing together artists and architects were the venues for discussion. In 1920–1930,
the Whutemas school was operating in Moscow, which educated artists in the direction
of design and industrial design. The Asnowa school of architecture established by
Mikołaj Ładowski was part of its structure. The works created there emphasized
expression of the structure. The Monument of the Second International by Włodzimierz
Tatlin from 1919 and the 1925 “Cloud Smoothers” residential buildings by El Lissitzky
and Stamm manifested the theoretical assumptions of the movement [14].
Futurism movement (Movimento Futurista) was born in Italy in early twentieth
century. Architects assumed breaking away from everything that was in architecture
before and used a new technique in creating buildings and cities. The fascination with
new possibilities: car journey, rail transport, lifts, inspired visions of skyscraper cities
and buildings of unprecedented shapes. The Futurists announced their theories in the
form of manifests in the daily press (first in 1909 in Le Figaro). Outbreak of the First
World War ended the Futurists’ activity. Visionary drawings and writings that inspired
subsequent generations are its legacy. Antonio Sant ‘Elia, Mario Chiattone and Ver-
gilio Marchi created architectural theory of the movement and brilliant illustrations to
convey its ideas [15].
Architectural events of early modernism were reported by Sigfried Giedion in the
book entitled Space Time and Architecture. The Growth of a New Tradition. For many
years this title became a reference point for architectural critics and a handbook for
subsequent generations of architects. Emergence of modernism and congenial trends
was referred from the modernistic point of view, which has changed since.
At a time when modernism prevailed in the capitalist world, two ideologies:
Nazism and socialism upset both the political and social situation in Europe. In Nazi
architecture, the imperial formula, in force since the 1930s in Germany used scaled
 Ideas Behind the Changes in the 20th c. Avant-Garde Architecture 117

axial, classicist solutions [16]. Socialist realism architecture organized built-up space in
a similar way, while looking for a national style and drawing from historical, local
designs. Slogans like “palaces for the people” and “socialist architecture by content and
national by form” [17] left their mark in cities “behind the iron curtain” being rebuilt
following the destructive war. The socialism ideology stopped the development of
culture, free exchange of scientific findings and technologies. Due to backwardness in
building industry, modernism, which “returned” at the end of the 1950s, was called
“socmodernism” to emphasize its poor otherness [18].
Gradually, the defects of modernistic architecture, and especially of urban planning
became more and more discernible. An opposing movement appeared in the 1960s in
several centres at the same time. The basic features of architecture after modernism
were ostentatious use of symmetrical solutions and references to historical architecture.
Books by Robert Venturi, Denise Scott-Brown and Steven Izenour Complexity and
Contradiction in Architecture (1966) and Learning from Las Vegas (1972) praised
diversity in architecture: “Less is a bore” is one of the slogans of the movement.
Simultaneously with the publications, buildings were made in shapes referring to the
ecclectism and dazzling with colour [19].
New concepts found fertile ground in Europe and Japan, where the Metabolism
movement emerged in the early 1960s.
Architects gathered around Krisho Kurokawa created visions of cities of the future,
expanding like living organisms, with a construction/communication grid located over
water or in space. Metabolism – 60 A Proposal for New Urbanism was the group’s first
publication. Architecture and urban planning were to be renewed in accordance with
needs subordinated to Japanese philosophy, which, in architecture, emerged from
ingrained minimalism [20]. With hindsight, one can see that abstract ideas may one day
be implemented. Today’s Palm-Islands of Dubai is expansion of a city to the sea - a
manifesto of technological progress in architecture. And in the 1960s the Japanese
dreamed of exactly that.
In his 1977 book, The Language of Post-Modern Architecture, Charles Jencks
considered the 1972 blowing-up of the Pruitt-Igoe residential complex in St. Louis
(USA) as the end of modern architecture. The author assumed that a metaphor is
needed in order for city space, to become a friendly place for people. And the “liter-
alism” of modern architecture was lacking just that. Jencks referred to the city of
Camillo Sitte city restoration concept and Leon Krier urban concept [21].
Visions of cities and residential structures were created by architects of the Archi-
gram group, operating in London since the 1960s. They suggested “structures”
expanding, rolling and changing forms according to needs. Today, new tools, mean
these visions can see the light of day. The group spoke mainly through exhibitions (the
first in 1963) and published their drawings and ideas in professional journals. Designs
such as Walking City (Ron Heron 1963), Plug-in City (Peter Cook, Warren Chalk,
Dennis Crompton 1964–1966), Inflatable Suit House (David Greene 1968) are not far
from today’s architecture. The minimalist Inflatable Suit House design was precursory
to “parasitic architecture” which today hopes to solve the problem of homelessness [22].
After the 1980s, new movements emerged from the postmodernism, drawing on his
ideas. Architects, as in the early twentieth century, could express themselves by
118 T. Bardzinska-Bonenberg

adopting style, functional and structural conventions, were supported by theories

inspired by various aspects of culture, art and technology.
Names of American and English architects are inextricably linked with the
beginning of postmodernism and a return to symmetric and sometimes colourful
buildings, which refer to history both inside and outside of structures: Robert Venturi
(Vanna Venturi House), Robert Venturi, Denise Scott Brown & John Rauch (Beniamin
Franklin Museum, Philadelphia), Philip Johnson (Sony Building, NY), Charles Moore
(Piazza d’Italia, New Orlean), Michael Graves (Portland Building in Oregon), Terry
Farrell (Secret Intelligence Service, London), James Stirling (History Faculty Library,
University of Cambridge) and many others [23].
When “historical” postmodernism lost its freshness, its creators and younger
architects followed different paths. New movements with a postmodern genealogy
emerged almost at the same time.
High-Tech, emphasised and exhibited functional, technical and technological
solutions. As a result, almost open-space interiors of buildings contrasted with the
elevations with “technical” details. The fist representatives of the movement were:
Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano (Pompidou Centre, Paris), Norman Foster (Bank
HSBC in Hong Kong), Michael Hopkins (Willis Faber Headquarters in Ipswich)
Nicolas Grimshaw (Oxford Ice Rink) Jean Nouvel (Arab World Institute, Paris), Paul
Andre (airports), Santiago Calatrava, as well as many others. This was a period in
which original publications by architects Richard Rogers, Renzo Piano, Norman Foster
and Michael Hopkins appeared, talking about the assumptions of contemporary
architecture and its goals [24].
Deconstructivism was the second trend, pitching disharmonious solutions, threat-
ening with the destruction of façades and buildings against structural logic. In archi-
tecture, this movement was linked with the philosophical theory of Francois Derrida.
The movement’s assumptions were determined while working on the design of the La
Vilette Park (Bernard Tshumi and Derrida). The following architects designed or still
design in this convention: Peter Eisenman (Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe,
Berlin), Zaha Hadid (Vitra Museum), Daniel Libeskind (Jewish Museum, Berlin), Rem
Koolhas (Library in Seattle), Coop Himmelb(l)au (Falkestrasse rooftop remodelling,
Vienna), Ben van Berkel (Erasmus Bridge in Rotterdam), Guenter Behnisch (Olympic
Park in Munich). The later works of Phlip Johnson who organized the Architecture
Deconstructivism exhibition in 1998 take their place in deconstructivism. Zaha Hadid’s
deconstructivism tends towards “Blob” architecture. At the same time, the work of Zwi
Hecker, usually associated with deconstructivism, considered as a whole, points to the
consistent expressionistic attitude of the architect [25].
The assumptions of Postmodernism, addressing historical forms, have been
developed by the creators of New Classicism. This movement found fertile ground in
the US, where since 2003, Richard H. Driehaus with a jury has been awarding prizes to
architects whose work has a lasting impact on society, introducing classical and tra-
ditional values into architecture. Award laureates included Demetri Porphyrios
(Whitman College, Princeton University), Leon Krier and Rob Krier brothers
(Poundbury urban extension), Quinlan Terry (Richmond Riverside, London), Tony
Atkin, Julian Bicknell, John Simpson, Allan Greenberg, Hammond Beeby & Babka,
Scott Merrill…[26]. Leon Krier unleashed a radical criticism of modern architecture
 Ideas Behind the Changes in the 20th c. Avant-Garde Architecture 119

and contemporary urban planning in articles in professional and scientific press, books
and lectures (including in the London AA). Besides working, Rob Krier lectured at
universities and published in the same spirit. New Classicism town planning ideas
reject Urban Renewal, a modernistic concept of urban reconstruction from the US [27].
Initially opposition to Urban Renewal is associated with a protest by a group of
residents. Jane Jacobs organised it in Boston to defend a district square. Her book, The
Death and Life of Great American Cities, published in 1961 became one of the most
important titles during the subsequent decades [28]. The design and execution of
England’s Pounbury urban extension negated Urban Renewal. Leon Krier built a town
with an urban structure and architecture deliberately similar to historical cities kept to
exactly such a scale. New Urbanism was interpreted and succeeded.
Populism was the fourth movement which emerged while exploring the needs of
common people. Just as architects-deconstructivists denied the obviousness of verticals
and horizontals in buildings, so “populists” exaggerated the symbolism of facades,
buildings forms and interiors. Architecture straight from children’s fairy tales and
dreams: facade of a hotel with seven dwarfs in Disneyland, a sphinx and a swan
crowning another building are the works of the former postmodernist, Michael Graves.
This direction was pointed out by Venturi and Scott-Brown, in the execution of the
Children’s Museum of Houston in 1980. Other completed projects include over the top
“Nubian residences” for tourists in Egypt (Michael Graves as well as Rami El Dahan
and Soheir Farida, were previously more associated with the vernacular movement).
Jon Jerde, introduced a fairy-tale décor into designed shopping centres. Studio Gaskin
& Bezanski executed (New York-New York Hotel and Casino (1996) and Luxor Hotel
& Casino in Las Vegas (1980). Philip Johnson, from the glorification of modernism
(the Glass House), through postmodernism, neoclassicism (City Hall 1996), has also
been creating in the spirit of proto-populism: Roofless Church was built in 1960, when
the trend had no name yet [25].
Two trends lie between the ideology and aesthetics of modernism and postmod-
ernism: Neo-Rationalism and New Modern Architecture.
When the Neo-Rationalism movement was taking shape it was represented by Aldo
Rossi, Rob Krier, Mario Botta, Rafael Moneo as well as Oswald Ungers and Josef
Klejhues. Aldo Rossi’s book The Architecture of the City (L’architettura della città),
published in 1966, spells out the movement’s credo. In addition to modernist func-
tionalism, he considered the “typology” as the basic trait, which expressed itself in the
easy identification of buildings and parts of the city. Rossi emphasized the role of
dominant features and landmarks for what he calls “collective memory” [29].
New modern architecture is a movement that continues and develops the ideas of
early modern architecture in today’s technical and social conditions. Richard Meier is
the most recognizable figure of the movement (Getty Center Los Angeles 1997; Ara
Pacis, Rome). Michael Graves at the beginning of his creative works also pursued the
concepts of the movement (Benacerraf House, Princeton, 1967), but gradually he
migrated to neo-classicism and populism in architecture. Architects whose designs co-
created the image of new modern architecture are James Stirling, I. M. Pei, Eric
Miralles, Rem Koolhas, Steven Holl, Christian Portzamparc, Michael Wilford and
many others.
120 T. Bardzinska-Bonenberg

Minimalism in architecture emerged due to globalization which has been pro-

gressing since the 1950s. Architectural tradition of the Far East met the succinct form
of European modernism. Minimalistic building usually explores one medium: form,
light, colour or texture. In Japan, the simplicity of forms resulted from regional tra-
ditions of building on a seismic area. Tadao Ando, Shiro Kuramata and Yoshio
Kaniguchi represent the Far Eastern Minimalist tradition. In Europe, the same can be
said of Alberto Baeza, David Chipperfield who also reaches for vernacular topics,
Dominique Perrault, Alvaro Siza. Some designs of the Herzog & de Meuron duo can
also be ascribed to this movement. Minimalism also developed in the USA (Donald
Judd) and Mexico (Luis Barragan) [23].
One can talk about the vernacularity of an architectural work, when modern
architecture noticeably refers to the local, traditional prototypes and methods used in
the construction of the region. The name of the trend was coined in 1964, when the
“Architecture Without Architects” exhibition was organized in MoMA NY, and the
sub-title of its catalogue was A Short Introduction to Non-Pedigreed Architecture. This
stood testament to just how unaware people were of the potential found in local
knowledge and tradition [30]. Hassan Fathy was the precursor of the trend and the
problem was understood by architects from regions other than Europe who completed
their studies at European universities. Contemporary vernacular architecture began to
arise in Egypt (Fathy’s students: Abdel-Wahed al-Wakil, Rami el Dahan and Soheir
Farid); in Arab countries: Rasa Badran, in India: Charles Correa and Rai Rewal. The
movement also appeared in the Americas: Ricardo Legoretta and Luis Barragan works
in Nicaragua and Mexico. In the US, one of the first creative references to settler
architecture was Summer House in Louisiana by Stephen Atkinson (1990) and
Langston Hughes Library in Clinton, Tenessee, by Maya Lin Studio (1999).
Designs for the World Expos are usually created in accordance with this movement.
Two Polish pavilions, from Tokyo in 2005 (Ingarden, Janicki) and Shanghai in 2010
(Kakowski, Mostafa, Paszkowska) are an excellent example. Architect Stanisław
Niemczyk (Poland), who executes successive churches, creatively transforms local
prototypes and interprets historical solutions, using available materials and the work of
local communities. His works: Jesus Christ the Redeemer Church, Czechowice-
Dziedzice (1995–1998), Franciscan Order Monastery with St Clara and Francis
Church, Tychy, (2000) are very good examples of modern vernacular architecture and
traditional attitude towards effects of community effort. Recent Pritzker Prize juries
seem to notice the importance of local culture and financial means. In 2012 Wang Shu
from China was the first architect widely referring to the local tradition awarded with
the Prize. Subsequent choices confirmed the trend.
Increasing ecological awareness influenced the emergence of the Ecological
Movement. Architects use solutions in buildings to reduce the environmental burden:
clean energy, local waste utilization, transport organization and many other endeav-
ours. The construction of the BedZED estate in London-Hackbridge (2000) with the
cooperation of many specialized companies was a milestone. It was designed by Bill
Dunster Architects. Designs by Nicolas Grimshaw (Eden Project, Cornwall, 2001),
Nicolas Hopkins & Partners (Portcullis House, London, 1992–2001), Renzo Piano,
 Ideas Behind the Changes in the 20th c. Avant-Garde Architecture 121

Richard Rogers, Jean Marie Henning, Nicolas Normier, Manuel Alvarez, Future
Systems (Jan Kaplicky) and many design offices seek solutions which employ state of
the art technologies.
Essentially, new expressionism is a continuation of a redefined tendency sup-
pressed in the modern architecture period. Post war designs include Hans Sharoun
Berliner Philharmonie (1963), the Sydney Opera by Jorn Utzon (1957–1973), Heinz-
Galinski-School by Zvi Hecker (1992–95), The Ark (1992), London, by Raphl Erskine,
who at the same time was the precursor for local consultations, Zenith Music Hall,
Strasbourg by Massimiliano Fuksas (2008), Santiago Calatrava and many others.
The method for designing and manufacturing building elements supported by
computer programs has fundamentally expanded the possibilities of architectural cre-
ation. “Blobitecture”, “blob architecture” is a movement where unheard forms are
arrived at, by using advanced software. It is sometimes developed for the needs of a
specific construction. The architects who first demonstrated these possibilities are:
Steven Holl co-creator of Archigram, who executed a vision from 40 years ago in Graz
Kuensthalle (2003), Frank Gehry, whose museum in Bilbao (1997) triggered a new
urban planning and social phenomenon.
Observing architectural enterprises from a close perspective is not conducive for
making generalisations. The end of the twentieth century is extremely interesting. Both
art and architecture were able to use state of the art media and disseminate their
activities away from criticism.

3 Conclusion

After the 1970s, theoretical publications were not frequent among practicing architects.
The description and critique of events was taken over by architects working at uni-
versities, dealing with didactics or writers associated with the environment. Jane Jacobs
continued publishing on the subject of life in the city. Norman Crowe, an American
architect who studied human-environment relations, acted in a similar spirit. His impact
on the American and European postmodernist circles was large. His writings include
Visual Notes for Architects and Designers (with P. Laseau) 1985, Nature and the Idea
of a Man-made World (MIT Press, 1995), Building Cities: Towards a Civil Society and
Sustainable Environment (with M. Lykoudis and R. Economakis) in 1999. In addition,
he published hundreds of articles in architectural journals.
Publications, lectures at universities and meetings in cultural institutions preceding
the publication of books by Manfredo Tafuri, Christopher Alexander, Peter Buchanan,
Manuel Castels, Kevin Lynch, Gordon Cullen, Nikos Salingaros, Jan Gehl and many
others, recorded and re-played, prepare architects and residents to understand the
problems of growing cities. A part of the discussion was taken over by blogs on the
Internet involving various groups of interlocutors. And whether these groups will
gradually permeate, arriving at conclusions and finally, maybe, reaching consensuses,
cities will benefit from mutual understanding between planners and users.
122 T. Bardzinska-Bonenberg

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Technical Transactions, vol. 4, (114), pp. 5–15 (2017). Wydawnictwo Politechniki
Krakowskiej, Kraków (2017)
19. Venturi, R., Scott-Brown, D., Izenour, S.: Uczyć się od Las Vegas. Zapomniana symbolika
formy architektonicznej, Karakter (2013)
20. Trzeciak, P.: Przygody architektury XX wieku, pp. 410–412. Nasza Księgarnia, Warsaw
(1974)
21. Jencks, C.: Architektura późnego modernizmu, p. 134. Arkady, Warsaw (1989)
22. Bardzinska-Bonenberg, T.: Parasitic architecture theory and practice of the postmodern era.
In: Charytonowicz, J. (ed.) Advances in Human Factors, Sustainable Urban Planning and
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23. Steele, J.: Architecture Today. Phaidon Press Limited, Boston (1997)
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25. Ghirardo, D.: Architektura po modernizmie. Wydawnictwo VIA, Toruń-Wrocław (1999)
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html. Accessed 23 Jan 2019
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to_Non-Pedigreed_Architecture.pdf. Accessed 26 Jan 2019
 The Role of Cultural Heritage in Sustainable
Development. Values and Valuation as Key
Factors in Spatial Planning of Rural Areas

Wojciech Bonenberg(&)

Faculty of Architecture, Poznan University of Technology,

ul. Nieszawska 13A, 61-021 Poznan, Poland
wojciech.bonenberg@put.poznan.pl

Abstract. The assessment of the value of heritage is an important problem in

the spatial development of rural areas. Determining the value of heritage is
especially important to plan the form of its protection, conservation and con-
temporary use. However, this issue has not yet been developed to the extent of
its importance. Therefore, the article presents a proposal for the method of
analysis and assessment of the value of cultural heritage, and examples of its
implementation in rural planning in Poland. A multi-criteria comparative
assessment method was proposed, taking into account the typological diversity
of the heritage. The method consists of three main tasks: elaboration and syn-
thesis of heritage values and valuations.

Keywords: Cultural heritage
Spatial planning
Rural areas

1 The Problem

Changes in rural areas in Poland have lasted for centuries, but in the last few decades
they have been going very fast and have negative effects. The following are among the
other negative social, economic, natural and cultural changes:
– Loss of inhabitants in rural areas. This is especially true for young people who
emigrate to cities,
– The increase in poverty in rural areas caused by the loss of traditional disposals of
agricultural products,
– High unemployment,
– Difficult conditions for professional and economic activation of residents,
– Low self-assessment, lack of optimism and willingness to be active in older people,
requiring care and access to health services,
– Increasing pollution of surface water,
– Loss of biodiversity as a result of the use of agricultural monocultures,
– Poor state of technical infrastructure (roads, power lines, sewers),
– Degradation of traditional rural landscape, new architectural forms, detached from
the building tradition of the area,
– Decomposition of functional and scenic relationships,
– Disappearance of traditional forms of rural culture.
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 124–134, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_12
 The Role of Cultural Heritage in Sustainable Development 125

The article presents the results of studies conducted at the Faculty of Architec-
ture PP in selected 30 villages of the province of Wielkopolska (Poland). The aim of
the study is to identify new development perspectives for rural areas, based on creative
use of heritage in spatial planning of rural areas.

2 Cultural Heritage

According to the UNESCO 2003 Working Definition, cultural heritage is the legacy of
physical artifacts and intangible attributes of a group or society that are inherited from
past generations, maintained in the present and bestowed for the benefit of future
generations [1].
Cultural heritage includes tangible and intangible heritage. Tangible heritage
includes built heritage such as buildings, monuments, landscapes, books, works of art,
and artifacts or technology items of a specific culture. The intangible cultural Heritage
consists of the non-physical aspects of the culture. The concept also includes ways of
behavior in society, and often formal rules that operate in a particular cultural context.
They are social values and traditions, customs and practices, aesthetic and spiritual
beliefs, artistic expression, language and other aspects of human activity.
Natural Heritage is also an important part of the heritage of local communities,
living in rural areas, meadows and forests. The natural heritage includes flora and fauna
as well as abiotic elements (e.g. minerals, fossils).
Heritage can also include cultural landscapes and natural landscape. (natural fea-
tures that can have cultural attributes).
“All cultures and societies are rooted in the particular forms and means of tangibles
and intangible expression which constitute their heritage, and these should be
respected” [2].
The presented research assumes that heritage is a still unused planning factor
affecting the future development of rural areas in Wielkopolska Region.
In this respect, the key statements are as follows:
1. Through cultural heritage and non-farm employment, many rural poor have
improved their incomes and escaped poverty.
2. Investments made to improve the protection, preservation and sustainable use of
cultural heritage have high potential to reduce poverty and create new jobs in rural
areas.
3. New strategies are needed in spatial planning to take advantage of the untapped
potential of cultural heritage through sustainable agro-tourism development. This
will help boost small-scale farm productivity and incomes, and create off-farm
employment in developing segments of specialized services.
These statements are confirmed in the FAO documents that achieving the sus-
tainable development goals requires investing in rural areas [3].
We want to strongly emphasize that through sustainable rural planning, people can
significantly improve their economic situation while remaining in rural areas.
126 W. Bonenberg

This is confirmed by data included in the FAO 2017 Report [4], which says that
“Creating opportunities beyond the farm. The development of agro-industry is essential
for rural development strategies and the creation of job opportunities. This requires
investing in infrastructure that connects rural areas to urban markets. Overcoming
bottlenecks along the value chain and barriers to smallholder participation also requires
investments to facilitate storage, logistics and processing. With the associated growth
of services in rural areas, small-scale farmers who decide to leave agriculture could find
employment in a dynamic agro-industrial sector”, and “To promote these different
pathways, investments should create an enabling environment that leads to decent job
creation in both the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors. For example, investments
in roads and transportation, telecommunications, solar energy, enhancing processing
and storage facilities for agricultural products, as well as boosting rural tourism, all
contribute to creating jobs, enabling livelihoods to flourish and helping break the cycle
of poverty. Finally, investments must take into account social dimensions, which are
fundamental for the development and sustainability of any society” [5]. In this respect,
the role of cultural heritage in non-agricultural sectors is very significant.
Research carried out by Davis, J., Pearce, D. in the rural areas of Eastern and
Central Europe fully confirms these trends [6].
On the basis of the cited studies, it can be concluded that:
1. Placing a cultural heritage strategy in a policy and rural development program can
help reduce poverty and ensure sustainable development.
2. It is essential to create conditions for participation in the cultural heritage system.
Local authorities and planners have a key role to play in providing incentives for
investment and creating the conditions for developing rural activities linked to local
cultural heritage development of rural activities related to the local cultural heritage
3. In rural areas, economic growth and job creation for the young people will require
dynamic growth of decent employment in off- farm activities such as agro-tourism
and services based on the creative use of the local cultural heritage.

3 Impact of Heritage on Innovation and Competitiveness

of Rural Areas

According to the study, the most urgent issues that must apply to the use of heritage in
rural development include activities in the area of:
– Regional connectivity of the Cultural Routes network;
– Coordination at regional level of rural development strategies;
– Promotions and marketing strategies;
– Implementation of quality standards and sustainable tourism;
– Support for good practices in conservation, protection and management of heritage;
– Monitoring and evaluation of plan and project effectiveness.
Taking these issues into account, the study suggests creating coherent actions to use
heritage in rural development. In our opinion it is necessary to cooperate closely with
many bodies and stakeholders – financial, educational and governmental tourist
 The Role of Cultural Heritage in Sustainable Development 127

organizations, hotels and restaurant chains, business representatives. Supporting spe-

cialized cultural institutions such as museums, research institutes, libraries, etc. is
necessary.
As pointed out Khovanova-Rubicondo [7], to help cultural heritage meet existing
challenges and exploit their potential as a basis for the development of cultural tourism,
focused action is recommended in five main areas:
1. Capacity-building.
2. Network governance.
3. Performance evaluation.
4. Brand image and marketing.
5. Co-operation with the main stakeholders.
In the words of European Commission’s Competitiveness and Innovation Frame-
work Programme: “Furthermore, the following priority actions are suggested within
these five activity areas: a more comprehensive understanding of the value of tourism
for culture, for Cultural Route projects and destinations needs to be developed; the role
of local communities in promoting sustainable cultural tourism development should be
addressed; and various aspects of sustainable tourism – demographic, cultural and
economic trends, entrepreneurial approaches, business models, marketing strategies,
public-private partnerships, etc. – have to be taken into consideration while building
capacity.”

4 Methodological Approach

The traditional approach to heritage management is related to:

– Historical characteristics,
– Characteristics of the value of heritage,
– Characteristics of the technical and functional status of the heritage and conser-
vation tasks,
– Characteristics of the heritage protection and maintenance system,
– Characteristics of possible uses of heritage and stakeholder identification,
– Access and presentation of heritage,
– Use and maintenance for development purposes [8].
Currently, we are entering a new, flexible, network-connected economy in which
information and communication technologies, local culture and society, education, etc.
are penetrated. The heritage takes on new values and becomes part of the chain of
development values. In fact, the inter-relationships between heritage values, heritage
protection and preservation system and other sectors of the economy and society as a
whole have become so integrated that we can imagine a new development network.
In the systemic approach to spatial planning, Pietraszewski identified a number of
location preference factors that affect development efficiency [9]. In the context of
using heritage in rural planning, these factors can be grouped as social, technological,
economic, ecological and political [10].
128 W. Bonenberg

5 Planning Drivers for Sustainable Spatial Planning

of Rural Areas

Based on the empirical results of research conducted at the Institute of Architecture and
Spatial Planning PUT, a list of drivers related to the sustainable rural planning policy
was formulated.

1. Social drivers
1.1. A holistic approach to user requirements.
1.2. Individualization. Growing demand for individual desires and aspirations.
Personalization using heritage to accommodate the differences between
individuals.
1.3. Increase in health awareness. Reduction of areas with contaminated water,
air pollution and high noise levels.
1.4. Increase aesthetic needs and requirements for buildings and public spaces.
1.5. Ecological, moral principles and vernacular values become ever more
important.
1.6. Increase in the number of pensioners visiting monuments for tourist
purposes.
2. Technological drivers
2.1. Integration of planning development processes. New tools for planning,
implementation and monitoring.
2.2. Spread of information in the network society. Ease of obtaining feedback on
selected heritage sites. A simple tourist reservation option.
2.3. New mapping services. Geotagging can help users find information of
location-specific heritage items.
2.4. Tracking services, GPS applications and mobile phone location-based
services.
2.5. Development of environmental-control technology.
2.6. Increased car traffic gives undesirable results, lengthens travel time and
causes problems with parking.
3. Economic drivers
3.1. Increased performance, lowered costs, contributions to sustainable eco-
nomic growth in society.
3.2. Increased competitiveness between villages and municipalities.
3.3. Increased income from tourism services in relation to income from agri-
cultural production.
3.4. Increase of demand for luxury travel services offerings.
3.5. Increasing the importance of global service companies (hotels, restaurants,
shops) in the local scale.
3.6. Increasing sensitivity of local prosperity to global economic and political
problems.
 The Role of Cultural Heritage in Sustainable Development 129

4. Ecological drivers
4.1. Reduced energy use and a healthy indoor environment.
4.2. Reduced use of resources in an environmental, eco-cyclic and whole life
perspective.
4.3. Unspoilt natural landscape becomes scarcer, and thus more valuable.
4.4. Efficient use of local climate specificity (solar radiation, wind power,
geothermal energy).
4.5. Local and regional climate change. Threats to floods and flooding. Fire
hazards.
4.6. Biotherapeutical properties of forest ecological corridors.
4.7. Contamination of pesticides and eutrophication of surface water.
4.8. Growth of the micro-spatial diversity of rural landscape.
4.9. Attempts to renaturalize the rural landscape.
5. Political drivers
5.1. Internationalization of heritage research.
5.2. Stable and predictable local policy contributes to attracting new investors.
5.3. Cross-cultural policy resulting in increased interest in a unique local
heritage.
5.4. A noticeable increase in the vernacular approach in local politics and the
promotion of local culture.
5.5. The growing importance of territorial marketing in local politics.

6 Heritage Assessment Criteria

The heritage assessment criteria encompass the following values, which are commonly
accepted as generic values [11]:
– Historical significance,
– Aesthetic significance,
– Scientific significance,
– Social significance.
In this context, a three-stage heritage assessment system was proposed. It has a
direct impact on the use for planning purposes [12]:

Step 1 > Exploration of significance:

– The historical context of the object or the rural area,
– Defining how the local community perceives the heritage object,
– Basic historical information, key facts, dates,
– Characteristics in a spatial and landscape context.
Step 2 > Evaluation of significance:
– Assessment of the significance of the object or area for the local population. Does it
bring benefits or losses to the local community,
130 W. Bonenberg

– Determining if the local community can be involved in the process of heritage

preservation and tourism development,
– Assessment the significance of the object or area for visitors (potential clients,
tourists),
– The level of usefulness of heritage; the assessment of the relationship between the
heritage site and the development of tourism in the context of attracting a certain
number of visitors.
Step 3 > Management of significance:
– Recommending conservation, protection and management strategies,
– Assessing the economic potential and the way in which the heritage is exploited,
– Organization of public heritage tasks,
– Sustainable heritage management. Respect for the integrity of cultural heritage,
– Strengthening social cohesion by building a community of interests related to
heritage management.
Taking into account the above assumptions, sixteen criteria for the assessment of
heritage were selected.
Heritage assessment criteria:
1. The object (item, element) is important in the course of cultural history of the local
area,
2. The object (item, element) is characterized by a high degree of historical authen-
ticity and integrity,
3. The object (item, element) has the ability to yield information that will contribute
to an understanding of the cultural history of the local area,
4. The object (item, element) possesses rare or unusual aspects of cultural history of
the local area,
5. The object is an integral part of the local cultural landscape,
6. The object (plot) has special association with the life or works of a person of
importance in the cultural history of the local area,
7. The object (item, element) possesses rare or unusual aspects of natural history of
the local area,
8. The object (plot) is important in the course, of natural history of the local area,
9. The object (plot) is an integral part of the natural landscape,
10. An item is important in presentation aesthetic characteristics of creative achieve-
ment in the local area,
11. An item has special connotation with a particular cultural group in the local area,
12. The object is very popular among stakeholders of cultural heritage,
13. The object is an integral whole that can be made available to tourists,
14. The technical condition of the object allows for tourist access,
15. The object (plot) is suitable for adaptation to commercial functions,
16. The object (plot) is suitable for implementing utility functions.
The following matrix was constructed to assess the impact of heritage on rural
spatial planning (Table 1). Each of the sixteen criteria is examined to assess its impact
 The Role of Cultural Heritage in Sustainable Development 131

Table 1. Impact of heritage on rural spatial planning.

132 W. Bonenberg

on the project’s objectives in terms of the required sustainable development of the rural
area. The impact is expressed in terms of Major, Moderate or Minor as follows:
– Major: significant impact on the attainment of the planning goals (sustainable
spatial development).
– Moderate: moderate impact on the attainment of the planning goals (sustainable
spatial development).
– Minor: little impact on the attainment of the planning goals (sustainable spatial
development).

7 Conclusions

The main purpose of the heritage valuation is to obtain reliable data for planning
decisions in rural areas. These activities include the identification of heritage objects -
their conservation, their adaptation to specific functions, development projects and
monitoring. All these activities should contribute to the sustainable development of
rural areas.
The valuation is the basis for each stage of the heritage-related activities in rural
development planning. In particular
1. Valuation is the basis for the identification of the heritage. The identification of a
historic building is based on the presence of specific features of the object (non-
material and material).
2. Determining the value is the basis for the diversity of monuments. Categorization
and classification of monuments results from the assessment of their value.
3. Determining the value is the basis for determining the manner of protection of the
heritage. The heritage function should be often transformed and therefore the
conservation method is required. The leading systems in this respect are: UNESCO
Heritage Impact Assessment system and Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs)
Heritage impact assessments (HIAs) and Environmental Impact Assessments
(EIAs) are increasingly required to analyze possible effects and consequences of
development of spatial planning of rural areas [13].
The Valuation of the cultural heritage (e.g. architectural monument) is the basis for
adaptation to the new functions in the rural development plan and the associated risk
analysis.
4. The assessment of heritage value is important for its effective protection. In par-
ticular, it is important to support all stakeholders in the spatial planning process.
Effective heritage protection is possible when the local community and the
authorities accept it.
5. The assessment of the value of heritage also has its market aspects. In the market
economy, the question of what is the heritage business potential is common. In
other words, it is about answering the question: how much you can earn on pro-
tection, conservation and contemporary use of heritage in a given time perspective.
 The Role of Cultural Heritage in Sustainable Development 133

Studies have identified the five major measurables of the economic impacts of
heritage protection, conservation and contemporary use: (1) jobs and household
income; (2) village revitalization; (3) heritage tourism; (4) property values; and
(5) small business incubation [14].
These conclusions are convergent with the results of Lewis’s research [15]. The
author shows the strategy used in this respect by the British Council: “The British
Council seeks to pioneer ways of creating inclusive and sustainable growth in countries
overseas through heritage. It aims to include local communities in the benefits of that
growth and in the sharing and protecting of their heritage. This theory of change can be
adapted for any future intervention or programme on cultural heritage for inclusive
growth.”
In summary, the presented issues prove that the valuation of heritage is indis-
pensable in every phase of spatial development planning for rural areas. The
methodology of heritage valuation is a key element of sustainable development con-
sisting in balancing cultural, aesthetic, educational, environmental, social, historical,
and economic values.

References
1. Tangible Cultural Heritage. Culture Tangible Cultural Heritage. UNESCO (2017). http://
www.unesco.org/new/en/cairo/culture/tangible-cultural-heritage/
2. Jokilehto, J.: Definition of cultural heritage. In: References to Documents in History.
ICCROM Working Group ‘Heritage and Society’, p. 36 (2005)
3. Cattaneo, A.: The State of Food and Agriculture. FAO Agricultural Development
Economics. Policy Brief 3. Rome (2017)
4. FAO 2017. The State of Food and Agriculture 2017: Leveraging food systems for inclusive
rural transformation. Rome (2018)
5. Sustainable Development Goals. Ending poverty and hunger by investing in Agriculture and
Rural Areas. FAO (2017). 17556EN/1/07.17
6. Davis, J., Pearce, D.: The Non-Agricultural Rural Sector in Central and Eastern Europe.
Rural Non-Farm Economy Project. Natural Resources Institute Report No. 2630. University
of Greenwich at Medway (2001)
7. Khovanova-Rubicondo, K. (ed): Impact of European Cultural Routes on SMEs’ innovation
and competitiveness. European Commission’s Competitiveness and Innovation Framework
programme (CIP). Council of Europe (2011). http://culture-routes.net/sites/default/files/files/
StudyCR_en.pdf
8. Szmygin, B.: Światowe dziedzictwo kultury UNESCO – charakterystyka, metodologia,
zarządzanie. ICOMOS, Politechnika Lubelska, Warszawa – Lublin (2016)
9. Pietraszewski, W.: Optymalizacja w gospodarce przestrzennej miast. Arkady, Warszawa
(1989)
10. Bosshart, D., Frick, K., Ludwig, E., Duttweiler, G.: Future of leisure travel – Trend study.
GDI, Gottlieb Duttweiler Institute, Zurich (2006)
11. Loffi, C.: Assessing Heritage Significance. Levels of Heritage Significance. Heritage Council
of New South Wales. Heritage Office, Department of Planning (2008)
12. Assessing Heritage Significance. Heritage Manual update. New South Wales. Heritage
Office, Department of Planning (2001)
134 W. Bonenberg

13. Guidance on Heritage Impact Assessments for Cultural Word Heritage Properties.
International Council on Monuments and Sites. ICOMOS, Paris (2011)
14. Rypkema, D.D.: Heritage Conservation and the Local Economy. Global Urban Develop-
ment, vol. 4 Issue 1, August 2008
15. Lewis, R.: Cultural Heritage for Inclusive Growth. British Council, London (2018)
 The Application of BIM in the “China
Beautiful Rural” Design Project–Yangyou
Village River Ecological Landscape
Reconstruction Design Project

Xia Wei(&), Wojciech Bonenberg, and Mo Zhou

Faculty of Architecture, Poznan University of Technology,

Nieszawska 13C, 60-021 Poznan, Poland
wei.x.1028@gmail.com, wojciech@bonenberg.pl,
mo.zhou@put.poznan.pl

Abstract. As the urbanization process continues to deepen, the scale of con-

struction projects is getting larger, and the different involved fields are more
complicated. The construction industry is also facing a severe test while it is
developing rapidly. As the most sought-after application technology in the area
of engineering construction, BIM is receiving more and more attention and
practice. Today, the application of BIM technology in architecture has matured,
but the application in landscape design is still in the exploration stage. BIM
technology mainly emphasizes the complete life cycle of planning, design,
construction, completion operation, and demolition and update, the construction
information of each stage is built into 3D virtual through the structure of 3D
information model. Utilize BIM’s information model to enable data to be shared
and serve as a platform for collaboration among professional consultants to
effectively control engineering costs, schedule engineering, reduce cost of waste
due to design or construction errors, and improve construction quality. The
construction information can be extended to the property management stage
after completion. BIM can effectively solve the traditional engineering interface
complex and harmonized 2D diagram which is difficult to clearly state the 3D
space, the information of each stage of the construction life cycle is difficult to
transmit and other shortcomings effectively. This paper will try to analyze the
application prospect of BIM technology in landscape design from several
aspects. Through the case study of “Yangyou Village River Ecological Land-
scape Reconstruction Design Project,” BIM has significantly provided the
benefits for more scientific design and application.

Keywords: BIM
Landscape architecture
China beautiful rural project

1 Introduction

1.1 The Status of BIM Applications

The beginning of BIM was to promote the development of 3D models. Later, with the
gradual growth and expansion of technology, BIM added more functions, and the
model can have intelligent information, and this information can be shared with

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 135–145, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_13
136 X. Wei et al.

industry players in various fields. BIM simulates the condition of the construction
project after construction. These are just some of the functions of BIM. In response to
the trend of world construction industry development, “sustainability” has become a
significant focus, so the maintenance of facilities has also been listed as a focus of
attention around the world. Therefore, in recent years, BIM has been developed from
the original construction industry and has rapidly expanded to the entire life cycle of
the construction industry. All the world has begun to organize and integrate the similar
strategies of BIM under the system. Currently widely used in the United States, the
United Kingdom, Singapore, and other countries, many countries have begun to set
BIM norms and standards in line with their national conditions [1].
The BIM building information model is arguably one of the most popular terms in
the engineering and construction industry in recent years. The BIM Building Infor-
mation Model is a technology based on 3D data that integrates relevant information in
the engineering construction industry. Information is a detailed expression of project-
related information, and it is also a direct application of digital technology in engi-
neering construction. Solve various information conflicts in the software, enabling
designers and engineers to correct a variety of information accurately. Information
model technology is a term introduced into the engineering and construction industry
from the construction industry. This is a new concept in the engineering and con-
struction industry, not a new technology. BIM has the potential to challenge some of
the limitations of designing, constructing and managing the built environment [2].

1.2 Application of Landscape Architecture Design

Landscape design mainly focuses on terrain, water, plants, roads, buildings, and other
elements. The process of landscape engineering design includes scheme design, pre-
liminary design, and construction drawing design. Regarding the design of the scheme,
the first is to formulate the project, that is, to know what is to be designed; the second is
site selection, that is, the matching of function and site; again the site analysis, that is,
the planning of integrated land; and finally the conceptual planning, that is, the plan-
ning sketch (site - structure).
Traditional landscape design usually relies on some design software such as
AutoCAD to complete the plan of 2D plane vertical and sectional drawings, and then
use 3D model software such as 3dsMax to make visual renderings. This design method
and 3D model design are not integrated, cannot be visualized, the information in the
model cannot be derived into other fields, which makes the value of this model cannot
be brought to the subsequent construction design and project management.
In the landscape design industry, BIM technology has also taken the attention of
industry personnel. Everyone is looking forward to this new technology that will one
day bring a qualitative leap to the landscape industry. However, in practical applica-
tions, BIM-related technologies are rarely used in landscape architecture. Except for a
small number of garden buildings or antique buildings, and a handful of BIM appli-
cations for terrain, etc., it has not yet been seen. Landscape engineering using BIM
related technologies has emerged. These existing parts, such as landscape architecture
and antique architecture, as well as BIM techniques and methods for terrain, should be
included in the scope of architectural BIM.
 The Application of BIM in the “China Beautiful Rural” Design Project 137

2 Research Problems

With the rapid development of BIM technology in engineering and other engineering
industries, the landscape industry is also exploring BIM related technologies. The
application of BIM will become the mainstream trend of the construction industry in
the future. Its operation structure based on 3D information model is also very suitable
for the design of outdoor landscape space. However, compared with other engineering
industries, the development of BIM in the landscape industry is relatively slow, mainly
due to insufficient demand from the owners, construction investors, lack of analysis and
evaluation system in the planning and design, industry-scale restrictions, and technical
difficulties. However, the demand for BIM technology in the landscape planning and
construction phase is very urgent. The unique characteristics of landscape engineering
make it challenging to develop BIM technology. It is necessary to make full use of the
results of relevant industry BIM technology and transform and expand according to the
requirements of landscape engineering [3].
The BIM technology mainly emphasizes that in the complete life cycle of the
construction project from planning, design, construction, completion operation and
demolition and renewal, through the establishment of the 3D information model, the
construction information required at each stage is built in the 3D virtual. In the spatial
model, data can be shared and used as a platform for collaboration among professional
consultants. Through this technology, the project cost can be effectively controlled, the
progress of the project can be arranged, the cost waste caused by design or construction
errors can be reduced, and the construction quality can be improved, and the con-
struction information can be continuously applied to the property management stage
after completion. It can effectively solve the traditional engineering interface com-
plexity and coordination integration difficulties, the 2D diagram says it is difficult to
state the 3D space clearly, and the information of each stage of the construction life
cycle is difficult to transmit effectively [4].
BIM main modeling softwares: Domestic mainstream BIM software includes
Autodesk Revit, Graphisoft ArchiCAD, Bentley Architecture, Autodesk Civil 3D and
so on. Civil 3D supports BIM workflows, such as terrain creation, earthwork exca-
vation, and land preparation, slope aspect analysis, drainage system planning, and
earthwork calculations, which are ideal for landscape design.
This paper will discuss the assist of BIM technology in the landscape design stage
through the application of research examples.

3 Research Methodology

3.1 The Application of BIM in Landscape Design

(1) The design of the solution is parallel to the design of the construction drawing,
shortening the design process.
In the traditional landscape design work mode, the landscape architect completes
the concept and scheme design first, then deepens the plan to draw the construction
138 X. Wei et al.

drawing, completes the design description, and finally submits it to the construction
team for construction. The front and back stages in this mode are a relatively separate
linear process. The introduction of BIM technology and working mode will make the
landscape design and construction drawing more closely linked, and even simultane-
ously. Compared with the traditional renderings to CAD, the entire design process is
significantly shortened, especially the construction drawing design process is reduced.
Accelerate the review and distribution of the diagrams required to deliver the
package and enhance communication efficiency. During the model construction pro-
cess, the required plan, elevation, section, and perspective can be quickly generated
through simple settings. If there is a need to design a correction, as long as it is
modified at any point in the drawing, all the associated pictures will be automatically
updated, which can significantly reduce the cost of the surface correction and solve the
common problem of missing images.
3D model presentation and dynamic simulation to enhance communication effi-
ciency. BIM emphasizes the concept of 3D as the central axis of creative thinking.
Through the spatial presentation of 3D models and the sensible color rendering ability,
communication and coordination efficiency can be significantly increased. The ani-
mation simulation ability, through the setting of the path, allows all participants to clear
the design thinking that the designer wants to express.

(A) Landscape BIM cooperates with building BIM to avoid pipeline collision.
With the widespread use of BIM technology in the field of architecture, landscape
design, even if there is no mature landscape BIM standard, it is beneficial to build a
landscape model in the building BIM system and then generate corresponding
drawings. Landscape architects can model the structural elements of each site based on
the BIM platform, such as flower stands, terraces, yards, trails, roof gardens, and more.
The model can reflect the spatial conditions of structural beams and columns, various
pipelines and gardens, thus avoiding conflicts in future construction as early as
possible.
As an interface integration platform and automatic conflict detection, the landscape
model can be integrated into the building model, the surrounding environment model,
the sprinkler model, and the hydropower model according to the actual engineering
requirements, as a platform for information communication. Automated design conflict
detection can be performed to reduce the chance of design errors.

(B) The energy saving analysis and cost accounting, green ecological landscape design.
Based on the landscape BIM and building BIM models, energy saving analysis and
calculations can be easily performed at the project concept stage. BIM has dramatically
improved the accuracy and efficiency of energy-saving predictions and other energy-
related analyses (such as LEED), which account for a large proportion of sites and
landscape design in addition to buildings.
Solar Thermal Radiation Analysis: The solar radiation heat of the building and the
surface is calculated and calculated visually. It can show the different solar radiation
heat derived during any period of the year. The data can provide the landscape designer
as a reference for the layout of the shading facilities or plant design.
 The Application of BIM in the “China Beautiful Rural” Design Project 139

Sunshine, Shadow and Daylight Analysis: Sunlight, shadow, and daylight analysis
can be applied to sunshade facilities, gazebos, waiting for stops, stadiums, plant design,
and landscape facilities with special design requirements for sunshine effects, such as
sundial and light projection modeling facilities, which can accurately analyze direct
sunlight. Angle, time and degree of shading.
Wind Analysis: The wind has a crucial position in the comfort of the micro-climate
environment. It is an external environmental impact factor that landscape designers attach
great importance to. After the BIM model is built, it can be imported into Ecotect, Winair,
WindperfectDX and other software for year-round, quarter-by-quarter or month-by-
month. Wind field analysis. Through the analysis results, the degree of influence of wind
direction and wind speed on each sub-area in the base can be obtained, and the results of the
analysis can be used as the basis for design correction to get the best design presentation.
Sound Simulation: It can be used in places where the quality of sound is high, or
when it is necessary to evaluate the influence of music or noise, such as outdoor
performance venues, trains, MRT, or significant adjacent roads.
Sight Analysis: It is helpful when analyzing landscape perspectives, assess obstacles,
and even more. The landscape design emphasizes the visual space experience of the
step-by-step landscape. The function of the analysis of [Ecotect] allows the designer to
judge the visual field of the reviewed location, and determine whether the disgusting
facility to be blocked successfully achieved the shielding purpose; The essential
landscape to be emphasized can also be judged by its analysis function to decide
whether or not it is visually disturbed by other scenes.
Planting Aid Design: The influence of sunshine and wind farms plays a vital role in
plant design. Through accurate sunlight analysis and shadow analysis, landscape
designers can accurately determine the sunshine time data of various regions in the base
throughout the year. According to the analysis results of these data, plants with dif-
ferent shade tolerances are selected. Designers can use scientific analysis methods as a
reference for planting design selection [5].

3.2 Methodology

Concept Design: This stage is where BIM uses the most economical and compre-
hensive efficiency. The evaluation results of the various options for the model can be
quickly fed back to the information center of the design project so that the program can
be adjusted in time and the plan can be formulated soon.
The information model must have the following functional requirements:
(A) Organize the terrain, buildings, roads, planting, drainage system, climate, location
and other information around the design project to facilitate the transfer of data to
the BIM information model. With these information models, we can make reg-
ulations. Review and assessment of preliminary environmental comfort analysis.
140 X. Wei et al.

(B) Organize the conceptual design of the internal facilities of the base, such as the
size, topography, planting, styling, preliminary structure and hydropower demand
information. These data can be used as a space volume and facility orientation
review, project budget calculation and environmental comfort. Degree assessment
and foundation of construction feasibility assessment.

Detail Design: The detailed plan includes the further configuration of the design
terrain in the landscape project, the size, and materials of the facility shape, plant
design, drainage facilities, pavement, hydropower, structure and so on. It also includes
preliminary confirmation of lighting and sprinkler systems.
The functions of this stage of the information model should be as follows:
(A) The floor plan, perspective view, and sloping plan required for the review can be
automatically output.
(B) Providing information on the accuracy, size, shape, orientation, materials, design
location, structure and hydropower requirements of the landscape facilities. This
information model is used to make a more accurate orientation assessment, project
cost estimation, environmental comfort and construction feasibility assessment for
space objects and facilities as a basis for design.

Construction Stage Model: Includes facilities for all proven solutions, for example,
terrain, drainage, paving, planting, lighting, sprinkler irrigation, specific components of
various landscape facilities, structures, and hydropower and other determination programs.
The model should meet the needs as follows:
(A) The information model should have a clear definition of shape, volume, orien-
tation, area, size, material, construction method, precise location and quantity of
planting and can automatically calculate the number of elements and assist in
project budgeting.
(B) The information model can automatically output the plan, perspective, and façade
drawings required for the review, and make more accurate spatial measurements,
orientations, environmental comfort, and construction feasibility assessment [6].

4 The Application of BIM in Case Study

The purpose of the research case is to build a small town shape and industrial
upgrading in the Minyou village through the comprehensive management of the river
ecological environment and build a town into a new and beautiful green community of
literature, industry, and ecology. The water environment management system in
southwestern Yunnan, featuring water ecological civilization and beautiful rural con-
struction. Construct an environmental management mechanism based on water safety.
Exploring the protection of water resources, optimizing the economic and social
transformation and development model, and creating a road to ecological civilization
 The Application of BIM in the “China Beautiful Rural” Design Project 141

construction that promotes water environment management with scientific develop-

ment and achieves harmony between people and water and peace between people and
water.

Overview project
• Project name: “China Beautiful Rural” design project–Yangyou Village River
Ecological Landscape Reconstruction Design Project;
• Design company: Seven International Sp.z o. O.;
• Project location: Ceheng County, Guizhou Province, China;
• Project time: 2018.
Yangyou Village is located in Ceheng County, Guizhou Province. The village
covers an area of 27.24 km2, 72.5 km from the city center and 12.5 km from the
township government. It faces the Nanpan River in the east and faces Guangxi
Province. The altitude is between 740–1290 m and the annual average temperature is
13-23. C (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Yangyou Village map and view;

Overview of the Yangyou River Road: The main channel of the project area is about
600 m in length and about 6–8 m in width.
The river runs through the center of the village, and the riverside is mostly resi-
dential areas, and the buildings are dense.
Although the two sides of the river have been treated briefly, the overall lack of
unified planning and construction, inadequate flood control standards, poor ecological
environment, and various problems still exist.
The Application of BIM in this Project: Due to the vast terrain of the project and the
complexity of the site, the 3D model of the terrain was first built in Rhino, and the
model was efficiently imported into the Revit software project. In Revit’s project file,
we can assign data to all building monomer elements. Pave the park’s hills, valleys, and
rolling paths, and all three-dimensional models have their attributes, materials and even
details (Fig. 2).
142 X. Wei et al.

Fig. 2. Rhino software models

(A) According to the design plan, put the landscape components of the family in the
BIM database, such as lamps, benches, bollards and other manufacturing site
furniture.
(B) Adjust the plan according to the 3D view. One of the most important aspects of
landscape design is the perception and visual impact of design at various view-
points. Using 3D models in Revit can do sunshine analysis, shadow analysis, etc.
Through these analyses, it can be concluded that which species and plants need to
be planted in each part of the terrain. Set different viewpoints and adjust the model
information as required. For example, the height of the wooden landscape bridge
can be selected according to the height of each landscape point to choose the most
suitable data. The trees in the valley prefer different tree species depending on the
angle of exposure of the sun (Figs. 3, 4 and 5).
(C) Importing the determined Revit model into the Lumion software for simulation.
From the perspective of people, all the scenic spots can be simulated, and the
unsuitable landscape points can be easily found. Using the UPDATE data asso-
ciation of BIM data, the 3D model data in the model can be modified, and only the
model can be updated to link all of them, and even the construction map can be
updated in real time without modifying from scratch, which is impossible before
BIM (Figs. 6 and 7).
 The Application of BIM in the “China Beautiful Rural” Design Project 143

Fig. 3. Revit 3D Model Sections show the area and design details;

Fig. 4. Sun analysis from Revit;

144 X. Wei et al.

Fig. 5. Details design;

Fig. 6. Lumion view;

Fig. 7. Lumion rendering;

 The Application of BIM in the “China Beautiful Rural” Design Project 145

5 Conclusion

As a three-dimensional landscape model with information data, BIM can play a huge
role in the life cycle of design, construction, operation management, etc. It is the
development trend of the future landscape design industry and the construction
industry. The 3D parametric model not only integrates complete information on
buildings and landscape plants but also provides a three-dimensional communication
environment. Compared with the traditional mode, landscape designers and project
personnel can find useful information on the site and then exchange practical infor-
mation, and efficiency is significantly improved.
The three-dimensional parametric model has gradually become a communication
platform for facilitating communication between the parties on the construction site. It
allows the participants in the project to conveniently coordinate the project plan,
demonstrate the feasibility of the project, eliminate potential risks in time, and reduce
the resulting changes. BIM is necessary to construction planning because BIM can
detect problems before and during construction phase [7]. Thereby shortening the
construction time, reducing the cost increase due to design coordination, and improving
the production efficiency on the construction site. Therefore, the introduction of the 3D
parametric model system into the landscape design industry will significantly enhance
the quality of landscape engineering construction, while maximizing the existing
resources, reducing unnecessary waste, and fundamentally solving the quality of
engineering construction. The contradiction between quantity and building leads the
structure of the project to the road of sustainable development.

References
1. BIM Definition: Frequently Asked Questions About the National BIM Standard-United
States - National BIM Standard-United States. Nationalbimstandard.org. Archived from the
original (2016)
2. Ahmad, A.M., Aliyu, A.A.: The Need for landscape information modelling (LIM) in
landscape architecture. In: Conference: Digital Landscape Architecture Conference (2012)
3. BIM In Landscape Architecture: Opportunities and Challenges, ASLA (2015)
4. Barth, B.: BIM there, done that. Landscape Archit. Mag. 38–51 (August 2017)
5. BIM and Landscape Architecture: What, Why, and How?. AEDT (2016). https://world
landscapearchitect.com/bim-landscape-architecture/#.XFS3IlxKhPY
6. Sacks, R., Eastman, Ch., Lee, G., Teicholz, P.: BIM Handbook: A Guide to Building
Information Modeling for Owners, Designers, Engineers, Contractors, and Facility Managers,
3rd edn. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken (2018)
7. Mohd, S., Latiffi, A.A.: Building Information Modeling (BIM) applica tion in construction
planning. In: 7th International Conference on Construction in the 21st Century (CITC-VII),
Bangkok, Thailand (2013)
 The Method of Designing an Architectural
Composition Applying Images Reflected
in Water Mirror

Zdzislaw Pelczarski(&)

Faculty of Architecture, Bialystok University of Technology,

Oskara Sosnowskiego 11 str., 15-893 Bialystok, Poland
pelczarski.z@wp.pl

Abstract. The phenomenon of apparent images of real objects, created by the

light rays reflected from the surface of the natural mirror of standing water, has
been known to the human eye apparatus since the beginning of time. Occurring
in the natural environment, double landscape images, consisting of a real image
and its symmetrical, reversed reflection, were not foreign to our eldest forefa-
thers. This phenomenon had been known also to the architects of past eras, who
masterfully used them in the design of often outstanding architectural compo-
sitions. This means of expressing the architectural form is also used by con-
temporary designers. Modelling such an unique architectural compositions,
requires special knowledge. The paper presents “Method of a Relative Retinal
Image”, which is useful tool in solving, mentioned above, particular design
problems. The final conclusions of research, as well as the author own profes-
sional practice, prove that the presented method is an effective, easy to use tool
that enriches the architect’s design workshop.

Keywords: Architectural designing
Architectural composition

Water mirror reflection
Apparent images

1 Introduction - Subject Matter and Scope

of a Research Work

The research undertaken by the author covers selected issues useful in the design of
architectural compositions in which the actual image of the object coexists with its
apparent image, created by reflection from the surface of the water mirror. The initial
assumption was to create simple graphic methods that allow for quick and informed
design decisions. Analyzes presented in the further part of the work and the resulting
methods of achieving the assumed design goal were based on the commonly known
laws of geometrical optics. In general terms, the design of the compositions in question
consists in determining specific spatial relations between the observer’s position, the
actual architectural object and the shape, size and location of the water-surface panes.
The most important in this designing process is the ability to locate on the surface of
the water the points of reflection of light rays running from the critical points of the
architectural form. Among them the most important is the highest point of the building

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 146–157, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_14
 The Method of Designing an Architectural Composition 147

and the extreme lateral points defining its width. The final part of the discussion also
presents a method for obtaining a simplified perspective image that allows quick
checking of the effects of the designer’s actions. For this purpose, the original method
of a relative retinal image was used [1].

2 Theoretical Basis of Research Optical Phenomena

One of the basic elements that make up the Earth’s living environment is a space filled
with light emitted by the Sun. The electromagnetic waves of the light encountering a
material object reflect from it and spread in space. A single point of matter placed in the
space, filled with light generates a wave, which spreads spherically in all directions,
carrying an information about the characteristics of the matter constituting this point.
The visual apparatuses created by nature, including the human eye, equipped with light
receptors record that information; transmit it to the brain, where it is interpreted. This
process refer to as visual perception. Geometric optics introduced the concept of a ray
of light as an infinitely thin stream of light in which elementary particles move at a
speed of 300,000 km/s (the equivalent of the image of this stream is a straight line, a
concept known from geometry). This filed of science describes the features of light
without penetrating its physical nature as the behavior of straight rays. According to
geometrical optics, light propagates in homogeneous media along straight lines, reflects
on the border of various medias, and when goes to the other medium deflects direction
[2]. The key to the phenomenon of the seeming images of material objects arising as a
result of the reflection of light rays off the mirror surface is the fact that angle of
incidence of these rays is equal to the angle of reflection. The above statements allow
the analysis of optical phenomena by means of graphic methods, using generally
known geometry laws. Described above properties of light rays reflected off mirrors the
science owes to the French mathematician Pierre de Fermat, who about the year 1650
has defined so-called Fermat’s principle or the principle of least time [3]. The infinite
number of light rays reflected from the infinite number of points creating material
objects transmits images of these points into the space in an infinite number of
directions. It can be said that the space is filled with images of material forms encoded
in the streams of light. A simple confirmation of the truth of this statement is the image
created in the so-called rearview mirror. It intercepts a certain beam of light rays
carrying the image of the objects on the back of an observer, outside the scope of his
vision, and redirects them by mirror reflection toward his eye. This experience proves
the fact that regardless of whether we look at a given material object situated in a lit
space or not - its image literally fills this space. This is why moving around the
observed object is accompanied by continuous visual perception of more and more new
images of the same object. Only this image of the material object is registered by the
visual apparatus, which arises from this part of the infinite number of light rays
reflected from its surface, which penetrate into the eye and fall on the photosensitive
surface of the retina (Fig. 1).
148 Z. Pelczarski

Fig. 1. Architectural composition with a reflection in the water mirror - a baroque garden of the
Branicki Palace in Bialystok, Poland; (Photo: author)

3 Description of the Research Model

Figure 2 presents the theoretical graphic model, adopted as a research tool. It explains
the phenomenon of a reflected apparent image and enables the analysis that are nec-
essary for the purpose of the research. The observed real object is a theoretical vertical
column (with an infinitesimal diameter), with a height H, a vertex A and a base B. The
point of the eye (EP) simulates the geometrical center of the observer’s eye lens. It is
situated on the edge of the water surface at a distance L from the object of observation
and elevated to the height h above the surface of the water mirror. This mirror is
formed on a perfectly smooth surface of water, which in a natural way (gravity) is a
horizontal plane. The courses of light rays are represented by straight-line sections and
plotted on a vertical plane passing through the eye point (EP) and the real vertical
object AB. The arrows indicate the directions of the course of light rays. The image of
the AB object, created in reality on the retina of the eye of observer, is simulated with
an image that is created as a projection on the so-called the plane of the relative retinal
image, located behind the point of the eye (EP) in the constant distance Ls for all
analyzes. This plane is perpendicular to the central horizontal line of sight. From the
laws of geometrical optics it follows that, in the case described above, in the space
filled with light, on the surface of observer’s retina the second image of the AB object
is projected, in the form of a seeming image A′B. It is symmetrical to the real image
and inverted, and the axis of this symmetry is the point B, belonging to the real object,
as its base contacting the surface of the water mirror. The mechanism of this phe-
nomenon is explained by the graph of the courses of light rays shown in Fig. 2. The
most important for undertaken research is the problem of point A image, which is the
vertex of the real object. Being in a space filled with light, it emits an infinite number of
reflected light rays, spherically in all directions. In the vertical section, which is the
mentioned earlier plane of the discussed graph, the number of these rays is limited to
 The Method of Designing an Architectural Composition 149

Fig. 2. The phenomenon of appearance of an apparent image on the surface of the water mirror -
definition of the research model; (Source: author)

those lying on it only. They are distributed in a circle. One of them hits the eye point
(EP) and falls on the plane of a relative retina, creating an image of the A point of the
real object. Some of the remaining rays fall on the surface of the water mirror and
reflects off it, changing direction. According to laws of optics is known, that the angle
of incidence of light rays on the surface of the mirror is equal to the angle of reflection
from it. One of these reflected rays goes to the point of the eye (EP) and transmits the
image of point A to a graphic retinal simulator. In the drawing this point is marked as
A′, and the point of reflection of this ray from the surface of the mirror as RP. The
extension of this ray to the intersection with the vertical line passing through the object
AB determines the position of its apparent vertex A′. A characteristic for the relations
between the parameters h, H and L is the distance of the point of reflection (RP) from
the point of the eye (EP), marked as Lx. The above explanations of the appearance of
the apparent image of the apex, represented by point A, apply to all other points
belonging to the observed object, located linearly between points A and B. The images
of all these points carried by rays reflected from the surface of the water are recorded on
the plane that simulates the retina of the eye, and their collection creates an apparent
retinal image of the whole object.
150 Z. Pelczarski

4 Graphical Methods Defining Positions of the

Reflection Points

Variant 1. From point B, a circle with an AB radius is drawn (Fig. 3). The intersection
of the line of this circle with the vertical line passing through points A and B deter-
mines the location of the apparent point A′. Then, from point A′, a straight line to the
point of the eye (EP) is guided. The intersection of this line with the surface line of the
water mirror sets the point of reflection (RP) and determines its horizontal distance Lx
from the point of eye (EP).

Fig. 3. Three variants of graphical determination of the position of the Point of Reflection (RP);
(Source: author)

Variant 2. From the point of intersection of the water mirror line with the vertical axis
passing through the eye point (EP) a circle with a radius h is drawn (Fig. 3). The
intersection of the line of this circle with the vertical axis is determined by the apparent
point of eye (EP′).
From this point, a straight line is drawn to point A. The intersection of this line with
the surface line of the water table determines the position of the point of reflection (RP)
and its horizontal distance (Lx) from the point of eye (EP).
 The Method of Designing an Architectural Composition 151

Variant 3. The value of h is added to H (the AB object height) (Fig. 3). Then the top
point C of the H + h segment connects by straight line with the EPo point. The next
step is to plot from point A parallel line to the above one. This line, crossing the
horizontal lines of the water mirror determines the point of reflection (RP). Its fragment
between points A and RP is an incidence ray of the image of point A and its extension
determines on the intersection with the vertical axis of the eye point (EP) its apparent
counterpart point EP′. Analyzing the graphs of light rays that determine the formation
of apparent images, which can also be described as a lines of sight, shown in Fig. 3, it
is easy to see that they form a series of geometrically similar triangles. The triangle
A-B-RP is similar to the triangle EP′-EPo-RP, the triangle A′-B-RP is similar to
triangle EP-EPo-RP.
The larger and smaller triangles form pairs of mutually symmetrical triangles, for
which the axis of symmetry is the horizontal line of the water table. The similarities
result from the similarities of their apex angles focused around the point of reflection
(RP), and these arise from the law of equality of incidence and reflection angles. In
addition, triangles having a common vertex at the point of the eye (EP) show similarity.
The triangle A-B-EP is similar to the triangle A*-B*-EP, and the triangle A-′B-EP is
similar to the triangle A′*-B*-EP. The Lx (RP point distance from EPo) is determined
by three parameters: L, H and h. The relations between them are described by the
equations shown in Fig. 3.

5 Relationships Between a Relative Retinal Images

and the Eye Point Elevation

Figure 4 presents a graphical analysis of the dependence of the relative retinal image
height of the real object AB and its reflected virtual image A′B from the elevation of the
eye point (EP), with a constant horizontal distance L of the observer from the real
object. This analysis shows that for any value of the eye point (EP) elevation above the
surface of the water mirror, while maintaining the above assumptions, the height of the
subject retinal image is identical. This is due to the fact that triangles with common AB
and A′B bases have common vertices at the points of the eye (EP1 - EP4) and are
triangles geometrically similar to the corresponding triangles jetted onto the projection
plane of relative retinal images. This plane is represented by a vertical line running at a
fixed distance Ls from the point of the eye (EP). It is parallel to the vertical axis of the
AB object and the vertical axis on which all the examined points of the eye lie (EP1 -
EP4). In this situation, the proportions between the L and Ls distances determine the
size of the relative retinal images of the observed AB object and its reflection. Since the
ratio Ls to L has a constant value for all eye point elevations (EP1 - EP4), as well as the
size of the real object AB and its reflection A′B is constant, their relative retinal images
are also the same for any height of the EP points. This statement is clear from the
theorem of Thales and the similarities of triangles described above. Carried out analysis
also allows to state that the higher is the position of the eye point (EP), the point of
reflection (RP) moves further away from the observer, and thus approaches to the
observed object.
152 Z. Pelczarski

Fig. 4. Relationships between a Relative Retinal Images and the Point of Eye elevation; (Source:
author)

6 Effect of Size, Shape and Location of the Water Mirror

for the Frame of the Reflected Apparent Image

Figure 5 illustrate the analysis of the composition using the reflected virtual image of
the architectural object depending on the geometric features of the water mirror and the
spatial relationship between the mirror, the position of the observed object and the
location of the observer. Three variants of these relationships were considered, taking
for each of them the assumption of a fixed eye position relative to the object (distance
and height of the eye point (EP) from the object AB). In addition, for all variants, the
same width of the water reservoir and the same distance of the projection plane of
the relative retinal image from the point of the eye were assumed (Ls). In variant V1,
the distal edge of the water table rectangle runs through point B, and the proximal one
is located after the point of reflection (RP) of the apex image of the object AB. Thanks
to this, the entire AB image of the object is in the mirror’s frame and consequently the
relative retinal image consists of the image of the AB real object and the symmetrical to
it, the A′B virtual image (Fig. 5, V1). In the variant V2, the distal edge of the tank
(a-a′) was transferred to the position c-c′. Consequently, only the upper part of the
 The Method of Designing an Architectural Composition 153

apparent image of an object (AB) is in the water mirror frame. The lowest reflected
light beam that creates a virtual image is the ray falling on the line c-c′. The light rays
with a potential reflection points (RP) located between the lines a-a′ and c-c′ does not
transmit virtual images to a relative retina (Fig. 5. V2). Variant V3 analyzes the effects
of moving the edge of the water table from the position b-b′ to position d-d′, far before
reflection point (RP) of the vertex A image. As a result, the light rays of the upper part
of the object AB hit the surface located outside the water mirror and are not picked up
by the visual apparatus of the observer (Fig. 5, V3). Only the virtual image of the lower
portion of the real object AB participates in the retinal image composition. The sim-
ulations presented above are used to determine the extent of the interaction of geo-
metric relations between the positioning of the observer and the observation object and

Fig. 5. Analysis of the relationship between the size, shape and location of the water mirror and
the reflected apparent images of the real objects; (Source: author)
154 Z. Pelczarski

the shape, size and position of the water mirror for the vertical viewing angles of the
reflected virtual images. The reduction of the object of observation to the theoretical,
vertical post AB is a result of the assumption of applying the largest possible research
problem synthesis and its conversion into a simple model. In professional practice, the
design tasks of creating such a compositions concern three-dimensional objects, so the
architect must take into account horizontal viewing angles, in addition to vertical ones.
Determining the frame of the image reflected in the water mirror, in addition to
controlling the points of reflection of the highest elements of the observation object,
and must be accompanied by taking into account critical lateral points determining the
horizontal viewing angles of the architectural body.

7 Example of an Application of Relative Retinal Image

Method in Designing Architectural Compositions
with Water Mirror Reflection

Figures 6 and 7 presents an example of solving a design problem by means of a graphic

method, using the previously discussed principles of creating an architectural com-
position with a mirror reflection in water and the application of proprietary method of
so-called a Relative Retinal Image. For the demonstration, a model object, inspired by
the ancient Hellenistic architecture, was selected - defined by the front and side ele-
vation, as well as top view. The task was to design an axial composition in which the
image of a real object should coexist with the image of its reflection in the water mirror.
The horizon line, and hence the elevation of the eye point (EP), was set high, at the
half-column level of the model architectural object. The purpose of this assumption was
to clearly display the surface of the water mirror. In order to establish the distance of
the eye point position from the object, a so-called normal vertical viewing angle has
been applied. This is the angle obtained naturally by the human eyeball by its rotation
of 7.5º up and 30º down. Such an angle was considered as most appropriate to
determine the total height of the retinal image of the composition. This assumption
allowed defining the nearest position of the eye point to the object (L), what results
from the fact that the line of sight coming from EP point at the inclination of 7.5º
should run over the highest point of the object or being at least tangent to it. The
smallest distance L was chosen due to the image quality. The graph of a line with a
slope of 7.5º passing through point A, determined the position of the eye point (EP) at
the crossing with the horizon line. Next, the water mirror line was plotted, which as a
horizontal axis of symmetry allowed to copy the inverted drawing of the façade. In the
following step the point of reflection (RP) and the course of the reflected light beam
transmitting the image of point A were determined by leading the line from point A′ to
the eye point (EP). This action also allowed determining the distance Lx, i.e. the
distance between the points EP and RP. The above data were entirely enough to create
a synthetic perspective image of the designed composition using the method of a
relative retinal image. The basis of this proprietary graphic method is a model simu-
lating the operation of the human eye. It results from the observation that in the human
eye the distance of the retina from the central point of the lens has a constant value.
 The Method of Designing an Architectural Composition 155

Individual points of the surface of the real material objects are transmitted by rays of
light reflected from them along straight lines, part of which, after passing through the
lens, falls on the retina, displaying the inverted image of the object on it. The angles of
vision determine the size of this image, between the angles of view of the extreme
points of the object being viewed. The most important of these angles are vertical and
horizontal viewing angles. If the same object is further away from the observer, the
smaller is its retinal image. This simple mechanism explains the phenomenon of per-
spective vision. In the described method, the geometric center of the eye lens has been
replaced by the so-called point of the eye (EP), and the retina is imitated by the
projection plane of the relative retinal image, spaced from it by the constant distance
(Ls) for all analyzes. This method allows you to quickly create perspectives images
with one vanishing point. This point is located on the vertical axis of the symmetry of
the frame. Due to the editorial limits of the article, the below description is just an
outline guide to plot these images and the justifications of this construction are omitted.

Fig. 6. The application of a Relative Retinal Image Method in designing architectural

compositions with Water Mirror Reflection - general principles of graphic procedure; (Source:
author)
156 Z. Pelczarski

Generally speaking, they rely on using images of points and lines belonging to
many planes perpendicular to each other (in three-dimensional Euclidean space) and
compilation of these images (tangentially) on one common plane of the graph. The
construction of a perspective image begins with plotting the axis of the plane of
the relative retinal image that runs parallel to the vertical axis of the eye point (EP), at
the assumed distance Ls. Then, from the critical points of the object being observed, the
lines of view are draw through the point EP to the intersection with this axis. In the
case of a vertical section, these intersection points are determined by the positions of
images of horizontal lines on which the real points analyzed in the designed space lie.
Then, from the intersection of the ray of −30º, a horizontal line is drawn, which marks
the bottom edge of the constructed image. This point is also the center of rotation of
half-circles, by means of which the system of points determined below the pivot point
is transferred to the position above it. This treatment reverses their system, which then
returns to the normal position. From these points, horizontal lines are then draw. They
are the lines on which the vertical coordinates (heights) of the images of the points
sought are located. In the next step, the axis of the eye point is extended, which
becomes, in this part of the chart, the vertical axis of the one-vanishing point per-
spective drawing, lying at the intersection of this axis with the horizon line. The next
steps are to establish the lines of horizontal coordinates (the horizontal distance of
images of individual real points from the vertical axis of the perspective). For this
purpose, the central axis of the projection covering the object and the arrangement of
the terrain was drawn, on which marked the position of the eye point (EP) and the point

Fig. 7. The final designing result of the exemplary architectural composition obtained by the
method shown in Fig. 6; (Source: author)
 The Method of Designing an Architectural Composition 157

of reflection (RP) of the light ray coming from the highest point of the object. Then,
from the characteristic points defining the shape of the water reservoir and the object
itself, viewing lines has been drawn to the eye point (EP) and, than extended to the
relative retinal image line. In this way, relative images of particular points of the
designed composition are obtained, which constitute their horizontal coordinates in
the created perspective image. Their layout was then transferred to the constructed
perspective image by situating it axially above the frame of the perspective. The
intersections of vertical lines from the individual points with horizontal lines repre-
senting the same real points define their positions in a three-dimensional perspective. In
the describe example the drawing of the fronton of the object was obtained by the
reduction of the copy of object’s elevation. The reduction factor was calculated after
reading the size of elevation of the point A in relative retinal image.

8 Conclusions

The presented studies explain the essence and the mechanism of the phenomenon of
formation the virtual images on the surface of water mirror. This phenomenon was used
and is still used by architects to create unique outdoor compositions. Their attrac-
tiveness consists in doubling the image of the exposure, which consists of the image of
the real object and its reversed virtual image. Author, based on his own professional
experience and a scientific workshop, developed simple rules and easy in applying
method to assist in the designing of such a compositions. It was possible thanks to the
concept named The Relative Retinal Image, defined earlier by the author in connection
with the research on the theory of stadium grandstands designing. The results of
research are a useful material enriching the architect’s designing workshop.

References
1. Pelczarski, Z.: Spectator Stands of Contemporary Stadiums. Determinants and Design
Problems. Widownie Wspolczesnych Stadionow. Determinanty i Problemy Projektowe. (The
second edition), pp. 106–112. Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Bialostockiej, Bialystok
(2018)
2. Feynman, R.P., Leighton, R.B., Sands, M.: The Feynman Lectures on Physics, vol. 1.
New Millenium Edition. California Institute of Technology (2010)
3. O’Connor, J.J., Robertson, E.F.: Pierre de Fermat. MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
University of St Andrews
 Inclusive Healthcare Waiting Rooms:
A Comparison Study for Improving
the User Experience Within Built Environment

Claudia M. Fernández-Rivera1(&), Carlos Aceves-González2,

Matteo Zallio3, and Mario Mireles-Ramirez4
1
Maestría en Ergonomía, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Mexico
claudia.fernandezri@gmail.com
2
Centro de Investigaciones en Ergonomía, Universidad de Guadalajara,
Guadalajara, Mexico
c.aceves@academicos.udg.mx
3
Center for Design Research, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
matteo.zallio@stanford.edu
4
Centro Médico Nacional de Occidente, IMSS, Guadalajara, Mexico
drmmireles@gmail.com

Abstract. The role of the built environment in the context of healthcare service
highly impacts how human interactions take place. However, when an envi-
ronment has already been built not respecting accessibility features, future
actions are going to be more expensive and often ineffective. Accessibility
legislation in Mexico was published after many healthcare buildings were built.
Moreover, there is some evidence that government standards fail short to ensure
Inclusive Design. This study aims to compare Mexican building regulations
with internationally approved standards and, to analyze if they are applied to the
design of an existing waiting room of a neurology outpatient unit. A comparison
between international and national standards, and a physical audit of the waiting
room were performed. Results suggest that even if the waiting room was built
according to updated official regulations, there would be still more room for
further improvement in order to satisfy stakeholders needs fully.

Keywords: Human factors
Inclusive service design
Vulnerable users

Interior design
Healthcare services

1 Introduction

The role of the built environment, in particular in the context of healthcare service
highly impacts how human interactions take place [1]. An important aspect refers to
how users feel within an indoor environment, but also how careers and workers per-
ceive their working space [2]. Moreover, environments can enable or disable stake-
holders in performing their daily activities [3]. To maximize the positive impact on the
services delivered and the user experience, the most cost-effective approach is to
embrace the discipline of human factors since the early stage of the built environment
design process [4]. Human factors and ergonomics play a fundamental role in the

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 158–166, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_15
 Inclusive Healthcare Waiting Rooms: A Comparison Study 159

perceived usability of a built environment for users [5], and it is well known that when
an environment has already been built not respecting accessibility features, future
actions are going to be more expensive and often ineffective [6].
In particular, the case study analyzed regards an existing waiting room utilized by a
neurology outpatient unit in Jalisco, Mexico in which 24% of its users are older adults,
some of them with cognitive impairments. The waiting room is currently embedded in
a hospital built over 40 years ago, with different barriers that do not allow an optimal
service provision [7]. Since national building regulations for people with disabilities
were introduced in later decades, it is crucial to know if this legal action is reflected in a
real context.
However, although national building codes are the main source of information for
professionals regarding inclusive design for the built environment, these norms are
proved to be insufficient to ensure Inclusive Design [3]. Hence a comparison with a
broader set of data is also required to analyze if internationally recommended, legally
required and real context standards are related.
Therefore, the objective of this study is twofold: to review and compare national
building regulations with internationally approved standards and, to analyze if they are
applied to the design of the waiting room.

2 Methodology

A comparison between international standards and national regulations was performed

to accomplish the first goal; documents are shown in Tables 1 and 2. A physical audit
of the interior built environment was performed in the second phase, and those data
were compared with the previously collected results.

Table 1. Mexican building standards (NOM) that must be met to design healthcare
environments.
Number Name
NOM-005-SSA3-2010 That establishes the minimum infrastructure and equipment
requirements for ambulatory healthcare settings
NOM-016-SSA3-2012 That establishes the minimum infrastructure and equipment
characteristics of hospitals and specialized clinics
NOM-030-SSA3-2013 That establishes the architectural characteristics to enable the
access, transit, use and stance of people with disability in healthcare
ambulatory and inpatient settings
NOM-031-SSA3-2012 Social assistance. Providing social assistance services for the
elderly and older people in vulnerable conditions

All documents were reviewed to identify the specific characteristics that an

inclusive healthcare waiting room should have. The information found was first
organized according to its source in two columns (ISO and NOM). After that, each
column’s item was placed into one of the following 11 categories: general design
160 C. M. Fernández-Rivera et al.

Table 2. International standards (ISO) that provide information to design inclusive built
environments.
Number Name
ISO 21542:2011 Building construction. Accessibility and usability of the built
environment
ISO 28803:2012 Ergonomics of the physical environment. Application of International
Standards to people with special requirements

considerations of the waiting room, dimensions, doors, finishes, furnishing, signage,

visual contrast, lighting, temperature, acoustics and technology. Later on, each NOM
item was compared with its ISO sibling.
Physical Audit. The waiting room was evaluated according to the column containing
the Mexican standard compilation to compare what is legally required with the real
context. The physical audit was performed in two parts: firstly the temperature was
assessed on November 7th 2018 from 9:00 am to 2:00 pm, the rest on November 14th
2018 from 9:00 am to 3:30 pm. Operating hours of the service are Monday to Friday
from 9:00 am to 2:00 pm.
Part 1. A Steren portable digital thermometer with an external element on a wire that
registers indoor and outdoor temperature was used. Outdoor temperature data was not
registered as the wire could not be placed outside because windows cannot be opened.
Temperature measurements were registered at the following hours: 10 am, noon and
2 pm. The number of people in the waiting room varied throughout the whole pro-
cedure, as it normally happens in the service. Measurements were taken by one
researcher seated down at the center of the waiting room (See Fig. 1). Tools were
placed at 110 cm above floor level.
Part 2. Because of the features that needed to be assessed, this part of the study was
gathered first through observation during service hours. A member of the research team
was seated down at the corner of the room (see Fig. 1) taking notes. Then, when all the
users left the room (2:00 pm to 3:30 pm), 85 photographs of the entire area and its
elements were taken with a Samsung Galaxy S6 smartphone. Waiting room heights,
widths and lengths were measured with a laser distance meter; windows, doors and
furniture’s dimensions, with a five meters tape measure. The checklist was filled after
the visit.
Filling the Checklist. For each item, if the environment fulfilled all the requirements
specified, the response registered was a Yes. Otherwise, it was a No, and an expla-
nation was given according to the data gathered.

3 Results

Standards Comparison. When comparing the two perspectives, it could be stated that
both national and international standards, provide design information about doors,
 Inclusive Healthcare Waiting Rooms: A Comparison Study 161

finishes, signage and furnishing (see Table 3). The most complete document was the
ISO 21542:2011, followed by the NOM 030-SSA3-2013. Although all the guidelines
given in the NOMs are included and better explained in the ISOs. Overall, for NOMs,
26 items were identified; while ISOs present 52.

Table 3. Numbers of items found in NOM and ISO guidelines by category.

Category NOM ISO
General design considerations 5 2
Dimensions 3 4
Doors 2 6
Finishes 3 3
Furnishing 2 7
Signage 7 11
Visual contrast 2 5
Lighting 0 9
Temperature 1 1
Acoustics 0 3
Technology 1 1
Total 26 52

Regarding visual contrast, NOMs only acknowledge its need when it comes to the
identification of doors and the understanding of signage, while the ISOs provide
specific values for every type of surface that comprises an interior space. Guidelines
about temperature could only be found in ISO 28803:2012, as a general consideration
to keep interior spaces at a neutral temperature; whereas the Mexican standards only
recommend it to be constant without further information. The categories included only
in the ISO column were lighting and acoustics, meaning that NOMs do not recognize
those two as fundamental issues to provide a high-quality service.
Another interesting difference is that NOM-016-SSA3-2012 establishes very basic
characteristics of an indoor workspace such as “to have a ceiling”. At the same time, it
acknowledges the lack of budget some projects may experience, and due to its con-
fusing grammar and choice of words whether it presents a list of obligatory features or
only recommended characteristics is not clear.
Furthermore, while ISOs define its scope and user characteristics throughout their
lifespan, NOMs do not contain either a disability nor a usability definition. At the same
time, Mexican standards do not specify the different types of impairments a user may
experience: physical, cognitive or sensorial. This fundamental matter shapes these
national laws outlook: the instructions given are meant for designing buildings that fit
mobility aids but not vulnerable users. For example, doors are meant to be 90 cm wide
allowing for a user with a wheelchair to pass through it; and to have a lever-like handle
so that someone with dexterity limitations could unlock it. However, the process of
actually opening the door is not properly conveyed. Features like the area in which the
wheelchair user has to move around, the side to which the door must open and the force
162 C. M. Fernández-Rivera et al.

criteria to pull or push the door are missing, for mentioning a few. The fact that the
most recent national statistics report walking or moving limitations as the most com-
mon disability [8] could explain this mobility aids approach.
Physical Audit. Out of 26 items identified in NOMs, only 11 were present in the
waiting room design (Table 4). However, this does not mean that there are 15 problems
to be solved. Instead, this shows that the interactions within the service infiltrate in
more than one category triggering a chain reaction.
This process is evident in the case of the layout of the room (Fig. 1) which places
the reception desk within a corridor, making it narrower (item 6); and does not allow
for a sufficient number of seats (item 5), forcing people to wait while standing
up. They, in turn, obstruct the circulations of the already narrow corridor, making it
more difficult for patients and caregivers to approach and identify the reception desk
(item 16). Consequently, the working staff printed and hang instructional signs in
multiple areas of the waiting room to have more control over the service. This action
results in 50 signs (a mixture of instructional, institutional and orientation signs) with
lots of information on a waiting room that accommodates people with cognitive
impairments (items 18, 19, 20, 22 and 23).

Table 4. Physical audit of the waiting room according to NOM design features.
# Design features Y/N Comments
General design considerations
1 Public toilet facilities, separated for Yes None
both sexes, each with one cabin for
users with a disability
2 Cement floor, ceiling and walls Yes None
3 Sufficient airflow No There’s no air conditioner or
windows that can be opened
4 One special seat for people with canes No The waiting room only has tandem
or crutches and a designated seats without special signage
wheelchair user’ area
5 Six waiting seats for each clinic No The clinic is shared with ten clinics,
and there are only 33 seats
Dimensions
6 Accessible corridors (for users with a No Corridors are 1.07 wide
disability) are 1.20 m or wider
7 Wheelchair users area is 1.00 wide No There is no wheelchair area
per 1.40 m long, with its
corresponding signage and near to an
accessible corridor
8 Has a clear height of 2.20 m, Yes None
regardless signage or any other
element
(continued)
 Inclusive Healthcare Waiting Rooms: A Comparison Study 163

Table 4. (continued)
# Design features Y/N Comments
Doors
9 Doors are 0.90 m wide Yes None
10 Door handles are resistant, lever-like No The handles are not lever-like
and installed in both sides of the door
at 0.90 m height
Finishes
11 Floors are even or with a level Yes None
difference equal to or less than
0.006 m
12 When there’s a change on the flooring Yes None
material, the joint cover is chamfered
and not more than 0.013 m tall
13 Accessible corridors flooring is firm, No The flooring is not slip-resistant
slip-resistant and does not accumulate
water
Visual contrast
14 Signage information contrasts with its Yes None
background
15 Doors contrast with the wall they are No There are 11 doors of which only 2
on contrast
Furnishing
16 The reception desk is at a spacious No The reception desk area does not
area, and its approach is easy consider people waiting in line
17 The reception desk is 1.00 m or No The reception desk is 1.06 m tall on
wider; is between 0.7 and 0.8 m tall the users’ side. It does not have a
from the floor to its cover and has a space for wheelchair users’ knees
space of 0.40 for the knees of the
wheelchair user
Signage
18 Information on the signage is short No Most of the information on the signs
and clear are long texts
19 The signage has pictograms No Out of 50 signs, only four use
pictograms
20 Signage is presented in Braille as well No There are no signs in Braille
21 Signage for public services and areas Yes None
is placed
22 Signage for disability users is placed No There’s only one at the entrance of
in entrances and corridors the toilet facilities
23 Orientation signage is easily seen No Other signs and people obstruct the
view
24 Information signage is located at the No They are placed at different heights;
side of the door handle. Its center is at sometimes there’s more than one sign
1.40 m from the floor and is at least at the door
0.12 tall and 0.12 wide
(continued)
164 C. M. Fernández-Rivera et al.

Table 4. (continued)
# Design features Y/N Comments
Technology
25 If people with hearing, intellectual, No There’re only audible signs
neuromotor and visual impairment
are treated in the building, this has an
emergency alarm system with audible
and visual signals, intermittent sound
and flashing lights
Temperature
26 The architectural design, height and No Temperature is not constant, and
type of building allows air flow and a there are no artificial or natural
constant temperature ventilation mechanisms

Fig. 1. Floor view of the waiting room.

Concerning the ambient environment, indoor temperature was neither constant nor
neutral (Table 5). A likely explanation is that full height windows make the room
respond quickly to outdoor temperature. Although it must be said that this building
feature provides a view of a green area and daylight exposure, and it has been shown
that this has a positive impact on the patient experience [9]. However, in the case of
neurology patients, people diagnosed with dementia respond negatively to discomfort
temperatures [10].

Table 5. Registered waiting room indoor temperatures.

Time 10:00 AM 12:00 PM 2:00 PM
Temperature 20.8 °C 21.20 °C 23.6 °C
 Inclusive Healthcare Waiting Rooms: A Comparison Study 165

Whereas some elements of the built environment are more difficult to adapt, like the
ones regarding the workspace envelope such as flooring material [11]; this waiting
room includes furniture that could be moved, doors that could be replaced or painted
on, signs that are unnecessary or could be redesigned, shading that could be added, and
so on. This means that Mexican legislation, apart from falling short in terms of
Inclusive Design, also fails on its surveillance unveiling an unwelcoming future for its
ageing population. Moreover, this raises more questions like how are the other areas of
this hospital (or any other) configured.

4 Conclusions

In summary, it has been shown from this review that NOMs suggest that there is not a
clear ergonomic approach because the interaction between people, the service and the
built environment is being reduced to a set of actions disconnected from each other.
According to the study, results suggest that even if the waiting room were built
according to updated official regulations, there would be still more opportunities for
further improvement to satisfy stakeholders needs fully. Furthermore, it is important to
note that all the documents reviewed focused on enabling stakeholders to perform
activities, but when it comes to services, there are more aspects to be considered.
Future research is needed to have a complete view of the usability of the built envi-
ronment and the perceived quality of service.
Overall, there are multiple aspects to take into account when designing an inclusive
environment in the healthcare sector and the Mexican building standards fail to convey
its relevance within an interactive context. Finally, inclusive design guidelines for
healthcare built environments have the potential to bridge the usability gap by pro-
viding enhanced user experience, and better service as a consequence of the improved
working conditions, being the latter a fundamental matter when it comes to healthcare
services for an ageing population.

References
1. Hignett, S.: Can inclusive environmental design be achieved in acute hospitals? Adv. Hum.
Asp. Healthc. 121–128 (2012)
2. Bitner, M.J.: Servicescapes: the impact of physical surroundings on costumers and
employees. J. Mark. 56(2), 57–71 (1992)
3. Heylighen, A., Van der Linden, V., Van Steenwinkel, I.: Ten questions concerning inclusive
design of the built environment. Build. Environ. 114, 507–517 (2017)
4. Taylor, E.: The environment of safe care : considering building design as one facet of safety.
In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Application Human Factors and
Ergonomics in Health Care, vol. 3, pp. 123–127 (2014)
5. Attaianese, E., Duca, G.: Human factors and ergonomic principles in building design for life
and work activities: an applied methodology. Theor. Issues Ergon. Sci. 13, 187–202 (2012)
6. Zallio, M., Casiddu, N.: Lifelong housing design. Proceedings of the 9th ACM International
Conference on PErvasive Technology Related to Assistive Environment - PETRA 2016,
pp. 1–8 (2016)
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7. Galindo-Estupiñan, Z.T., Aceves-Gonzalez, C.: Information characteristics in the operation

of a healthcare service from the staff perspective. Presented at the (2018)
8. Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía: La discapacidad en México, datos al 2014,
p. 358 (2016)
9. Anåker, A., Heylighen, A., Nordin, S., Elf, M.: Design quality in the context of healthcare
environments: a scoping review. Heal. Environ. Res. Des. J. 10, 136–150 (2017)
10. Mobley, C.: Examining relationships between physical environments and behaviors of
residents with dementia in a retrofit special care unit. J. Inter. Des. 42, 49–69 (2017)
11. Taylor, E., Hignett, S.: The SCOPE of hospital falls: a systematic mixed studies review.
J. Interior Des. 9, 86–109 (2016)
 Human Scale in Architecture of Buildings
for the Performing Arts

Paweł Amałowicz(&)

Faculty of Architecture, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology,

B. Prusa 53/55, 50-317 Wroclaw, Poland
pawel.amalowicz@pwr.edu.pl

Abstract. Buildings for the performing arts were adapted to public needs since
ancient times. The most important part of those buildings for the audience was
the auditorium. There are a number of factors that should be taken into account
during the design of the auditorium, but the deciding factor is connected with the
comfort and convenience of the audience. The relationship between the audi-
torium (the audience) and the stage (the performance) is a fundamental
requirement for buildings for the performing arts. They can operate in a variety
of ways with different types of productions accommodated in one space. The
important issue is how and to what extent main elements of the auditorium affect
the spectators’ reception of the show. The study and analysis of several factors
having a positive impact on every member of the audience within the buildings
for the performing arts is the main purpose of this paper.

Keywords: Buildings for the performing arts
Auditorium
Spectators

Functional adaptability

1 Introduction

Buildings for the performing arts are very complex architectural structures. The most
important part of such structures for the audience is the auditorium and its connection
with the stage. There are many factors that have to be considered when designing the
auditorium and its correlation with the stage. It is important to ensure the comfort and
convenience of the audience for better perception of the performance. The designer of a
theatre hall has to create optimum conditions to the audience by guaranteeing suitable
visibility, acoustics, safety, comfort and atmosphere of the performance. It is very
difficult to meet all of the conditions required for optimum appreciation of the particular
stage presentation by the audience. This job is even more complicated when working
on a multi-purpose hall, which enables the re-arrangement of the auditorium and stage
in order to adapt to different stage production type. At the same time, the theatre hall
should combine specific architectural and technological aspects that set the background
for the performance and frequently very significantly affect the experience for the
audience. The layout of the premises, light, acoustics, interiors and selected materials
are deciding factors for optimum perception of the performance. The correct relation
between the actor and the spectator can be ensured only in correctly designed space,
where the “performing space” is not separated from the “audience space” with artificial

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 167–178, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_16
168 P. Amałowicz

barriers, where it is possible to create a “three-dimensional projection” of the perfor-

mance, where the distance between the artists on stage and the audience is not very
large and enables the formation of a special bond between them, where, finally, the
“human” scale manifests in the individual aspects of the auditorium.
It is very important to determine how and to what extent the above-mentioned
conditions affect the perception of the stage performance by the spectators. The purpose
of this paper is also to investigate and analyse the factors that have a positive effect on
the audience in the audience space.

2 Genesis of Contemporary Buildings for the Performing

Arts

Buildings for the performing arts were adapted to the needs of the audience since
ancient times. Greek theatres were frequently used for ceremonial and communal
purposes. The orchestra was used as the place for altars, and temples were frequently
erected nearby. The theatres in ancient Rome were also a communal space, but they
were more oriented towards entertainment. Buildings for the performing arts in ancient
times were very diverse: it was a time of enormous hippodromes (circus)1 designed for
chariot races, amphitheatres, theatres or odeons (designed for musical performances
and oratories). There were also other buildings with audience spaces, such as the
bouleuteria (assembly houses) and ekklesiasteria (used for assembly meetings), fre-
quently with a concentric layout of the auditoriums, similarly to theatres, and they were
frequently adapted for stage presentations as well. In the middle ages, stage presen-
tations were performed using “existing decorations”, i.e. churches, courts, squares,
courtyards and streets [1]. In medieval mystery plays, the “performing space” also
included mansions, i.e. temporary stage structures designed primarily for performances
of liturgical drama. The late renaissance introduced two types of “synthesis”: combi-
nation of the influence of mystery plays and folk performances with the renaissance
philosophy in the Elizabethan theatre in England, and the Italian theatre with its
proscenium stage [2], which was based on the court theatre. The English renaissance
theatre is a “theatre space that – although an original and independent creation – also
absorbed the best aspects of past traditions: the ancient tradition (open performing
space surrounded on four sides by an auditorium composed of successively rising
levels), the medieval tradition (with its usually elevated mansion stage – acting house,
which was also surrounded on many sides by the audience) and the folk tradition,
which determined the tremendous popularity, democracy and vigorousness of this
theatre and, most importantly, the direct contact between the actor and the spectator”
[2]. It was the renaissance theatre that, unlike the baroque and neo-baroque opera
houses, introduced the human scale into the relation between the spectator and the
actor. It was devoid of any artificial barriers, and it did not divide the spectators into
separate groups or separate them from the artists on stage. A strong bond was formed
between the artists and the audience due to the absence of barriers and the small

1
Circus Maximus housed up to 250 thousand people.
 Human Scale in Architecture of Buildings 169

distance between the “audience space” and the stage.2 Additionally, the atmosphere of
the spectacle was emphasised by the open, uncovered space of the inner courtyard.
Italian and French opera and ballet theatres were designed and constructed in a way
that isolated the spectators not only from the artists (by using the proscenium arch and
orchestra pit) but also from each other (separate boxes, separate foyers and even
separate entrances). The Italian baroque theatre introduced the proscenium stage with a
fly tower, side stages and a rear stage. The model of the proscenium stage survived
until the modern times, and it is commonly used in buildings for the performing arts (as
well as in multi-purpose halls). However, authors and designers were looking for even
more democratic audience spaces, which would further contribute to the common
enjoyment of the performances. Towards the end of the 19th century, the auditoriums
in certain buildings for the performing arts were becoming unified.3 Some of the
constructed theatres were more or less deliberately inspired by the auditorium solutions
used in ancient theatres, amphitheatres and odeons. The standardisation of the audience
space, improvement of the profile of the auditorium rake and horizontal sightlines were
supposed to ensure a suitable perception of the performance. Emphasis was also put on
safety in the buildings for the performing arts and on the furnishings of amphitheatre
halls designed, in particular, to ensure appropriate interior acoustics and improve the
audience’s comfort.
Presently, buildings for the performing arts are increasingly becoming multi-
purpose halls. They can be used for different types of stage presentations (also for
activities which are not performing arts) inside a single building, under one roof. The
versatility of buildings for the performing arts originates from the concept of the
“synthesis of the arts”, which appeared around the end of the 19th century or, more
precisely, which re-emerged around that time.4 The primary promoter of the “synthesis
of the arts” at that time was Richard Wagner, who wanted to create a musical drama
combining poetry, music, dance, architecture, painting and sculpture to form the
Gesamtkunstwerk – the total work of art.
In 1926, a German theatre reformer and director, Erwin Piscator, together with
Walter Gropius, architect, proposed a solution for the theatre space that was referred to
as “Total Theatre”. Their project, which never came to life, involved a revolving
auditorium and stage (proscenium stage with the auditorium located opposite the
stage/open stage with the auditorium located on three sides/central stage with a

2
Elizabethan theatres were small. They were approximately 20–30 m in diameter, and the maximum
distance from the centre of the stage to the furthest seats in the highest galleries did not exceed
15 m, despite the fact that the number of spectators ranged from 1500 to 3000 (spectators sitting in
the galleries made up more than a half of the audience).
3
The first such facility was the Bayreuth Theatre (Bayreuth Festspielhaus) in Germany, constructed
in accordance with Wagner’s concepts in 1876 [3].
4
This is because the concept of the synthesis of the arts dates back as far as ancient Greece,
particularly to the archaic period, when art was syncretic. It was referred to as triune choreia, and it
was a combination of sound (music), word (poetry) and movement (dance) [4]. Word is inextricably
tied to music, and music (singing) – to dance, as indicated by the name orchestra, originating from
the Greek orchesis, which meant “dance”. The orchestra was the place in the theatre occupied by
the singers, who also were dancers as well. An actor in the Greek theatre had to both sing and
dance. Theatrical performances in ancient Greece were supposed to accessible to all citizens.
170 P. Amałowicz

surrounding auditorium), and it was supposed to combine the mass quality of the
performance and architectural functionalism with elements of other arts (Fig. 1).
Avant-garde concepts for theatre reform also appeared in Poland in the interwar
period, challenging the dominant solutions used in opera and theatre buildings in the
18th and 19th century. The domination of the proscenium stage was abandoned and
replaced by bold solutions concerning the area of the stage and the auditorium. At the
Reduta Theatre in Warsaw (1919), the stage was constructed on the same level as the
auditorium, and the Stefan Żeromski Theatre in Warsaw (1932–33) was provided with
a simultaneous stage [5]. This last hall contained a system of portable platforms with a
size of 2.0  0.9 m, which could be rearranged to fit the needs of a particular stage
presentation. Consequently, it was the first theatre hall with a completely “adaptable”
space in Poland and, most likely, also worldwide [2].
In the design of the Simultaneous Theatre, also referred to as the “Theatre of the
Future” (1928–29), the designers, Sz. Syrkus and A. Pronaszko, replaced the prosce-
nium stage with a “circular” (“ring”) moving stage, which was supposed to consist of
two revolving circles with lifts and small “revolving stages”5 (Fig. 2). The mechanised
stage used circular motion (stage rings), rotary motion (“revolving stages”) and vertical
motion (lifts). 2/3 of the circle had to be visible to the audience at all times [6]. The
amphitheatre auditorium was designed for approximately 3 thousand seats, but, despite
the large size of the hall, the designer planned for maximum integration of the audience
and actors, drawing the spectators’ attention to the area of the presentation and elim-
inating any unnecessary elements separating the artists from the audience. Smooth
stage changes, which could be done without entractes, use of light effects and
encouraging the audience to actively participate in the performance were supposed to
create truly one-of-a-kind atmosphere and form a special bond between the people in
the theatre space (Fig. 3). A. Pronaszko returned to the concept of the theatre with a
stage surrounding the auditorium in the design of the Moving Theatre in 1935. This
design, which was much smaller than the Simultaneous Theatre, was supposed to be a
touring theatre, where the moving 400-seat auditorium was located in the centre of the
establishment, and the stage was located at the exterior walls of the hall. This “theatre
on wheels” was planned to enable uninterrupted performance, without entractes, where
the spectator “moved” along with the revolving auditorium from one presentation area
to the next (Fig. 2). The touring quality of this theatre, in turn, provided it with the
opportunity to reach a wider audience.
The designs of experimental theatres that appeared in the 1920s and 1930s revo-
lutionised buildings for the performing arts. The proscenium stage and the auditorium
located opposite were no longer the only possible spatial arrangement for theatre
performances. Efforts were made to come up with solutions that would alter the
spectators’ perception of the performance, transforming it into an aesthetic and spiritual
experience.
In the 1950s and 1960s, in turn, there were attempts at resurrecting the concepts of
the Shakespearean theatre. The return to the stage of Elizabethan times was promoted
by Tyrone Guthrie, who believed that a “great gap” had formed between the artists and

5
The designers modified the Gropius design and Oskar Strandt’s concept of the “circular stage”.
 Human Scale in Architecture of Buildings 171

Fig. 1. “Total Theatre”, project by W. Gropius with E. Piscator, 1926 (left); Simultaneous
Theatre, plan of the ground floor, project by Sz. Syrkus, A. Pronaszko, 1928–29 (right). https://
www.theatre-architecture.eu

Fig. 2. Architectural model of Simultaneous Theatre, Sz. Syrkus, A. Pronaszko, 1928-29, 1983
reconstruction (left); Moving Theatre, plan, project by A. Pronaszko, S. Bryła, 1935 (right). NAC,
https://audiovis.nac.gov.pl

spectators. According to Guthrie, elements separating the actors from the audience
included not only the orchestra pit but also the proscenium arch and the proscenium
stage itself. This is because the proscenium arch only enabled a “two-dimensional
projection” of the performance. Guthrie found that Shakespeare’s dramas were not
suitable to be staged within such a confined framework. Theatres erected in accordance
with his concepts, i.e. the Shakespearean Festival Theatre in Stratford, Canada (1957),
and the Tyrone Guthrie Theater in Minneapolis, USA (1963), had thrust stages,
extending far towards the audience and surrounded by a concentric and amphitheatrical
arrangement of rows, referring to the antique, classical Greek tradition (Fig. 3). These
172 P. Amałowicz

structures provided a three-dimensional perspective of the performance and brought the

performing space closer to the auditorium.6 “Shakespearean” theatres were also con-
structed in later times, e.g.: the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, UK (1971) and the
Gdańsk Shakespeare Theatre, Poland (2014) (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Tyrone Guthrie Theater in Minneapolis, USA (1963), designed by Ralph Rapson, Tanya
Moiseiwitsch (left); Gdańsk Shakespeare Theatre (2014), project by Renato Rizzi (right). https://
www.guthrietheater.org; https://teatrszekspirowski.pl

The buildings for the performing arts referred to above, which, obviously, are only
a selection, have transformed the way the performance is perceived by the audience.
They have also transformed the spectators’ expectations concerning the spectacle. The
element that connected these diverse halls was the more or less deliberate return to the
origins, i.e. to the excellent solutions of antique theatres or Elizabethan theatres, both in
term of auditorium layout and the interrelation between the actor and the spectator. The
indicated theatres also represented the search for the lost spiritual aspect and the
universal language of art. Most importantly, however, they also represented a return to
the “human” scale in the theatrical space.

3 The Human Scale in Auditorium Design

Buildings for the performing arts are very complicated structures, also in the techno-
logical aspect. There are governed by many rules, based primarily on the “human”
scale, that draw upon the principles of ergonomics and anthropometric measurements.
These rules also have to accommodate the tremendous diversity of the audience and
propose solutions that ensure a suitable perception of performances even when the
spectators have extreme anthropometric features. The author has conducted research on
various factors affecting the comfort of the audience in the auditorium.7 The analysis of
this research has demonstrated an explicit dependence between ergonomics and its

6
In the theatre in Minneapolis, the distance from the centre of the stage to the furthest points of the
auditorium did not exceed 18 m, despite the fact that the theatre had 1437 seats.
7
The research concerned, in particular: communicativeness area of the performance and ways of
ensuring good horizontal and vertical sightlines (with consideration of the auditorium rake).
 Human Scale in Architecture of Buildings 173

adaptation in the audience space and the comfort of the spectators. The author has not
analysed all aspects connected with, for instance, the ergonomics of the spectator’s
seating place or the requirements considered in auditorium design.8 The author only
wanted to draw attention to the large number of factors affecting the audience space and
the strict mutual correlation of ergonomics and the structure of the auditorium.
In order to ensure good visibility to the audience, it is necessary, in particular, to
analyse the horizontal and vertical sightlines of a seated person.9 These sightlines will
determine the field of view and areas with the best visibility, and the affect the shape of
the auditorium, its width, inclination, arrangement of balconies and the stage and, in
particular, the height and width of the proscenium opening (in the proscenium stage)10
and the selected top edge of the screen.11 The author has conducted research on the
profile of the auditorium rake and sightlines in various theatre and auditorium halls.
The profile, i.e. the vertical section of the auditorium, has a tremendous impact on good
visibility of the stage and perception of the performance by the spectators. Factors
affecting the correct profile of the auditorium include anthropometric features of the
spectators, in particular the distance from the centre of the eye to the top of the head
(“E-value”).12 The profile of the auditorium also depends on row spacing, which,
irrespective of regulatory requirements,13 depends primarily on ergonomic factors.
Another factor that affects the profile is the average eye height above the floor level,14
the distance from the first row to the stage area and the height of the points located
within the stage that the audience should be able to see. The requirement to ensure
good visibility in buildings for the performing arts is also connected with the need for
appropriate audibility. Direct sounds will reach the spectators if a suitable visibility of
the stage is ensured. Reflected sounds depend on a number of factors: inclination of
planes (or curved planes, usually convex planes) on the walls and ceilings, the height of
the premises (their cubic volume) and selected materials.15
Another aspect relevant in the context of the relationships between anthropometric
parameters and design solutions in the auditorium are the gangways. The regulatory

8
The scope of the paper would not allow it.
9
The sightlines differ slightly for seated and standing persons.
10
The top edge of the proscenium opening has to be adapted both to the audience on the top balconies
and to the spectators seated in the front row on the ground level. The spectators on the balconies
should be able to see the elements located on the platform at the back of the stage, and the audience
in the first row on the ground level should not be able to see the equipment of the fly tower.
11
The extreme upper sightline used to determine the top edge of the screen is assumed to be 37°.
12
The authors specify various “E-values”: 10.3 cm for men and 9.8 cm for women (12 cm for design
purposes) [7], 10 cm as the minimum distance and 12.5 as the recommended distance [8] or
12.7 cm [3]. Based on the author’s research, 10 cm is the average distance for women and men, but
it should be increased at least to 12 cm for design purposes.
13
According to Polish regulatory requirements, the clearway between rows of seats should not be
smaller than 45 cm, which means that the minimum row spacing is approximately 85 cm.
14
This distance ranges from 111.1 cm (average value) [3], 112 cm (average value) [8] and 118.2 cm
for men [7].
15
Good acoustics of a theatre hall depends on a very large number of factors. The requirements for
different forms of presentation vary as well – the reverberation time will be different for theatrical
presentations (speech), for opera (singing) and for symphonic concerts.
174 P. Amałowicz

minimum gangway width in the auditorium16 corresponds to the width of two travel
lanes, where a travel lane is defined as the width of an adult: 55–60 cm. Partial
gangway dimensions, which are not a multiple of a single travel lane, are a waste of
space [7]. The same applies to emergency escape routes and exits. Emergency escape
routes and exits are, in a sense, an extension of the circulation routes in the auditorium,
and they should have corresponding width. This is because the width of the routes and
exits and the number of people using the particular route or exit determine their
capacity, which is critical to the safety and comfort of the users.17 The primary module
of the auditorium is the seat, which also has to conform to anthropometric require-
ments.18 In the case of disabled people on wheelchairs, the required area in the audi-
torium has to be larger than for spectators who occupy seats.19 It is necessary to make
sure that the areas for the disabled are located outside of circulation routes and that they
are designed in a way that does not obstruct, for instance, access to the rows of seats,
particularly if they are located in the middle of the seats of the auditorium. At the same
time, it is also necessary to ensure that these people are able to evacuate quickly so that
they can reach the safe area fast in case of an emergency. The disabled also have to be
provided with means of easy access to all functions available in the public space of the
building for the performing arts.
In order to ensure good horizontal sightlines, spectator seats should be arranged in
an area that permits such sightlines. Usually, this is the area located near the longi-
tudinal axis of the hall and in its central part.20 This short and obviously selective
analysis of auditorium parts can be concluded with the determination of the commu-
nicativeness area of the performance. The visual limitations of the spectators determine
the maximum distance between the audience and the front plane of the performance.
Depending on the type of presentation, the distance from the stage will vary.21 The
author has conducted a survey among spectators of theatre and concert halls in order to
determine the preferred seats in the auditorium and the impact of the distance from the

16
In accordance with the Polish construction law, the width is 120 cm.
17
Research and analyses conducted, in particular, by the author of this paper indicate that it would be
optimal to design the auditorium with a capacity of 40 people per travel lane (60 cm) per minute.
18
The width of a seat with the backrest ranges from 50–52 cm to as much as 75 cm [8]. According to
the author of this paper, the reasonable width of a seat with arm rests is 55–60 cm. Other important
seat dimensions include: seat height (41–45 cm), seat angle (7–9°), backrest angle (15–20°) and seat
depth (40–50 cm) [8], [3].
19
Appleton specifies the minimum size of the area for a disabled person in the auditorium space as
90  140 cm [8].
20
The area with optimum visibility and audibility is usually located at 0.50–0.70 of the length of the
theatre hall, and the area with good visibility and audibility – at 0.36 to 0.80 of this length.
However, e.g., in a theatre hall, the spectators preferred to occupy seats near the stage, as close to
the centre of the proscenium opening as possible [9]. The optimum distance for watching images on
the screen, in turn, ranges from 1.7 H to 5.5 H (where H is the height of the screen).
21
Distances from the scene to the farthest seats in the auditorium should not exceed, based on research
done by the author and comparative analyses of various buildings for the performing arts: 20–24 m
for the theatre hall and for a hall used for dance performances, 30–32 m for the opera and 40 m for
mass performances.
 Human Scale in Architecture of Buildings 175

performing space on the perception of the performance.22 The great majority of the
surveyed theatre spectators found that smaller distance from the stage and the artists
contributed to the better perception of the play.23 This is because it enabled them to see
the facial expressions of the actors and share their emotions. Also, most members of
this group of respondents declared that they preferred to take seats near the stage, in the
first few rows.24 The preferences of concert hall listeners, however, were slightly
different.25 They usually chose seats located at a certain distance from the stage, close
to the central part of the auditorium.
The perception of the performance by the spectators, their experience and the
“mood” depend (in addition to the factors indicated above) on a number of factors
related to colours, selected materials, lighting and ventilation. The colours and mate-
rials of the wall, ceiling and floor finish determine the appearance of the interior. The
interior of the auditorium could be coloured, neutral or dark. Claddings and various
material textures are an important aesthetic factor in many contemporary concert halls
and, at the same time, they function as acoustic panels. The form, structure and finishes
of the hall set the mood for the performance, which may be “expansive or intimate,
formal or informal” [8]. These are the factors that determine the scale of the presen-
tation or even the significance of the message of the performance.

4 Functional Adaptability of Theatre Halls and the Human

Scale

The interior of theatre halls may be changed. Despite various limitations, the halls may
be transformed and formed depending on the currently required arrangement or
changing stage requirements for different types of productions. For instance, one
theatre hall may enable presentations with a proscenium arch and a proscenium stage,
presentations without the proscenium opening, with an open stage or with a central
stage surrounded by the auditorium on all sides. A similar solution was used at the
Gdańsk Shakespeare Theatre, where, however, the primary configuration consisted of a
thrust stage, flat floor on the ground level of the auditorium and three levels of side
galleries for the purposes of Shakespearean plays. Another solution that refers to the
historical theatres of the Elizabethan age is the automatically opened roof, which
enables open-air presentations.26
Buildings for the performing arts also enable transformations of the stage and the
auditorium in order to match various forms of stage presentations, e.g.: theatrical
arrangement with a proscenium stage, opera and musical arrangement with a

22
Based on a representative group of 110 respondents.
23
According to 78% of respondents.
24
According to 56% of the surveyed people.
25
The audience in concert halls prefers the seats located in the front part of the auditorium but not
directly next to the stage and close to the axis of the stage platform (according to 52% of
respondents).
26
The depth of covered galleries in the Globe Elizabethan theatre in London was approximately 4 m
[10]. The inner courtyard was not covered by a roof.
176 P. Amałowicz

proscenium stage and orchestra pit; theatrical or concert arrangement with an open
stage (stage platform) or theatre in the round in experimental theatres.
Halls for the performing arts can also be transformed in the area of the forestage
(e.g. using an adaptable orchestra pit with lifts) and also in the area of the main stage
(systems of moving lifts, bridges, revolving platform, etc.) and the auditorium. The
auditorium may be changed in terms of its layout, e.g. using folded rows of seats,
sliding elements or revolving platforms. Another possibility is the adaptation of
viewing area size and cubic volume of the hall to meet the requirements of current stage
presentations. This is usually done with moving ceilings, which can be lowered or
raised as necessary, depending on the expected reverberation time. Multi-purpose halls
have acoustic shells used for musical performances, i.e. acoustic reflector panels set on
the stage and used to improve and amplify sound and to cover the fly tower and side
stages. The walls and ceilings of the auditorium are provided with acoustic panels with
suitable properties (reflection, dispersion and absorption of sound) that are also capable
of directing the sound accordingly. The height of the acoustic ceiling above the
auditorium can be additionally adjusted to ensure the optimum cubic volume of the hall
and correct reverberation time for the particular presentation type (the moving ceiling is
the optimum solution for a multi-purpose hall). Additionally, such structures allow to
differentiate the sound intensity and reverberation time in the stage area and in the
auditorium (e.g. by adjusting sound absorption in the rear part of the auditorium and
accordingly by adapting the cubic volume of the hall). Certain parts of the auditorium,
e.g. balconies, can also be “shut off” in order to reduce the auditorium size. The walls
of the halls may be covered with an absorbing material (e.g. curtains) to shorten
reverberation time where necessary.
This invites the question if using technological and mechanical solutions in the
theatre hall does not impose limitations on the performance itself and on its perception
by the audience. It seems that this is not the case. As long as the technology of the stage
and the auditorium is used to create optimum conditions for the spectators and the
artists, it does not impose any limitations. The flexibility (“adaptability”) in the audi-
torium and stage areas justified by the requirements of the performance or diverse
repertoire is more likely to extend the range of potential spectators, adapting to their
diverse, individualised preferences and tastes. This is because contemporary theatre
halls are, to a large extent, multi-purpose “enterprises”. The theatre building is not used
only for theatrical performances, it is also used for concerts, dance performances or
other performances, lectures, conferences, etc. The aforementioned Gdańsk Shake-
speare Theatre, although it is not a typical multi-purpose building, also enables concert
presentations and other stage events (including lectures, conferences), off-stage events
(banquets) or even sports events (e.g. fencing presentations27). It is important that any
changes made in the audience area do not prevent comfortable enjoyment of the
performance. Therefore, the “adaptability” cannot adversely affect the quality of the
presentation. In order to meet this requirement, it is necessary to keep all of the

27
The theatre is located on the site of a historical building – a fencing school. The school, in addition
to fencing practice, was used to stage performances of Shakespearean theatre troupes from England.
 Human Scale in Architecture of Buildings 177

solutions related to the auditorium that have to be adapted to the particular stage
production and maintain a corresponding scale.

5 Summary and Conclusions

The solutions in experimental theatres that began at the end of the 19th century and
beginning of the 20th century broadened the boundaries of the stage performance,
bringing it closer to the audience. Some of them proved to be imperfect, particularly if
the “human” scale was disregarded in the audience space. However, most of these
projects were followed by further efforts aimed at creating a unique structure, both in
the architectural and technological sense and also in the artistic, universal and spiritual
aspect. The search for the optimum theatre space led to the appearance of contemporary
adaptations of the thrust stage, which was characteristic to Elizabethan theatres, and the
concentric, amphitheatrical auditorium of the ancient times. These solutions enabled
the “three-dimensional projection” of the stage performance and reduced the distance
between the audience and the stage, reinforcing the interrelationship between the actor
and the spectator. They also made it possible to remove unnecessary barriers separating
the “performing space” from the “audience space”, and, most importantly, they restored
the “human” scale in the auditorium. The implemented solutions also paved the path
for the creation of the contemporary multi-purpose hall.
The author presented different factors affecting the perception of the performance
by the audience in order to provide a brief analysis of the most important aspects
related to the audience area. In the case of the theatre hall, the performance itself, the
power of its message may be the key factor determining the final impression of the
audience. However, providing optimum conditions for the presentation of the perfor-
mance is the primary duty of the designer, and it may significantly contribute to the
perception of the performance by the spectators. The selected format of the auditorium
and stage affects the experience for both the audience and the performers. The chosen
format affects the shape and size of the auditorium, its seating capacity and all general
arrangements of buildings for the performing arts. On a “human” scale, other factors
are important, for instance, visual and acoustic limitations that determine the maximum
distance from the performance. On the “human” scale in theatres and concert halls,
seating geometry, density of seating, types of seats, wheelchair location and even
dimensions of auditorium seats and steps have to be tested and researched. The means
of escape – gangway and exit widths and circulation routes – have to be considered as
well. The author has considered small elements with size measured in centimetres, e.g.:
the “E-value”, seat size, gangway width and row spacing, as well as larger elements,
matching the dimensions of the theatre hall itself: profile of the auditorium, distance of
the audience from the stage, screen, etc. All these factors, both large and small, depend
on anthropometric parameters, and all of them affect the comfort of the spectators and
their perception of the performance. A factor such as the suitable profile of the audi-
torium, which guarantees the correct perception of the performance, depends on the “E-
value”, i.e. on the centimetre scale, and it provides correct vertical sightlines, which are
measured on the metre scale, including the distance from the farthest seats on the
auditorium to the stage. Even small changes of the “E-value” may significantly affect
178 P. Amałowicz

the comfort of the spectators, and if this distance is insufficient, it may hamper visi-
bility. The same can be said with respect to safety, which depends, in particular, on the
reasonable width of emergency escape routes (as multiples of the travel lane), from seat
row spacing in the auditorium through circulation routes to emergency exits.
As mentioned before, the theatre hall is a very complex structure, which requires
optimum parameters. These parameters are related to the comfort and safety of the
audience, and they should be the primary input for the design of the theatre hall. The
correct selection of these parameters is critical to the perception of the performance.
Failing to correctly select the parameters at the design stage may lead to severe con-
sequences during construction. However, it is not only the design factors that determine
the optimum conditions for presentation of the performance – it is equally important to
make correct aesthetic choices and select a suitable arrangement in order to optimise
the “projection” of the stage performance and reinforce the mutual interaction between
the actors and the spectators. Such comprehensive solutions, which combine various
formal, functional, structural, aesthetic and spatial factors may be regarded as a man-
ifestation of the “human” scale in the architecture of buildings for the performing arts.
They are indicative of the universal nature of such structures.

References
1. Lewański, J.: Dramat i teatr średniowiecza i renesansu w Polsce, pp. 128–132. PAN,
Warszawa (1981)
2. Braun, K.: Przestrzeń teatralna. PWN, Warszawa (1982)
3. Izenour, G.C.: Theater Design. Yale University Press, Yale (1997)
4. Tatarkiewicz, W.: Estetyka starożytna. Ossolineum, Wrocław (1962)
5. Leśniakowska, M.: Architektura teatralna. In: Encyklopedia Teatru Polskiego. http://www.
encyklopediateatru.pl
6. Turowiec, A.: Teatr Symultaniczny – projekt niezrealizowany. http://www.theatre-
architecture.eu
7. Grudziński, A.J.: Audytoria dydaktyczne. Wydawnictwa Politechniki Wrocławskiej, Wroc-
ław (1979)
8. Appleton, I.: Buildings for the Performing Arts. A Design and Development Guide. Elsevier,
Architectural Press, Oxford (2008)
9. Burris-Meyer, H., Cole, E.C.: Theatres and Auditoriums. Reinhold, New York (1964)
10. Supplements, Pentagram: Rebuilding Shakespeare’s Globe. Pentagram Design Limited,
London (1997)
 Serrated and Finned Glazed Facades’ Impact
on the User’s Visual Comfort

Marcin Brzezicki(&)

Faculty of Architecture, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology,

Prusa 53/55, 50-317 Wroclaw, Poland
marcin.brzezicki@pwr.edu.pl

Abstract. The spatial modification of the glazed façade is a part of the overall
façade’s creation scheme. Despite the important aesthetical function, serrated
and finned facades are also seen as an important tool of daylight management in
buildings, especially when façade is partially glazed and partially opaque. This
allows guiding scattered daylight deep into the room, simultaneously reducing
the impact of direct solar radiation. The presented paper analyses the impact of
different geometries of half-glazed (with shading elements) finned and serrated
facades on the user’s visual comfort (daylight factor and summer solar expo-
sure). The analyzed façades are of different geometry and south-facing located in
50° latitude in Wroclaw. The calculations were done using the De Luminæ
software (DL-Light platform) with SketchUp. The analysis allowed to identify –
for different typologies of serrated façade – the risks of glare and overheating
and the potential need for sunlight protection. The software also helps to the
position shading surfaces to control the potential glare.

Keywords: Facade design
Serrated façade
Daylight comfort
Radiance

1 Introduction

Serrated and finned building envelopes are a very eye-catching element of contem-
porary architecture. Finned façade is defined as a façade with external fins, located
perpendicularly to the façade plane. Serrated façade in plan resembles the edges of a
serrated blade, hence the name. Serrated and finned facades substantially influence the
building’s tectonics understood as the relationship between the structural and the art
form. They also have a major impact both on visual appeal and on building physics –
the increased surface of heat exchange compared to flat facades and decreased solar
gains if properly designed.
This paper concentrates on the issues daylight optimization in office buildings, that
feature finned or serrated glass facades. As fully-glazed façades influence the level of
daylight in the building in a relatively small manner, therefore partially glazed and
partially opaque façade were analyzed. The reason for this was the fact that the opaque
part of the envelope serves as a shading device, blocks the sunlight and influences the
room’s internal daylight level. As use “of solar shading to control solar radiation
through the glazed openings is usually essential in office buildings in order to obtain
visual comfort, thermal comfort as well as a decreased energy use for cooling” [1]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 179–187, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_17
180 M. Brzezicki

The presented paper features an analysis showing how opaque perpendicular fins
and partial façade’s serration (façade partially gazed and partially opaque) can influ-
ence daylight level and user’s visual comfort in the office room. Additionally, if the
opaque part of the serrated envelope is correctly placed (e.g. transparent panels might
face North, opaque – South) it allows avoidance of direct solar gain [2]. E.g. during the
analysis of 25 Ropemaker Place building in London (arch. Arup Associates, 2012)
“angled window treatment is stated to reduce solar heat gain by 27% from an equiv-
alent flat façade” [3] because of the proper arrangement of the opaque and glazed parts
of the serrated oriels. The opaque flanges of serrated façade work like “static angular
selective shading systems” [4] that blocks direct sunlight and admit daylight within a
specific range of incident solar angles.
The overmentioned design strategy is called “solar avoidance” and will be dis-
cussed herein detail with reference to finned and serrated facades, as the discomfort
glare remains one of the most comfort affecting issues in the contemporary full-glazed
glazed façade, also in case of shading elements obstructing the view [5].

1.1 Glare and Daylight Optimization

User’s visual comfort in an office building depends on two main features: the level of
illumination, and the daylight uniformity. As human eye takes a certain amount of time
to adapt to new lighting conditions [6] frequent changes of the illumination level can
cause discomfort, distraction, glare, and – in some circumstances – could be even
dangerous. Perry defines discomfort glare as “related to the presence in the visual field
of excess luminance differences” [7]. Glare is a frequent optical/visual phenomenon in
case of fully glazed glass envelopes. Excessive sunlight in the room creates areas of
excess luminance, that greatly influence the user’s visual comfort. Many different
thresholds of the glare level have been recently defined (expressed in cd/m2) that are
presented in a paper by Suk et al. [8]. Therefore the glare experienced by the user is
assumed to occur where the patches of high luminance are formed on a working plane –
basically in the areas of high solar exposure.

2 Methodology

Studied room had dimensions of 12.0  6.0 m with a height/clearance of 4.0 m

(72 sq. m. area). The longer side of the room featured a “floor to ceiling” glazed façade
protected by opaque fins or serrated in different rhythms. The façade was facing
directly South, and all the calculations were carried out for Wroclaw, located in Poland
in Central Europe at the 52° north latitude (including weather data).
For the analysis of visual comfort, three values were measured: DF – daylight
factor in %, LU – daylight uniformity (for evenly overcast sky) and the average value
of SSE – summer solar exposure (for the appropriate climate data for Wroclaw). The
value of SSE was given in hours per day calculated as the average between 21st of June
 Serrated and Finned Glazed Facades’ Impact 181

and – 22nd of September in time steps of 60 min. The DF and LU parameters allowed
for the estimation of the diffused daylight uniformity, while the SSE allowed for the
estimation of the influence of direct solar radiation. All the values were measured on
the working surface 0.8 m above the floor level. The diagram of the simulation setup is
given in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. The layout of computer simulation setup. Studied room had dimensions of 12  6 m
with a height/clearance of 4.0 m.

All the calculations were done using the De Luminæ software (DL-Light platform)
with SketchUp used as 3D-modeling software. The DF was calculated at 72 points in
the room (1 sensor per sq. m.) while the SSE was calculated at 7200 points (100
sensors per sq. m.). All the data were imported into the spreadsheet software (Microsoft
Excell 2013) and subsequently studied and compared. The data were also visualized in
a form of images representing DF – in grayscale – and SSE in false color. The scale is
accordingly given at the presented figures and diagrams.

3 Simulated Facade Typology

Two types of facades were studied: (i) with opaque fins located perpendicularly to the
plane of the façade, and (ii) serrated façade that featured one flange opaque and one
flange transparent (see Fig. 2). Opaque fins were of different depth (1 and 0.5 m), and
located at different spacing along the façade (every 1 or 2 m), in total 4 variations were
simulated. Serrated façade was studied in 9 variations: with equal and unequal pro-
portions of opaque and transparent part – further called 1:1, 1:2 and 2:1 (opaque:
transparent ratio) – and at different serration angles 45-, 30- and 15° for the first
element located on the left. This allowed for a comprehensive study of the serration
geometry to be carried out.
182 M. Brzezicki

Fig. 2. Diagrams illustrating all studied facades variants. (Finned shading) devices on the left
and (serrated façade) on the right.

4 Results

4.1 Unprotected Facade

For the purpose of comparative analysis of the daylight distribution in the studied room
DF, LU, and SSE were calculated for unprotected glazed floor-to-ceiling façade. As
expected all results DE, LU and SSE were very high in value. Maximum DF value
reached 50.11%, while medium value was 21.15%. LU value was very low – 0.27,
meaning the unfavorable high differences in the luminance were present in the room.
SSE reached a very high value of 4h43m of solar exposure.

4.2 Finned Facade

Simulation of the finned shading devices produced much lower DF values (from 22%
to 54% of the original value of 50.11%) in comparison with the unprotected facade.
The lowest DF value was recorded for the fins with the largest depth (1 m) and with the
smallest spacing (1 m) – 22.61%; while the largest was recorded for the smallest fins
(0.5 m), with the largest spacing (2 m). Those results were obvious and expected.
Surprisingly, the LU was very similar in every variant at an approximate factor of 0.28,
not significantly different from an unprotected façade.
Results of SE simulation were similar to those of DF. The lowest SSE values were
recorded for the fins with the largest depth (1 m) and with the smallest spacing (1 m).
The difference between the longest SE time of 3h21 h/day and the shortest SE time of
1h47 h/day was 47%. Images representing the graphical results are given below in
Fig. 3.
 Serrated and Finned Glazed Facades’ Impact 183

Fig. 3. Diagrams with images generated by the simulation of DF and SSE results for finned
shading devices. Façade diagram on the left, DF in the middle, and SSE in the right. The scale is
given accordingly.

4.3 Serrated Facades

Contrary to the expectation serrated façade turned out to be less effective in the DF
level mitigation. The worst case scenario featured a maximum value of 39.29% that
was recorded in the variant with of approx. 60% of façade glazing (variant 2:1, 15°).
However, the mean level of DF was almost 30% lower, than in the case of the finned
shading devices. Despite this, LU was lower, dropping to the lowest value of 0.16
(compared with the mean value of 0.28 in case of finned shading devices).
The overall performance of serrated façade in SSE turned out to be almost the same
as in the case of the façade with finned shading, having the mean value for all cases
2h48 h/day in comparison to 2h40 h/day for finned facades. Images representing the
graphical results are given below in Figs. 4 and 5.

5 Discussion

A full comparison of DF and SSE level is limited because of the different geometry of
both typologies, however, some general conclusions became evident. The analysis
shows overall obvious dependence between the proportion of glazing in the façade
184 M. Brzezicki

Fig. 4. Diagrams with images generated by the simulation of DF and SSE results for serrated
façade variants for series 1:1 and 1:2. Façade diagram on the left, DF in the middle, and SSE in
the right. The scale is given accordingly.

(50%, 33%, and 66%) and DF and SSE levels. The more the façade is glazed, the more
diffused and direct light is admitted inside the room, increasing the level of illumi-
nation. This is true in case of both studied façade typologies for facades oriented
directly to the South.

5.1 Scattered Daylight

Fined shading devices seem to be more effective in the mitigation of maximum level of
DF the room (mean for all finned cases is 30.88% vs. 32.25% for serrated ones), while
much less effective in the mitigation of medium DF (13.28% vs. 10.98%). The most
 Serrated and Finned Glazed Facades’ Impact 185

Fig. 5. Diagrams with images generated by the simulation of DF and SSE results for serrated
façade variants for series 2:1. Façade diagram on the left, DF in the middle, and SSE in the right.
The scale is given accordingly.

surprising were the results of LU in analyzed cases. Serrated typologies turned out to be
less effective in the equalization of daylight distribution level ranging from 0.16 to 0.28
in comparison to finned shading devices that featured the mean level of LU of approx.
0.28, regardless of the fin depth and spacing. It was also found, that finned shading
devices do lower the DF in the room proportionally but do not substantially affect LU,
as it was seen by the comparison of unprotected façade with the façade with finned
shading devices (the mean and minimum values remain of very similar proportions –
see Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Graph showing the comparison of maximum, medium and minimum values of DF (%)
for all studied geometries. The test series have been discriminated by color.
186 M. Brzezicki

5.2 Solar Exposure

SSE for both typologies proved to be largely dependent on the fin depth and spacing
and – in case of serrated facades – the area occupied by the glass. In case of finned
shading devices, the maximum level of SSE was 3h21 h/day for fin depth of 0.5 m and
of 2 m spacing. In serrated facades, the largest results were calculated for the 60%
glazed facades, accordingly 3h09, 3h15; 3h32 h/day. Obviously, the reduction of the
area of glass produced lower SSE results, although it must be stated, that medium
values of SSE were approx. 10% higher in case of the façades protected by fin shading
devices of than in the serrated facades. This shows a better performance of serrated
facades in protection against potential glare produced by the areas of high luminance
value on the work plane (Table 1).

Table 1. Table showing all DF, LU, SSE computer simulation results. Maximum results in each
series were marked in red, the lowest results were marked in green.

One of the most important results of this analysis is the fact, that large area of the
test room (and tested work plane) was devoid of any direct solar radiation, what
resulted in very low uniformity of daylight in the room. In the case of SSE, the narrow
strip parallel to the façade was highly illuminated, while the rest of the room is totally
devoid of the direct solar exposure. In tested case, a light-shelf system should be
considered as daylight distribution device into the depth of the working office room.

6 Conclusions

Both façade geometries provide some protection against the excess levels of luminance
in the tested office room (measured as DF for scattered light), but remain quite
unsatisfactory in the equalization of the level of daylight (LU – light uniformity),
especially in case of direct solar exposure. SSE produces on the work plane the areas of
elevated luminance for a relatively long time during the day, what results in high
potential glare and user’s visual discomfort. It is justified to state, that vertical shading
devices (either in the form of vertical opaque fins or the opaque flanges of the serrated
 Serrated and Finned Glazed Facades’ Impact 187

facade) improve the visual user’s comfort in a South oriented room to a very limited
scope. Definitely, research considering other orientations of the facade (West and East)
shading systems of different geometry – supposedly horizontal – is required to optimize
the solutions for the sake of the user’s comfort and health.

Acknowledgments. This research was supported in part by a grant from the Polish Ministry of
Science and Higher Education (S80401-0067-10-K0106 granted through the mechanism of
dotation by Wroclaw University of Science and Technology). The author thanks the manufac-
turers of the De Luminæ software (DL-Light platform) for the test version, that was made
available for the research.

References
1. Karlsen, L., et al.: Solar shading control strategy for office buildings in cold climate. Energy
Build. 118, 316–328 (2016)
2. Brzezicki, M.: The influence of reflected solar glare caused by the glass cladding of a
building: application of caustic curve analysis. Comput. Aided Civ. Infrastruct. Eng. 27(5),
347–357 (2012)
3. John, N.: Climate based façade design for business buildings with examples from central
London. Buildings 5, 16–38 (2015)
4. Fernandes, L.L., et al.: Angular selective window systems: assessment of technical potential
for energy savings. Energy Build. 90, 188–206 (2015)
5. Konstantzos, I., Tzempelikos, A.: Daylight glare evaluation with the sun in the field of view
through window shades. Build. Environ. 113, 65–77 (2017)
6. Roberts, G.C.K.: Encyclopedia of Biophysics. Springer, Berlin (2013)
7. Perry, M.J.: Mechanisms of discomfort glare. Lighting Res. Technol. 22(3), 159 (1990)
8. Suk, J.Y., Schiler, M., Kensek, K.: Absolute glare factor and relative glare factor based
metric: predicting and quantifying levels of daylight glare in office space. Energy Build. 130,
8–19 (2016)
 Renovations of Public Spaces at Junctions
with Water – Boulevards. Case Studies
in a Spatial, Visual and Usable Context

Andrzej Sobolewski(&) and Roman Czajka

Faculty of Architecture, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology,

Wybrzeze Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
{andrzej.sobolewski,roman.czajka}@pwr.edu.pl

Abstract. Transformations of public spaces in accordance with Jan Gehl’s

theory of “Cities for people” create attractive places for users. Attractiveness
should be understood here not only in visual terms, but also as correspondingly
useful. Attractive places are friendly and easily accessible places for people,
including those with various disabilities. In Wroclaw a great advantage of urban
space is the direct proximity of water (the Odra River along with canals and
tributaries). The recent renovations of the river banks – waterfront boulevards,
are a very interesting research material. The subject of the article are various
aspects and contexts of these modernizations, also in a comparative analysis
with similar foreign implementations.
Keywords: Riverside boulevards
Revitalization
Odra
Public space

1 Introduction

The public space of a city is the place – stage for the social life of its inhabitants. To
adequately fulfil its role, it must meet numerous requirements and encompass a large
number of elements. Undoubtedly, it should be visually attractive – ‘lovely’ in its urban
and architectural arrangement. Some other important elements include friendly climate
and safety of use. An adequate and various functional programme offered by a public
space also contributes to its success and popularity. Malgorzata Dymnicka1 in a
monography titled: “Public space versus urban changes” [1] defines the public space as
follows: “Public space, whose origin dates back to ancient times, belongs to these areas
in an urban structure which can be considered the type allowing to experience the
presence of Others. Thanks to such features as openness, accessibility and clarity, one
can stay there with one’s personal experience burden without disturbing other users”.
The same motif is developed by Malgorzata Szatan2 who in her work: “Decline of

1
Malgorzata Dymnicka, Ph.D., D.Sc., sociologist, scientific employee at the Faculty of Architecture,
Gdansk University of Technology (Associate Prof of GUT) conducting research on contemporary
urban spaces.
2
Małgorzata Szatan, degree in sociology, currently a PhD candidate at the Department of Sociology,
Structures and Social Actions at the Faculty of Social Science, Warsaw University of Life Sciences –
SGGW. Her research interests encompass the sociology of everyday life.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 188–195, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_18
 Renovations of Public Spaces at Junctions with Water – Boulevards 189

public space in contemporary cities” [2] observes that: “It is a natural human need of
any man understood as a social creature to contact other people. It should be noted that
this contact does not refer here only to its physical aspect, but also an opportunity to
initiate interaction. The need can be satisfied in urban public space. This in turn is
emphasised in the definition of a city developed by Richard Sennett who claims that a
city is a settlement in which meetings between strange people occur” [3]. Hence, the
two aspects architectural and social ones must accompany each other so as public space
may become a certain spine supporting and activating life in an urban organism. In the
contemporary, commercialised world one should also add the economic aspect.
For centuries the urban development process was accompanied by changes in
public space which adapted to the reality and character of a given epoch. However,
these evolutions did not change basic elements constituting public space created by
people thousands years earlier. In her work M. Dymnicka attributes the origin of this
space to ancient cities with an agora. This main square, a kind of market in ancient
Greek cities, played the role of a place where the social, political and religious life,
sometimes also including commercial events, of city inhabitants took place. It seems
that in modern times squares, markets and other similar spaces continue this tradition
multi-century tradition, and still remain the most attractive placed where the social life
of a city takes place. In Wroclaw, the thriving capital of Lower Silesia and also a
modern city by the 21st century standards, where the timeless “urban living room” is its
historical marketplace with its historical architecture.
Jan Gehl,3 a world famous authority on the description and revitalisation of urban
public spaces, also strongly emphasises the social functions of these spaces, i.e. human
behaviours stimulated by them. These types of behaviours are also referred to as non-
domestic activities and they are divided into three basic types: “In simple terms non-
domestic activity in public space can be divided into three categories, each of which
imposes different requirements to the physical environment: necessary, optional and
social activities” [4]. The necessary activities are the ones which people simply have to
perform, e.g. everyday shopping for basic products, going to work or school, waiting
for public transport. In such cases the architectural “arrangement” of the places where
such activities are done may seem a matter of secondary importance. People perform
certain actions because they have to regardless of the space quality: “Due to the fact
that activity is necessary here, physical surroundings have an inconsiderable influence
on its occurrence. It is performed in nearly any conditions” [4]. While this is true, it
may lead to a certain underestimation of this problem because everyday aesthetics (in
general terms) is also important. It may even be of superior significance as it shapes a
need for order and harmony in people. On the other hand, optional actions are defined
by J. Gehl as those that people start to feel like doing in conducive time and place.
A classic example of an optional activity is takin a walk. The third type of actions,
i.e. social ones in a way develop the latter type by introducing more people. Social
behaviour in public space is collective and hence it requires actions and only sometimes
other people. Their typical example, mentioned by Gehl, are children playing together

3
Jan Gehl, Danish architect and urban design consultant, Professor at the School of Architecture in
Copenhagen.
190 A. Sobolewski and R. Czajka

or even more passive participants observing other users of the same space, e.g. drinking
coffee at a coffee table on a square while observing others, looking at them and
listening to other people talking. “If non-domestic space is of poor quality, only nec-
essary activities are performed (…). In favourable surroundings a completely different
wide spectrum of human behaviours becomes possible” [4].
In this study the subject of analysis are transformations of public spaces conducted in
recent years, the latest ones in Wroclaw. Cities being organisms incessantly developing
and undergoing constant transformations, fortunately more frequently in an evolutionary
rather than “revolutionary” way,4 adapt to current reality and the requirements of con-
temporary times and their inhabitants. Very frequently they need an impulse in the form
of diagnoses, social initiatives or scientific research so as to find a starting point for
transformations. Sometimes even an analysis of a history of a given place, its tradition, a
sense of its character and potential are sufficient circumstances when supported by, e.g.
comparisons with similar areas in other cities. The new identity of old places is based on
numerous factors which, once discovered and skilfully used, make the spatial and social
success of revitalisation more approachable. In Wroclaw there are numerous places
representing great potential which is not always properly used. Certainly a good example
here are riverbank areas. The Odra and its numerous canals as well as other rivers
crossing Wroclaw constitute a valuable capital of this city. In post-war Poland, spatial
relations between the city and the river became a considerable problem. In many cities
the reconstruction of war devastations and the development of socialist reality seemed to
be unaware of the significance of these relations. “For centuries rivers have contributed
to the development of cities building their strength firstly in terms of defence force and
later also transport. Rivers were loved by city inhabitants who were always eager to
spend their free time nearby. Riverside boulevards, marinas, cruise ships bustled with life
and were equally important meeting places as city centres. In Poland the 20th century
reversed this trend, more precisely it happened at the times of the Polish People’s
Republic times”.5 Cities turned away from rivers flowing right through their centres and
thus the rivers stimulated the development of spatial management only to small extent. In
comparison with other Polish cities, the situation in Wroclaw possibly looked slightly
better, however, one could hardly consider the situation there as a symbiosis between the
city environment and the water scenery landscape. Numerous barriers hampered the
dialogue between developed spaces and the river.
The reality of the transformation following 1989 started to change Polish cities and
the way of thinking about their development. Riverside areas became attractive. In
Wroclaw, in addition to other factors, the flood in 1997 certainly played an important
role in this process, later dubbed the Millennium Flood. It forced some strategic actions
not only in the aspect of the modernisation of the Wroclaw Water Node, but also more
generally in terms of riverside area management. Every year the city – its inhabitants
and tourists, are gaining some more attractively managed Odra boulevards.

4
This mental shortcut refers to all calamities which may affect cities resulting in their devastation or a
complete change of their character and identity. These may be wars, floods or hurricanes as well as
the fall of a leading activity, e.g. industry fall.
5
www.wroclawnadodra.pl/polskie-miasta-wracaja-nad-rzeki, accessed 20.09.2017.
 Renovations of Public Spaces at Junctions with Water – Boulevards 191

2 Dunikowskiego and Lecha and Marii Kaczynskich

Boulevards

In 2008 the City Council of Wroclaw organised a conference titled “Riverside

Urbanization – faces of a river as a linking element”. As part of this conference the city
architect postulated building one united chain of Odra boulevards. The investment was
supposed to encompass both areas belonging to the city and private investors. The
modernisation of Xawerego Dunikowskiego Boulevard, located in the inner centre of
Wroclaw, was included in these plans form the very beginning. The boulevard is a part
of the southern riverside of the Oder main current and opens the view of the mag-
nificent panorama of Ostrow Tumski – a historical district of Wroclaw with, among
others, St. John the Baptist Cathedral. In 2008 a competition to revitalise this boulevard
was opened.6 The implementation of the winning concept lasted from 2014 to 2016.
Dunikowskiego Boulevard stretches from Piaskowy Bridge to Pokoju Bridge
(along the Market Hall, the Academy of Fine Arts and the National Museum). It is
connected with historical bulwarks: Ceglarski (Briklaying Citadel) and Piaskowy (Sand
Bulwark). Kaczynskich Boulevard continues the pedestrian precinct starting from
Pokoju Bridge to Grunwaldzki Bridge (along the Voivodeship Office). Dunikowskiego
and Kaczynskich Boulevards were divided into a few zones. They are the main
pedestrian promenades with recreation areas, observation decks and bike paths offering
strollers visual attractions. Along the quay there are bike paths at a few levels, apart
from this wooden platforms were built to moor cruise ships. The main element in
Dunikowskiego Boulevard is an amphitheatre with steps descending in the direction of
the water surface. It opens the view of the panorama Ostrow Tumski. The recon-
struction of the left bank of the Odra in the said place, apart from the already mentioned
advantages, such as a historical built-up area and access to the riverside for both
inhabitants and tourists, led also to uncovering the remains of historical fortifications.
This allowed to create an attractive public place of recreational-cognitive nature. This is
the social aspect of this revitalisation. The quay is available for users and in some
places they can even walk or down to the very surface of water or use a ramp (used by
the disabled, wheelchair users, prams and cyclists).
The place where Dunikowskiego and Kaczynskich Boulevards are located is also
very special due to its cultural dimension. The area, owing to its close proximity to the
National Museum, the Panoram of Raclawice, The Museum of Architecture, the
University Library building and the academy of Fine Arts creates a certain cultural
enclave in the city. Dunikowskiego Boulevard is also a culture-forming place where
concerts and multimedia presentations are organised. The boulevard houses also an
external sculpture exposition of, e.g. Magdalena Abakanowicz’s sculptures. This type
of spaces integrate city structure and improve the quality of city life [5] (Fig. 1).

6
Architect Piotr Żuraw’s project won the competition.
192 A. Sobolewski and R. Czajka

Fig. 1. Dunikowskiego Boulevard - outdoor amphitheatre descending to the Odra. (Phot. aut.)

3 Politechnika Wroclawska Boulevard

The boulevard, also commissioned in 2016, is strictly related to Wroclaw University of

Science and Technology (in Polish: Politechnika Wroclawska), hence the name. It is
located on the Odra River bank near the university campus in Wybrzeze Wyspi-
anskiego St. and combines the university area with a generally available public space.
For years this embankment stretch, despite its prestigious neighbourhood and
undoubtedly outstanding landscape quality, remained seriously neglected. It functioned
as a local boathouse with barges and a tugboat of the Foundation of the Open Museum
of Technology moored nearby.7 However, in general the area as a whole was not
accessible for pedestrians.
Modernisation works started in August 2015 and lasted until may the following
year. The head of the project team was Andrzej Poniewierka, Ph.D. Eng. Architect,
employed at the Faculty of Architecture of WRUST. His studio Park-M won a tender
for the design an reconstruction of the embankment which was launched by Wroclaw
University of Science and Technology which financed the whole investment. The
opening ceremony took place on May 28, 2016 and added splendour to the interna-
tional Odra River Cup regatta. The rowing nature of the boulevard is also emphasised
by very friendly “good pucks”, i.e. rowing crew dwarves – a classical men’s eight

7
Foundation of the Open Museum of Technology (FOMT) is a non-profit organisation. It was
established in 1993 by the majority of the so called historical enterprises in Wroclaw. The initiative
was supported by the city authorities and higher education entities. The foundation promotes the city
and the activity of its inhabitants with respect to technical culture and entrepreneurship by protecting
technical historical monuments and industrial heritage.
 Renovations of Public Spaces at Junctions with Water – Boulevards 193

whose stern is a woman. This is yet another version of very popular small sculptures,
Wroclaw’s landmark, decorating numerous places in the city.
The boulevard is a few hundred meters long. It starts more or less at the level of the
main university building A1 with Rector’s Office, near a weir and stretches to Polinka
station. Although the boulevard belongs to the university, it is also a public space open
to everyone. It was dedicated to be used by students and university academic and
didactic staff, however, it also remains open for any other visitors. This is why the
designers combined here passive and active recreation functions. The boulevard can be
used simply as a walkway with benches and other places to rest, also on blankets
stretched on large lawns. Right next to it, there are beach volleyball courts, a sandy
beach with wooden decks and seats suspended over water. Undoubtedly a characteristic
element additionally emphasising the attractiveness of the localisation of Politechnika
Wroclawska Boulevard is the direct proximity of the already mentioned university
cable car – the only solution of this type on a national scale, and a historical water
tower on the other side of the river (built between 1866 and 1871).
Politechnika Wroclawska Boulevard activated its closest neighbourhood. Behind
the boulevard, near Grunwaldzki Bridge, in an area which used to be neglected strip of
land covered with thickets and self-sown plants, now there is a seasonal gastronomic
garden. One can find there a few pavilions picturesquely scattered in this area, right
next to the water there are deck chairs, benches and table which altogether create an
informal atmosphere encouraging visitors to relax outdoors. Music, mini-concerts and
other alternative activities complement the image of positive transformations achieved
in the Odra riverside area along Wybrzeze Wyspianskiego (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Area development elements at Politechnika Wroclawska Boulevard (Phot. aut.)

194 A. Sobolewski and R. Czajka

4 Summary

The modernisations of Wroclaw riverside area presented in this study undoubtedly are
positive examples of public space transformations. Their common denominator is their
direct connection with water – the Odra River. The fact that Wroclaw is located on the
Odra is its invaluable asset. Nowadays the role of rivers in cities has completely
changed in comparison with their functions known from history. Rivers lost their
transport and trade related significance which in the past contributed to the develop-
ment of cities. Today location near water uses another potential of such a place.
A possibility to develop the area near a river into an attractive, multi-function city space
becomes the first and foremost goal. Landscape quality, beautiful views and recre-
ational attractiveness views, etc. create the contemporary identity of such places [6].
Currently leisure architecture is a tool describing and shaping riverside areas (or other
places located near water). Even if they also fulfil other functions, e.g. residential, they
are entwined with such public spaces encouraging the general public to take advantage
of them and create, as Prof. Gehl said, “places for people” (“Cities for people” [7]).
A large number of such implementations – modernisations, revitalisations or first
developments of urban areas neighbouring with water, conducted all over the world
confirm the significance of this, one could say, stage in the spatial development of cities
and a way of their arrangement. They have become the subject of ample research and
numerous scientific studies not only in the field of architecture and urban studies.
At the beginning of the 21st century Wroclaw joined the group of cities which are
aware of the potential following their location on a river. The negligence associated
with the post-war half-century are being successively overcome. Regardless of par-
ticular solutions resulting from initial renovation conditions, it was possible to turn the
Odra the main “character”, the protagonist of the city life theatre that boulevards now
are. This metaphor reflects genuine real enthusiasm shown by both Wroclaw dwellers
and tourists when they so eagerly spend time near water. Not infrequently boulevards
are quite crowded. Finally returning to Jan Gehl’s systematics describing urban life
activities enjoyed by people in non-domestic spaces, Wroclawskie boulevards must be
well arranged and they must offer such ways of spending free time that undoubtedly
they have become a stage for optional and social activities. Thus people use this space
not out of necessity (necessary actions), but because they find them amiable.
Since the catastrophic Millennium Flood in 1997, Wroclaw authorities have sys-
tematically used the slogan: “Wroclaw facing the river”. Subsequent projects imple-
ment mainly the improvement of flood security precautions. However, simultaneously
parallel and equivalent actions are conducted to develop the areas along the Odra its
canals and other rivers flowing through the city in an attractive way. These are hun-
dreds of kilometres. In all spatial development plans adopted so far the necessity to
 Renovations of Public Spaces at Junctions with Water – Boulevards 195

develop the Odra riverside areas as open spaces of recreational and green character has
been accepted. Consistent implementation of these regulations by developing waterside
areas will strengthen Wroclaw’s position as the Venice of the North.8

References
1. Dymnicka, M.: Przestrzeń publiczna a przemiany miasta. Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar,
Gdansk (2013)
2. Szatan, M.: Zanikanie przestrzeni publicznej we współczesnych miastach. PALIMPSEST
Czasopismo socjologiczne, nr 2(2012), 91–102 (2012)
3. Sennett, R.: The Fall of the Public Man, Transl. Hanna Jankowska, Warszawskie
Wydawnictwo Literackie Muza, Warszawa (2009)
4. Gehl, J.: Life Between Buildings. Using Public Space, Wyd. RAM, Krakow (2013)
5. Drożdż-Szczybura, M.: Rzeka w krajobrazie śródmieścia – linia graniczna i jakość przestrzeni
publicznej. In: Architektura Krajobrazu, Wroclaw, 4/2009, pp. 4–9 (2009)
6. Pancewicz, A.: Rzeka w krajobrazie miasta. Wyd. Politechniki Slaskiej, Gliwice (2004)
7. Gehl, J.: Cities for People, Wyd. RAM, Kraków (2014)

8
The Venice of the North – a term used to denote selected Northern European cities which due to their
location surrounded by surface water and their spatial structure and infrastructure adapted to this
location enable a comparison with Venice – a famous place considered one of the most beautiful
cities in the world. The very term is of mainly marketing significance (in terms of promotion and
tourism). The cities which are most frequently dubbed the Venice of the North are: Amsterdam in the
Netherlands, Sankt Petersburg in Russia, Stockholm in Sweden, and also Wroclaw. Located on the
Odra River and its four tributaries, Wroclaw can also boast of a developed canal network. Together
rivers and canals make the so called Wroclaw Water Node. A special feature of Wroclaw is also the
preserved medieval moat which is still full of water. The “Venetian” image of Wroclaw is completed
with over 20 islands and 130 bridges footbridges.
 Preference for Chinese Vernacular Windows:
Combined Effects of Shape and View

Man Zhang1, Jiangtao Du2(&), and Yuyang Tang1

1
Academy of Architectural Heritage, Beijing University of Civil Engineering
and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China
{zhangman,tangyuyang}@bucea.edu.cn
2
School of Architecture, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZN, UK
du.jiangtao821@gmail.com

Abstract. This study presents a psychological survey of the preferences for

Chinese vernacular windows among young adults. The experiment participants
were young Chinese students who were studying the programmes of architec-
ture, urban planning, interior design and engineering in a public university in
Beijing. Eighteen window shapes combined with three types of view were
investigated using a subjective questionnaire. Several statistical models were
applied to expose some design implications based on the feedback: (1) There are
differences of preference between various window shapes. (2) The view will
significantly affect the preference; while the natural view can reduce the dif-
ferences of preference between various windows. (3) Male and female partici-
pants have few differences of preference for most of the window types.

Keywords: Preference
Chinese vernacular window
Window shape
View

Psychological survey
University students

1 Introduction

Since 1980s, a trend of ‘recalling Chinese vernacular spirit’ has occurred in the area of
design practices and academy of architecture in China [1–3]. The applications of
Chinese vernacular architectural elements have been increasingly found in the con-
temporary buildings and relevant design works [1, 4]. As one of typical building
components, the Chinese vernacular window has attracted higher attentions. In the field
of arts design, typical shapes, patterns and configurations of Chinese traditional win-
dows have been studied in the historic and cultural context [2, 5, 6]. On the other hand,
the impact of such vernacular windows on indoor environmental performances
(lighting, thermal, etc.) has recently become a research focus [7, 8], due to the
increasing requirements of sustainable passive solutions in Chinese building industry.
With a key function of delivering daylight and view, window systems can significantly
affect occupants’ health and well-being in a built environment [9]. The psychological
satisfactions of window applications have been developed into one of crucial topics
studied in the area of modern environmental design/psychology [10]. A number of
modern façade systems have been investigated [11]. However, few studies were con-
ducted in terms of the acceptances of Chinese vernacular windows, even though it

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 196–207, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_19
 Preference for Chinese Vernacular Windows 197

could not be difficult to find them broadly applied in current modern public/commercial
buildings (e.g. museums, offices, hotels) [4]. Thus, an investigation into this topic could
be required for Chinese architectural researchers and practitioners in order to deliver an
effective human-centered design solution in buildings.
The ‘Preference’ for façade systems/windows has been studied in the built envi-
ronment. As discussed in an early study [12], windows are generally preferred while
larger windows are preferred over smaller ones. It could be also found that the amount
of windows desired in a space can be reliably predicted based on the occupants’
requirements (e.g., having a view or good ventilation) [12]. Another literature pointed
out that architectural facades are among the most widely regulated design features and
that it is interesting and useful to investigate how different modifications to architec-
tural facades influence preferences [13]. In offices, window preferences can be sig-
nificantly linked with its type, gender of occupants, quality of office job and quality of
view [14]. However, in houses, ‘Mystery’ would deliver an apparent impact on the
preference of façade configurations [15]. Façade configurations with various void-to-
solid ratios can influence on preferences more practically [11]. This preference has
been proved as the direct effect of view [12]. In addition, this view from windows
would help deliver effective psychological restoration in an urban context [16].
In this article, a psychological survey was conducted to explore the preference for
Chinese vernacular windows among young adults. The participants were young Chi-
nese students who were studying the programmes of architecture, urban planning,
interior design and engineering in a public university in Beijing. The windows studied
here varied in shapes and views. The hypotheses of this study have been presented as
follows: H1. There are differences of preference for window shapes based on the
traditional design styles. H2. The view content takes significant effects on the prefer-
ence for these window shapes.

2 Methods and Materials

This section includes four parts: visual stimuli and measures, participants’ background,
survey procedures, and statistical models used in this study.

2.1 Visual Stimuli and Measures

On the ground of literatures [2, 3, 6], eighteen typical types of Chinese vernacular
window were defined in terms of shapes and configurations (see Fig. 1). Named as W1-
18 (Fig. 1), these windows have the same area of void part. W1, the square window, is
a common type that is generally applied, and was used as the base case in this study.
All window types were studied through the combination of three views: blank (no
content, white background), urban (street view, with buildings in a highly dense urban
area), nature (natural view from a city park, no buildings). The images of windows and
views were produced into slides in Microsoft PowerPoint 2016, which can be displayed
in a monitor as the visual stimuli. Each slide has only one window on it. Thus, three
various human psychological experiments were implemented as follows: Study1: 18
198 M. Zhang et al.

Fig. 1. Eighteen types of Chinese vernacular window [2, 3, 6]: No. 1–16 at the top four rows;
No. 17 & 18 at the left side of the bottom row. For the two pictures at the right bottom, the
picture ‘View: Urban’ and the picture ‘View: Nature’ were used as the background (view) of
window void area during the psychological survey.

window shapes  blank view; Study2: 18 window shapes  urban view; Study3: 18
window shapes  nature view.
Preferences for the windows were measured through a paper-based questionnaire.
Only one task was required to complete for each window type as: ‘please rank the
window type according to your preferences’. The questionnaire was produced using a
VAS (visual analog scale [17]) scale of 0–10. ‘0’ and ‘10’ mean the lowest and the
highest levels of preference respectively, while ‘5’ stands for the medium level. VAS is
generally applied as a continuous rating scale, which the decimal scoring can be accepted.

2.2 Participants
University students were recruited to attend three psychological experiments. The
academic programmes they were studying on included architecture, urban planning,
interior design, and engineering. The participants’ numbers were: Study1, n = 122
 Preference for Chinese Vernacular Windows 199

(male: 50; female: 72) (mean age: 18.92 years, SD: ±2.18); Study2, n = 59 (male: 20;
female: 39) (mean age: 18.46 years, SD: ±1.02); Study3, n = 60 (male: 26; female: 34)
(mean age: 18.43 years, SD: ±0.98). The students with a design background (archi-
tecture, urban planning and interior design) have received some knowledge of Chinese
architectural history; whist engineering students have not studied courses relating to
architectural history.

2.3 Procedure
A quite room in the university campus was used for implementing all psychological
experiments (Fig. 2). During each experiment, only the experimenter and one partic-
ipant were allowed to stay in the room. The experimenter controlled the testing pro-
cedures. Before starting the experiment, each participant was required to read and sign
the document of agreement, and fill in a short form of relevant background information
(gender, age and academic programme). Then, the experimenter will randomly display
the 18 slides and give 5 s for the participant to score on each window type using a
paper sheet. The indoor environment (e.g. thermal and lighting) was kept at a com-
fortable level to avoid unnecessary interference during the experiment.

Fig. 2. The testing room and a view of on-going psychological experiment.

2.4 Statistical Analysis

Given experimental conditions and collected data, three statistical models were applied
in this study, including 2-tailed t-test, two-way repeated measures of variance
(ANOVA), and Post Hoc analysis (Scheffe). The t-test was used for comparisons of
means between W1 and other window types, and between male and female participants.
The main effects of view and gender and the paired comparisons of the means were
assessed through the ANOVA and Post Hoc analysis respectively. The significance can
be achieved with p  0.05 for all statistical analysis methods. IBM-SPSS (v25) was the
tool to carry out all analysis.
200 M. Zhang et al.

3 Results
3.1 Mean Scores of Preference for Window Shapes
For Study1, Fig. 3 shows mean scores (±sem) of preference for 18 window types with
the blank view among 122 participants. The highest score is found for W13 (shape: fan;
7.13). W5-6, W8 and W10 can achieve relatively higher scores (>6.0), while W3, W9,
W11-12, and W15-17 would see medium scores between 5.0 and 6.0. However, other
window types have relatively lower scores (<5.0).

Fig. 3. Mean scores (±sem) of preference for 18 window types (Study1: blank view, n = 122).

According to the feedback of Study1, compared with W1 (shape: square), Table 1

presents the differences of preference scores of other 17 window types. The 2-tailed t-
test reveals that there are no significant differences between W2/7/14/18 and W1
(p > 0.05) in terms of the preference. Apparently, preferences for other 13 types have
significant differences from that of W1 (p < 0.05). Except for W4, W1 receives the
significantly lower preference scores than other 12 type.
For Study2, mean scores (±sem) of preference for 18 window types with the urban
view among 59 participants are given in Fig. 4. The relatively higher scores are
achieved by W6, W8, W10, W12 and W17 (>6.0). W5, W9, W11, W13 and W16 have
medium scores (>5.0 and <6.0), while relatively lower scores can be found for others
(<5.0).
 Preference for Chinese Vernacular Windows 201

Table 1. Study1 (blank view): differences of mean scores of preference between W1 and other
window shapes (2-tailed t-test; sig. p < 0.05).
Pairs Mean t df Sig. (2-tailed) 95% Confidence
differences interval of the
(I − J) difference
I J Lower Upper
W1 W2 0.016 0.069 121 0.945 −0.457 0.490
W1 W3 −1.279 −5.224 121 0.000 −1.763 −0.794
W1 W4 0.852 3.085 121 0.003 0.305 1.400
W1 W5 −2.066 −7.822 121 0.000 −2.588 −1.543
W1 W6 −2.549 −9.985 121 0.000 −3.055 −2.044
W1 W7 0.434 1.563 121 0.121 −0.116 0.985
W1 W8 −2.016 −7.755 121 0.000 −2.531 −1.502
W1 W9 −1.008 −5.296 121 0.000 −1.385 −0.631
W1 W10 −2.689 −10.509 121 0.000 −3.195 −2.182
W1 W11 −1.385 −5.073 121 0.000 −1.926 −0.845
W1 W12 −1.730 −6.412 121 0.000 −2.264 −1.195
W1 W13 −3.008 −9.434 121 0.000 −3.639 −2.377
W1 W14 −0.123 −0.426 121 0.671 −0.694 0.448
W1 W15 −1.279 −3.643 121 0.000 −1.974 −0.584
W1 W16 −1.762 −6.805 121 0.000 −2.275 −1.250
W1 W17 −1.820 −4.917 121 0.000 −2.552 −1.087
W1 W18 −0.016 −0.053 121 0.958 −0.629 0.596

Fig. 4. Mean scores (±sem) of preference for 18 window types (Study2: urban view, n = 59).
202 M. Zhang et al.

In comparison with W1 (shape: square), the 2-tailed t-test exposes differences of

preference of other 17 window types (Table 2). Similar to Study1, Study2 shows that
no significant differences can be found between W2/7/14/18 and W1 in terms of the
preference (p > 0.05). In addition, W4 has no significant difference of preference from
W1 in Study2 (p > 0.05). On the other hand, preferences for other 12 types have
achieved significantly higher scores than W1 (p < 0.05).

Table 2. Study2 (urban view): differences of mean scores of preference between W1 and other
window shapes (2-tailed t-test; sig. p < 0.05).
Pairs Mean differences t df Sig. (2-tailed) 95% Confidence
(I − J) interval of the
difference
I J Lower Upper
W1 W2 0.034 0.150 58 0.881 −0.417 0.485
W1 W3 −1.153 −3.882 58 0.000 −1.747 −0.558
W1 W4 0.271 1.000 58 0.321 −0.272 0.814
W1 W5 −1.847 −5.379 58 0.000 −2.535 −1.160
W1 W6 −2.780 −9.750 58 0.000 −3.350 −2.209
W1 W7 −0.356 −1.140 58 0.259 −0.981 0.269
W1 W8 −2.593 −7.602 58 0.000 −3.276 −1.910
W1 W9 −2.424 −7.730 58 0.000 −3.051 −1.796
W1 W10 −3.254 −10.757 58 0.000 −3.860 −2.649
W1 W11 −2.288 −7.969 58 0.000 −2.863 −1.713
W1 W12 −2.576 −7.350 58 0.000 −3.278 −1.875
W1 W13 −2.441 −5.425 58 0.000 −3.341 −1.540
W1 W14 −0.492 −1.320 58 0.192 −1.237 0.254
W1 W15 −0.966 −2.207 58 0.031 −1.842 −0.090
W1 W16 −2.373 −6.791 58 0.000 −3.072 −1.673
W1 W17 −2.695 −7.089 58 0.000 −3.456 −1.934
W1 W18 −0.593 −1.775 58 0.081 −1.262 0.076

As regards Study3, Fig. 5 gives the mean scores (±sem) of preference for 18
window types with the nature view among 60 participants. The highest score is found
for W10 (shape: octagon; 7.02). Compared with Study1 and Study2, Study3 sees that
more window types can receive relatively higher scores (>6.0), such as W1, W5-6,
W8-9, and W12-13. W2-3, W11, and W16-17 have medium scores (>5.0 and <6.0),
while relatively lower scores (<5.0) can be found for other types including W4, W7,
W14-15, and W18.
Taking the W1 (shape: square) as a base case, the analysis using 2-tailed t-test
shows differences of preference for other 17 window types (Table 3). Study3 sees that
less window types have significant differences of preference from W1 than Study1 & 2.
These window types include W2, W6-7, W10, W14-15, and W18 (p < 0.05). W1
receives significantly higher preference scores than W2, W7, W14-15, and W18
 Preference for Chinese Vernacular Windows 203

(p < 0.05), while the scores of W6 and W10 are significantly higher than W1
(p < 0.05). However, other 10 window types do not achieve significant differences of
preference from W1 (p > 0.05).

Fig. 5. Mean scores (±sem) of preference for 18 window types (Study3: nature view, n = 60).

Table 3. Study3 (nature view): differences of mean scores of preference between W1 and other
window shapes (2-tailed t-test; sig. p < 0.05).
Pairs Mean differences t df Sig. (2-tailed) 95% Confidence
(I − J) interval of the
difference
I J Lower Upper
W1 W2 0.700 2.843 59 0.006 0.207 1.193
W1 W3 0.200 0.739 59 0.463 −0.342 0.742
W1 W4 1.767 1.937 59 0.058 −0.058 3.592
W1 W5 0.000 0.000 59 1.000 −0.764 0.764
W1 W6 −0.750 −2.228 59 0.030 −1.424 −0.076
W1 W7 1.817 4.682 59 0.000 1.040 2.593
W1 W8 −0.400 −1.198 59 0.236 −1.068 0.268
W1 W9 0.000 0.000 59 1.000 −0.459 0.459
W1 W10 −0.983 −3.664 59 0.001 −1.520 −0.446
W1 W11 0.067 0.220 59 0.827 −0.540 0.674
W1 W12 −0.267 −0.866 59 0.390 −0.883 0.350
W1 W13 −0.333 −0.843 59 0.403 −1.124 0.458
W1 W14 1.567 4.234 59 0.000 0.826 2.307
W1 W15 1.400 3.366 59 0.001 0.568 2.232
W1 W16 0.050 0.169 59 0.867 −0.543 0.643
W1 W17 0.117 0.281 59 0.779 −0.713 0.946
W1 W18 1.717 4.971 59 0.000 1.026 2.408
204 M. Zhang et al.

3.2 Effects of View and Gender

In all studies, a two-way ANOVA analysis of all feedback exposes the significant main
effects of view and gender on the preferences for window types (Tables 4 and 5). The
significant effects of view can be found for seven window types, including W1-3, W5,
W9, W13 and W15 (p < 0.05). However, only four window types (W5, W11-12, W17)
can receive the significant main effects of gender (p < 0.05). For the interaction of view
and gender, only W15 sees the significant effect (p < 0.05).

Table 4. Significant main effects of view on the preferences for window types (p < 0.05).
Window type df F Ƞ2 Sig.
W1 (2, 235) 20.018 0.146 0.000
W2 (2, 235) 11.568 0.090 0.000
W3 (2, 235) 4.326 0.036 0.014
W5 (2, 235) 4.789 0.039 0.009
W9 (2, 235) 4.155 0.034 0.017
W13 (2, 235) 6.605 0.053 0.002
W15 (2, 235) 4.705 0.039 0.010

Table 5. Significant main effects of gender on the preferences of window types (p < 0.05).
Window type df F Ƞ2 Sig.
W5 (1, 235) 7.054 0.029 0.008
W11 (1, 235) 4.936 0.021 0.027
W12 (1, 235) 4.922 0.021 0.027
W17 (1, 235) 4.168 0.017 0.042

Following the ANOVA analysis, pairwise comparisons of preference scores

between three types of window view were conducted (Post hoc: Scheffe). Table 6
shows the significant differences (p < 0.05). For W1, W2, W3, and W9, the nature
view will give rise to significantly higher preference scores than the urban view and/or
blank view (p < 0.05). W5 and W13 have significantly higher preference scores for
blank view than those of urban view (p < 0.05). With the blank view, W15 can
approximately achieve significantly higher scores than the urban view (p = 0.076).
Given the comparisons between male and female participants, a 2-tailed t-test
reveals that there are significant differences of preference scores found for W5, W11
and W17 (p  0.05) (see Table 7). W5 and W17 see that female participants scored
significantly higher on the two window types than male participants (p  0.05).
Interestingly, female participants have given significantly lower scores for W11 than
male participants (p < 0.05). However, the t-test analysis is not able to support a
significant difference of preference between male and female participants for W12
(p > 0.05).
 Preference for Chinese Vernacular Windows 205

Table 6. Pairwise comparisons of preference scores between various types of window view
(Post Hoc: Scheffe; Sig. p < 0.05).
Window View Mean Std. Sig. 95% Confidence
type difference error Interval
(I − J) Lower Upper
bound bound
W1 Blank Nature −1.91 0.359 0.000 −2.79 −1.03
Nature Urban 2.56 0.417 0.000 1.53 3.59
W2 Blank Nature −1.23 0.336 0.002 −2.05 −0.40
Nature Urban 1.89 0.390 0.000 0.93 2.85
W3 Nature Urban 1.21 0.376 0.007 0.28 2.13
W5 Blank Urban 0.87 0.314 0.024 0.09 1.64
W9 Blank Nature −0.90 0.357 0.043 −1.78 −0.02
W13 Blank Urban 1.22 0.349 0.003 0.36 2.08
W15 Blank Urban 0.96 0.421 0.076 −0.08 2.00

Table 7. Comparisons of preference scores between male and female participants (2-tailed t-
test; Sig. p < 0.05).
Window Mean t df Std. error Interval of the Sig.
type difference difference Lower Upper (2 tailed)
(male-
female)
W5 −0.606 −2.298 239 0.264 −1.126 −0.087 0.022
W11 0.628 2.439 239 0.257 0.121 1.135 0.015
W17 −0.644 −1.940 239 0.332 −1.298 0.010 0.054

4 Discussions and Practical Implications

It can be found that the results above have supported the hypotheses of H1 and H2.
First, there are significant differences of preference for window shapes. Generally,
window shapes (W5-6, W8-13, and W16-17) could receive relatively higher levels of
preference. It could be explained by the fact that they are very common configurations
used in a Chinese vernacular building [2, 6]. Other window shapes (W2, W4 and W18)
would not be easily accepted since they are applied in some special spaces. If one
finding achieved in a modern building can be applied [14], the larger horizontal size
could be regarded as another reason for a higher level of preference for some windows.
Certainly, cultural factors (e.g. mystery [15]) cannot be denied as the significant impact
on the window preferences. Second, the view from windows has been proved as one of
critical environmental factors affecting human’s psychological and physiological per-
formances [9, 18]. It is not surprising that with the natural view the preference dif-
ferences between various window types can be significantly reduced.
206 M. Zhang et al.

Practical implications for supporting architectural design can be drawn as follows.

In general, there are significant differences of preference between some Chinese ver-
nacular window shapes, even though they can deliver similar environmental perfor-
mances (e.g. daylighting, solar gain, etc.). Most of the window shapes have no
significant differences of preference between male and female users. On the other hand,
the vacant area (view) of windows will take significant effects on the preferences. The
nature view generally receives higher preferences, while the blank view can be more
preferable than a view with only urban buildings. When applied with the Chinese
vernacular windows, the natural view can also significantly reduce the impact of
window shape on the preference.

Acknowledgments. The authors would thank NSFC (National Science Foundation of China)
for the funding support through a research project (no. 51808023).

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 Ergonomic Shaping of Functional and Spatial
Program of Housing

Przemyslaw Nowakowski(&)

Faculty of Architecture, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology,

Wroclaw, Poland
przemyslaw.nowakowski@pwr.edu.pl

Abstract. Housing needs, as well as technical and economic factors influence

the size, structure and standard of a dwelling. The structure and functional and
spatial program of housing should enable fulfillment of broadly understood
needs, both existential as well as higher-level ones. Oftentimes a dwelling is a
place of realization of conflicting needs, such as those concerning maintaining
social relations or isolation from the environment. Such needs should also be
taken into consideration in the design process. Ensuring high quality of a
dwelling is connected with its suitable standard. Functional and spatial pro-
gramming considers, i.a., important social issues, such as the size and structure
of households (families, informal communities, single people), affluence of
residents or their specific needs (e.g. people with disabilities). Functional and
spatial organization and technical equipment of a dwelling should provide the
highest possible comfort for work and relaxation. Residential architecture
should also take into consideration future changes of needs and lifestyle.
Therefore, it is recommended to disseminate the concept of flexible housing
susceptible to later functional, technical and even surface changes. The paper
presents the criteria of functional and spatial programing, standards and zoning
of dwellings. The analyses will be carried out in the context of users’ social and
technical requirements. The aim of the paper is to formulate project criteria and
to indicate an optimal type of dwelling which would be adaptable to users’
current and future needs.

Keywords: Ergonomics
Architecture
Interior design

Functional and spatial programming of housing

1 Introduction

On average people spend approximately two thirds of their day in their housing. A house
is a place where the majority of people’s everyday needs are satisfied. Moreover, people
strongly identify themselves with their places of dwelling and they are closely connected
with them. The concept of a dwelling consists of a set of functions enabling meeting
various needs as well as architectural and construction form creating a specific space for
serving the said functions. Moreover, a dwelling is to guarantee a free performance of
numerous activities, such as: relaxation, sleep, personal hygiene, nutrition, raising
children, play, learning, development of interests, family integration, possibility of
isolation from the environment, household chores, socializing, gathering and storing of
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 208–217, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_20
 Ergonomic Shaping of Functional and Spatial Program of Housing 209

property, connection with the immediate external environment as well as protection

against its harmful impact.
Optimal implementation of housing needs requires provision of certain standard of
housing. The possibility of effective performance of the above activities involves the
necessity of ergonomic shaping of artificial living environment. The housing standard
is therefore determined by ergonomic quality of factors determining the conditions for
satisfying housing needs.

2 Impact of Utility Needs on Housing Structure

Housing structure should above all enable to satisfy the needs related to the existence
of a single household member, as well as the entire family, which constitute the
unchanging part of requirements for each dwelling, regardless of its size and standard.
The number and type of functions performed in a dwelling is proportional to the
number of household members; it also depends on their age and gender, i.e. on the
group of so-called primary needs related to, among others, nutrition, maintaining body
health and hygiene, relaxation and regaining of strength (sleep) as well as safety. It also
depends on organization and type of lifestyle, which are shaped by numerous factors
related to the secondary needs including, i.a.: interpersonal contacts, social integration,
self-actualization, leisure and subjective psychological and aesthetic needs.
Certain activities are usually carried out in one room, while others are assigned to
several rooms. The first group includes activities such as sleeping and personal
hygiene, whereas activities like eating, relaxation, doing homework and playing can be
performed in various rooms. Another group of activities consists of various household
chores, such as cleaning, moving and moving objects, which all encompass the entire
space of a house.

3 General Housing Standard

In modern construction the standard of housing is not as diverse as it was in, e.g. the
19th century, as it is guaranteed by appropriate regulations including those concerning:
minimum size and height of rooms, proportion of the size of windows and room sizes,
amount of sunlight and daylight, ventilation, heating, fire safety, acoustic and thermal
protection as well as installations.
The term housing standard specifies both quantitative and qualitative requirements
set for current and future housing conditions. Its general concept is formulated with the
following components: quality standard (related to adaptation of a dwelling to users’
needs), size standard (connected to space requirements), variability standard (deter-
mining the possibility of adapting the house to changing requirements), technical
standard (specifying the quality of house’s finishing) as well as the quantity and quality
of equipment. Standard of a dwelling is also influenced by such factors as: the quality
of functional and spatial arrangement of a house and its appropriate location in
urbanized space and positioning in relation to cardinal directions [2].
210 P. Nowakowski

The evolution of psychophysical needs as well as ergonomic requirements of single

householders, entire families and certain social groups (e.g. people with disabilities)
hinder an objective evaluation and determination of absolute value of housing. Hence,
there is a lack of model solution of housing arrangement, as those are constantly
changing, due to, among others, scientific and technical progress and artistic and design
trends. Nevertheless, it can be stated that along with the progress of civilization and
increase in affluence of societies there is an increase in the possibility and necessity for
applying better quality design solutions, materials, technologies and appliances which,
when combined with qualification of workers and work discipline, creates a chance for
obtaining better quality outcomes.

3.1 Size Standard

The most important housing needs include the need for space. House should not only
serve as a shelter, but it should also provide the possibility to meet diverse needs of its
dwellers. Living space plays a twofold role: utilitarian and symbolic (subjective). The
utilitarian space is considered to be the necessary space required to perform specific
functions, i.e. space intended for placing the equipment together with the minimum
space necessary for its use. Symbolic (subjective) space remains unmeasurable, and its
size depends on particular psychological requirements of individuals. It affects, among
others, the sense of freedom, independence, isolation and safety. Optimal shaping of
both of the aforementioned factors results in creating broadly understood comfort of
living.
Size preferences of the majority of population usually do not correspond to the
increased surface needs of people with reduced mobility, which eventually affects
everyone, temporarily or permanently. Hence, the pattern for shaping of contemporary
standards should be the space and movement requirements of people with disabilities.

3.2 Technical Standard

The technical standard of a residential building is determined by its building method.
Standard equipment of modern housing includes various installations (e.g. plumbing,
heating, wiring). At the same time, we are currently observing an increase in the share
of built-in furniture systems and electro-technical equipment, which positively influ-
ence the feeling of comfort of living and the ability to meet basic needs.

3.3 Variability Standard

The standard of variability determines the susceptibility of housing to making qualita-
tive changes tailored to current needs of its users. The said phenomenon may occur
within: a single room (the easiest to implement), the entire space of a dwelling or the
whole building (the most difficult to implement). Among the factors influencing the type
and scope of changes there are: the evolution of family size, economic position, pref-
erences, trends as well as the degree of technical and economic depreciation of a
dwelling. Among the factors limiting the possibility of introduction of changes there are:
rules of zoning (layout of rooms), constructional conditionings, financial possibilities as
 Ergonomic Shaping of Functional and Spatial Program of Housing 211

well as binding regulations and ownership. The concept of variability standard consists
of the volatility of surface, quality and equipment standards.

4 Utility Program

Utility program of a dwelling consists of a set of needs of all household members and it
does not result only from the size of a household. Therefore, the design process needs
to take into account also other elements shaping the family structure (age and gender of
family members, relations between them, generational composition, professional and
social status, education, lifestyle, habits and individual preferences).
Shaping of functional and spatial program of a dwelling is a multifaceted under-
taking, whose aim is to find an optimal solution. Such process needs to take into
consideration numerous permanent constraints resulting from the features of a dwelling
(e.g. size), its location (e.g. solar exposure) and technical and economic conditions (e.g.
construction system). That is why, the goal of optimizing the utility program is to seek
a compromise between the users’ needs of and various technical and economic
constraints.
The selection of appropriate place of living usually depends on a changing family
structure. The activity of individual household members and their individual personal
characteristics determine the diversity of relations between them, which require dif-
ferent shaping of the living space, enabling the development of interpersonal contacts,
as well as maintaining intimacy. The size and form of such space changes over time, as
it depends on family development cycle and structure. Providing optimal space of
individual (intimate) use for all household members reduces the occurrence of conflicts,
which in turn ensures the proper functioning of mutual contacts and group interactions.
The entire cycle of family life consists of two types of changes: quantitative (related
to the size of the family) and qualitative (related mainly to age and gender of children
as well as psychophysical fitness of the elderly). The necessity of changes in the utility
program is therefore a derivative of general standard of living; the lower the standard of
living, the more necessary the changes [3, 5]. The variability of housing needs of single
individuals is related above all to the change of socio-economic status and the necessity
of living in nursing homes, which results from the decline in psychophysical fitness in
old age.

5 The Impact of Lifestyle on the Utility Program

House is a place of externalization of family lifestyle, especially the living room which
is a peculiar showcase of family traditions and preferred lifestyle addressed to visitors.
Lifestyle is among the most important cultural phenomena, as it is a permanent
element of every human’s life [2]. Its maintenance is a natural impulse, which is
particularly noticeable in case of change of place of residence. Young people are more
susceptible to adaptation to new living conditions, while older people prove to be more
difficult to adapt to new housing and cultural conditions.
212 P. Nowakowski

Programming of rest area of a dwelling requires providing the necessary space for
subjective and individual psychological needs, related to creation of one’s own lifestyle
and specific social attitudes; these include: organizing meetings and social gatherings,
arranging furniture in a specific style (avant-garde, bourgeois, rustic and rural, mini-
malist, etc.), collecting family heirlooms as well as developing one’s style of fashion
and interior decoration.

6 Residential Interior Layout

General functional layout of a dwelling depends primarily on the assumed utility

program. It is also influenced by: current design regulations, economic indicators,
construction possibilities, energy considerations and psychological aspects. The
application of uniformed norms and building systems does not provide sufficient results
in the process of satisfying hosing needs [1, 6].
Modern construction technologies enable to build so-called flexible housing, where
variants of future individual changes to the entire or part of housing layout might be
predicted at the design stage. This proves particularly important for development of
housing intended, for instance, for people with disabilities [2].
The most common is the orthogonal interior shape, which provides both good
spatial orientation and furniture arrangement. Space enclosed by unified surfaces favors
isolation and concentration. The impression of spaciousness might be increased by
combining interiors. In turn, the introduction of transparent dividers, separating inte-
riors and external environment, may create the impression of enlarged space.
The spatial form of a house is determined by its functional layout, which creates a
system of elements with a varied degree of functional complexity, arranged in specific
space, according to assumed rules. The location and interdependencies of individual
functional elements (e.g. rooms) depend on numerous external factors (such as sun
exposure) as well as internal factors (type of use, functional relations). Rooms are
separated using fixed or mobile dividers; among fixed barriers there are construction
walls and partitions, while mobile dividers include sliding, folding or disassembled
walls, as well as so-called wall units and optical and acoustic screens. Due to the type
of used division, spatial layouts are divided into static and mobile [1, 3, 5]. The
possibility of removing of partition walls and insertion of new ones (in different places)
provides flexibility and mobility of spatial layout within the entire dwelling.
The internal communication system results from the type of adopted spatial layout.
In an open-concept house, communication proceeds in the form of enfilades, while in a
dwelling with separate rooms the communication system is closed within separate
communication routes. Depending on the degree of separation of communication
system, spatial layouts of housing are divided into enfilade and well-planned. A well-
planned layout (with a closed system) is one where all rooms are accessible directly
from the corridor.
Considering the communication space in open or closed functional zones allows
searching for optimal functional and spatial arrangement of a dwelling and avoiding
conflicts during its use.
 Ergonomic Shaping of Functional and Spatial Program of Housing 213

7 Zoning of Housing

The division and character of house zones are influenced by the following groups of
factors: functional (space organization and convenience of use), flexibility (possibility
of arrangement changes), physiological and psychological (daylight and artificial
lighting), division of space into zones of shared and individual use, perception of space
(influence of the size and proportion of rooms on a person’s well-being), ecological and
climate-related (including: sun exposure, temperature, humidity and noise level),
technical and economic (construction system, thermal and acoustic insulation of
building materials, technical equipment, costs of design, implementation, exploitation
and demolition of the building).
The ordered arrangement of functions (activities) and spaces assigned to them is
related to functional zoning. Mutual connection of particular functions of a dwelling
enables to create separate zones. Their isolation may be based on appropriately
accepted criteria, such as the following selected zone features: daily use cycle, the
degree of acoustic isolation, ownership as well as equipment in installations and
devices.
House zoning takes place mainly according to the “territorial ownership” criterion.
A dwelling is divided into a commonly used zone, as well as zones used individually
by parents (or single adults) and children. The common zone includes an entrance
space, a multi-purpose living room and a kitchen with a dining room. The zone of
individual use is composed of bedrooms, a multifunctional children’s room (bedroom),
an office (rarely in a form of a separate room – a library, a workshop) and a bathroom.
An important criterion of the division of a house is the equipment and installations,
thanks to which is it possible to distinguish the kitchen and bathroom (possibly a
separate toilet, shower room or a sauna). The other rooms, such as bedrooms, entrance
zone, balcony or loggia are usually equipped only with electrical and teletechnical
installations.

7.1 Day and Night Zone

The most popular zoning variant is determined by criterion of diversified daily use, and
a dwelling is divided into two zones – day and night. The day zone includes mainly: a
living room, a dining room, a kitchen, an office, an entrance and a balcony; while the
night zone encompasses i.a.: parents’ bedroom, children’s rooms and rooms of indi-
vidual use. The above division results from the need to ensure intimacy, silence and
tranquility in the night zone. The day zone is usually considered as space of enter-
tainment of guests.
The criterion of acoustic nuisance of rooms is basically identical to the division into
both zones. The day zone is a “noise zone”, therefore, it should be well isolated from
both the “silence zone” of a dwelling and neighboring housing units. What is more, the
day zone communication system should not intersect with the night zone communi-
cation system.
214 P. Nowakowski

7.2 Collective and Individual Use Space

The space of collective and individual use fundamentally overlaps with the day and
night zone. The space of collective use is the space where common needs connected
with social integration and interpersonal contacts are met. It is a space for family get-
togethers, development of social life and entertainment of guests. Such space consists
of the following functional zones: living room, relaxation area, TV area, playroom,
dining room, exterior area (balconies, loggias), etc. These areas are usually utilized in
the afternoons and evenings. That is why they should have southern, south-western or
western exposure. It is recommended to connect the rooms and zones of collective use
located in the leisure area with the kitchen and sanitary area (kitchen and toilet) as well
as the entrance zone, creating so-called day zone of a house. The proximity of the
entrance zone enables easy and free entertainment of guests, while the proximity of
kitchen facilitates meal serving. The analysis of housing needs shows that the size and
utility program of collective use space does not depend directly on the number, age and
gender of household members, but also on the evolution of their qualitative housing
needs [2].
The individual use space is a space where individual needs of household members
are met; it consists of bedrooms, which oftentimes serve additional functions, depending
on users’ needs. Among them we can distinguish rooms of: parents, parents with an
annex for a baby crib, children, grandparents or guests. The rooms used individually
may serve many different functions requiring additional space; they are used all day long
in a variety of ways. The way of their use depends on the utility program of the
remaining part of the house. The more extensive the area of collective use, the less
additional functions the individual space has. If a house has additional rooms for work,
study and play, then the rooms for parents and children serve merely the sleeping
function.
Bedrooms require isolation from the sources of noises and increased traffic.
Therefore, they should be located away from the entrance, living room and kitchen and
in close proximity of the bathroom. What is more, the location with respect to sunlight
exposure is very important, providing antibacterial sunlight in the morning or at noon.
All bedrooms can be joined together with a bathroom creating so-called night zone;
they can also create two zones: bedroom area for parents and space for children. Each
family member (with the exception of parents occupying one bedroom) should have a
separate room with a place to sleep. The number of bedrooms is strictly dependent on
the composition of the family, i.e. the number, age and gender of household members.
Shaping of the size and proportions of bedrooms should be derived from the
requirements connected to rational and flexible organization of the sleeping function.
This proves particularly important in limited space conditions.

7.3 Leisure and Service Zone

Another criterion for the division of a dwelling is providing of conditions for work and
leisure. Depending on the location of functional zones, the space of a house is divided
into leisure and service zones. The leisure area includes all rooms and the exterior space
(balcony, loggia, etc.). These rooms are used for broadly understood rest and
 Ergonomic Shaping of Functional and Spatial Program of Housing 215

maintenance of proper psychophysical condition of the entire family and individual

household members. The quality of leisure area determines the quality of the entire
household. Recreation area is the place where the majority of housing needs are met.
The service zone consists mainly of the entrance hall, kitchen, pantry, closet and
bathroom. It is an extension of the leisure zone as a place of work. The proportions of
both zones differ in houses. Together with civilizational progress, the importance of the
work (service) zone together with the kitchen becomes more subordinate to the leisure
zone [4].
Human activity is mainly focused in the work and house environment. Therefore,
the role of a dwelling as a place of rest and regeneration is primary, while other
functions connected with e.g. household chores remain secondary. Hence, the leisure
zone is the basic and largest part of a modern house. Nevertheless, when speaking
about the role of relaxation at home, one cannot exclude activities related to work, as in
all rooms household members do various chores, consisting of, among others, cleaning
and tidying up. In addition, children learn and do homework and certain chores, while
adults often undertake additional paid (office) work, while the kitchen is the place of
meal preparation.

8 Summary

Housing needs are varied and changeable over time, which should be taken into
consideration in the functional and spatial programming of a dwelling. Their imple-
mentation may cover the entire area of a house, single room or create a set of functional
zones in multi-purpose rooms.
The degree of satisfaction of housing needs is determined by the general housing
standard, which is a derivative of such components as: size, functional and utility, as
well as technical standards. The size standard oftentimes does not sufficiently address
widely understood needs, especially in case of larger families or people with disabil-
ities. Many dwellings are often considered as substandard, as they have not sufficient
space or faulty functional and spatial arrangement, since it is not possible to, among
others, implement changeability postulate (e.g. flexibility of furnishing) and needs of
people with limited psychophysical fitness. Design errors were often caused due to
cost-cutting, while coping of house models with faulty functional and spatial layout
resulted in them being criticized by their contemporary users [2].
Surface, functional, utility and technical standards shape the level of so-called
ergonomic quality of a house. It determines the actual degree of adjustment and potential
adaptation of a house to changing needs (flexibility). The utility program encompasses a
set of needs of all its inhabitants. Shaping of functional and spatial housing program is a
multifaceted task, dependent of specific human needs, whose aim is to find an optimal
solution enabling meeting the majority of residents’ needs. The process should take into
account numerous objective limitations resulting not only from the features of a
dwelling, but also from its location, as well as technical, economic and other conditions.
Ergonomics, as an interdisciplinary science, encompasses all activities related to optimal
shaping of modern housing, consistent with modern requirements.
216 P. Nowakowski

The interconnection of functions in a dwelling allows to create utility zones. The

division into rooms and functional zones enables to distinguish various zones intended
to meet different needs. Such needs sometimes are mutually exclusive, as they are
related to social integration and interpersonal contacts, as well as individual needs
connected with isolation from the environment.
The changeability of utility needs and modern construction technologies introduce
a new quality in architectural design. According to the above considerations, the fol-
lowing postulates should be taken into consideration in ergonomic programming and
design of modern housing:
• search for a variant optimization of utility programs as a compromise between
various needs of users and different technical and economic constraints;
• determination of diversified housing standards, depending on economic conditions,
their supply and development of civilization;
• striving for optimal functional and spatial solutions aiming at ensuring the possi-
bility of fulfillment of necessary needs and functions, convenience of use, reliability
and durability, aesthetic values, as well as reducing of operating and modernization
costs;
• rational consideration of external conditions, such as insolation, cardinal directions,
location in an urbanized environment;
• functional and spatial division and zoning taking into account: usage during the day,
acoustic nuisance, belonging to individual household members, equipment and
installations;
• flexibility of shaping of space within: a single room, functional zones and the entire
house, in order to adapt it to changing needs;
• freedom to connect and divide rooms;
• freedom to shape the size and layout of functional zones within a single room and
the entire dwelling;
• providing of specific size standard;
• adaptation of the space to the mobility requirements of people with disabilities;
• possibility of creation of easier-to-use mono-functional zones;
• possibility of adapting of a dwelling to changing physical abilities of its users;
• proper functional connection of individual zones;
• acoustic and visual isolation of areas of individual use from the rest of the house.
Optimal design solutions result from the evolution of social and cultural conditions,
related to the broadly understood protection of the human life environment. It can be
stated that ensuring of ergonomic quality of houses is possible not only by increasing
their size, but mainly by raising their standard and efficiency in use, by correct
placement of individual functional zones with specific dimensions and appropriate
equipment.
 Ergonomic Shaping of Functional and Spatial Program of Housing 217

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2. Nowakowski, P.: Ergonomiczne projektowanie strefy wypoczynkowej mieszkania, disserta-
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3. Pallado, J.: Zabudowa wielorodzinna: podstawy projektowania, pp. 63–68. Wydawnictwo
Politechniki Slaskiej, Gliwice (2014)
4. Richarz, I.: Oikos, Haus und Haushalt, p. 307. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Gottingen (1991)
5. Skibniewska, H.: Rodzina a mieszkanie, pp. 26, 29, 44. Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe,
Warsaw (1974)
6. Sobolewski, W., Uwarunkowania bioklimatyczne w ksztaltowaniu architektury domow
jednorodzinnych, dissertation, Architecture and Urban Planning Institute, Wroclaw University
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Urban Design
 Landscape Parks in China: Steering
and Handling Growing Tourism

Teresa Bardzinska-Bonenberg1(&) and Shoufang Liu2

1
Faculty of Architecture and Design, University of Arts in Poznan,
Al. Marcinkowskiego 29, 60-967 Poznan, Poland
teresa@bardzinska-bonenberg.pl
2
Liaoning Urban and Rural Construction & Planning
Design Institute Shenyang, Shenyang, China

Abstract. Chinese ways of organizing and exploiting landscape park areas,

particularly those of historical importance are specific, due to the contemporary
overexploitation of these sites. Historic landscape Park of Quin Shi Huang,
contains the world-famous “Terracotta Army”. Such a tourist attraction demands
organization of access and traffic on an archaeological site and throughout the
immense landscape park. The administration of Panjin Park in the Liaoning
Province acts to extend the tourist season beyond August/September, when
Suaeda Salsa is in bloom and the “Red Beach” attracts millions of visitors. The
ideas of spreading tourist goals beyond icons of nature and history and directing
them towards rural culture are the most challenging. Eco-farmsteads with ani-
mals and traditional crops from orchards, vegetable plots and fields are viewed
as an attraction by people who never experienced village life. Research methods
employed in the paper include on-site visits, review of literature, conference
papers and related PhD dissertation.

Keywords: Landscape park
Tourism
Overcrowding
Degradation

Projects
Diversion
Village
Revitalization
Local identity

1 Introduction

In addition to historical cities, the developing tourist traffic in China includes areas of
interest in terms of geography, nature and ethnography. This stems from a 10% average
economic GDP growth per year within the past three decades [1]. Taking into account
the fact that a medium-sized city in China has 1 to 3 million inhabitants, the potential
(and purchasing power) of people wanting to leave the city, to rest, play sports or
develop their interests is clear. This already causes over-exploitation problems at
popular resorts, including national and landscape parks, and attractive areas especially
the largest cities (Guangzhou - 44,294,245 million inhabitants, Shanghai - 35,965,403
million inhab.). These figures bring to light the scale of the problem. Spontaneous
organization of tourism enterprises led to environmental problems, such as scenic
resources damage, historical heritage collapse, natural resorts over-urbanization.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 221–233, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_21
222 T. Bardzinska-Bonenberg and S. Liu

The methods of implementation of changes of the tourism business and final results
must adhere, however, to the rules and laws of international organizations, such as
UNESCO and IUCUN which China is a member of [2, 3].
At the same time, rural areas, and also those located at convenient distances from
cities are often underinvested and poor. Farms operate there in a manner unchanged for
centuries. Sometimes, abandoned by the inhabitants, they disappear from the face of
the earth. Young people after graduating from schools and universities remain in cities,
other young residents leave to seek the so-called better life [4].
In recent years, two programs “Overall Plan on the Development and Management
of National Parks” (2017) [5], and “Double Repair, Double City” programme [6], have
been implemented in China, which have many common agendas. One of them relates to
the salvage of rural areas from backwardness and the other to the development of a
system of landscape parks and other recreation places. These programs are often carried
out in the same area: with an interesting location, potentially valuable tourist areas,
where partially abandoned, substandard and “drained” young people live in villages.
Those who want to leave the city for a weekend, holidays or vacation can find rest there.
Extending the possibilities of spending free time outside cities is to be implemented
by developing several types of extra-urban structures. These are sports complexes,
adapted by expanding buildings and equipping them with facilities enabling all-day or
longer stays and a second group of a strictly recreational nature. This group includes
several subtypes of sites or their facilities, delivering a whole spectrum of opportunities
for spending time: from scientific development, pursuing passions and interests,
through tourism of various forms and intensity, observing animals and plants, to walks.
Two types of places of recreation deserve special attention in the current situation:
those particularly attractive attracting crowds of tourists often from distant centres.
Popularity is a threat to the qualities of environmentally sensitive areas. The second
group are still experimental, new, recreation venues: villages located near cities, which
can become a place for short and long stays, where there are real farms in which
domestic animals are reared and orchards and home gardens thrive. Here it is possible
to be close to nature, animals, to participate in farm and village life and in local
festivities - or use the stay to discover the surrounding area. The standard of farms in
which tourists who are accustomed to urban comforts are to stay is an obstacle in most
cases. And only future will tell which one will prove the most advantageous.

2 Landscape Parks Threatened by Excessive Exploitation

2.1 Historical/Landscape Park of Quin Shi Huang

One of the world’s most important tourist attractions, the object of interest of
archaeologists and scientists from many disciplines is the Quin Shi Huang Park, located
40 km northeast of Xi’an, the former capital of China. Quin Shi Huang, the first
emperor of China lived in 210–209 BCE and was famous for his achievements: he
standardized coins, weights and measures, united the states with communication
infrastructure and started the idea of the Great Wall. With the beginning of his rule he
 Landscape Parks in China 223

initiated construction of his tomb. The Terracotta Army is just a small part of it. It is
estimated that it took 38 years for 720,000 craftsmen to construct the army itself. And it
is not completely uncovered yet. The entire funerary complex spans an area of more
than 98 sq. km. It is called the Qin Shi Huang’s Mausoleum Site Park. The Terracotta
Army Site Museum, Hall No. 1 was opened to the public in 2010 and three auxiliary
museums with further exhibition of the Army opened their doors in 2011. Excavation
and conservation works on finds are underway and are part of the exhibition that
tourists watch live. More than 8000 life-size figures were found, representing the
Emperor’s army and including officers, horses, archers, and chariots [7].
No two soldiers in the army look alike; each of the sand-coloured statues has a
different facial expression and hairstyle, and craftsmen are believed to have modelled
them after a real army. The Army was an introduction to the main part, the Mausoleum,
which is not explored yet [8]. The tumulus, about 1 km away, under which the tomb is
placed is in the shape of a regular earth pyramid (350  350  52 m), overgrown with
greenery. Excavations carried out in its vicinity reveal further elements of the funerary
complex (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1. Park of Quin Shi Huang, halls cov- Fig. 2. Park of Quin Shi Huang, interior of the
ering excavation site “B”, phot. T.B-B. hall: excavation site “A” phot T.B-B.

The discovery was listed as a world heritage site by UNESCO in 1987. It is

considered one of the greatest archaeological sites in the world, and one of the greatest
discoveries of the 20th century. The exhibited finds are mostly secured in situ by
building appropriate halls (Hall 1, 2, 3) or by being transferred to museum buildings
(Figs. 3 and 4).
These museums also conduct educational activities for various age groups of
children and youth, organize subject specific exhibitions, workshops and conduct
promotional activities. They participate in international exchange, and the discovered
artefacts were exhibited in Europe and in the USA.
The vast area of present and future research makes it possible to manage the traffic
of tourists, especially organized coach tours that come from distant cities. Every year
more than 4 million tourists from all over the world visit the Terracotta Museum and
that number is growing. In 2006, the terracotta army museum recorded only 2.6 million
224 T. Bardzinska-Bonenberg and S. Liu

Fig. 3. Exposition of a reconstructed warrior Fig. 4. Hall A, rear part of the exposition
with horse in Hall B, phot T.B-B. where reconstructions take part, phot T.B-B.

tourists, some 20% of them being from foreign countries [9]. Although package tour
groups still account for the majority of visitors, more private cars arrive to the main
entrance. The problem of parking spaces becomes acute, as the focal point of the
exposition remains the Terracotta Army Hall and the museums close to it (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. A site map showing the current and future situation enabling a more even distribution of
tourist traffic A - main entry, A’ - car parks, A’’- tourists facilities, B - park, C - three Terracotta
Army exhibition halls, D - Mausoleum: southern entrance to the excavation site, E - Mausoleum:
the north entrance, F - pyramid in which the grave is located
 Landscape Parks in China 225

Major archaeological sites that have been discovered in the proximity of the Qin
Shi Huang’s tomb consist of ritual sacrifice pits, the Museum of Terracotta Acrobatics,
Museum of Terracotta Civil Officials, Museum of Stone Armour and Museum of
Bronze Chariot and Horses. The inner and outer wall of tomb is partially uncovered
now. These sites are also interesting, but undoubtedly the most interesting exhibit to
see is the Terracotta Army.
In future the area around Qin Shi Huang’s Mausoleum (pyramid with a tomb) will be
arranged in such a way that visitors can enter it, and thus the south and east gates of the
Mausoleum will take some burden off the main entrance, providing quickest access to
the Museum. The “Army” will probably remain the biggest attraction until the inside of
the tomb is exposed - that is, after archaeological research in the tumulus [10]. Today’s
technology does not guarantee that the artefacts which have been preserved there for
2000 years without air will remain in an undamaged state. The researchers’ safety is also
of importance [8]. That is why archaeological works are carried out only in the outer
zone of the Pyramid, awaiting the emergence of new exploration techniques.
For the last 2000 years, the tomb area was inhabited, today villages and towns
cover the whole area of the former funerary complex. Two regions are available for
sightseers: the eastern region, where the Army is located, currently the main point of
interest and a set of archaeological sites near the tomb itself, 1 km to the west as the
crow flies. In future, the part of the Park with a tomb will become at least as attractive
and will attract tourists. Thus, it will be possible to find a two-sided solution to the
private cars access and parking problem. The motorway which intersects the Mau-
soleum complex and breaches the internal wall outline will make it possible to establish
new entrances to the excavation site, although it may itself become a problem for
landscape cohesion, which is being rebuilt in this part, using green plantings among
others. Now there are some 30 tourist electric buses shuttling on the 1.5 km highway
between the Museum of Terracotta Warriors and Horses and the Mausoleum area and
battery vehicles inside the Park.
It is still important to determine the boundaries of the whole complex, which,
together with new discoveries and research on subsequent elements, is gradually
expanding.

2.2 Panjin Marshes Landscape Park

Panjin Marshes, one of the most interesting natural areas in the world, is exposed to
destruction by excessive seasonal tourist traffic. They are located in the north-eastern
reaches of China, at the mouth of the Shuantaizi and Daling Rivers, near the town of
Panjin in Liaoning province.
The Panjin Marshes are the world’s largest coastal reed area, in 2004 entered into
the International List of Ramsar Sites under the Convention on wetlands of interna-
tional importance, especially as a living environment for water birds [11].
The marches are the most valuable part of the Liaodong Bay coastline covered with
reeds, with periodic mud bogs appearing. The tidal area is the area where Suaeda
heteroptera Kitagawa is found, which from May turns to pink in the salty environment,
in order to reach intense purple in August-September. The “red beach” in combination
226 T. Bardzinska-Bonenberg and S. Liu

with green reeds, blue sky and pools of water provides an unparalleled sight, con-
sidered one of the wonders of nature. That alone would be sufficient to attract crowds of
tourists. Meanwhile, the area also has oil, gas and salt reserves. The nearby Liaohe oil
well site is the third largest (in terms of size) oil rich area in China [12].
The smell of oil floating above the landscape park and the view of pump jacks
working among the wetlands is one of the most interesting experiences.
Agriculture in this sparsely populated area includes fish farming in ponds, corn
crops, rice fields with cows kept in irrigation ditches. Crabs, an autumn delicacy, as
well as fish are sold to tourists. Fishing, which once thrived in this area, is now limited
due to the protection of many fish species. Amateur angling is also permitted. Water
tourism facilities are in the pipeline. These will use channels between reeds, sandbanks
and suaeda islands.
Income from tourist stays and expansion of tourist services, fishing for local pur-
poses and production of traditional rice paper are the foundation for broadening income
sources for people living in this area (Figs. 6 and 7).

Fig. 6. Plan of the eco-friendly economic Fig. 7. New investments associated with the
area including the protected Panjin Wet- development of tourist traffic: an education
lands (colour-coded). Source: Technical centre, new access paths and bridges, observa-
Report Panjin Wetland Restoration Project, tion points and shelters of the most sensitive
2016 breeding sites. Source: Technical Report Panjin
Wetland Restoration Project, 2016
 Landscape Parks in China 227

Panjin National Park Reserve, is located in a landscape park, is the core of the
protected area, which has several access zones. From limited economic activity and
tourist access in the experimental zone to an area where human presence is forbidden.
In the central zone’s buffer and emergency zones, only actions as a result of which the
original state is restored are allowed. Scientific observation and research conducted in
this area are based in research stations accessible to researchers on bicycles or on foot.
Habitats of Spotted seals (Phoca largha), considered an endangered species are par-
ticularly noteworthy. The seals bread in this area. In the Panjin Liaohe river eco-
friendly and economic zone there are habitats and breeding sites of protected and
endangered birds. The Manchurian crane (Grus japonensis), the Chinese seagull (Larus
saundersi) as well as several varieties of storks and an eagle are found there. Over 100
species of wild geese and ducks have nesting places and winter here. Every year up to
500,000 of these birds are observed in wetlands. However flora and above all, the
already mentioned, 2,000 ha, suaeda habitat are biggest tourist attractions [13].
Vast, periodically water logged areas covered with reeds correspond to the range of
fresh water supplied by rivers. Bird watching is possible amongst the reeds, and with
the proper infrastructure, all day trips by boat or bicycle and on foot along piers,
between tourist service points (Figs. 8 and 9).

Fig. 8. The Red Beach in September, phot. Fig. 9. Oil fields in Panjin National Park,
T.B-B. phot. T.B-B.

The biggest threat to the wetlands, alongside the declining inflow of fresh water, is
contamination by developing agriculture and ongoing oil extraction, as well as cutting
down reed reducing soil fertility. The active oil field should be an additional attraction
for tourists. There are 600 oil wells, 1000 km of roads and 1000 km of underground
installations in the area. Disused wells and accompanying machinery, which if left
without dismantling deteriorate and contaminate the environment. They must be either
dismantled or made into exhibits, becoming another attraction of the Park. Directing
tourist traffic and providing choice to people with different interests and of different ages
is the basic element of the land development program being put together. The use of
potential of already existing observation and research sites and of the people working
there will make it possible to develop a popular science station, and permanent residents
of the area will provide support with accommodation and recreation facilities [14].
228 T. Bardzinska-Bonenberg and S. Liu

The following project elements are to be implemented by 2021:

• tourist information system at entries and at junctions
• implementation of an access system and car parks aligned with the starting points
for walking or cycling trips (nodes) as well as tourist facilities and accommodation
• food and drink and small recreation facilities
• development of the existing footbridge system connecting viewpoints and nodes
• construction of new observation points
• construction of educational premises with facilities
• preservation of existing fish and crab farms and rice fields.
At the same time, it is necessary to take precautionary measures:
• protection of nesting sites threatened by tourist traffic
• protection of 160 h of reeds
• creation of a protected nesting sire for herons and cranes,
• renovation of unused oil wells for tourism purposes [14].
Seasonality of tourists visiting the Park is due to the fact that it is frequented mainly
by inhabitants of nearby areas. The Red Beach, the viewpoint in the marshes and a
short walk or bicycle ride along piers are the attractions. Thus, most visits take place in
late summer and early autumn. And also during several holidays: the National Golden
Week in October attracts about 12,000 visitors every day [15]. The following dates,
amongst others, are still not capitalised upon: May 22, the International Day for
Biological Diversity, established in 2000 by the United Nations and February 2, the
World Wetlands Day commemorating the establishment of the Ramsar Convention in
1971. The goal is to stage events that will attract a similar number of guests as in
October.
Currently, the area covered by the plan has only one tourist centre located at the
North Gate. There is a clear lack of a roads network, which would take the load off and
quench through car parks the passenger vehicle and coach traffic which is concentrated
in the north. The second centre being established to the south of the estuary must be
connected with the first by eco-friendly internal transport as well as walking and
cycling routes. The elements that should be added at both entrances are water centres,
launching water tourism along canals, extensive fishing and angling, which will unload
the influx of tourists.
Apart from the aforementioned forms of activity, no further attractions are planned
until matters associated with maintaining natural resources will be stabilized and will
begin to bring the expected effects. Investments are arranged in a way that allows one
to choose how to spend time, with the most specialized activities far from popular
attractions. Such a zoning concerns every car or bus arrival point. The Ecological
Museum, related walking piers and observation stations are the centres that will focus
tourism traffic. In terms of scale and the use of natural materials the architecture of the
designed structures fits into the landscape.
 Landscape Parks in China 229

2.3 Villages for Tourism

The problems which have emerged at landscape parks in recent decades, as well as in
other attractive regions, are largely associated with excessive inflow of tourists during
weekends, holidays and vacations. Habits can change due to the appearance of an
attractive alternative. The intention of “Double Repair, Double City Programme” is that
it will constitute villages conveniently located in relation to cities and agglomerations
with interesting surroundings and good topographic conditions.
It entails a number of changes both in the structure of these villages and the
mentality of the inhabitants. Many suburban villages are depopulated, with mostly
older people who run traditional farms remaining. And that old management system
can be attractive for people living in cities. Participating in farm work, enjoying the
country cuisine and participating in rural festivities or wandering around can become
attractive and will help take some strain of traditional travel destinations for city
dwellers cities.
Such a program is implemented in the village of Xijingyu about 90 km from
Beijing, in Jixian municipality, Tianjin province. A picturesque location in the
mountains, the agricultural and orchard character of the farms predestine it for such a
role. The nearby completely deserted village called “old Xijingyu”, with similar stone,
but already destroyed buildings is advantageous. It provides the potential facilities for
further development of Xijingyu, if the enterprise succeeds.
The revitalisation programme is implemented by the Tianjin Urban Development
Institute [16]. Individual summer houses and apartments for rent on farms have been
built and operate in Xijingyu. The new architecture that is created there, including the
development of farms, is maintained in a uniform local character. There is already a
small Banluo Rural Hotel run by Zhongping Zhou in the village. A separate, enlarged
and shaped square for meetings and celebrations has been set aside in the centre of the
village, amongst cramped buildings. A “village club” was built next to it - a meeting
place for residents. A group of animators runs classes for children, young people and
the elderly there. Local charity events are organized. The adopted rural revitalization
program and the extension of the countryside’s function required pro-social activities
leading to a mentality change for the inhabitants as mentioned earlier. Their partici-
pation, which is reflected in home renovations and self-made extensions, shows that the
program is successful [17]. Architect’s supervision and technical services help in
making the right decisions. The financial benefits that families, which have chosen to
do so, will get from renting are likely to encourage others (Fig. 10).
The reorganization of vehicle traffic was aimed at restricting car access from out-
side and creating a system of pedestrian crossings with side streets and passageways
between houses. This maintains a natural, historical character of the village space.
Particular attention has been paid to exposing mountain views, which on both sides
limit the valley and are covered with terraced fields. Due to vehicle traffic restrictions,
the village has a separate car park, which was set up at the outskirts, at the arrival point
from the Beijing direction. In this way, tourists’ vehicle traffic was almost excluded
from the tightly built-up centre [18]. Village car park services one-day tourist traffic,
and also provides parking spaces for premises that do not have their own car parks.
230 T. Bardzinska-Bonenberg and S. Liu

Fig. 10. The general view of Xijingyu village with the parking space (P), village square (S) and
location of the ruined Old Xijingyu village (V), source Google Earth

There are toilets and picnic space by the car park. This spot is also a viewpoint and
starting point for walking routes of varying difficulty.
The architecture of the new buildings is in line with the local building tradition. The
architect’s office which carried out studies and developed the project, and then oversaw
and still continues to supervise the implementation of architectural and urban planning
as well as social participation assumptions is the Julue Design Company. The under-
taking is handled by architect Quian Zhang.
Local stone and wood are used. Nearly white limestone slates are used for paving
roads and pavements Fences and houses are made of them. Common village querns and
wells have been reconstructed with great care. The combination of architecture and the
lush greenery of gardens, in which trees provide shade in the hot summer, creates a
picture that is associated with rest. Stone tables and seats were placed in several points
for the needs of the residents. A common square and a village club accessible from
there with a shaded garden, tables and benches deserves special attention; a place of
integration for residents and, ultimately, tourists (Figs. 11 and 12).
The character of the buildings, the way for moving around the village and the
places that were traditionally important for the residents have been preserved due to a
thoroughly carried out, comprehensive revitalization. At the same time, new buildings
supplementing the urban structure and extensions of existing houses are strictly
maintained in the local construction tradition. Their standard reflects the current
requirements (Figs. 13 and 14).
 Landscape Parks in China 231

Fig. 11. The Village Square and the entrance Fig. 12. Corner of the main Village Street and
to the Village Club phot. T.B-B. pedestrian access street, phot. T.B-B.

Fig. 13. A new house to let, built in high Fig. 14. Flats to let within the farm com-
standard, the centre of Xijingyu village, arch. pound, Xijingyu village, arch. Quian Zhang,
Quian Zhang, phot. T.B-B. phot. T.B-B.

3 Conclusion

New solutions are necessary in a situation when natural and cultural resources in places
of organized rest are close to destruction by intensive tourist traffic. On the one hand,
existing centres must be adapted to new needs by building and developing
232 T. Bardzinska-Bonenberg and S. Liu

infrastructure in a way that fragmentizes the influx of people. On the other hand, it is
necessary to create new sites, where some of those leaving the city will find their
favourite place to spend free time. Until now, the potentials of villages, especially those
located in the vicinity of large cities and agglomerations, has not been tapped into. The
phenomenon young people in particular leaving villages, meant that they became
enclaves, where time stands still. In the villages, the way of farming, life and existing
buildings have not changed for decades. This backwardness can now become a quality
by which rural areas will become places of rest and rediscovery of the culture and
customs of Chinese regions.
Activities such as those implemented in Xijingyu, if they are carried out on a mass
scale, can contribute to calming the tourist movement at today’s mass recreation
venues. They can also serve to lift villages from demographic and economic collapse.
One condition must be met: revitalization should emphasize the individual character of
each village and draw on the folk tradition of the region in which it is located. Without
typical solutions, universalisms, rescaling and populist regionalism.

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 Smart Village as a Model of Sustainable
Development. Case Study of Wielkopolska
Region in Poland

Wojciech Bonenberg1(&), Ling Qi2, Mo Zhou1, and Xia Wei1

1
Faculty of Architecture, Poznan University of Technology,
ul. Nieszawska 13A, 61-021 Poznan, Poland
wojciech.bonenberg@put.poznan.pl
2
School of Architecture and Urban Planning, Beijing University of Technology,
Pingleyuan 100, Chaoyang District, Beijing, China

Abstract. In this paper spatial, functional, social and cultural aspects of smart
village are analysed. Use of rural cultural heritage as an element driving rural
development is highlighted. It is indicated that the post-industrial reality
imposes a need for a new attitude towards the role and place of cultural diversity
in rural planning. The concept of smart village supported by rural heritage and
cultural diversity is presented. It is revealed that cultural heritage is a key
resource of rural area, driving its growth as well as the performance of social and
economic goals. The “smart village” concept defined in this way should con-
stitute a significant source of competitive advantage.

Keywords: Smart village
Cultural diversity
Heritage
Rural governance

1 Introduction

The transformation of rural areas in Poland is rooted in the contemporary processes of

globalization and the concentration of the settlement network. It is the main cause of
deterioration in the quality of rural life and problems of rural development.
It is possible to mention here:
– Negative spatial and functional changes (abandoned farms, closing of service and
commercial facilities, etc.).
– Structural changes in farms as a result of specializing in agriculture, the collapse of
small and medium-sized farms.
– Rural unemployment.
– Poor access to services of general interest, such as health care, education, admin-
istration, postal, banking and business services.
– Urban sprawl, problems with technical infrastructure (local roads, water networks,
sewage systems and sewage treatment plants, energy supply).
In sum, this causes a significant loss of rural population, the migration of young
educated residents from rural to urban areas.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 234–242, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_22
 Smart Village as a Model of Sustainable Development 235

These phenomena lead serious consequences for sustainable rural development. It

is difficult to talk about a correct spatial policy which encompasses elements such as:
retention of cultural identity, social infrastructure reconstruction, more attractive village
buildings - without an appropriate economic base which was lost.
The paper presents the concept of smart village based on “managing cultural
diversity” as an answer to contemporary challenges faced by rural policy. In the general
“spatial governance strategy”, the primary factors which have to be taken into account
to achieve a sustainable, creative growth of rural areas are discussed. The Idea of this
approach was implemented from the author’s research on metropolitan areas [1, 2].
Results of the research currently underway within the Poznan County area are pre-
sented. The way in which rural heritage may contribute to improved competitiveness
and cohesion of rural area is highlighted.

2 The Problem

The definition of cultural diversity in the context of a smart village is very broad. The
Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines diversity as “the quality or state of having many
different forms, types, ideas, etc.”. In statistics, “dispersion (also called variability,
scatter, or spread) denotes how stretched or squeezed a distribution (theoretical or that
underlying a statistical sample) is. Common examples of measures of statistical dis-
persion are the variance, standard deviation and interquartile range”. In a broad sense,
diversity can be found in nature, economics, technology and also pertains to social
interactions.
The concept of a cultural diversity in settlement space is not new, it is connected to
concepts coined by sociologists studying interactions between spatial systems and the
social fabric. Representative studies on rural sociology include works by, Simmel [3],
Durkheim [4], or Castells [5]. These theories come from the assumption, that human
spatial behaviors, their ability to arrange surroundings, system of values and norms to a
large extend are determined by social factors and largely do not only depend on natural
conditions. Understood in such way, every space shaped by man is an expression of
social and cultural diversity.
For a long time, the discourse on diversity among rural planners and sociologists
focused on the spatial and social structure of villages and was detached from the
economy. Modern day economic transformations significantly altered this approach.
Traditional villages owe their development to the functions provided for the benefit
of their surroundings. In the past economic power of the villages depended on the
quantity of produced and exported agri-products. Contemporary development factors
have lead to a decline in the significance of mass agricultural production for the benefit
of high technologies, specialised services and creative use of cultural heritage. The
concept of cultural heritage appeared in economic analyses as a significant develop-
mental factor. Investors are interested in cultural heritage, it attracts customers and
tourists. Cultural heritage of rural areas is starting to be an advantage, which, if gov-
erned correctly, may be converted into economic development of the smart village
structure.
236 W. Bonenberg et al.

This pertains both to tangible heritage (e.g. architecture) and well as intangible
heritage (age, education, tradition, culture, collective memory of local societies, etc.).
Heritage is of considerable practical significance. Its economic potential is grossly
undervalued, so far not categorised as rural resources. These resources, resulting from
local heritage stretching back centuries, may be converted into development capital.
Heritage and economy are becoming ever more intertwined and interdependent. These
are the foundations for the smart village idea.
The traditional view of heritage as an element which generates costs and requires
financial outlays to eliminate differences and disproportions has been overshadowed by
an approach which sees advantages fuelling the smart village. Economical use of
heritage and cultural diversity is associated with new requirements within the scope of:
– lifestyle,
– visual consumption of the surroundings,
– seeking diverse experiences and emotions,
– innovation entailing the creative use of diversity.
Thus, the rural cultural diversity evolution stems from general civilisation trans-
formations, which can be characterised using a system of opposites, pitting traditional
20th century model of the rural economy and contemporary smart development:
Industrialisation – Deindustrialisation, Standardization – Individualisation, Hier-
archical structure - Network structure, Large scale - Small and medium scale, Unifi-
cation - Diversity and specialisation, Imitating others (the surroundings) - Being
deferment from others (the surroundings).
It is worth pointing out, that the contemporary reality imposes a need for a new way
of looking at the role and place of cultural diversity in the spatial and economic
development of a village. Heritage in the functional sense becomes a product. It is no
longer a set of ideals shaping the relationship with space, but assumes an economic
value. And thus it is associated with tangible values, which in the form of a unique
sight attraction, an exceptional event, a one off opportunity, are designated for the
consumer market.
The rural landscape is a typical product. It constitutes the village silhouette which
grew over centuries in the backdrop of the landscape, establishing new interior land-
scapes with varying degrees of attractiveness to their recipients. The art of landscape
compositions, has the potential to bring to the fore such qualities as diversity, contrast,
peculiarity, uniqueness, in return for which consumers (e.g. tourists) are willing to part
with a defined sum of money.
It should also be highlighted that innovation combined with rural heritage is able to
change entrenched habits. Local authorities, rural planners and investors should use
heritage and cultural diversity to development of smart village.
A positive example of such initiatives is the project of a Cultural Creativity Center
located in the village of Dipiewiec. The idea of the project is to create a common space
for creative use of the local cultural specificity in order to develop the village’s
economy and achieve socio-economic goals (Fig. 1.).
 Smart Village as a Model of Sustainable Development 237

Fig. 1. Cultural Creativity Center located in the village of Dipiewiec, Wielkopolska Region.
Diploma thesis at the Faculty of Architecture, Poznan University of Technology under the
supervision of W. Bonenberg. Author F. Sterczyński.

3 Cultural Diversity

A more thorough analysis of rural structure rejuvenation programmes focuses on

strengthening functional links based on diversity. In this scope a particular role is
assigned to architecture as the media for cultural diversity.
The “Our Creative Diversity” UNESCO report emphasises the fact that civilization
development is connected with the increasing significance of choice, where culture
plays an important part. Cultural diversity is a source of creativity, a factor which
makes it possible to make use of all human experiences and wisdom [6].
Towards the end of the 20th century, the Partners for Livable Places Association
was established, which is perhaps the oldest organisation aiming to maintain the
diversity of local communities. The association, throughout more than 40 years of its
practical experience, focused on providing information, advice and managing initia-
tives which creatively activate neighbour connections [7].
238 W. Bonenberg et al.

The “Division of Cultural Policies and Intercultural Dialogue” UNESCO report is

an interesting example of implementing diversity [8]. Duxbury, Cullen and Pascual
point out that investors and businessmen see diversity as a key factor for development
which should be implemented in local and national development policies The authors
state: “The traditional paradigm … does not recognize that cultural values ultimately
shape what we mean by development and determine how people see the world. In
contrast, a cultural diversity approach to development paradigms brings thoughtfulness
and openness, and contributes to a world with complementary, pluralized visions of
development” [9].
Interesting practical suggestions can be found in the works of Benet-Martinez and
Hong. The authors perform a cross section analysis of the “Dynamic Multiculturalism”
phenomenon in the social, cognitive, cultural and spatial context [10].
Fincher and Iveson point out that the contemporary spatial planning theory and
practice should emphasise the need to satisfy diverse needs and preferences. They
indicate the goals and tasks which constitute the basis for planning such diversity. They
identify three principles of creative diversity: redistribution, recognition and encounter.
Using various places around the world as examples, they come to a conclusion that
cultural diversity sets out a new space planning direction, which not only stimulates the
development, but also laying the foundations for the idea of smart space [11].

4 Smart Village and Heritage Governance

In the presented approach, the smart village is a planning strategy that assumes that
cultural goods are a key resource of the village, contributing to its sustainable devel-
opment. Governing cultural diversity pertains to the manner of creating spatial policy
which facilitates making efficient use of the available advantages of given rural areas.
Effective heritage governance entails recognising and creative use of cultural
diversity in the village’s structure. The direct benefits of governing rural heritage
include:
– consolidating the traditions and cultures of local communities, mitigating spatial
and social conflicts,
– the synergy of effect of various factors (working together achieve greater results
than the sum of their individual effects),
– strengthening the brand image of the given area,
– help in attracting and maintaining investors,
– increasing local motivation and identity.
The diversity phenomenon hides a very important aspect of rural planning reality.
In appreciating and appropriately making use of the differences between various parts
of rural areas, we are able to increase its developmental potential. Spatial planners
around the world are becoming ever more interested in the subject of governing cultural
diversity. Investors, residents and rural politicians are starting to notice the benefits
stemming from implementing heritage governance policies, such as social stability (the
feeling of local cohesion), better care for the area, attractiveness for tourists and
investors, better resilience of a village to crisis situations.
 Smart Village as a Model of Sustainable Development 239

The concept of a smart village based on cultural heritage is a relatively new idea,
however it is gaining in prominence within spatial planning circles. When establishing
a rural cultural heritage governance policy, the following methodological steps should
be taken into account:
(a) the diagnostic stage or identification of conditions, problems and potential asso-
ciated with diversity (a diversity audit),
(b) identification of conflict situations,
(c) forecast phase - scenarios for the benefit of the preferred diversity standards,
(d) selection of a development scenario on the basis of determined diversity standards,
(e) drawing up of rural diversity governance drafts,
(f) evaluation and monitoring of actions.
Governing of rural heritage is more than just an village development model. The
key role in implementing diversity is played by appropriate planning of tasks, defining
goals, the order of performing tasks and the expected results. Performance of a rural
heritage audit and testing which aspect of culture would be most beneficial to activate
for a village to draw benefits constitute the first step. Identification of conflict situations
is significant at this stage.
Then an action plan is drawn up using the preferred cultural standards and the
preferred development scenario is chosen. This constitutes the basis to begin imple-
menting culture heritage governance projects. Evaluation and monitoring of actions is
the final stage.
As a result heritage governance yields benefits for local governments, which gain
tools for activating local communities. It is easy to see that implementing rural heritage
policies in spatial planning is associated with a change to project strategy. The sig-
nificant changes entail involving the main interested parties in the project: investors,
local leaders, marketing specialists, planners and politicians. Such a strategy is to
improve the image of the rural area, by consolidating the positions of various villages
which invest in local cultural attributes.
The research conducted within the Poznan County area have lead to the identifi-
cation of the following cultural attributes:
– landscape attributes,
– cognitive attributes,
– functional and use attributes,
– identification attributes,
– integration and adaptive attributes,
– religious attributes,
– emotional attributes,
– behavioural and educational attributes,
– ludic attributes,
– symbolic attributes.
From the broad range only some qualities become the leading attributes of rural
culture for given villages of the Poznan County, establishing “cultural standards” of a
kind.
240 W. Bonenberg et al.

It is impossible to analyse individual attributes without taking into account the

whole picture, as the Poznan metropolis is a functioning and integrated whole, made up
of a unique configuration of diversity attributes ascribed to communities residing in
given districts. Cultural standards play a significant role in shaping the collective
memory of the social groups inhabiting the rural area. In the eyes of the residents,
particular villages of that area are assumed as their own, entailing idiosyncratic image
and unique emotional expression. Being around them every day or sporadically creates
a cultural identity of the place, grants access to various forms of creativity, shapes the
multiplicity of attitudes, interpretations and opinions. Studies carried out in this scope
have led to the creation of emotional diversity maps for the entire Poznan County [12].
The emotional attitude towards spaces, to characteristic forms, colours, architec-
tural details typical of a given tradition is shaped by the prism of rural heritage. The set
of attributes associated with such a space builds unique patterns, which should be used
in smart village planning.
Managing diversity of cultural heritage is a strategy which relies on the conscious
use of the diverse potential of parts of rural area. The actions undertaken shape the rural
environment in such a way, as to ensure that all villages have an option to seek new,
not previously evident advantages associated with the local culture, tradition, location,
landscape, etc. This is significant when it comes to planning practice of “smart village”.
Villages employing this type of governance may except the following benefits:
– improved image in the eyes of investors seeking the best locations,
– less spatial conflicts,
– better integration between neighbours,
– improved decision making process on account of discovering different approaches
to the problems and emergency situations which occur.
However, why is it, that despite such an abundance of benefits, cultural diversity is
still undervalued in planning practice? It seems that the main barriers to introducing
heritage governance strategies are:
– stereotypes and entrenched standards,
– prejudices and lack of tolerance,
– rural planners lacking professional backgrounds in terms of governing local
heritage,
– legal loopholes,
– bureaucracy combined with rural planning visions detached from local needs.
Working out cultural strategies and clear rural heritage governance procedures is
not sufficient to overcome these stereotypes. One of the main conditions for these tools
to be effective is awareness by local governments. The local governments should be
made aware of what cultural heritage is and how it affects attractiveness of rural areas.
The truth, that cultural capital are the primary, unique resource, which is decisive in
winning competitive advantage is only slowly filtering through to local governments.
In this context governing rural heritage should primarily serve to build awareness
and further acceptance of differences (historic, economic, functional and landscape)
which occur within a rural areas. It is very important for feasibility studies and spatial
development strategies to take into account elements such as:
 Smart Village as a Model of Sustainable Development 241

– the feeling of belonging to social groups,

– economic and cultural status of residents,
– residents lifestyles and attitudes.
A significant problem appears in this context, referred to as “inclusion”. Whereas
the concept of diversity refers to characteristics which cause areas of a metropolis to
differ, “inclusion” refers to the degree to which these areas have access to important
infrastructure resources of the metropolis. Studies conducted at the Poznan University
of Technology’s Institute of Architecture and Physical Planning demonstrated, that the
“inclusion” problem in the Poznan metropolitan area pertains to issues such as:
– integrated transport and transport availability,
– access to health care,
– access to education.
Studies within this scope were conducted in July 2015 by a group of 120 students
of Faculty of Architecture, Poznan University of Technology. The studies made use of
rural planning research entailing an area of 2162 km2 and 878 thousand residents. The
GeoUrbanCentric expert method developed at Poznan University of Technology’s
Institute of Architecture and Physical Planning was used for partial assessments.
The study aimed to identify relations stemming from cultural diversity between
Poznan County spatial units. Based on the study results it is possible to ascertain that
the level of heritage governance within the Poznan County area is low. The studies also
identified areas, where cultural heritage governance plans have to be implemented as a
priority. The smart village model for Wielkopolska Region, based on cultural heritage
governance was constructed in the study (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Smart village model for Wielkopolska Region, based on cultural heritage governance.
Autor: W. Bonenberg.
242 W. Bonenberg et al.

5 Conclusions

In the context of the changing external and internal environment, the “smart village”
concept based on managing the cultural heritage of rural areas becomes significantly
important.
Cultural diversity introduces new points of view, makes it possible to identify
loopholes and inconsistencies in the rural planning system. Governing cultural diver-
sity refers to the identification and acceptance of heterogeneity rural areas and skilful
use of the potential of heritage. Within the scope of heritage governing, rural planners
should increase efforts aiming to build awareness of benefits of cultural diversity
amongst residents and local authorities.
The “smart village” concept defined in this way should constitute a significant
source of competitive advantage.

References
1. Bonenberg, W.: The enigma of metropolis: its spatial diversity and methods of diagnosis.
Tech. Trans. Czasopismo Techniczne 8-A(14), 33–38 (2015)
2. Bonenberg, W.: Internal diversification – developing a research method of urban planning.
In: HCI International, Universal Access in Human-Computer Interaction. Springer,
Heidelberg (2016)
3. Simmel, G.: Conflict and the Web of Group Affiliations. The Free Press, Glencoe (1955)
4. Durkheim, E.: The Division of Labor in Society. Macmillan Free Press, New York (1964)
5. Castells, M.: The Urban Question. MIT Press, Cambridge (1977)
6. UNESCO: Our Creative Diversity. Report from the Word Commission on Culture and
Development (1995)
7. Hunter, P.: Towards Livable Communities. Partners for Livable Communities, Washington
(1983)
8. UNESCO: Culture 21 - Agenda 21 for Culture Report. UCLG and Barcelona City Council,
Barcelona (2006)
9. Duxbury, N., Cullen, C., Pascual, J.: Cities, culture and sustainable development. In:
Anheier, H.K., Isar, Y.R., Hoelscher, M. (eds.) Cultural Policy and Governance in a New
Metropolitan Age. The Cultures and Globalization Series, vol. 5, pp. 73–86. London, Sage
(2012)
10. Benet-Martinez, V., Hong, Y.: The Oxford Handbook of Multicultural Identity. Oxford
University Press, New York (2014)
11. Fincher, R., Iveson, K.: Planning and Diversity in the City: Redistribution, Recognition and
Encounter. Palgrave Macmillan, New York (2008)
12. Bonenberg, W.: Przestrzeń emocjonalna. In: Kaczmarek, T. (ed.) Studium uwarunkowań
rozwoju przestrzennego Aglomeracji Poznańskiej, pp. 258–260. CBM, Poznań (2012)
 “The Growing House” - the Way to Solve
the Housing Problem in Interwar Germany

Jadwiga Urbanik(&)

Faculty of Architecture, Department of History of Architecture,

Arts and Technology, University of Science and Technology,
Wroclaw, Poland
jadwiga.urbanik@pwr.edu.pl

Abstract. In the 20s and 30s in Europe new trends concerning not only
architecture but also greenery accompanying it within the city limits appeared.
One of the very interesting proposals was the, so called, “growing house”
promoted by the most important modern movement architects. In 1932 Martin
Wagner, the city architect of Berlin, published a book Das wachsende Haus
presenting a new concept of the intelligent house - ergonomic, ecological,
economical and flexible. The 24 architects’ proposals were published by
Wagner, owing to the fact of their realization at the Berlin fairgrounds, at an
exhibition entitled: Sonne, Luft und Haus für Alle. Such prominent architects as:
Poelzig, Bartning, Gropius, Häring, Hilberseimer, Mendelsohn, Scharoun, Taut,
Wagner and garden architect Leberecht Migge presented their designs at the
exhibition. The idea of the concept was to give the inhabitants plots they could
shape their house and garden on, according to their individual needs.

Keywords: Sonne
Luft und Haus für Alle
Das wachsende Haus

The growing house
Martin Wagner
The twenties and thirties

1 Introduction

In the 20s and 30s in Europe new trends concerning not only architecture but also
accompanying greenery within the city limits appeared. The most radical and visible
changes concerned architecture, urban planning and industrial design as directly related
to everyday life. Almost all European countries witnessed an “architectural revolution”
based on social and political movements. Social concerns were addressed by the most
of European avant-garde architects.
Germany in the interwar period, although facing immense economic difficulties,
began to tackle the housing problem, making affordable dwelling houses a high pri-
ority. With its economy ruined by the war and burdened with huge reparations imposed
on Germany, the country undertook considerable efforts to develop and present model
solutions.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 243–255, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_23
244 J. Urbanik

2 Situation in Germany in the Interwar Period

After the First World War, inflation was the main negative factor in German economy
at the time of the Weimar Republic (1918–1923). The inflation process quickly
increased in 1923. From July of 1923 the German currency lost its role as the mean of
payment. The economic growth was completely stifled.
A house with garden and outbuilding for small farm animals was highly desired, as
it also allowed the production of food. During the economic hardships, the future
owners often helped in the construction of the house. In the first half of the 1920s, the
so-called crisis houses (Notheime) were proposed.
Compared to pre-war period the prices in the housing sector increased 40 to 50
times. Small houses built by the owners themselves were seen as a solution for the
housing problem. They looked for cheaper means of house construction. The simplest
way to reduce the construction costs was the limitation of the living space. Small 4 
6 m houses became the standard.
Thanks to the introduction of the Retenmark in the October of 1923 and the
following money stabilization, and also thanks to the Charles Gates Dawes plan
(foreign investments in the German economy) adjusting the war reparations, the April
of 1924 marked the period of unprecedented economic improvement in Germany - “the
golden 20s” (Goldene Zwanziger Jahre) [1]. From 1924, loan money (mainly from
American investors) were introduced into the German economy and exerted a long-
lasting effect on German economic situation. The economic conditions in 1924–1929
were relatively stable.
After the First World War, social-democratic groups came to power in numerous cities,
which enabled the construction of larger residential complexes for the working class [2].
As the Werkbund joined the efforts to solve the housing problem it faced a difficult
task of creating a program for construction of small and inexpensive apartments for the
masses. The program aimed at short-term solution for the housing problem in all
countries, that were affected by war. The construction of inexpensive housing estates
was suggested all around Europe, although in Germany this trend was the strongest. To
reduce the costs of single apartment construction, they worked on a new organization
and utilization of living space. The easiest way to achieve this goal was to reduce the
apartment’s size. The “Existenzminimum” type was created – every room should have
the minimal size required to serve its purpose.
The II International Congress of Modern Architecture (CIAM) in Frankfurt am
Main helped in designing the proper apartment for the poorest families. It was devoted
to the “Existenzminimum” type apartment [3]. The choice of Frankfurt, for the meeting
of European avant-garde architects, likely wasn’t a coincidence. It was a kind of
laboratory of the new urban planning, new housing and new construction technology.
Ernst May claimed that precise scientific methods should be employed in rational
apartment design. He stated that necessary and sufficient minimal living space
requirements should be established for different size family units, based on biological,
psychological and sociological needs [3]. During the II CIAM Congress, Ernst May
gave a lecture on the rationalization of housing which contained seven arguments:
1. program, 2. organization of production, 3. funding, 4. field policy, 5. organization of
 “The Growing House” 245

apartment design, 6. methods of apartment production, 7. technological improvement

of the apartments. The rules of designing the rational apartments were included in the 5.
argument.
The issue was known in Germany, and the State Research Society for Architecture
and Housing Economics (Reichsforschungsgesellschaft für Wirtschaftlichkeit im Bau-
und Wohnungswesen - RFG) work on it for some time. It was established to fund and
research the rational building and to support the model housing realizations [4]. The
most prominent architects of the time were members of the Rfg and they aimed to
follow the Society’s guidelines in their designs and realizations [5].
Small “Existenzminimum” type apartments supported at the time not only by the
designers themselves, but also by the architectural authorities [6].
The economic crisis in the end years of the Weimar Republic forced the architects
to seek economical and rational solutions. It was a difficult task, because from 1933 all
works of architecture were subject to the Reich Ministry of Propaganda under the Act
from 22 September. Architects were organized in the newly established Reich Chamber
of Fine Arts (Reichskamemer der bildenden Künste), controlled by the NSDAP. The
membership of this section was required, for architects, to obtain the work permit.
After the 1933, in the new political situation of the early years of the III Reich
(1933–1936), the idea of small housing estate and own house (Kleinsiedlungs- und
Heimstättengedanke) in peripheral housing estates (Stadtrandsiedlungen) was pro-
moted. So, it followed the path of the crisis solutions of the early period of the Weimar
Republic. By tying the city working class to a place and providing means to grow food
in the garden allotments they intended to ease the perceived consequences of the
economic crisis. The concept of small housing estates was ideologically motivated.
They were provided for the unemployed and part time workers, already from 1931.
From 1934, the housing supply was used by full time workers with more than four
children. The housing estates consisted of monotonous rows of identical detached
houses, built on utility plots, arranged along the east - west of north- south axis [7].

3 The “Growing House” Idea

One of the very interesting proposals was so called “the growing house” (“das
wachsende Haus”) promoted by the most important modern movement architects. In
1932 Martin Wagner, the city architect of Berlin, published a book Das wachsende
Haus. Ein Beitrag zur Lösung der städtischen Wohnungsfrage (The growing house.
A contribution to the solution of the city housing problem) presenting a new concept of
the intelligent house - ergonomic, ecological, economical and flexible. The book
summarized the results of a competition initiated by Hans Poelzig. More than thousand
architects participated during November and December 1931. The 24 architects’ pro-
posals were published by Wagner, owing to the fact of their realization at the Berliner
Messegelände (Berlin fairgrounds), at an exhibition entitled: Berliner Sommerschau
1932, Sonne, Luft und Haus für Alle. Ausstellung für Anbauhaus, Kleingärten und
Wochenende (Berlin Summer Show 1932, Sun, Air and House for All. Exhibition for
Growing House, Small Gardens and Weekend Houses) from the 7th May to the 7th
August [8] (Fig. 1).
246 J. Urbanik

Fig. 1. House designed by Max Säume and Gümther Hafemann (Source: Wagner, M.: Das
Wachsende Haus. Ein Beitrag zur Lösung der städtischen Wohnungsfrage. Deutsche Verlagshaus
Bong, Leipzig 1932, p. 122)

Such prominent architects as: Hans Poelzig, Otto Bartning, Alfred Gellhorn, Walter
Gropius, Hugo Häring, Ludwig Hilberseimer, Paul Mebes and Emmerich, Erich
Mendelsohn, Hans Scharoun, Bruno Taut, Max Taut, Erich Heinicke and Karl Som-
mer, Egon Eiermann and Fritz Jaenecke, Dirk Gascard and P.M.Canthal, Hans Köhler
and Jürgen Schweitzer, Max Säume and Gümther Hafemann, Rambald v. Steinbüchel-
Rheinwall, Ullrich and Schalow, Ludolf von Veltheim and Klaus Müller-Rehm, Her-
man Zweigenthal, Martin Wagner and garden architect Leberecht Migge, all of them
from Berlin, and Willi Zabel from Magdeburg, presented their designs at the
exhibition.
 “The Growing House” 247

The exhibition houses designs allowed the possibility of house extension according
to the changing needs of the inhabitants. The extension works could be done in several
stages according to the architect’s guidelines.
This concept was probably connected with the so-called Lebensreform, a reform
concentrating on the improvement of health conditions of the society (among the others
through propagating new way of living in new, hygienic houses).
The growing house proposal suited the needs of the 20s and 30s alike. The project
resulted with cooperation between architects and construction companies.
Martin Wagner was an apologist for collective service [8]. From 1926 he was
Berlin chief city planner. In his work he tried, on the one hand, to realize functional
housing estates, on the other hand, he promoted new, often Utopian ideas of the Neues
Bauen.
The “growing house” concept was supported with the ideas of prefabrication and
standardization of the construction elements, with which the most socially necessary
small, but allowing to be gradually extended, houses were meant to be built –
“Bauindividuen” (individual constructions) (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Houses designed by Walter Gropius and Bruno Taut (Source: Wagner, M.: Das
Wachsende Haus. Ein Beitrag zur Lösung der städtischen Wohnungsfrage. Deutsche Verlagshaus
Bong, Leipzig 1932, p. 68, 99)

The new modern house, according to Wagner, should have a large garden as an
extension of the living space. In the garden one could work, play with children, and
even eat or sleep during the summer. Costs were meant to be spread out for the whole
construction time. Wagner opted for the employment of the qualified construction
workers in the assembly of the house. He totally rejected the idea of house construction
by the owners themselves. The concept of DIY house wasn’t, in his opinion, eco-
nomically justified. He claimed that the initial savings would be used for the future
maintenance of the house. The growing house was meant to be a technologically
advanced product, with gas heating, excellent thermal insulation and electric lighting.
The house was meant to increase not only in size, but also in quality and to be possible
to relocate if the family needed so [9]. The houses – exhibition items were planned to
be mass produced in the future, with financial assistance of private companies [10]. All
published designs included kitchen, living room, separate bedrooms for parents and
248 J. Urbanik

children, bathroom, toilet, cold and hot water installations, heating, lights. These fea-
tures were a luxury compared to the designs of the housing estates for the masses of the
Weimar Republic, which often didn’t include bathrooms.
It was possible to order a house by choosing the type from the catalogue. Examples
exist to this day in New York [8].

3.1 Urban Planning

Some of the architects (Walter Gropius, Ludwig Hilberseimer, Martin Wagner and
Leberecht Migge) presented the houses in an urban layout. The layouts of the housing
estates were characterized by the simple, parallel, rhythmic rows of houses, that
brought to mind military barracks. This kind of layout were called the linear layout
(Zeilenbauweise). It was used before in the 20s and finally it was recognized as the
optimal one in 1929, after the contest for the Dammerstock estate in Karlsruhe [11]
(Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Dwelling estate designed by Martin Wagner (Source: Wagner, M.: Das Wachsende
Haus. Ein Beitrag zur Lösung der städtischen Wohnungsfrage. Deutsche Verlagshaus Bong,
Leipzig 1932, p. 148)

An important figure among the architects at the exhibition was Leberecht Migge - a
landscape architect who collaborated with the Neues Bauen architects from Berlin and
Frankfurt am Main. The connection of the interior space with the garden space was
crucial for the growing houses. At the Berlin exhibition Migge proposed a “growing
housing estate”, which he also promoted in his publications.
The first element built in such an estate was a long wall, that was a kind of plan
construction. Later on fruit garden was founded. Along the wall, dwelling houses that
could be extended according to individual needs, were built. The wall was also used as
a support for fruit trees or creepers. Plots intended for functional gardens could be also
 “The Growing House” 249

extended. “All Europe a garden” that’s the motto promoted by the author of that
concept aiming at changing natural landscape in the so-called “Fruchtlandschaft” (fruit
garden landscape).
For Migge having a garden meant two basic things. On the one hand it forced an
owner to healthy physical work and on the other one the obtained crops were to be the
basic source of healthy food. That argument was of great importance in contemporary
Germany contending with difficult economic situation after the first world war.
Rationally designed garden was to be a logical supplement of rational housing con-
struction of the 20s. Migge called: There is no house building without building a
garden! [12]. In interwar Germany looking for new modern solutions concerned not
only architecture but also land division, shape of estate urban planning and greenery.
Migge regarded geometric divisions as the most suitable in the realization of his
concept. Estate gardens stretched out along the walls (Schutzmauer). Barrack town
planning of interwar estates concerned the greenery, too. The aim of those walls was to
accumulate the warmth and protect stenothermic plants planted in their vicinity against
cold winds (Figs. 4 and 5).

Fig. 4. House designed by Leberecht Migge (Source: Wagner, M.: Das Wachsende Haus. Ein
Beitrag zur Lösung der städtischen Wohnungsfrage. Deutsche Verlagshaus Bong, Leipzig 1932,
p. 91)
250 J. Urbanik

Fig. 5. The growing estate designed by Leberecht Migge (Source: Wagner, M.: Das Wachsende
Haus. Ein Beitrag zur Lösung der städtischen Wohnungsfrage. Deutsche Verlagshaus Bong,
Leipzig 1932, p. 90)

In 1932 Migge published a book entitled Die wachsende Siedlung (The Growing
Estate). His idea was to give to give the inhabitants plots they could shape their house
and garden on, according to their individual needs. An architect proposed a design for a
house that could be extended in three stages, according to the growing needs of the
family that gets some guidelines for shaping a functional garden. It was extremely
important at the end of The Weimar Republic when some problems on the work market
appeared. A garden was an excellent source of agricultural produce that could be the
source of supporting a family. The result of farming is as important yet may be more
important than houses themselves… wrote Migge [13].
In the so-called “growing estate” with self-supply, Migge proposes plots for dif-
ferent users: for one user farming an allotment for their own needs, for house owners
living in a functional garden, for those farming an allotment in addition to their pro-
fession, for a gardener living on farming, for those working in a different profession but
dealing with farming poultry for sale.
 “The Growing House” 251

In designing “growing houses and settlements” the principle of “searching for the
sun” was implemented by erecting various types of partitions (walls, trellises, hedges)
which served as sun screens that heated up during the day and created a special
microclimate in the gardens, especially in temperate zones. Migge suggested that
habitable rooms in new houses face the south, which he justified with the longest
exposure to the sun during the day [14].

3.2 Functional Layout

Despite numerous modern solutions, in most cases, the functional layout of the houses
was traditional, it included an individual kitchen – laboratory separated from the living
room. At the time, in the second half of the 20s an open layout was widely promoted,
especially on the experimental exhibition estates of the Werkbund.
Otto Bartning and Herman Zweigenthal introduced the, so called, living kitchen
(Wohnküche) – living room and kitchenette conjoined, that served as the only place for
family meetings in small apartments. Initially Bartning reserved only 25 m2 for the
living room with kitchenette and bathroom. It was the smallest house at the exhibition.
Only Walter Gropius and Hans Scharoun presented a fully open layout, with
kitchen and living section located in a single chamber. At the first development stage of
the house, Scharoun even proposed to combine the kitchen, living room and bedroom.
This layout was possible to modify with the extension of the house (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Houses’ layouts designed by Erich Mendelsohn and Hans Poelzig (Source: Wagner, M.:
Das Wachsende Haus. Ein Beitrag zur Lösung der städtischen Wohnungsfrage. Deutsche
Verlagshaus Bong, Leipzig 1932, p. 85, 54)
252 J. Urbanik

It was typical for the living section to be the main part of the house, that wasn’t
meant to be modified with the extension of the house. Only the bedroom section
provided the possibility for extension.
All designers proposed the separation between the day section and the night section
of the house. It was much easier to achieve in a two storied building, where it was
possible to locate the bedrooms at the second floor (Hans Poelzig, Paul Mebes and
Emmerich) (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. House designed by Martin Wagner (Source: Wagner, M.: Das Wachsende Haus. Ein
Beitrag zur Lösung der städtischen Wohnungsfrage. Deutsche Verlagshaus Bong, Leipzig 1932,
p. 146, 149)

Martin Wagner’s design was criticized for the idea to locate the living room at the
center of the ground floor, without additional lighting from the large windows. Only
small roof windows were used.
Wagners proposal was criticized as too fancy for the time by Aleksander Klein,
who researched the layout design of small houses for the RFG. The surface area of the
house was to be 28,5 m2 at the first development stage, and 57,65 m2 and 80 m2 after
the subsequent extensions.

3.3 Constructions and Building Materials

All of the architects proposed the houses built with the prefabricated elements that were
ready for quick dry installation. They consisted of wood panels or iron and steel
constructs that allowed for standardization (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8. House designed by Hans Poelzig (Source: Wagner, M.: Das Wachsende Haus. Ein Beitrag
zur Lösung der städtischen Wohnungsfrage. Deutsche Verlagshaus Bong, Leipzig 1932, p. 56)
 “The Growing House” 253

Such constructs were already promoted, for example by “Christoph & Unmack”
company from Niesky. The company made wood panels, that were used to build
military barracks and field hospitals before the First World War. After the war, they
looked for new market opportunities in the field of house and housing estate con-
struction, that was much needed in Germany at the time [11].
New materials available at the time, such as: concrete, reinforced concrete, steel,
copper and light metals (corrugated steel sheets) were used to make construction
frames, wall panels, foundations and roofs.
Otto Bartning introduced his own “Bartning system”. A steel frame protected
against rust and thermally insulated were installed on a concrete foundation and built
over with panels covered with copper plate and filled with cork insulation (6 cm).
Three kinds of panels were utilized: whole, with windows and with doors. Such 60 m2
house was possible to construct in a single day time.
Hans Poelzig designed a house with two floors under the curved board roof.
A distinctive feature of this house was nearly complete lack of outer walls (only gable
walls). The roof was covered with zinc plate and insulated with cork panels and
plywood from the inside. Over 90 m2 of living space was created. It was possible to
construct in one week.
Walter Gropius invented an interesting solution which was patented by Foster &
Kraft in Hirsch- und Kupfer- und Messingwerke A.-G. It utilized a thermal insulation
similar to the aluminum foil air pockets used in the refrigerated wagons.

3.4 Form and Furnishings

Nearly all of the exhibition items presented the form that fit within the Neues Bauen
trend. The houses were designed to be flat roofed, mostly single floor, cuboid in shape.
Sometimes, when extended, they became a more interesting composition of a few
blocks (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9. Houses designed by Hans Scharoun and Hans Köhler and Jürgen Schweitzer (Source:
Wagner, M.: Das Wachsende Haus. Ein Beitrag zur Lösung der städtischen Wohnungsfrage.
Deutsche Verlagshaus Bong, Leipzig 1932, p. 95, 119)
254 J. Urbanik

Interior furnishings presented at the exhibition reflected the principles followed by

the avant-garde architects – empty space, purely functional items, light, factory pro-
duced furniture. Everything that didn’t serve a particular purpose was removed from
the modern apartment. The interiors became empty. It wasn’t filled with furniture and
the suggested furnishings were simple, functional and sterile. A house furnished with
mass produced furniture became an ideal.

4 Conclusions

The transitional period between the Weimar Republic and National Socialist period
was a hard test of the architects’ skills to meet the needs of the big cities’ inhabitants.
The growing house concept could satisfy the housing needs during the whole interwar
period.
Proposed solutions would satisfy the apartment shortage at the time of the worst
economic crisis after the First World War. Especially the main section of the house that
met the features of the crisis house (Notheime). Also, the equivalents of the “Exis-
tenzminimum” type, promoted in the second half of the 20s were present at the
exhibition. Proposed houses would meet the needs of the crisis times in the first half of
the 30s. if not for the simple, avant-garde form. However, the concept of “growing
house and estate” was never realized to the full.

References
1. Rieger, H.J.: Die farbige Stadt. Beiträge zur Geschichte der farbigen Architektur in
Deutschland und der Schweiz 1910–1939. Aku Fotodruck, Zürich (1976)
2. Wisłocka, I.: Awangardowa Architektura Polska 1918–1939. Arkady, Warszawa (1968)
3. Syrkus, H.: Społeczne cele Urbanizacji. PWN, Warszawa (1984)
4. Kononowicz, W.: Ewolucja osiedla mieszkaniowego we wrocławiu okresu Republiki
Weimarskiej - Księże Małe. In: Rozpędowski, J. (ed.) Architektura Wrocławia, vol. 2,
pp. 445–478. Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej, Wrocław (1995)
5. Hartmann, K. (ed.): Trotzdem modern. Die Wichtigsten Texte zur Architektur in
Deutschland 1919–1933, Bauwelt Fundamente 99, Vieweg, Braunschweig, Wiesbaden
(1994)
6. Aussichten des diesjährigen Wohnungsbau - Forderungen für den Kleinwohnungsbau.
Schlesisches Heim, 171 (1928)
7. Kononowicz, W.: Mieszkalnictwo osiedlowe Wrocławia w okresie II Rzeszy. Archivolta 1,
18–25 (2005)
8. Bollery, F.: Das intelligente Haus: ökologisch, wirtschaftlich und flexible/The Intelligent
House: Ecological, Economical, and Flexibile. In: Das Wachsende Haus, pp. 153–158, 177–
182. Spector Books, Leipzig (2015)
9. Scarpa, L.: Die technokratische Utopie: Das Haus wächst, die Stadt schrumpft/The
Technocratic Utopia: The House is Growing, the City Shrinking. In: Das Wachsende Haus,
pp. 159–164, 183–188. Spector Books, Leipzig (2015)
10. Avermate, T.: Geregelter Wandel und wirtschaftliches Bauen/Regimes of Change,
Economies of Building. In: Das Wachsende Haus, pp. 165–168, 189–192. Spector Books,
Leipzig (2015)
 “The Growing House” 255

11. Urbanik, J.: Wrocławska wystawa Werkbundu - WUWA 1929–2009. Muzeum Architektury
we Wroclawiu (2009)
12. Migge, L.: Neues Gartenbau. In: Gutkind, E. (ed.) Neues Bauen: Grundlagen zur praktischen
Siedlungstaetigkeit. Verlag der Bauwelt, Berlin (1919)
13. Migge, L.: Die wachsende Siedlung nach biologischen Gesetzen. Stuttgart (1932)
14. Baumann, R.: Domy w zieleni. Arkady, Warszawa (1991)
 Architectural Challenges of Designing Front
Entrance Area at City Schools

Andrzej Dudzinski(&)

Faculty of Architecture, Bialystok University of Technology,

ul.Oskara Sosnowskiego 11, 15-893 Bialystok, Poland
a.dudzinski@pb.edu.pl

Abstract. The external area of the main entrance to the school building is
extremely vital part of the whole architectural design, especially in challenging
conditions of dense urban fabric of modern city. It should be the showcase of
particular educational facility. There are specific functional requirements related
to security, composition, aesthetic, etc. that need to be met. The entrance area is
a keystone for external and internal space, therefore it requires a detailed study
in early pre-design and schematic design phases of the project, before final
decisions are made. Many of the particular site inconveniences emerge at the
designing stage, but some appear after school opening, for this reason it is
beneficial to observe and learn also from existing facilities. In many cases some
of the fundamental needs are omitted by architects as a result of various reasons
and preconditions. The study was based on author’s own research, and his
experience in designing schools. The purpose of this paper is to provide an
overview and analysis of selected elements of school architecture, and take an
aim at addressing functional ergonomics with spatial needs of the school front
entrance area.

Keywords: School architecture
School building
Design of school

1 Introduction

Design and implementation of new school buildings located in urban space with a high
degree of urbanization, which is characterized by compact buildings and high popu-
lation density is a phenomenon observed especially in large agglomerations. Such
location of educational facilities is usually a necessity resulting from demographic
changes in individual urban centers as a result of migratory movements of the popu-
lation. Location in intense urban development may have many advantages. Such
location of new schools in the existing urban tissue is associated with a large number of
inconveniences and compromises that can not be avoided [1].
This article presents the results of research on architectural solutions of selected
schools located in cities of New York (USA), Bialystok (Poland) and Bielsko-Biała
(Poland). The analysis were carried out mainly in terms of the shape of the pre-entrance
square, which is a functionally necessary space between the school’s building interior
and an external public area.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 256–265, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_24
 Architectural Challenges of Designing Front Entrance Area at City Schools 257

Designing schools located in high density cities usually need to face complex, and
sometimes contradicting requirements. The location of schools in intensive urban tissue
often causes nuisance related to communication noise, air pollution, and in-creased risk
of accidents. The insufficiency of investment areas often results in the location of
schools in such neighborhoods [2].
The limited area of the plot – which is the most common deficiency in schools
located in dense urban fabric – in many cases affects the reduction of outside areas
designated for recreation, sports and other important spaces like proper Front Entrance
Area.
The pre-entrance space is a kind of link between the outside world and the school
building interior. That is why it often performs more complex functions than just a
communication buffer. The external space of the main entrance to the school building
should be its showcase. The entrance area to the school building, as a keystone for
external and internal space, requires a detailed study not only for functional and aes-
thetic reasons [2]. “The main entrance is a showcase of the school, the most memorable
of its fragment, as it is the first impression in the meeting with the building. It should be
distinguished from other inputs in a determined way” [3].

2 Pre-entrance Space

The pre-entrance space in front of the main entry to the school building is formally and
functionally a very important part of it. It should be not only a spatial distinction, but
also need to meet specific functional requirements related to security, compositional,
aesthetic, etc. Unfortunately, in contemporary architecture, it is often noticeable that
this issue is not always treated in a correct manner, especially in facilities built in large
urban centers, where it is difficult to obtain plots with proper spatial parameters.
In today’s era of free market economy, when developers use all means to acquire
valuable land for commercial investments, it is extremely difficult to find the right
location for educational functions. Contemporary realizations of schools in cities are
most often located on plots with low parameters in relation to functional requirements.
The entrance area to the school building is important not only for functional rea-
sons. Equally important are psychological aspects about which professor Janusz
Włodarczyk wrote that “(…) architecture has its interior and its outside. They are two
different worlds and a transition from one to the other is the overcoming of the
threshold, a difficulty sometimes extremely serious for a man. They are the worlds of
intimacy and unveiling, the worlds of the public sphere and private (…)”. And then we
read: “(…) Pre-entering space should be an intermediate zone, a place to adapt to
change of tensions, change of mood (…)” [4].
In case of the school function, area before the entry to the building is carrying with
oneself special emotional charge. “Buildings, (…) with a graceful transition between
the street and the inside, are more tranquil than those which open directly off the street”
says Christopher Alexander in his A Pattern Language. Alexander recommends that
you make a transition space between the street and your front door bringing the path
which connects the two through a transition space. The space should emphasize a
change in direction, a change in surface and level that funnels you through a gateway.
258 A. Dudzinski

The route should take you past different colours, shapes and textures that create light
and shade contrast [5].
This is the place where the guardians say good-bye each morning, and then, after
the end of their classes, they greet theirs wards. American pupils cross the school
threshold only with the teacher in their peers group. This is primarily due to strict safety
requirements on school grounds in the United States. The pre-entrance zone must be
accordingly spacious, to - among other factors - be able to safely accommodate chil-
dren gathered in an organized manner before starting the morning classes.
Professor Janusz Włodarczyk also pointed out that “… the space of the external
square should be described as” interior, “because the term in relation to space has two
meanings. The first is considered in a relationship with the building: everything inside
it is interior. In the second, building is treated as an equivalent element with the
surrounding space (…)” [6].
Contemporary schools in cities are most often located on plots with low parameters
in relation to functional requirements. The limited area of the site usually affects the
reduction of land intended for recreation, sport and spaces such as pre-entrance square,
which is a link between the outside world, and the interior of the school building. It
usually has more complex functions than only communication buffer. Designing of
educational facilities located in the compact, already existing intense buildings of
modern cities it is not a simple task. Correct formation, planning, but first and foremost,
the need to be formally important and functionally spaces, which undoubtedly include
an entry the school building. It should be a subject of careful analysis, undertaken
already at the pre-design stage. Too often, inappropriate spatial solutions are noticed,
which results in not only lowering the quality of the space around the school building,
but may also affect negatively on the level of user safety. Of the examples of modern
schools, we can find of course both positive and negative projects. It is difficult to find
the perfect solutions. However, extremely inappropriate situations are when the sepa-
rated pre-entrance space is not planned and not existing at all.

3 Location and Other Features of the Main Entrance

“The main entrance is a showcase of the school, the most memorable of its fragment, as
it is the first impression in meeting with the building. It should be distinguished from
other inputs in a determined way” [3]. Usually, this is a clear accent in the whole of the
compositional object.

3.1 Safety First!

Student safety must be a priority aspect in all phases of not only design but also the
subsequent use of the school facility. Extremely important is correct location of the main
entrance - which must ensure safe access to the building – in relation with adjacent
roadway. Studies of relevant legal regulations in different countries (as well as common
sense) indicate that it is advisable to move away the entrance of the building from the
edge of the road. Minimal distance should be 15–20 m. The pre-entrance area also must
be sufficiently spacious to accommodate children who gather in an organized manner.
 Architectural Challenges of Designing Front Entrance Area at City Schools 259

Observations of the functioning schools in New York shows that the above general
statements are not always reflected in practice.
So how to explain the often negative results of analyzes concerning, among other
factors, the distance of the main entrance from the edge of the roadway, which is
undoubtedly one of the criteria for safe access to school?

Fig. 1. Distance of the main entrance from the edge of the roadway. in new public elementary
schools built in New York in the years 2000–2015. Source: The diagram is the result of the
author’s own research.

The diagram above shows that the vast majority of the surveyed schools do not
meet the basic criterion related to the required distance between the street and the main
entrance to the building. In the case of 66% of the analyzed examples, the distance was
less than 10 m. Only in 30% of new schools in New York acceptable interval of 15–20
and more meters has been achieved.
One of the reasons is the fact that many schools are located in a pedestrian
development. They often have no possibility of withdrawal of the entrance zone in
relation to the building line.
In a city like New York, where changes take place very quickly, schools are
sometimes located in buildings previously serving a completely different purpose. This
is the case with a Manhattan school P.S. 340 (shown on Fig. 2) adapted from a hospital
function (Fig. 3).
“…An arrangement of entering the building plays an important role in indicating
the entrance to the building. He leads us in the right way direction and properly binds
the building with the surroundings” [3].
In practice, the main entrance to the New York school building often plays the role
of a purely formal representation function. The actual access of pupils to school for
various organizational reasons takes place in these cases through playgrounds or other
260 A. Dudzinski

Fig. 2. Main entrance to school P.S. 340 in Manhattan. The distance of the main entrance from
the edge of the roadway is about 5 m (only the width of the sidewalk). phot. Source: http://www.
ewhowell.com/portfolio/p-s-340/

Fig. 3. Front elevation of PS 244Q - The main entrance is very well accentuated by gently
sliding out of the façade line and covering with a distinctive small green roof. However, the
distance of the entrance from the edge of the roadway is only 5 m. phot. A. Dudzinski
 Architectural Challenges of Designing Front Entrance Area at City Schools 261

Fig. 4. Front elevation and side elevation at PS-357 school in Bronx, NY. Access to the
building mostly via door on side elevation. Source: https://www.google.pl/maps

external spaces (located at the rear or side elevation), on which individual classes can
be gathered before entering the school in the company of a teacher (Fig. 4).
The above photo shows an example of a primary school (in the Bronx neighbor-
hood of the city of New York) located on the corner of two busy streets. The main
entrance (on the left) is used only occasionally. Actual access to the school building is
via a side entrance (on the right). This is probably due to the fact that the side entrance
is closer to the playground, where the morning collection of students takes place. The
school bus visible in the photo intentionally blocks traffic on the road, in order to
ensure safety for the students getting off.
As indicated in the diagram (shown on Fig. 1), there are also positive solutions
within the examined school collections. Among them are the following facilities:
K422-Brooklyn Spring Creek Educational Campus with clearly accented main entrance
with a spacious pre-entrance square; P.S./I.S. 314Q The Queens School for Leadership
and Excellence with well-visible main entrance located near the recreation area; or in
P.S.102Q Bayview School - expansion of the existing historic school from 1931, where
the pre-entering square was created with a new main entrance to both buildings, with
“radiating” interior of the lobby behind the “semicircular” main entrance (Figs. 5, 6
and 7).
An example of the proper shape of the square in front of the entrance to the school
building may be the space in front of the Primary School No. 47 in Białystok, built in
the 1970s, on one of the largest housing estates of the city, surrounded by a very
intense multi-family housing development. It is a typical building, designed without
intention to create original architecture. The proper parameters of the school plot with
the entrance to the building at a distance of about 32 m from the adjacent street were
262 A. Dudzinski

Fig. 5. School K422 Brooklyn Spring Creek Educational Campus. photo. A. Dudzinski

Fig. 6. P.S./I.S. 314Q The Queens School for Leadership and Excellence. The fenced school
grounds provide well controlled access to the building by individuals and vehicles. photo.
Source: http://gruzensamton.com/project

Fig. 7. P.S.102Q Bayview School. Expansion of the existing historic school from 1931. phot.
Source: http://gruzensamton.com/project
 Architectural Challenges of Designing Front Entrance Area at City Schools 263

Fig. 8. Pre-entrance space in Primary Public School No. 7 in Bialystok (Poland). phot.
A. Dudzinski

obtained due to the proper location of the school function already at the planning stage
of the spatial housing estate as a whole of the urban planning assumption (Fig. 8).
In the picture above you can see a deep roof under which you can get shelter from
rain. Also thought about benches for waiting parents. And all blended in with carefully
composed greenery. In the depth of the right photo are also visible bike racks. In a well-
planned housing estate, where students’ paths to school do not intersect with busy
arteries, students often use bicycles to get into classes.
Another interesting project in Poland from a similar period, with more distinctive
features is a primary school and kindergarten on the Złote Łany housing estate in
Bielsko-Biała built in 1975 (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9. Land development plan for primary school and kindergarten. Złote Łany housing estate,
Source: [3].

The plot for the construction of this school was certainly not easy to build, mainly
due to the large differences in the height of the area. It would be difficult to locate a
typical repetitive building here. Thanks to this, an interesting object was created,
264 A. Dudzinski

consisting of four blocks, pavilions connected by an aboveground connector, integrated

into the existing slope and an unusual layout of the plot. In the immediate vicinity,
multi-family housing was located, separated from the school plot by green belts.
Despite the passage of more than forty years from the construction and poor
technical condition (which can be seen in subsequent photographs), probably resulting
from underinvesting in current repairs, the whole positively surprises the natural entry
of the object in topographical conditions, highlighted by a step-out withdrawal of
individual levels. The existing stand that performs an insulating role is a huge value.
The pre-entrance square solution is also interesting due to the large differences in
altitude that must be overcome to get to the building. It creates a certain drama of
access and creates a unique spatial arrangement (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10. School at the Złote Łany housing estate, Bielsko-Biała. (arch. arch. B. and
J. Włodarczyk). Front of the plot, with stairs to the main entrance. Current state., Source:
https://www.google.pl/maps

The stairs here play a very important role, not only functional but also composi-
tional. They also help to calm down pedestrian traffic. The main entrance (withdrawn in
relation to the face of the front façade) seems to be even further away from the street,
which has a positive effect on the safety of users.

4 Conclusion

In available studies, legal requirements as well as functional programs developed by

investors, relatively little space is devoted to the pre-entrance space to the school
building.
 Architectural Challenges of Designing Front Entrance Area at City Schools 265

The objective of this paper was to address the problem of spatial needs, and to
provide an overview and general analysis of selected elements of school architecture
associated with entry space.
In the era of observed demographic changes resulting in an increase in the popu-
lation of big cities, we can already observe more school investments activity in the
already existing intense urban tissue. Especially in primary level schools, more
attention should be paid to appropriate spatial and ergonomic solutions.
To sum up, the pre-entrance square space should be characterized by the following
parameters:
• The distance of the front of the building from the street should be at least 15–20 m.
• The space between adjacent buildings must ensure proper solar radiation.
• The shape of the space should allow for easy ventilation of the plot.
• Location in the vicinity of parks and green areas is recommended.
• It is necessary to care for the right elements of “small architecture”, e.g. bike racks,
benches, flowerbeds, canopies, entrance protection, etc.
• Surface of the square - easy to dry and well dehydrated.
• Correct exposed elements of the object identification. Suitable markings and art
installations that distinguish the school building.

References
1. Dudzinski, A.: The development of New York public school architecture in the first decade of
the 21st century, Architecturae et Artibus, Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Bialostockiej,
Bialystok (2013)
2. Dudzinski, A.: human scale in architecture of schools located in dense urban fabric. In:
Advances in Human Factors, Sustainable Urban Planning and Infrastructure: AHFE 2018.
Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol. 788. Springer (2019)
3. Włodarczyk, J.: Architektura Szkoły Arkady, Warszawa (1992)
4. Włodarczyk, J.: Znaczenie szkoły w przestrzeni osiedla, Zeszyty Naukowe Politechniki
Białostockiej, Architektura – Zeszyt 9, Białystok (1992)
5. Alexander, Ch., Ishikawa, S., Silverstein, M.: A Pattern Language. Oxford University Press,
New York (1977)
6. Włodarczyk, J.: Strefa wejścia głównego w przestrzeni szkolnej, Zeszyty Naukowe
Politechniki Białostockiej, Architektura – Zeszyt 9, Białystok (1992)
 Smart Eco-Villages and Tourism Development
Based on Rural Revitalization
with Comparison Chinese and Polish
Traditional Villages Experiences

Ling Qi1(&), Mo Zhou2, Wojciech Bonenberg2, and Zixuan Ma1

1
School of Architecture and Urban Planning, Beijing University of Technology,
Pingleyuan 100, Beijing, Chaoyang District, China
2
Faculty of Architecture, Poznan University of Technology, Poznan, Poland
{mo.zhou,wojciech.bonenberg}@put.poznan.pl

Abstract. Traditional villages have an important complementary effect on the

current refined cities. However, many ancient villages are facing the dilemma of
real development while they are in the phase being gradually declining. The aim
of the regeneration of the traditional village is processing at the symbiotic
development between urban and rural areas. In view of the impact of village
declining and modern economic model on the traditional villages as well as the
in heritage of ecological wisdom in the development of traditional villages
together with the construction and protection of traditional villages. The study of
two typical traditional villages in China and Poland with “Adaptive Design”
concept, which is the result of the ecological wisdom of ecological adaptation
design of traditional villages and the ecological wisdom of eco-village tourism
development. It is worth to put forward the “adaptive design” principle by
summing up the low-destructive renewable and sustainable construction of
traditional villages with various strategies. Through the comparative case study
of Chinese and Polish traditional villages, their commonalities and differences
were studied in order to promote the ecological landscape, architectural and
other forms of cultural heritage in the traditional ancient villages associated with
the heritage protection, rural revitalization, ancient villages development along
with the Belt and Road Initiative.

Keywords: Rural revitalization
Traditional village

Strategies adaptive design
Ecological wisdom tourism development

1 Introduction

In the world nowadays rural areas are faced with many challenges. These challenges
including eco-friendly environment system, rural revitalization, prosperous investment,
history conservation etc. Among those ecosystem conditions to socioeconomic impacts
is quite essential.
The whole concept of rural revitalization is quite easily to be understood by attracting
people back to the life in the original village. However, in the process of rural revital-
ization it is not only easy case to push forward in many rural regions in the worldwide.
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 266–278, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_25
 Smart Eco-Villages and Tourism Development 267

Thus rural revitalization is becoming a complex connection of the society, strategies,

technologies, financial and different kinds of approaches to boost rural development.
Although rural areas are unique and in rich resource, the gap between prosperous
urban and rural areas still continues to become bigger [1].
Ecotourism is based on the controlled exploitation elements of the natural and
culture environment. It aims at to facilitate a better understanding of the mutual rela-
tionship between tourism and the environment and to contribute to the possibilities of
achieving symbiotic relationship. Eco-tourism is a form of sustainable tourism, which
is implemented in protected areas [2].

2 Rural Recession and Rural Revitalization

2.1 Rural Recession

In the process of urbanization, due to the strong attraction to various resources by the
cities, there is a huge surplus to the city in aspects of population, resources and wealth.
In contrast the villages have shown serious problems as the aging of the population,
rural settlement hollowization; less industrial development as well as the declining of
traditional culture [3].
(1) Serious Aging problem in Chinese rural area
According to the China Statistical Yearbook, the rural permanent population
decreased by 81.4 million, 75.93% of them were young and middle-aged labor
from 2010 to 2016. The lost of rural labor, especially the strong years with strong
organizational capacity and strong innovation ability, has led to the lag of rural
economic development and the declining of traditional culture. As young and
middle-aged people flocked to the cities, rural children gradually entered urban
schools to learn and grow, resulting in the gradual collapse of rural cultural
centripetal force, resulting in only the elder people stay in rural area [4]. The aging
problem and hollowing out is formed in the traditional village.
(2) Low production efficiency in Chinese rural area
From the point of industrial structure of rural areas, China’s rural primary industry
has, low degree of industrialization and low degree of scale. Therefore, the prices
of bulk agricultural products in China are higher than the international market,
which leads to agricultural production and production risks and low income [5].
Especially in poor areas, backward production methods are still used.
(3) Declining of traditional Chinese Culture
The impact of globalization culture on rural areas is becoming stronger than in the
past. Since rural residents have inferiority to their own cultural practices and have
a strong disconnection with the outside world, especially in developed areas,
which has resulted in the declining of rural traditional culture [6].
(4) Xijingyu Village in China was developed in different ways through various ways
in order to realize the rural revitalization. In the process of development, it
focused on solving the problems of the loss of labor in the traditional villages, the
backward development of rural productivity, and the declining of traditional
culture [7].
268 L. Qi et al.

In this paper, the research team try to explore relevant solution with the adaptation
design in the process of rural revitalization with the cases study taken by traditional
Chinese village - Xijingyu Village in China and Polish village – Golęczewo.

2.2 Rural Revitalization

The importance of rural revitalization is to bring more young and middle-aged labor
force back to the traditional village and improve the production capacity of the villagers
through multi-participation. Specifically, it is necessary to improve the cultural pro-
motion in the villagers and increase the income of rural units; Through improving the
overall production capacity and market competitiveness of the villages by different
means of organization by villagers. At the end, the goal of improving the income level
of the villagers, improving the quality of life of the villagers, improving the vitality of
the village, and promoting the development of traditional culture will be achieved [8].

3 Rural Ecology and Adaptive Design Concept

3.1 Mountain Environment Adaptability

The site of villages along the mountain should generally follow the issues such as
topography, traffic, soil thickness, and slope direction. Specifically, priority is given to
the gentle slope to construction and farming cultivation; the slope is directed to
Southward generally and rarely to Southwest.
Taking Xijingyu Village as an example, the construction are mainly distributed on
the southeast of Lushan Mountain. The side buildings In the southwest side there are
less housing in the valley. The layout of the building is not only good to adapt the
building’s lighting and wind from North, but also they are in line with the traditional
Chinese landscape concept. As far as the layout of the street is concerned, the main
streets and alleys of Xijingyu village are arranged along the contour line or on the top
of the mountain. The secondary stream line is solved by steps or ramps.

3.2 Water Environment Adaptability

The water issue was considered as important factor in the location of traditional Chi-
nese villages. Site selection is generally considered in conjunction with surface runoff
and groundwater distribution in the area. There are no underground drainage in the
traditional villages and generally solve the problem of rainwater by surface drainage
combined with rainwater seepage. In addition, in China, based on the basic Feng Shui
pattern of the back mountain water, it is good to introduce the ponds, creeks and rivers
on the south or southeast of the village. Such site selection and arrangement are very
favorable to the summer southeast monsoon conditions from the perspective of
microclimate. With the natural ventilation is helpful to reduce the temperature.
 Smart Eco-Villages and Tourism Development 269

3.3 Residential Settlement Climate Adaptability

The courtyard of traditional villages in northeast of China is generally in the form
Chinese quadrangles. In areas with small populations, the courtyards of the three sides
of the east and the west are generally enclosed. The form of the arrangement. In the
background of considering the problem of winter insulation in the north, the wall of
traditional buildings is with 300 mm * 500 mm thickness.
The settlement arrangement is generally arranged with reference to the theory of
Feng Shui. Through the ancient people’s simple understanding of the microclimate
tradition, it has successfully achieved the adaptability of microclimate, which is also
plays an important aspect of the protection and development of traditional villages.
The traditional architectural form of Xijingyu Village is a very common form of
courtyard in North China. The typical layout consists of the main room and the wing
room. In North China, how to keep warm in housing construction is important due to
the severe winter. In order to try to get the lowest energy consumption and the highest
comfort in winter, the layout is as the living space to the south for more sun light and
there is almost no winders on north side.

3.4 Tourism Development Adaptability

Rural revitalization, especially in the process of tourism development in traditional
ancient villages, the division and integration of commercial and residential spaces has
always been a relatively important issue to solve. Travelling sight should be arranged
without disturbing the original resident daily life. The preservation of native culture is
considered as an important role.
There are four main forms of rural tourism in Xijingyu Village: B&B, preferred
farmhouses, farmhouses, and service courtyards. They are serving tourists with dif-
ferent level of price and service. The service courtyard is mainly on exhibiting Agro-
products in the courtyard is for promoting the agriculture sector.

3.5 Adaptability of Historical and Cultural Heritage Protection

The protection of historical and cultural heritage shouldn’t be separated from the rural
revitalization development. Those two aspects both are mutually motivated and
mutually reinforced each other.

4 Discussion and Comparison with the Adaptive Design

Between Traditional Village from China and Poland
During Rural Revitalization
4.1 Rural Ecology and Construction Adaptation Research Framework
The research on the ecological and construction adaptability of rural areas should
mainly includes the following items as shown in the scheme on the right side.
270 L. Qi et al.

4.2 Xijingyu Village Around Tianjin, China

Xijingyu is located in the Northern part of Yuyang Town, Yinzhou District, Tianjin,
China. It is 2.5 km from Yuyang County and 5.5 km from Yuqiao Reservoir. The
village is located in the nature reserve of the first national geological section nature
reserve, the Middle-Upper Proterozoic geological section. Before the development of
the village, the industrial structure was single, mainly for the orchard economy, without
industrial and mining enterprises, and the young and middle-aged people went to work
outside the village.

4.2.1 Village Location Characteristics

“Yu” literally means the valley, surrounded by mountains, and the “well” formed by
the central depression is the basic geography of Xijingyu. A large number of stone
terraces and orchards have been formed for the use of the surrounding highlands. The
core village of Xijingyu Village is about 13.4 hectares. It is a typical village in
Northeast of China. The village is built over the mountain and the terrain is lower in the
south and higher in the north. It is located in the center of the surrounding well-shaped
valley and is named after it.
The site selection and architectural layout of Xijingyu Village has a high ecological
wisdom. Through careful selection of the village, the ancestors of Xijing Village used
fresh air and summer cool air to open the valley in the east, and the winter cold wind
was blocked by the valley. The residential area uses the southern slope of Lushan
Mountain as the core area of the village site, and is arranged along the contour line to
ensure the comfort of the microclimate (Fig. 1).
 Smart Eco-Villages and Tourism Development 271

Fig. 1. The site analysis of Xijingyu Village

4.2.2 Natural Environment Adaptability Based on the Village Layout

The well-shaped landform of Xijingyu Village is very prominent. There is a valley in
the east, west, south and north of the village. The north and west valleys are cliffs,
which is the natural boundary between Shuiyu Village and the outside world. The
whole village sits north to the south, along the contour line, and basically conforms to
the traditional landscape theory of the mountain gathering.
The village is located on the hillside as a whole, and the terrain is high, which is
conducive to flood control and drainage. The location of Xijingyu is in line with the
traditional Chinese concept of Feng Shui, reflecting the scientific nature of the ancients’
selection of the village.
Xijingyu Village is with the warm semi-humid continental monsoon climate. It is
very hot and rainy in summer with low temperature and dry in winter, also quite short
spring and autumn season. The annual precipitation is concentrated in the summer,
with an average of 515.9 mm. Rainwater harvesting is an effective issuance of the
research team’s adaptation to the water environment in this village.
In a word, in the process of developing Xijingyu Village, The protection with its
landscape features with traditional Chinese characteristics and ecological wisdom were
focused on. How to get the guidance water environment adaptability is always to be
looked for during the reconstruction of the rural revitalization.

4.2.3 Local Climate Adaptation of the Residential Yards in the Village

(1) Wind and heat environment adaptability

The research team conducted a survey and simulated the wind and heat envi-
ronment of Xijingyu Village and obtained a large amount of data as in Fig. 2. It
showed that the narrow valley wind is easy to form in the valley area, and the
wind speed is too strong to be a residential point; the wind speed is weak in the
leeward side of the mountain even with a small amount of static wind area formed,
which is not conducive to the diffusion of pollutants. Therefore, by simulating the
influence of the village layout of Xijingyu Village on the wind environment, it
showed the proper landscape formation and layout can help the village have better
microclimate, especially with the comfortable wind environment.
272 L. Qi et al.

Fig. 2. Simulation chart of wind environment in Xijingyu Village in four seasons

Through the simulation as in Fig. 3, it showed that the layout of the village
Xijingyu V not only reduces the cost of cooling down during the summer and
keeping the heat in the winter. But also it takes into account ventilation, sewage,
lighting and flood prevention. The theory of Feng Shui in which it is applied is the
concentrated expression of the wisdom and experience of the ancient Chinese.

Fig. 3. Thermal simulation of sunshine in Xijingyu Village in four seasons

 Smart Eco-Villages and Tourism Development 273

(2) Internal environment regulation of residential courtyards

In addition to the careful consideration of the site selection of the village,
Xijingyu, as a typical traditional village, has been taken as in the regulation of the
residential environment and the structure of the courtyard. In the development
process, taking into account the historical features and accommodation adapt-
ability of Xijingyu, the traditional earthen stone masonry houses were repaired,
and the prefabricated roofs and concrete roofs that have been modified, which not
only conforms to the cultural features of the village, but also improves the comfort
of inhabitants living condition.
(3) The wall and roof in the rural construction are in Ecology Adaption
The original style of housing should be mainly kept but with upgrading and
enhancing the living comfort and living interest through interior design; for the
housing from brick-concrete mainly, it transforms the flat roof into a sloping roof
that adapts to the traditional village style and is more conducive to rainwater
harvesting and utilization. It also transforms the insulation layer and the water-
proof layer to meet the requirements of modern buildings. For some of the
buildings, renovation of the platform or roof greening and casting reinforced
concrete above the insulation layer and performing necessary waterproofing
treatment.
The transformation of the wall is mainly divided into two types: the renova-
tion of tile wall, plastering wall and brick wall is mainly made by the way of face
stone paste and mortar plastering to make it to be consistent as traditional stone
building.
(4) The local construction materials
In the history, the villagers developed a building model accommodating Xijinyu
Village with stone as the main building material. Also because the stone is spe-
cially produced over the mountain in the village. In order to match the style of
traditional buildings, the local special stone was mainly used for construction and
reconstruction, which is good for surrounding environment, and also saved a lot
of Human resources.

4.2.4 Ecology Adaption for Human Being in the Public Space

of the Village
The layout of Xijingyu Village is distributed around the Bobo Mountain and directed to
the southeast. The spatial structure is typical in the traditional Chinese town or village.
The overall layout is basically based on Feng Shui theory and satisfying security sense
of residents in the village.

4.2.5 Strategies of Traditional Village Revitalization

In order to promoting the traditional village development, there are many different
ways to be tried by the research team.
(1) By introducing the Xiijingyu village in the most popular tech-platform
Wechat, there are more and more updated information distributed there. Which
helps villages to increase the income by managing their rural hostels or local
274 L. Qi et al.

food products. It is the platform for the villagers to provide an excellent carrier
for the creation of village banquets and market-oriented brand activities.
(2) More strategies were introduced in order to meet the needs of the contem-
porary market in the village. Moreover, it has brought the traditional villages
the means to increase the production and income for the villagers, and to
bring the existing high quality in the village through modern organizational
forms. The local resources should be enhanced, which greatly improves the
economic and cultural benefits of traditional villages.

4.3 Polish Traditional Village - Golęczewo

Golęczewo is a Polish village with 623 hector in the administrative district of Suchy
Las in west-central Poland as shown in the Pic.1. Due to the short distance with only
14 km distance to the capital city of Greater Poland Voivode ship –Poznan [9], the
traffic communication has been well formed around the village.
With the history dating back to the 14th century, this traditional village was taken
over by the Prussian Settlement Commission in 1901 and created as the model of
German village. A modern village was built with more than 40 household as well as
public utility buildings within only 5 years. After World War I, the village was taken
over by Polish inhabitants. At the beginning most of villages were mainly farming in
the fields in and around the village [10].
Therefore, most of the historical buildings and private houses were built in the
prussian state in the village. The population registered in the village is 1001 from the
census statics 2016.

4.3.1 Village Location Characteristics

The entire village lies on the big plain. The terrain of the entire village in the central
lowlands is quite flat and most houses were built along a road running through the main
line with clear guide from north to south. This is very similar to the construction history
of many Polish villages. Residents choose to build their houses along the main road
area. There is also a horizontal line running through the center of the village. Basically
it seems to form a large cross. Consequently the village continued to expand into a
network, and the village was surrounded by many farmlands (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. The location of the village in Northwest to Poznan city and relation to other towns Map
Source from: http://mapy.geoportal.gov.pl/
 Smart Eco-Villages and Tourism Development 275

4.3.2 Natural Environment Adaptability Based on the Village Layout

Ecological networks is understood as depending on different historical roots of nature
conservation, planning and scientific traditions, different geographical and adminis-
trative levels, different land uses, at last also different land use interests. This interaction
between natural and cultural features results in quite different ways for cooperation
between ecological networks and greenways [11].
The climate of village lies between a humid continental and oceanic climate. This is
characterized by quite mild winter and warm summer. The terrain of the village lies on
the Polish plain so the land are quite flat in general. Since the distinguished four
seasons, so most of the houses were built with two floors and the Insulation materials
were adapted to use in the construction in order to prevent the cold winter. Types of
housing divided into residential houses, public buildings like school, fire station,
church and farmlands (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. The house in ul.Dworcowa 4 in Village Golęczewo Pic.3 The house in Dworcowa 30
Source from: Google Map Street View

4.3.3 Local Climate Adaptation of the Residential Yards in the Village

According to the analysis with students work from Faculty of Architecture in Poznan
University that the most common type of roof were gable roof and pediment roof, and
other types were discovered for instance the hip roofs, mansard roofs and desktop roofs
as described in the Pic.2 and Pic.3 above.
(1) The color of the white walls prevails used in quite many houses in the village, and
many houses were attached with the thermal insulation material in order to keep
the warmth during the winter time.
(2) It is suitable to Introduce the green wall with climbers and creepers plants to
decorate the facade of many houses in the village [12].
Referred to the material of construction, wood is definitely considered to be most
popular in the village. This is no wonder since there are rich forests in Greater Poland
region, Poland. Therefore, wood is regarded to be used for construction as the local and
economic material, which is promoted as the ecological construction in the nowadays.
Besides timer materials, bricks, tiles, stone, ceramic and clay were discovered as well
for the construction during the research in the village Golęczewo. Almost all analyzed
276 L. Qi et al.

objects taken were covered with tiles; walls are usually plastered; sometimes completed
wooden elements resulting from the used half-timbered construction and wooden
cladding usually placed in the upper parts of the gable walls; some buildings were
finished ceramic cladding.

4.3.4 Ecology Adaption for Human Being in the Public Space

of the Village
There are sports meeting or football matches and music festivals organized by the
villages in order to take use of the public space in the traditional village.

4.3.5 Strategies of Traditional Village Revitalization

Although the development of Golęczewa does not represent the native Polish archi-
tecture, it is an example of the cultural heritage of Greater Poland and due to the fact
that it has the largest number of residential objects entered in the register of monuments
from all villages in the Poznan region it is relatively easy to characterize its traditional
buildings [13].
In the village Golęczewo there are nearly 50 monuments listed in the provincial
registry and is subject to strict heritage conservation protection.
Most houses built during the Prussian control was characteristic with the color of
the white walls and decorated with the black windows. Nowadays the buildings were
still kept in Prussian colors: white walls, black and red roofs. Among those objects,
some buildings were built with half-timbered construction and wooden cladding Based
on the old style, modern houses were also built with more wooden roof covered with
the tiles which is in red color, brown or graphite.
Attractive the young people to live in The village by selling the free plots for
building the private houses. There is football club GKS in the village which can give
lots of opportunities for the kids to develop their sport skills. By means of the orga-
nizing the trainings and football match, the people from the cities and towns in the
neighborhood are attracted to come to the village; The trans Greater Poland bicycle
route covers the forest around the village. Through the national and regional cycling
rout, It is very convenient for citizens either from the whole nation or local people to
visit the village as well as learning more historical architecture and protected monu-
ments in the village enjoy the beautiful nature in the Protected Landscape Area big
military training area of Biedrusko (north from Poznań, between Biedrusko and
Chludowo) [14] which is located west to the village; The intention of Nickel Inno-
vation Technology Park Poznan is located nearby the village by 5 minutes-driving.

5 Conclusion

Through the research and analysis comparison with case studies in Chinese and Polish
traditional village, the solution for rural revitalization were searched during the eco-
logical adaption and tourism development in the villages.
In the perspective of village location, Chinese traditional village –Xijingyu is
located over the mountain and the residential buildings along the contour lines over
the slope, which is the consistent with ancient Chinese Feng Shui philosophy;
 Smart Eco-Villages and Tourism Development 277

Polish traditional village - Golęczewo, most of houses were built along the main
countryside road running through the main line with clear guide from north to south
which is convenient for the transportation due to its good location in the big plain.
With the point of natural environment adaptability based on the village layout, In
the process of rural revitalization, conservation was carried out for its landscape fea-
tures with traditional Chinese characteristics and ecological wisdom. Regeneration is
not only the protection of the traditional village landscape, but also adaption with
micro-climate in the site including ecological wisdom.
In the local climate adaptation of the residential yards in the village, both of the
Chinese and Polish villages had explained from the perspective of local materials for
housing, the roofs and walls of the construction. The green roof and green walls are
proposed as the effective way to have renovation many of available buildings in both
case studies. Ecology adaption for human being in the public space of the village is
considers as the essential part during the rural revitalization process.
Many strategies to promote the traditional village development in the rural Revi-
talization both in Polish and Chinese traditional village with case studies. For instance
bringing more young people back to the village, developing rural tourism, introducing
the online-shops etc.

Acknowledgement. The research financial support is from Fund Items: supported by “The
International Research Cooperation Seed Fund of Beijing University of Technology (2018B37)
National Science Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars (No. 51608012), Postgraduate science
and technology fund of Beijing University of Technology (yjk-2018-00606)”.

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 Management Balance Between Nature
and Rural Settlements in China

Shoufang Liu1(&), Lin Li1, Wojciech Bonenberg2,

Teresa Bardzinska-Bonenberg3, and Mo Zhou2
1
Liaoning Urban and Rural Construction and Planning Design Institute,
Shenyang, China
Liushoufang15940203503@hotmail.com
2
Faculty of Architecture, Poznan University of Technology, Poznan, Poland
{Wojciech.Bonenberg,Mo.Zhou}@put.poznan.pl
3
University of Art in Poznan, Poznan, Poland
teresa@bardzinska-bonenberg.pl

Abstract. The paper based on the practice of Eco-village workshop in China

that organized by Poznan University of Technology and Liaoning Urban &
Rural Construction & Planning Institute. it focus on the main problems that face
on the rural settlement and it’s environment after high speed development of
economy in China. The Main problems concentrate on the decrease of popu-
lation and aging problems, modernize and lose of tradition, environment
problems and climate change. The question is what is the best development
method, and how to achieve it. The paper discovered a management eco-model
that could balance to natural/half natural environment and human settlement to
achieve high quality livable rural built environment.

Keywords: Eco-friendly notion
Sustainable development

Classical house garden
Eco-village

1 Introduction

Rural areas or countryside are quite different with urban area especially in the devel-
oping country. Lacking of infrastructure installations and poverty are usually the
common problems within backcountries, but the conditions are changing along with the
programmes of rural vitalization in China after the high speed economic growth. The
problems of protecting local cultural landscape, keeping traditions from alien cultures,
losing landmark and unbalance of developments are rising up. There are three stages
related rural cultural landscape development in China from early 1980’s. Those are the
blind development period, consideration and exploration period, green ecocultural
landscape period [1]. The concept of “eco-friendly development and ecological pro-
cess” was defined as national development thought officially by the report of 18th
communist party congress at November 2012 [2]. It is represent china entered a real
green development period. Plenty of rural revitalization strategies were promoted by

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 279–285, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_26
280 S. Liu et al.

Chinese authorities in this period. China highly values ecological and environmental
protection. Guided by the conviction that lucid waters and lush mountains are
invaluable assets, China advocates harmonious coexistence between humans and nat-
ure, and sticks to the path of green and sustainable development [3]. Those words are
quoted form 19th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, showing that
green development is not only the critical ideas of Chinese New Era Thought, but also
the essential development strategy of the nation. Therefore, the question is what should
do with village revitalization in the new era of green development, and how to
achieve it.
Eco-friendly thought are deeply rooted in the mind of Chinese people. Learning
from nature and up hold nature is the main thought of Taoist. That can be proved by
Chinese Fengshui, or taking a glance of traditional Chinese classical private courtyard
and it’s gardens. The representatives of Chinese classical private courtyard could be
found from north to the south of China, as Yuyin Mountain House in the south China
of Guangdong, Surging Waving Mansion in Suzhou, Shihu Mansion in the northern
China of Weifang. In the book of Fengshui of Chinese Famous Villages, the author
collected more than fifth examples of Fengshui-villages, explored the history of the
village development and their prosperity, point out that the village with a good
Fengshui have a common feather of well fit in their environment and picturesque nature
surroundings [4]. Living with paintable mini-nature are always dreams of Chinese
people. Therefore, to create contemporary eco-friendly village of China should adopt
Chinese traditional eco-friendly notion and take up modern advantages together at
same time.

2 Methodology of Research

A cooperated research group of Eco-village Workshop has been launched between the
Faculty of Architecture of Poznan University of Technology and Liaoning Urban and
Rural Construction and Planning Institute to contribute to rural vitalization for many
years. The workshop group are composed by professors from both units and graduated
students from Poland. According to case study of related Chinese village vitalization,
the research group found that most of successful cases have a common character. The
typical traditional Chinese classical house space features and Fengshui notions are
adapted as a balance tool to coordinate social, environmental and economical problems
in a sustainable condition, integrate every faces into a integration system of environ-
ment and managed in eco-friendly manes. The group research focused on the space
tradition Chinese eco-houses, Feishui theories, gathered the information and technol-
ogy of contemporary ecovillage by literature reviews and case study, and practiced in
real ecovillage program.
 Management Balance Between Nature and Rural Settlements in China 281

3 Contemporary Studies of Eco-Friendly Notion on Classical

Chinese House Settlement

Contemporary research of classical Chinese house settlement may be started at the

researching of “jiangnan Garden”, which combined with private residential house and
garden yard together, and so called “Jiangnan Garden” by Chines landscape archi-
tecture experts. The research could be considered into two phases. The first phases are
the perceptual stage. The second is rational stage of research.
In the perceptual stage, study activities are mainly concentrated on space experi-
ence and cultural inspiration. The first research workout conducted by Tongyu in 1937
before world war two. In his work “Jiangnan Garden Record”, he summarized three
space creation principles, which are appropriate density, zigzag and view in opposite
place [5]. In 1950s professor Chen Chongzhou researched in Suzhou and published a
research work named “Suzhou Garden”. In that book he pointed out that classical
Chinese eco-house space in Suzhou is created by elites with poetry spaces in rules of
borrowing, imaginary, blocking and opposite [6]. In the literature of “On Chinese
Garden” by Professor Cheng Congzhou discussed the methodology of garden creation
around the distinguishing features of Chinese classical residential space, which is
natural, harmony and implicative and new findings of space appreciation style, which
are mobile and immobile [7]. In his point of views the feathers of mobile and immobile
is refereed to two conditions. First, large residential mansion like Zhuozheng residential
house is better appreciated in moving condition, because is large people should walk
from one site to anther to enjoy it. Second, small like Wangshi Masion the best way to
enjoy it is to sit down or have a tea to appreciate slowly.
In 1980s along with the opening policies of china, more and more western modern
aesthetic theory was accepted by Chinese architecture scholars. The logical analysis
methodology becomes the most popular research method in architecture education area.
In book of “A Treatise on the Garden of Jiangnan – a Study into the Classical Art of
Landscape Design of China”, professor Yang Hongxun pointed out that the classical
residential Mansion garden in South of Yangzi River is belonged to residential garden
that has to be fulfilled two kinds of need for residents. First, they fulfill the physical
needs of owner’s daily life; secondly it is the most important requirement in psy-
chology that is art inspirations to be enjoyed by the inhabitants from the garden [8]. In
the end 1980s professor Feng Zhongping, from Qinghua University of China resear-
ched on the architectures in landscape gardens or parks. The findings were published in
his book “Architecture of Chinese Landscape”, which classified the architecture of
Chinese landscape into five categories and using the methods of aesthetic principles
that were composed with main space, density, axis, mobile & immobile, opposite views
and borrowing views to analyze the space layout [9]. Another critical book that ana-
lyzed classical private and royal residential garden space in the method of western
aesthetic principle is “Analysis of Chinese Classical Garden”, which was written by
Pang Yigang, a professor from Tianjing University. The attractive hand-drawings in his
book interpreted the character of the Chinese Classical Garden space explicitly, the
rules he summarized with drawing give a logical methodology of designing Chinese
classical garden space [10].
282 S. Liu et al.

The two stages of research mentioned here, are mainly concentrated on space
feeling, experiences and aesthetic aspects, none of eco-notions involved. Now, in the
new ear of China along with the social Changes and the new normal in China’s
economic development, problems such as over urbanization, environmental pollution,
absent of cultural diversity and local identity failures are rising up. Those problems
cause more attentions of urban planners and architects who are thinking about valuable
eco-friendly notion, which are deeply rooted in traditional of Chinese cultural heritage.
It could be the key of balancing new green development of China. So what is the
principles of eco-friendly village enlightened by Chinese classical eco-residential
architecture space?

4 Principles of Eco-Friendly Village Management for Balance

and the Practices

To study principles of eco-friendly village management for balance that enlightened by

Chinese classical eco-residential space and feishui, may start from Chinese ancient
Philosophy, the bible of “Tao De Jing”. In the chapter of eleven, Master Laozi, the
famous eastern philologist, described as that thirty spokes unite in the one nave; but it is
on the empty space for the axle, that the use of the wheel depends. Clay is fashioned
into vessels; but it is on their empty hollowness, which their use depends. The door and
windows are cut out from the walls to form a house; but it is on the empty space within,
which its use depends. Therefore, what has a positive existence serves for profitable
adaptation, and what has not that for actual usefulness [11]. It means when we create
anything we need, we should follow the nature of things. Either we make a vessel or a
building, the nature is the empty space that we use depend. So the fundamental Chinese
eco-houses principle is it’s nature. It is the critical feature of eco-friendly village
enlightened from Chinese classical eco-residential spaces.

4.1 Principle 1: From Nature, Uphold Nature, the Principle of Natural

Integration. The notions of living with nature are the fundamental philosophy of
Chinese people. The Fig. 1 is a general layout of residential house named He Garden
House. It is a good example which shows the harmony human life within manmade
miniature surroundings. It combined residential house and natural garden together. The
buildings were arranged surrounding gardens and patios. Natural elements of plants,
stones and water consist of four essential components of eco-house.
In the practice of Laotang eco-village of Dalian, workshop group following the
natural principle designed the houses and is surrounding with green patios, editable
yards, streams, green rural small lane with agricultural landscape. The project well
welcomed and accepted by local villager, and the whole village vitalization project
fitted into the integrity of eco-environmental surroundings (Fig. 2).
 Management Balance Between Nature and Rural Settlements in China 283

Fig. 1. Genaral layout of He Garden house, showing the good management balance between
settlement and halfnature by feishui notion. From Yigang P.

Fig. 2. Laotang eco-village of Dalian. Project by S. Liu

4.2 Principle 2: Notions of Sustainable Deeply in Mind

Fengshui is a traditional notion that deeply rooted in Chinese people’s minds. Fengshui
theory is a methodology that conducts people arranging their house in both interior and
exterior. It is related with Dao religion, as well as there are some superstitious about
goodness and badness affect people’s thoughts and actions. Four sustainable points in
habits from Feishui believes were sum up here as a principle of Chinese ecovillage
creation, which were used to manage and balance of eco-friendly villages programmes
in the practices.
Southward. Buildings could get more energy from winter sunlight and catch more
ventilation of southern breeze in summer. That is a traditional notion from Chinese
Fengshui, which balanced Chinese people staying sustainably settlement for thousands
years. So south is the desire and favored direction for settlement in china, that is why so
most of house in China is southward.
284 S. Liu et al.

Blocks. Mountain, artificial hills, solid walls and small north windows are used for
blocking cold winds from north. Notions are from Chinese Yin &Yang and Fengshui of
living, in the northern of house should be block solidly (such as using wall for single
house or mountain for settlements) to keep unfortunate away.
White Wall. Use white walls to reflect sun-heat and reduce urban heat-island effect.
This settlement notion is derive from the rules of Chinese painting. In the beginning of
classical Chinese garden house creation, the designer was painter. The craft of builder
follow the paint to make the house. They take care with walls like a paper which can be
painted by Plants, water, stones and buildings.
Gathering Rain Water Inside for Fortunes. The notion is drive by a proverb that is
related Fengshiu, to say the water of flourish couldn’t run away from the territory, it
should be kept inside of yard for fortune. Water represents fortune and wellness in
tradition of Chinese Feishui culture. So it can be a driving force to manage rain water
keep in a sustainable balance ways. The habit of gathering rain in the home yard for
fortune and daily use could reduce rain flood, supplies drainage and moderates mini-
climate, benefit for global climate change (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. The pond for gathering rainwater - by fengshui instructions it secures good fortune -
Shizilin Garden House of Shuzhou. Phot. by author.

4.3 Principle 3: Mind Extending to Make Larger in Small

Yin and Yang is a popular notion converted from ancient China. Xu and Shi is another
expression of Yin and Yang. Xu is means invisible, unsolid, intangible and untouch-
able; Shi is visible, solid, tangible and touchable. According the principle of Xu and
Shi Architecture space can be catalyzed into Xu-space and Shi-space. The typical rule
of Chinese classical garden creation, looking larger in small is one of the applications
of illustration using Xu and Shi principle.
Another form of Xu and Shi experience is expressed on the garden literatures.
Residencia literation is referred to literature related to house culture. They are including
poetry, essay, novel story, fork culture and legend. It can be hints to remind people and
 Management Balance Between Nature and Rural Settlements in China 285

conducing people’s imagination to achieve picturesque and romantic feeling or emo-

tional reactions. It belongs aesthetic psychology domains.
The notion of making larger in small is a useful tool for density ecovillage
strategies. It is a sustainable land use tool. It fulfilled living function in the smaller
physical space at the same time pleased user’s psychology enjoyment needs within a
small compact space.

5 Conclusion

There are plenty of ways to reach the goal of eco-friendly village. Using the notions,
which are deeply rooted in the mind, represent traditional cultural habits and be used in
daily life unconsciously, is a effective methodology to reach the goal of green devel-
opment. It is a driven-force to manage and solve the problems that meet in the process
of development, balance natural/half nature and rural settlement in a sustainable level.
From the practice of eco-villages, it proved that the village were revitalized with the
eco-friendly notions are attractive with traditions, special landmark, and ecofriendly.

References
1. Liu, S., Li, L., W.B., T.: Cultural landscape within recreational landscape park in China. In:
Plants in Urban Areas and Landscape, pp. 146–150. Slovak University of Agriculture in
Nitra Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Engineering (2014)
2. Jintao, H.: Report at 18th Party Congress. http://www.gov.cn/18da/
3. Jinping, X.: Secure a Decisive Victory in Building a Moderately Prosperous Society in All
Respects and Strive for the Great Success of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a
New Era. Delivered at the 19th National Congress of the Communist Party of China. http://
www.gov.cn/zhuanti/2017-10/27/content_5234876.htm
4. Jueming, Z.: Fengshui of Chinese Famous Villages. People’s Public House of Hunan (2009)
5. Jun, T.: Jiangnan Garden Records, p. 8. China Architecture & Building Press, Beijing (2008)
6. Congzhou, C.: Shuzhou Garden. People’s Press of Shanghai, Shanghai (2012)
7. Congzhou, C.: On Chinese Garden. Tongji University Press, Shanghai (2002)
8. Hongxun, Y.: A Treatise on the Garden of Jiangnan – A Study into the Classical Art of
Landscape Design of China, pp. 13–21. People’s Press of Shanghai, Shanghai (1994)
9. Zhongping, F.: Architecture of Chinese Landscape. Qinghua University Press (2000)
10. Pang Yigang, P.: Analysis of Chinese Classical Garden. China Architecture & Building
Press, Beijing (1986)
11. Kao, T., Tzu, L.: Tao Te Jin. Anhui People’s Press, Hefei (2012)
 Active City for Healthy Ageing
and Anti-globesity

Cristiana Cellucci(&) and Michele Di Sivo

Department of Architecture, University “G. d’Annunzio” of Chieti and Pescara,

Viale Pindaro 42, 65127 Pescara, Italy
cristiana.cellucci@gmail.com, mdisivo@unich.it

Abstract. Health and urban space are two realities that need to progress in
close connection; in fact, there is an increasing interest in identifying the links
between architecture and public health and how urban design can positively
influence the latter. A vision able to reconstruct a profitable reconnection
between health, urban planning and environmental planning in line with current
evidence and research on the cultural and organizational transition from Public
Health to Urban Health is required. The research topic addresses the importance
and the centrality of the User-Centred approach in the observation of the rela-
tionships established between man, technological systems and the constructed
environment, identifying design strategies that guarantee the conditions of
physical, mental and social well-being.

Keywords: User centered design
Urban health
Prosthetic space

Anthropo-dimensional well-being
Psycho-physical well-being

Anthropo-dynamic and social well-being

1 Introduction

An increasing number of international research and best practices explore the rela-
tionships between psycho-physical well-being and urban space, identifying Physical
Activity as a fundamental protective factor against many chronic diseases. If infectious
diseases represented the major threat to health in past ages, for which urban planning
developed in order to ensure the hygiene and comfort of both the city and the indi-
vidual building, today the main killers are the so-called Communicable Diseases
(NCDs) - cardiovascular diseases, strokes, tumors and diabetes - whose main risk
factors are obesity and physical inactivity. The global burden of MNTs is a serious
public health problem that hinders social and economic development in the world.
The WHO estimates that, in 2008, MNTs caused 36 of the 57 million deaths, or 63% of
deaths worldwide: particularly prominent were cardiovascular diseases (48% of MNT),
tumors (21%), chronic respiratory diseases (12%) and diabetes (3.5%) [1–3].
Physical activity is seen as an instrument of prevention against two important
phenomena: obesity and “bodily fragility”, which is understood as the loss of elasticity
that characterizes the normal aging process [4].
Globesity is a neologism that unites “global” and “obesity”, which appeared for the
first time in 2001 in a report by the World Health Organization (WHO) to indicate the

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 286–294, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_27
 Active City for Healthy Ageing and Anti-globesity 287

spread of obesity as a global phenomenon.1 “The world is getting fatter, and if action is
not quickly taken then in under thirty years a quarter of people will be obese”: this
statement of alarm was sounded by the European Congress on Obesity in Vienna 2018,
and estimates, on the basis of data collected by the WHO, that the obesity rate of 14%
in 2017 will reach 22% in 2045 (Fig. 1). Weight excess is one of the intermediate risk
factors of Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) along with hypertension, dyslipidemia
and hyperglycemia.
Intermediate risk factors are health conditions that, although they do not represent
an established disease and are partly reversible if diagnosed and treated in time, should
be considered pathological. These factors are often associated with each other and
involve a multiplication of health risks; consequently, combating excess weight helps
to reduce the magnitude of the other associated risk factors. Weight excess favours the
onset of numerous diseases and aggravates the existing ones, reducing the duration of
life and worsening its quality; therefore, it is a phenomenon that deserves special
attention, especially if we focus on the older population, which is its most “fragile”2
section, most exposed to the risk of the onset of serious and disabling diseases that can
lead to disability and chronic conditions. Annually, according to the WHO, about 3.4
million deaths related to excess weight are caused by NCDs: 44% of cases of diabetes,
23% of cases of ischemia and up to 41% of cases of cancer.
The “cycle of fragility” is an interpretative model of the condition of fragility in the
elderly, according to which adding the onset of diseases to the aging process leads to a
state of preliminary fragility characterized by five symptoms: fatigue, reduction of
muscle strength, reduced physical activity and walking speed. This condition of fra-
gility is seen as a spiral which, in the absence of intervention, can lead to disability,
comorbidity and ultimately to death (Fig. 2). In particular, the progressive loss of
musculoskeletal mass associated with loss of strength and muscle power, known as
sarcopenia,3 is defined as a key component of the fragility of the elderly.

1
Recently, the Globesity alert has been sounded in a study published in the pages of “The New
England Journal of Medicine”, which states that from 1980 to 2015 the phenomenon grew
enormously in 70 countries around the world. The study is based on data from 195 countries,
collected from 1980 to 2015 in the “Global Burden of Disease Study”, a platform that quantifies the
extent of health loss due to major diseases and related risk factors. Also, according to the study in
2015, excess weight affects 2.2 billion people (30% of the world population), including 100 million
children and adolescents and 600 million obese adults.
2
The elderly population (aged 65 and over) defined as “fragile”, is the population group most exposed
to the risk of the onset of serious and disabling diseases that can lead to disability and chronic
conditions. The definition “frail elderly” shows a precarious stability of clinical conditions, with a
high risk of cascade complications that can lead to loss of functional autonomy and death.
3
Sarcopenia is a disease affecting about 20% of the population aged between 65 and 70, affecting
around 40% of those over 80. Physiological sarcopenia is an event common to all people, even those
in good health: muscle mass is gradually reduced beginning from 25–30 years of age, while from 40
to 70 years it is reduced by 8% every 10 years and from then on there is an acceleration of the
phenomenon, with modalities that vary according to the nutritional and health status of the
individual. Pathological sarcopenia, on the other hand, is caused by hormonal disorders, diabetes,
neurogenerative diseases and obesity, the latter being able to generate muscle loss, atrophy and a
reduction in muscle strength.
288 C. Cellucci and M. Di Sivo

Fig. 1. The Phenomenon of Globesity in the world. From 1980 to 2015 the prevalence of obese
people in the total population has doubled and in less than thirty years a quarter of people will be
obese.

Fig. 2. Model of fragility-disability

Both in physiological sarcopenia, which unites everyone from 20–30 years

onwards with the progressive reduction of muscle mass, and in pathological sarcopenia,
caused by hormonal disorders, diabetes, neurogenerative diseases and obesity, the
adoption of more active lifestyles can influence life expectancy, countering the pro-
gressive loss of functional skills that may prevent older people from having an inde-
pendent and disability-free life. Active aging is slower in some cases and never reaches
the threshold of fragility or disability of “pathological” aging, associated with a
manifest fragility, in the presence of one or more chronic-degenerative diseases and
disabilities. Several European initiatives place the theme of healthy and active aging at
the centre of the international political agenda (Second World Assembly of the United
Nations in 2002 with the “Active Aging” A Policy Framework”,” Strategy and Action
Plan for healthy aging in Europe, 2012–2020 “of the WHO European Regional Office),
focusing on the promotion of environments favourable to health, well-being and the
inclusion of people as important elements of prevention that flank primary care ser-
vices. What emerges is the need to promote physical activity not only to promote
healthy aging, but also to guarantee conditions of bio-psycho-physical well-being of
the general population.
 Active City for Healthy Ageing and Anti-globesity 289

2 Physical, Sensory and Social Interactions Between the User

and the Urban Space for Psycho-Physical Well-Being

The factors that influence the state of health and well-being are exogenous factors
(external to the individual), i.e. the elements and specific situations related to the
environment in which they live, and endogenous (internal to the individual), related to
the condition of the specific individual and not modifiable, such as age, sex, ethnicity
and genetic characteristics. To these two must be added the behavioural factors related
to the lifestyle of people. The main conceptual model that summarizes the hierarchies
of value and the interrelationships between the factors of influence is the European
Model of the determinants of health. Analysing the model, at the centre we find the
individual with their endogenous characteristics that cannot be modified and, in the
concentric bands that depart from it, we find the modifiable determinants (behavioural
and exogenous). As planners we can influence exogenous and behavioural factors with
the morphological-typological specificities that distinguish the places we design, cap-
able of affecting in a negative or positive way the state of health of the population and
the adoption of correct lifestyles [5] (Fig. 3).
This attention to the relationship between well-being and the characteristics of
urban space has led to the emergence of urban health, a discipline concerned with the
study of the health of populations living in urban environments, and the understanding
of its determinants in order to improve the health status of inhabitants of cities [6]. This
vision, even if it can be attuned to various design scales (from objects to habitable
spaces and to the design of open spaces), is of particular interest when connected to the
design of open spaces in our cities and their ability to promote the vital functions of
those who use them. The open spaces of the city can thus overcome the current concept
of spaces technically equipped for movement, to take on the role of “prosthetic” places,
which thus have behavioural consequences on the user, conditioning the modes of
relationship with space and people. It is therefore a matter of placing the user at the
centre in terms of its variability, whose relationship with the built environment is not
only metric-dimensional but embraces the cognitive and social dimension.4 In A
strategy for human factors/ergonomics: developing the discipline and profession, the
authors explain that Human Factors Ergonomics focuses on systems in which human
beings interact with their environment: indeed, it is not possible to think of an activity
that does not involve a certain kind of interaction between human beings and their
surroundings. These interactions can be summarized as follows [7, 8]:
– physical, when the relationship is mainly of a dimensional type, and is established
with systems (space and objects) that it is necessary to manipulate and use through
bodily contact;
– cognitive-sensory, which concerns the quality of the interaction and depends on the
proportional compatibility between user-space-objects and sensorial compatibility,

4
Different research shows the relationship between urban quality (such as the presence of green spaces
in the neighbourhood, the presence of abandoned areas, the safety of the neighbourhood, etc.) and
the active participation of people in political and social life. It creates civic trust, participation in
public life and local politics, civic responsibility and the adoption of more active lifestyles.
290 C. Cellucci and M. Di Sivo

understood as appropriateness and coherence of the stimuli emitted by physical

systems with the physiological structures of individuals.
– social, relating to the interpersonal relationships that are established between the
components of a community with the aim of encouraging and/or improving the
usability and liveability of an urban space, the possibilities of meeting talking,
exchanging opinions, performing functions and leading to more active and healthy
lifestyles.

Fig. 3. Determinants of health and well-being in neighborhoods (Source: Barton H, Grant M.

A health map for the local human habitat. Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of
Public Health 2006, 126 (6), pp. 252–261).

In light of this wider connotation of human well-being, the aim of the design of
open spaces is prevalently that of health, understood as a state of physical, mental and
social well-being.

3 Requirements and Strategies for the User Centered Design

of Urban Space

Since the relationship between the user - space and equipment depends on factors of a
subjective nature that are difficult to control and others that are influenced by planning,
we can say that the quality of urban space and its ability to stimulate active lifestyles
depends on its ability to conform to the human scale. It is therefore important to adopt a
“User Centred” design approach through holistic solutions of bio-psycho-physical
wellbeing and participation tools for social well-being. Pope and Brandt [9] have
described the environment as an entity of support to the person, as a kind of carpet in
which the weft consists of physical factors and the warp of social factors [10, 11]. The
ability of the environment to adequately support people’s lives depends, on the one
hand, on their physical characteristics and, on the other, on the efficiency of the social
 Active City for Healthy Ageing and Anti-globesity 291

support network available to them [12–15]. The set of relations that develop between
these two groups of variables determines the equilibrium of the urban system by
favouring or hindering the conditions of:
Anthropo-dimensional well-being and psycho-physical well-being, understood as
an aptitude of an open space to favour its use, through the sensorial perception (visual,
olfactory, tactile and acoustic) of the environment in the performance of activities and
through the anthropo-dimensional aspect of the spaces and its equipment in order to
guarantee the comfort of use of urban places;
Anthropo-dynamic and social well-being, understood as the attitude of the com-
ponents of the urban system (spaces, paths and equipment) to favour physical move-
ment in the performance of human activities in urban areas, and the user’s participatory
relationship with the space.

Fig. 4. Design strategies aimed at achieving the objectives of anthropo-dimensional and

anthropo-dynamic well-being
292 C. Cellucci and M. Di Sivo

Below are listed a series of design strategies aimed at achieving the objectives of
anthropo-dimensional and anthropo-dynamic well-being according to a multi-scale
approach that refers at the macro level to urban spaces, at the micro level to urban
equipment and at the meso level to the participatory dimension of the user in the
creation of the space (Figs. 4 and 5).

Fig. 5. Design strategies aimed at achieving the objectives of anthropo-dimensional and

anthropo-dynamic well-being

4 Conclusion

The research specifies the importance and the centrality of the user-centred approach in
the observation of the relationships established between man, technological systems
and the constructed environment, to be planned in accordance with anatomical and
 Active City for Healthy Ageing and Anti-globesity 293

metric needs (anthropo-dimensional and psycho-physical well-being), and those related

to the sphere of perception, cognitive processes and the social sphere (anthropo-
dynamic and social well-being). Among the various forms of knowledge that relate to
environmental design, it emerges that accessibility is the one that most questions the
needs and expectations of the inhabitant and responds to a need for equity and social
inclusion, also encouraging the practice of daily active styles of life for the maintenance
of health through movement and healthy eating [16–19]. The idea is that urban and
architectural space can contribute to this goal, facilitating and making possible, with
their physical and morphological properties, behaviours and habits in line with the
needs of a healthy and socially active life. There are currently many virtuous examples
of urban planning at an international level, but in the national sphere there are still
many spaces available for the development of this theme, in which the need for a focus
on human beings, resources and the environment must not be limited to the creation of
smart objects and smart cities, but must build an awareness of the individual, the
community and the context that leads to changing lifestyles [20–23].

References
1. World Health Organization: Physical activity strategy for the WHO European Region 2016 –
2025. Unione Italiana Sport Per tutti, Roma (2016)
2. Ufficio federale dello sport UFSPO, Ufficio federale della sanità pubblica UFSP, Promozione
Salute Svizzera, upi – Ufficio prevenzione infortuni, Suva, Rete svizzera Salute e Movimento
(2013). Muoversi fa bene alla salute. Macolin: UFSPO
3. Lee, I.M., Shiroma, E.J., Lobelo, F., Puska, P., Blair, S.N., Katzmarzyk, P.T.: Effect of
physical inactivity on major non-communicable diseases worldwide: an analysis of burden
of disease and life expectancy. Lance, pp. 219–229 (2012)
4. Spadolini, M.B.: Design for better life, longevità: scenari e strategie. Franco Angeli, Milano
(2013)
5. Fries, R.C.: Handbook of Medical Device Design. Marcel Dekker Inc., New York (2000)
6. Galea, S., Vlahov, D.: Urban health: evidence, challenges and directions. In: Annual Review
of Public Heath, pp. 341–365 (2005) WHO: ICF, International Classiffication of Functioning
Disabilities and Health. Erickson, World Health Organization, Geneve, CH (2006)
7. Cristiana, C.: Inclusiva, attiva e adattiva: la progettazione della città centrata sull’utenza. In:
Built Environment Technologies and Healthy Architectures. Franco Angeli, Milano (2018)
8. Fitch, M.J.: La progettazione ambientale. Analisi interdisciplinare dei sistemi di controllo
dell’ambiente. Franco Muzzio, Padova (1980)
9. Brandt, E., Pope, A.: Models of disability and rehabilitation. In: Brandt, E., Pope, A. (eds.)
Enabling America: Assessing the Role of Rehabilitation Science and Engineering, pp. 62–
80. National Academy Press, Washington (1997)
10. Gehl, J.: Life Between Buildings. Using Public Space. VNB, New York (1987)
11. Thompson, C.W.: Activity, exercise and the planning and design of outdoor spaces. Environ.
Psychol. 34, 79–96 (2013)
12. Canter, D.: Psychology and the Built Environment. Architectural Press, London (1974)
13. Filippo, A., Cellucci, C., Di Sivo, M., Ladiana, D.: TECHNE. J. Technol. Archit. Environ. 1,
67–76 (2016). Firenze University Press, Firenze
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14. Cellucci, C.: Accessibilità dell’ambiente domestico. Cluster in progress. La Tecnologia

dell’Architettura in rete per l’innovazione, pp. 53–62. Maggioli Editore, Santarcangelo di
Romagna (2016)
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Office for Europe, Copenhagen (1999)
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Firenze University Press, Firenze
17. Nardi, G.: Il progetto euristico in architettura. In: L’atto progettuale, struttura e percorsi. Citta
Studi, Milano (1991)
18. Lester, R., Piore, M.: Innovation the Missing Dimension. Harvard, Cambridge (2004)
19. Freire, J.: Urbanismo emergente in García-Rosales Mandala, C., Deseo de ciudad:
Arquitecturas revolucionarias, Ediciones Peter Walsh (2010)
20. Lévy, P.: L’intelligence collective. Pour une anthropologie du cyberspace. Editions La
Découverte, Paris (1994)
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Symposium on Design Methods. Portsmouth College of Technology (1967)
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 Users Preferences in Land Use
and Architecture of Rural Areas

Wojciech Bonenberg1(&), Ling Qi2, Mo Zhou1, and Xia Wei1

1
Faculty of Architecture, Poznan University of Technology,
ul. Nieszawska 13A, 61-021 Poznan, Poland
wojciech.bonenberg@put.poznan.pl
2
School of Architecture and Urban Planning, Beijing University of Technology,
Pingleyuan 100, Chaoyang District, Beijing, China

Abstract. Modeling of the functional activity remains an important tool in

the sustainable rural development. The presented method provides for the
preparation of rural development plans on the ground of the identified residents’
preferences regarding the issue of locating crucial functional elements within the
spacial structure of the rural area. The article presents the results of a research
into the significance of users preferences in architecture and land use planning of
rural areas. The article presents the concept of rural architectural identity, dis-
cusses key features of architectural forms which form the rural land use. It
presents the results of a identity awareness measurement and a model of the
identity which was prepared on this basis. It includes the result of a field query
related to the assessment of the strength of an architectural identity presented by
existing development in selected rural areas in Wielkopolska Region (Poland).

Keywords: Users preferences
Rural architecture
Local identity

1 Introduction

The article presents an original assessment method of the quality of rural architecture as
a unique expression of user preferences.
The research is to provide an answer to the following questions:
– what actions should be taken to ensure the rural architectural form is seen and
appreciated as an important element of the attractiveness of the space in the eyes of
residents?
– what needs to be done to improve the quality of rural architecture, i.e. ability to
build a competitive advantage of its location?
– does the quality of rural architecture corresponds to the users’ preferences?
This paper is a synthesis of research experiments carried out at the Poznan
University of Technology covering adjustment of the appearance of rural architecture
to the preferences of users in the Poznan Conty (Wielkopolska Region, Poland). The
problem of rural revitalization, and in particular the restoration of the value of the rural

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 295–303, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_28
296 W. Bonenberg et al.

environment, has recently acquired significance due to the growing interest of investors
in rural areas. Therefore, adapting architecture to the users requirements becomes an
important goal.

2 Significance of the Research

The fact that it is the quality of rural architecture that is the most effective tool used to
create the image of a village is forgotten. It is the direct contact with architectural
surroundings which has an impact on investment decisions. Even best promotion will
not be efficient if spatial reality – compositional chaos and repellent surroundings –
discourages inhabitants.
Rural architectural is a clearly appealing sign, whose functions can be compared to
a product brand. Rural architectural brings about the functions of identification (it can
be distinguished), promotion (attracts attention of potential clients and encourages them
to invest), evaluation (presents unique values related to tradition and culture).
Architecture accepted by users gives competitive advantage, helps to create a
positive market image, attracts clients, builds loyalty and helps to identify and rec-
ognize tastes of users. Therefore, architectural form (appearance) is an element of so
called social communication. Architecture which is stands out due to its “personality”
acquires special character as a kind of advertising message which is supposed to
fascinate the receivers. Architecture which grows out of tradition and culture is an
evidence of the value of a place where it was created, and which it is supposed to
promote. Culturally alien architecture – promotes culture of other regions, which it is
identified with. Therefore, its is so important to create an individual, unique image of
architecture accepted by local residents of the village. This is why quality of rural
architecture is so important as an element of space personalization [1, 2].

3 Research Methodology

Research methodology includes:

(a) Analysis of the identity of rural architectural – creating of a pattern accepted by
local villagers (village residents).
(b) Architectural and rural query used to assess the quality of architecture based on
the representative sample.
(c) Comparison of the existing situation with a pattern accepted by local villagers.
(d) Conclusions and recommendations.
The starting point of the proposed research model is defining the architectural
identity that distinguishes the village of Wielkopolska Region (western Poland).
Identity of rural architecture is mainly a reflection of a mental preferences of village
residents, associated with location. It represents values which people should be pro-
vided with by the space. Architectural identity is therefore connected with residents’
aspirations, personality, system of values, and culture [3]. It also brings about symbolic
and emotional values [4].
 Users Preferences in Land Use and Architecture of Rural Areas 297

The next step is the visual identification of the preferred architectural patterns.
Visual identification of an architectural pattern is connected with a group of attributes
of architectural form, which create a visual image of built environment.
Another stage of the research includes the measurement of preferred architectural
patterns.

Fig. 1. Studies on the identity of the architectural form that distinguishes the village of
Wielkopolska Region (western Poland). Research carried out at the Institute of Architecture and
Spatial Planning PUT under the supervision of W. Bonenberg, 2017–2018.

The gap between the existing architecture and preferred architectural patterns
indicates that architecture does not match its village location. This results in a weak
quality of rural built environment (Fig. 1).
298 W. Bonenberg et al.

4 Identity of Rural Architecture

The most important features which create the village architectural identity include:
(a) Uniqueness – differentiating local architecture from its competitive equivalents.
Promoting features such as tradition of a place, space interiors atmosphere, unique
expression. An example includes individualisation of an architectural detail,
characteristic flags in space interiors, small scale, interesting location within local
context.
Uniqueness connected with local tradition is a potential source of new creative
inspirations which can be interpreted in an innovative way while enriching con-
temporary appearance of the space, providing it with an individualised character.
(b) Familiarity – shaping architectural surroundings from the point of view of
recipients’ (consumers’) habits and experiences. Familiarity is significant for
social approval of architecture, brings about strong residents’ relations with home,
farm and a village.
The feeling of familiarity plays a positive role in improving social bonds, security
and looking after common goods.
(c) Personification – ability to make use of architectural surroundings which depict
individual taste and systems of values. It represents distinctiveness and original
likings of residents.
Characteristic appearance of architectural elements such as fences, entrances to
buildings and flats, pedestals, cornices, balcony decorations, facade colour, etc. is
a manifestation of architectural personification, expression of aspirations, taste
and ambitions of residents, and owners of houses, shops and coffee shops.
Personification is visible in:
– style referring to residents’ preference.
– architectural forms referring to the likings and sensitivity of local community.
(d) Prestige – subjective feeling of satisfaction related to the contact with “brand-
name” architecture which is a source of pride, significance and respect.
(e) Legibility – the most important point of the legibility is to provide people with
clear and precise image of the space, thanks to architectural forms which combine
compositional and functional values in a orderly way. In this meaning, architec-
tural objects constitute recognisable elements of spatial structure. Legibility
determines good orientation in the surroundings and makes it possible to recog-
nise the role and significance of particular architectural forms in village structure.
It is focused on friendly and comprehensible reception of spatial impressions.
Clear architecture creates environment that is more understandable and provides
more emotional stimuli.
(f) Cultural identification – a system of symbolic and emotional values which come
from an identification with culture, tradition, history and collective memory of the
location. Cultural identification is an important element of stylistic autonomy in
architecture.
 Users Preferences in Land Use and Architecture of Rural Areas 299

(g) Fashion – desire to attract attention by “keeping up”. At the beginning fashion is
created by desire to distinguish oneself from the surroundings. It is a stage of
differentiation and includes a small group of works designed by world’s elite
architects. Thanks to them some architectural forms become fashionable. Then,
elite fashion is more and more widely reproduced and becomes mass fashion.
Imitation is a result of subconscious desire to identify with fashionable models.
Finally, mass fashion “becomes outdated”, people go back to previously popular
models and look for new trends.
The significance of the above mentioned factors when building the architectural
identity was determined in a survey research.
The research was carried out among 50 respondents: architects, developers, estate
agents. The question referred to factors which give competitive advantage and therefore
influence stable increase of the value of the space. Each expert was to indicate three
most important factors which in his/her opinion create an architectural identity, out of
seven options.
The research followed procedure based on standard methods of qualitative mea-
surements of an image of architectural identity, widely discussed in subject literature
[5–7]. Table 1 shows the results of the research.

Table 1. Significance of features that build the architectural identity in rural areas in Poznan
County (Wielkopolska Region).
Feature that builds the Number of indications Feature significance
identity of architecture
C1 Uniqueness 43 0,86
C2 Familiarity 36 0,72
C3 Personification 22 0,45
C4 Prestige 39 0,78
C5 Legibility 23 0,47
C6 Cultural identification 45 0,91
C7 Fashion 19 0,37

5 Visual Identification of Architectural Identity

Visual identification of a architectural identity is meant to provide an answer to the

question why some architectural objects can be thought of as accepted by residents,
whereas other cannot? Which compositional features decide whether a given building
can be referred to as distinguished by its uniqueness, familiarity and identity? Why
does it improve the legibility of the surroundings and include local likings, personi-
fying the space? In other words, which attributes of architectural form decide that a
building can play a role as acceptable in a particular rural location?
An answer to this question can be found in the theory of a structure of architectural
forms, and research that combines these forms with their location.
300 W. Bonenberg et al.

There are 25 standard attributes of architectural forms distinguished based on

subject literature [8, 9], which are related to the structure, articulation, integrity, sim-
ilarity, compositional balance, village context, scale, material, colour, texture, and
architectural detail.
Further on, the relation between the attributes of architectural form and factors
which shape the identity of architecture was measured.
Expert assessment included 25 relations between factors. The research used stan-
dard methods of qualitative measurements based on Likert scale [10, 11].
The results are shown in Fig. 2 which indicates which attributes of the form have
the largest impact on the identity of architecture. It is a type of a model of an archi-
tectural identity determined for Poznan County, Wielkopolska Region, Poland.

Fig. 2. Typology of existing patterns of rural buildings in Wielkopolska Region. The

architectural forms do not refer to the cultural patterns and heritage of the Region. Research
carried out at the Institute of Architecture and Spatial Planning PUT under the supervision of
Bonenberg W. Students: Szydłowska M., Perlicjan M. 2017–2018.
 Users Preferences in Land Use and Architecture of Rural Areas 301

By comparing representative examples with the model, it was possible to assess the
quality od architecture in identified groups of users of developments in Poznan County
area. Figure 2 shows the typology of currently existing patterns of rural buildings.
Their architectural form does not refer to the rich cultural patterns and heritage of the
Wielkopolska Region. Dravings show which visual attributes of buildings exert a
bigger impact on brand identity in particular areas of Poznan County.
Figure 3 shows the patterns of the new buildings proposed for the rural areas of
Wielkopolska Region (according to users’ preferences). These patterns are the result of

Fig. 3. Patterns of the new buildings proposed for the rural areas of Wielkopolska Region
(according to users’ preferences). Case study village of Puszczykówko. Research carried out at
the Institute of Architecture and Spatial Planning PUT under the supervision of Bonenberg
W. Students: Lis M., Szymczak J., Urbanowska J. 2017–2018.
302 W. Bonenberg et al.

the presented research and meet the requirements of local cultural identification,
uniqueness, familiarity, personification, legibility. All these features build a specific
individualization, more and more appreciated by the inhabitants of rural areas.

6 Conclusions

The prepared pattern was used to assess the acceptance of architectural quality in the in
Poznan Metropolitan Area municipalities (villages) according to the assumed typology.
Research indicates that vast majority of developments are classified as medium or
low-value.
In individual municipalities, the style of buildings is made uniform, characteristic
forms related to local tradition and unique materials disappear.
The exusting architecture is ‘unclear’ and it includes ‘fashionable’ models in the
style borrowed from Europe rather than creative interpretation of local patterns.
Materials and colours fail to refer to the context of the location and only slightly
refer to the building tradition in Wielkopolska Region. A characteristic element that has
a negative impact on the architectural identity includes paying little attention to the
architectural detail.

6.1 Recommendations
The following references may be formulated based on the conclusions of the presented
research.
(a) Stimulate local authorities to become more interested in the creation of good
architectural patterns accepted by residents.
(b) Supplement the Development Strategy for Poznan County with programme called
“Architecture as a unique image of the village of the Poznan County”.
(c) Take advantage of the achievements of the Department of Architecture and
Spatial Planning at Poznan University of Technology in the field of village
architectural patterns.
(d) Patterns of rural buildings should be treated as an offer for investors that are part
of the strategy of good investment practices in villages of Wielkopolska Region.

References
1. Bonenberg, W.: Architektura jako marka miasta – na przykładzie aglomeracji poznańskiej.
Czasopismo Techniczne, 2012, R.109, z. 1-A/1, pp. 97–107 (2012)
2. Bonenberg, W.A.: method of assessing public space attractiveness with use of Google maps.
Case of Poznan MA. In: 5th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and
Ergonomics (AHFE): Conference Proceedings, Kraków, Poland, 19–23 July 2014,
pp. 6787–6795 (2014)
3. Kapferer, J.N.: Strategic Brand Management. New Approaches to Creating and Evaluating
Brand Equity. FP Division of Simon and Schuster Inc., New York (1992)
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4. Upshaw, L.B.: Building Brand Identity: The Strategy for Success in a Hostile Environment.
Wiley, London (1995)
5. Brewer, D.D.: Cognitive indicators of knowledge in a semantic domain. J. Quant. Anthropol.
5, 107–128 (1995)
6. Rosch, E.: Principles of categorization. In: Rosch, E., Lloyd B.B. (ed.) Cognition and
Categorization, Hillsdale, Lawrence Erlbaum, New York (1978)
7. Rowden, M.: The Art of Identity: Creating and Managing a successful corporate identity.
Gower Pub. Co., London (2000)
8. Koos, U., Richter, K.: The Book of Design. Keiser Verlag, Neusass (2001)
9. Meiss, P.: Elements of Architecture. From Form to Place. Chapman and Hall, London (1992)
10. Kall, J., Kłeczek, R., Sagan, A.: Zarządzanie marką. Oficyna Ekonomiczna, Kraków (2006)
11. Weller, S.C., Romney, A.K.: Systematic data collection. Sage, Newbury Park (1988)
 Accessibility of the Open Public Space in Cities

Alicja Maciejko1(&) and Roman Czajka2

1
Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of Zielona Gora,
ul. Prof. Z. Szafrana 1, 65-516 Zielona Gora, Poland
alicjamaciejko@wp.pl
2
Faculty of Architecture, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology,
Wybrzeze Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland

Abstract. Urban space of the contemporary cities undergo metamorphosis.

Monofunctional public squares and parks change into multifunctional space,
additionally filled with advanced technology. Public space means not only open
parks and squares, but also generally accessible public buildings interiors:
hotels, office buildings, shopping malls, religious institutions. Because of the
broad topic, it has been limited to the open urban areas, which is the space
among buildings. Public space, as the name suggests, should be accessible for
all the citizens, also the disabled ones. The paper is an attempt to look at the
changes in a critical way through the prism of their accessibility for the disabled.
A few of the recent accomplishments, both European and Polish, has been
analysed. The presented examples may be acknowledged as the representative
ones for the conducted research, because they are suitable for the general trend
of shaping public space of the contemporary cities.

Keywords: Public space
Value
City
Accessibility
Architecture

Human factors
City squares

1 Introduction

The role of public spaces in the urban landscape cannot be overestimated, as they are an
integral part of it. They determine the quality of the city, the general positive or
negative perception of the built environment.1 In the structure of settlement units, they
have practically always played pro-social roles: establishing contacts, exchanging
views, venues for politic debates and philosophical discussions, meetings, announce-
ments, religious and secular ceremonies, and finally stigmatization of criminals and

1
It is not without reason that these are mostly historically shaped, old markets and squares; they are
the most visited parts of not only European cities. They are their hearts, giving rhythm to the whole
city. Cities without these unusual places seem to be poorer, have a body, but are devoid of spirit. [3
p. 115] As in Brasilia, the new capital of Brazil, which in 1987 was entered by UNESCO on the list
of human heritage. It was designed by Lúcio Costa, who drew up an urban plan, and Oscar
Niemeyer, who designed all the public buildings. Over time, the inhabitants of this ideal city began
to complain about a disease called brasilitis, which was caused by the citation: ``the lack of crowd
and crowd, empty street corners, the anonymity of places and faces, the dull monotony of the
environment, the depressing monotony of impressions''. - These are just some of its symptoms [1].

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 304–312, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_29
 Accessibility of the Open Public Space in Cities 305

carrying out public executions of people sentenced to death. In European cities, these
were mainly markets, market squares or ordinary squares. Their leading role in the
development of the urban fabric has not changed throughout their history, although it
has been somewhat weakened by the new forms of enclosed public spaces such as the
huge shopping and entertainment arcades, but their idea of meeting places for people
has not changed. In addition to purely economic considerations, the climatic conditions
and the need to separate, but also to create places that are able to function all year round
and twenty-four hours a day, have had an impact on the emergence of huge shopping
centres, which largely take over the role of urban public spaces, even in historically
shaped cities.
Public spaces are also being replaced by areas that have previously had a com-
pletely different function, such as post-industrial areas, warehouses and granaries,
which, as a result of industrial restructuring or the elimination of burdensome industry
in city centres, are being transformed into new functions, closed public transport routes
or even entire motorways crossing the city.2 Because of the broad topic, it has been
limited to urban open spaces, which are located among buildings and at the junction
with them. Public spaces, as the name suggests, should be open to all residents and
accessible to all, including people with various types of disabilities. The article is an
attempt to take a critical look at these transformations and assess them in terms of
accessibility and public perception. Several of the more significant European imple-
mentations of recent years have been analysed. The examples presented in the article
can be considered representative for the conducted research, as they are in line with the
general trend of shaping public spaces of contemporary cities.

2 Accessibility and Value of Public Spaces

The topic is not new and has already been discussed many times, but as Ryszard
Kapuściński, a Polish reporter, said: “It is not the uniqueness of the theme, but the
difference, the originality of looking at the same thing, that determines the value of the
work”.3 The general definition of public spaces is characterised by the fact that they are
all publicly accessible places, usually free of charge. According to the definition, public
spaces should be equally accessible to all, including people with different types and
degrees of disability. It should be noted that people with disabilities are not only
wheelchair users with reduced mobility, but also visually impaired, blind, hearing
impaired, people with all disabilities, visible or hidden. Participation in the life of the
community of all citizens regardless of their status, origin, or state of health is a sine
qua non for the normality of the state and society. It is important not only because of
the organization of spectacular political or cultural events, but also because of the
therapeutic properties of active participation in the life of the community, acceptance
by the community and the sense of being a part of it. The city is a centre of activity, and

2
For example the Hafen City Hamburg, the Koszyki Hall in Warsaw, the train route in New York, the
highway in Seoul transformed into a park.
3
Kapuściński R., Lapidarium V., Czytelnik, Warszawa 2002, p. 99.
306 A. Maciejko and R. Czajka

among them, especially for people on foot [6, 7]. In Poland, after the political trans-
formation after 1989, the attitude of institutions and society towards the disabled
people has changed radically. Also in this respect, an example from the experience of
countries with a higher level of civilizational development had a huge impact on our
behaviour. People with disabilities have been treated equally in all aspects of life and
activity, which does not mean that all barriers, even architectural ones, have been
eliminated.
It seems that such a statement in the era of universal acceptance of the handicapped,
especially in Western civilisation, is a truism, but it does not always happen. So far, it
has not been possible to create a universal public space that meets the condition of
equal accessibility for all disabilities. Such adaptation is often mutually exclusive. This
space is perceived differently by people with mobility problems, differently by people
with visual impairments, differently by blind people, or finally by deaf people. Finding
the golden mean is extremely difficult. The needs of people with disabilities, depending
on the type of disability, are also fulfilled thanks to modern electronics: applications
written for the most common device today, such as a smartphone, voice locating
devices, voice alarm devices, translators, programmes facilitating sightseeing,
describing the place of sightseeing, helping in moving around an unknown area.
Various attempts are being made to adapt the space for people with disabilities. For
visually impaired and blind people, miniatures of buildings or three-dimensional forms
of shaping the space are set up so that people with disabilities can get to know them
with other senses, mainly through touch.
Several subjectively selected, varied examples from among many European pro-
jects in recent years have been analysed:
1. Lisbon Square in Porto (Praça de Lisboa), Portugal.
2. Oslo Opera House, Norway, Oslo Waterfront, Norway.
3. Dialogue Centre Przełomy in Szczecin, Poland.
4. Nowy Targ Square, Wrocław, Poland.
Lisbon Square in Porto (Praça de Lisboa), Portugal.4 The square is located in the
centre in close neighbourhood of important places and facilities. On the one hand, it is
adjacent to the historic building of the University of Porto, on the other hand, to the
complex of the monastery and church of Igreja dos Clérigos with the characteristic
dominant feature of Torre dos Clérigos - the main observation tower in the city. A great
attraction is the famous bookstore Lello (Livraria Lello) located in the frontage of one
of the streets surrounding the square, considered to be one of the most beautiful in the
world. From the monastery comes the busy Rua dos Clérigos street, which leads to the
most important areas of the city centre and to the Ribeira district. It is a densely built-up
area with characteristic Portuguese buildings, picturesquely sloping towards the River
Douro [5]. The square is two-storey, the lower level is shops and services, the higher
level is a green square with olives, a place of relaxation, meetings and events. The
location in the city centres and surrounded by other city attractions makes the square a
popular destination for residents and tourists alike (Figs. 1 and 2).

4
Architectural design: Balonas & Menano Architects.
 Accessibility of the Open Public Space in Cities 307

Fig. 1. Lisbon Square in Porto. View from the tower of Igreja dos Clérigos. View of the level of
services. Photos: Roman Czajka.

Fig. 2. Oslo Opera House. View from the sea. Barcode Oslo. Office buildings as a background
for the Opera House. Photos: Roman Czajka.

A similar idea is the solution of the Oslo Opera House, which is a part of a series of
new waterfront projects in the city.5 Located in the Bjørvika district, the opera and
ballet building is not only a cubature, but also a city square and promenade, a generally
accessible public space. The square, rising according to the form of the opera, was
covered with 36,000 plates of Italian marble La Facciata, partially hammered to avoid
slippage.6 The attractiveness of the opera house and the square is determined not only
by its function, but also by its location at the interface between land and sea. The
designers have succeeded in creating a very special place, which has already become a
recognisable landmark of the city. The backdrop to the opera house is a sequence of
office buildings located in the second row to the sea, with cleverly designed public
spaces between the buildings: recreation, bicycle parking, pedestrian and bicycle
transport, greenery and physical activity (Figs. 3 and 4).

5
Architectural design: Snøhetta AS.
6
https://archirama.muratorplus.pl/architektura/opera-w-oslo,67_133.html?&page=1, 27.12.2018, godz.
11:47.
308 A. Maciejko and R. Czajka

Fig. 3. Dialogue Centre Przełomy in Szcczecin, against the background of the Philharmonic
building and the background of the city panorama. Photos: Roman Czajka.

Fig. 4. Geometricized Nowy Targ Square in Wroclaw. Setting of benches subordinated to the
geometry of the square. Photos: Roman Czajka.

The common feature for the above-described projects and the National Museum in
Szczecin - Dialogue Centre Przełomy is the creation of not only the form and function,
but also an attractive public space both around the buildings and on them.7 The
Museum is located in the direct neighbourhood of another award-winning and rec-
ognizable project in this city, the Szczecin Philharmonic.8 Together, both projects have
contributed to the creation of public space, which has significantly raised the rank of
this part of the city. The Przełomy Dialogue Centre is a building, a function and a city
square diversified in levels, a separate and safe place for pedestrians, a track for
skateboarders and skaters (Figs. 5 and 6).

7
Architectural design: Robert Konieczny and KWK Promes studio. The project received ma awards,
among others: at the World Festival of Architecture in Berlin, the title of “building of the year 2016
in the category of Kul-tura” and in the competition for the best public space in Europe (European
Prize for Urban Public Space 2016) [9].
8
Architectural design: Estudio Barozzi Veiga z Barcelony, open 2014.
 Accessibility of the Open Public Space in Cities 309

Fig. 5. View of the square cut off by the street and the tram track on the eastern frontage of the
square. View from the north side of the square on the City Hall of Wroclaw - on the left side, the
construction of a new office building which will close the square from the south side. Photos:
Alicja Maciejko.

Traditionally designed squares include Plac Nowy Targ in Wrocław.9 A special

place in the history of the city, always connected with trade, stalls and crowds of people.
Destroyed during the war, until the moment of modernization, it was partly a car park for
passenger cars and pedestrian transport. The main assumption of the modernization
project was to preserve the geometric character of the floor of the square, created in the
60s, as a valuable and recognizable testimony to the post-war reconstruction and
transformation of this part of the Wrocław city centre [5]. Paradoxically, despite the
proximity of the market square, market hall, offices and university, the perfectly func-
tioning market square before World War II is now only a pedestrian communication
route, which has lost all its previous values. Although the whole square is also accessible
for the disabled, there are no marked out passages with variable floor texture for visually
impaired or blind people. Accidental arrangement of fixed urban furniture - benches -
can also be an obstacle for these people (Figs. 7 and 8).
All considered public spaces are located in the centres of medium-sized European
cities. They are served by public transport, also accessible by car, bicycle or on foot.
Despite the differences in levels (apart from Nowy Targ Square in Wrocław), they are
also accessible for the disabled, also for people in wheelchairs. They are also located in
the surroundings of other attractive urban functions, cultural facilities, art, worship, or
simply city offices and office buildings. Support from other city attractions, open public
spaces seems indispensable for their proper functioning. Such a location significantly
increases the number of people using them.

9
Architectural design: Roman Rutkowski, Wrocław architect, architecture critic and lecturer at the
Faculty of Architecture, Wrocław University of Technology. His winning competition project
became the basis of documentation for the modernization of the square. The concept of the
underground car park was developed by Maćków Pracownia Projektowa.
310 A. Maciejko and R. Czajka

3 Attractiveness

A city is treated as a place or a sequence of places, [2]. It evokes It evokes various

feelings, provides experience of different impressions, stimulates or silences. A high
level of stimulation may or may not have a negative impact on us, and this depends,
among other things, on the level of our adaptation, and thus also on our individual
characteristics. After all, the attractiveness of a city is not only a deceptive “effect of
bright lights”. Nowadays, the quality of public spaces is determined not only by the
specific atmosphere they are able to create and their equipment adequate for the pur-
poses they are supposed to serve (city furniture), but also by accessibility for all, also
for the disabled. The attractiveness of a given public space is confirmed in the simplest
dimension by the number of its users during the day and throughout the year. While in
a warm climate we can speak of an almost even distribution of users throughout the
year, in a temperate climate (and this includes Europe and Poland) the life of public
spaces in winter is completely dying, or is limited, and they themselves become only
connectors between closed and warm interiors of buildings. Their role is reduced to the
rank of sidewalk and link. It is therefore important to design them in such a way that
their attractiveness does not decrease with the worsening weather.
The shaping of public spaces, their form favours or does not favour users. An
excellent example are the Spanish stairs in Rome, a city that is not lacking in tourist
attractions. Properly designed and implemented public space, regardless of the period
in which it was created, serves the residents and is an attraction for tourists. It testifies
to the high culture of its designers, knowledge of the functioning of societies and their
needs, such as gathering and spending time together. Together and separately, so as to
feel part of the community, but also to be able to feel at the same time individually
distinguished and an individual in the crowd.
The correct perception of space consists of many objective elements that are subject
to evaluation, but also those that are very difficult to measure directly, subjective in
perception and dependent on many variable factors and the way they are perceived by
users. The same space will be assessed differently by people with disabilities by people
with reduced mobility, and even differently by blind or deaf people. It seems that it is
impossible to design an ideal space that suits all its users. What remains is the desire to
create a space corresponding at least to the majority of its users. The assessment of the
majority is the assessment issued by people with disabilities, who constitute an
essential part of society, is not always objective, but also among this group there are
divergent, or even extreme, often emotional conditions of assessment. The argument
for different thinking seems to be the state of ageing societies. With age, also people
who have been fully functional so far require solutions that make their lives easier.
Rapidly ageing European societies, but not only, as this problem affects almost all
highly developed societies, such as Japan, are the best proof of this. This trend seems to
be constant and growing.
Contemporary approach in designing public spaces of cities is the creation of
multifunctional spaces with a bit of nature, i.e. a park or an urban garden. One of the
cures for all urban ills can be simply a piece of countryside - the illusion of wild nature,
just like in the New York Central Park created by Olmsted and Vanks.
 Accessibility of the Open Public Space in Cities 311

An important element of the space is also a sign - a symbol, which can be both a
name and architecture, the strength of the sign allows to attract people, including those
from outside the nearest circle of the city [8, 9].

4 Conclusions

The presented examples testify to a very diverse approach of designers to the issues of
public spaces in the urban landscape. Nevertheless, there is a tendency to create places
that are not only aesthetically attractive, but also multifunctional, which are a response
to the needs of modern and modern societies, using the latest technology and
achievements. However, the value and attractiveness of public spaces is still deter-
mined by many factors that are not always directly measurable. They are perceived and
evaluated differently by the users themselves and depend on the user’s age, education,
mental and physical condition, or simply well-being. The main factors determining the
attractiveness of a given open public space are:
– climate, depending on the climate zone, public spaces come to life according to
seasons and weather changes [2].
– accessibility and positioning in relation to other associated functions
– shape
– variability, mobility
– adaptability
– the nature of the materials used
– floor solution
– small-scale architecture
– greenery intensity
– light
– so called backrest points [6, 7].
The city of the future with its public spaces must extrapolate towards ultra-modern
and variable solutions. The multifunctionality of the floor and other items of equip-
ment, including their energy recovery, is essential. Movable walkways that allow to
cover longer distances and at the same time generate energy are no longer visions of the
distant future, but of the nearest future. The future of public spaces is also change-
ability, as in the theatrical set design, which allows for the arrangement of many
variable spaces in the same frame limited by the size, in which the recipient of public
spaces is not only a spectator, but also a participant in the performance. The public
space must be a place of arranged, but also accidental meetings, where there is a place
for both a group and an individual person. It must be a space for everyone, also for
people with various disabilities. Ultimately, however, the value and attractiveness of a
given public space is reflected in the simplest dimension in the number of users during
the day and throughout the year.
312 A. Maciejko and R. Czajka

References
1. Bauman, Z.: O ładzie, który niszczy, i chaosie, który tworzy, czyli o polityce przestrzeni
miejskiej., In: Formy estetyzacji przestrzeni publicznej., red. Wojciechowski, J., Zeidler, S.,
Warszawa, A., (1998)
2. Bell, P.A., Greene, Th.C., Fisher, J.D., Baum, A.: Psychologia środowiskowa., Gdańskie
Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne, Gdańsk (2004)
3. Czajka, R., Sobolewski, A.: Konfrontacja starego miasta we Wrocławiu z nowymi
zamierzeniami urbanistyczno-architektonicznymi. In: Serce miasta. Czasopismo Techniczne
Politechniki Krakowskiej, 2-A/2008, Kraków, vol. 7, rok 105, p. 115 (2008)
4. Czajka, R., Sobolewski, A.: Atrakcyjność środowiska zamieszkania w aspekcie dostępności
przestrzeni publicznej. In: Przestrzeń publiczna w miejskim środowisku zamieszkania.
Czasopismo Techniczne Politechniki Krakowskiej, 2-A/2010, Kraków, zeszyt 5, rok 107,
p. 55 (2010)
5. Czajka, R., Sobolewski, A.: The built environment: effects of redevelopment of two city
squares. In: 5th International Multidisciplinary Scientific Conference on Social Sciences and
Arts, SGEM 2018: Conference Proceedings, Urban Planning, Architecture & Design,
Albena, Bulgaria, 26 August–01 September 2018, vol. 5, no. 5.3, pp. 589–596. STEF92
Technology, cop., Sofia (2018). ISSN 2367-5659
6. Gehl, J.: Życie pomiędzy budynkami, użytkowanie przestrzeni publicznych., Wyd. RAM,
Kraków (2009)
7. Gehl, J.: Miasto dla ludzi., Wyd. LEGRA, Kraków (2014)
8. Maciejko, A.: Przystanek komunikacyjny jako element informacji przestrzennej miasta XXI
wieku. Logistyka. Współczesne wyzwania nr 7, Jacek Szołtysek, Beata Detyna, Wałbrzych
(2016)
9. Maciejko, A., Strzelecki, M.: Ikony i symbole w mieście na przykładzie najnowszych
projektów wiat przystankowych. Propozycja projektowa dla Placu na Rozdrożu w
Wałbrzychu. Logistyka. Współczesne wyzwania nr 7, Jacek Szołtysek, Beata Detyna,
Wałbrzych (2016)
10. Wysocki, M.: Przestrzeń przyjazna seniorom. Poradnik RPO., Wydawnictwo Biuro Rzecz-
nika Praw Obywatelskich, Warszawa (2015). ISBN 978-83-65029-12-6
11. Dostęp: 29.12.2017, godz. 18:17. http://muzeum.szczecin.pl/o-muzeum/siedziby/muzeum-
narodowe-w-szczecinie-centrum-dialogu-przelomy.html, http://architektura.muratorplus.pl/
krytyka/przestrzen-sztuki-o-centrum-dialogu-przelomy-piotr-wysocki_5909.html
 Architectural and Urban Spaces for Creative
Thinking. Visual Data and Questionnaire
Analysis Methods in Support of Design Process

Agata Bonenberg(&)

Faculty of Architecture, Poznan University of Technology,

ul. Nieszawska 13 a, Poznan, Poland
agata.bonenberg@put.poznan.pl

Abstract. The paper states that there exists a set of spatial properties in
architecture and urban situations, which stimulate the creative abilities of space
users. An innovative research tool composed of visual data analysis and ques-
tionnaire has been designed to research this aspect of human performance. The
information obtained by means of the visual data analysis pertains to spatial
aspects of the issue, whereas the survey delivers an insight into the actions,
motivations, physical and psychological state of users. Spatial forms, which
stimulate the creative process can be built on the basis of the conducted research.

Keywords: Creative process
Public space

Visual data analysis research method

1 Introduction

In the modern economic, social and cultural conditions, the ability to think creatively
goes hand in hand with economic success, which relies on intellectual effort and the
ability to find innovative solutions. This situation is described by the expression
“creative class”, as defined by Richard Florida (2010), which represents the driving
force behind the economic development of post-industrial cities. Creative actions are
conditional upon the right psychological attitude, which is in turn affected by the
community setting. In this context architecture and urban planning should become the
tools for creating an ideal living and recreational space, which, by supporting the users’
creative behaviours, will help them to generate economic value. The aim of the project
is to conduct research on the creative process, which takes place in architecture and
urban spaces in order to:
• define which spatial environment properties stimulate the creative process and
support economic success for a growing “creative class”
• establish guidelines and theoretical models for standard spatial solutions in archi-
tecture and urban planning on the basis of research results and bibliographical
sources in order to stimulate the users’ creative process.
The author decided to tackle this scientific problem for two reasons. The first is the
discernible socio-economic change associated with an expansion of the “creative class”

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 313–322, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_30
314 A. Bonenberg

in Poland and the world as well as the conviction that significant social changes should
be followed by spatial changes: in the approach to architectural design and urban
planning. The second reason is the growing interest by architects and urban planners in
the concept of creativity as such, but there is a shortage of methodological theoretical
foundations for the concept, supported by research, which might act as a starting point
for applying methods and design solutions in architecture and urban planning.
The proposed research is original in the architecture and the urban planning dis-
ciplines on account of application of a research method (visual data analysis) used in
social sciences for problems entailing the shaping of architectural and urban spaces
which support creativity.

2 Research Hypotheses

The effectiveness of creative work is affected by stimuli coming from the surroundings.
Well-being, comfort, concentration, inspiration and mood are important factors, which
impact the process of creation. Establishing an appropriate spatial quality by shaping it,
lighting, acoustics, colour range, texture and used materials is reflected in drafted legal
acts (for example lighting or acoustic standards) as such knowledge constitutes a tool
for creating an optimal work, living and rest space. The designed space may deliver
stimuli acting upon certain, desired behaviours. Faced with a growing creative class,
the architectural or urban design project should aim to support the users’ behaviours
and attitudes, which allow them to generate economic value by stimulating creativity.
In the author’s opinion, correctly formed space may stimulate the creative process.
Taking that under consideration, research hypotheses is based on three main points:
1. There exists a set of spatial properties in architecture and urban planning which
stimulate the creative process and support economic success of the “creative class”.
2. The spatial properties, which stimulate the creative process can be identified and
described using an original research tool.
3. A set of spatial forms, which stimulate the creative process can be built on the basis
of the conducted research.
The theory of creative processes identifies a number of techniques (Nęcka 1994):
free associations method, noticing similarities method, technique for associating distant
facts and ideas, ease of comprehending and metaphorical thinking, performing deep
transformations and use of creative imagination.1 In the author’s opinion the correct
spatial environment may stimulate every one of these techniques. Office interiors at
leading firms, whose potential relies on particular creativity of its staff and innova-
tiveness of solutions embarked upon (Google and Facebook) confirm this hypothesis.
Some spatial solutions in place within these interiors are astounding, such as the sus-
pended ski lift gondolas where staff can quieten down (Google). Interiors with

1
Nęcka E., “Koncepcja twórczości”, Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne, Gdańsk 2005
 Architectural and Urban Spaces for Creative Thinking 315

panoramic aquariums, conducive to deep concentration are another atypical solutions

(Google). The objective of the research is to verify these observations –for now the
designs are not backed up by dedicated scientific studies.
In the “Cityscape in the Era of Information and Communication Technologies”
book, published in 2018, the author identified, on the basis of bibliographical analysis,
spatial properties, which hypothetically might support the creative process within
architectural spaces2:
• Use of formal and compositional solutions, facilitates both the interiors users’
intellectual stimulation as well as rest breaks.
• Designation of informal spaces - spaces for rest, seclusion and concentration.
• Facilitating changes to the body position, movement during work breaks.
• Facilitating group work, designation of space for mutual interactions.
• Facilitating a change of the environment: exit into an outdoor area or access to a
relaxation space.
• Facilitating interactions with nature: calming, inspiration.
• Openness to the cultural landscape, a possibility to interact with others.
• Use of an appropriate colour code: depending on the interior’s designation and role.
• Individual design, personalised residential spaces.
• Changeability of the spatial layout results in suitability for many purposes: estab-
lishing a creative space, one associated with self-development or hobbies.
The postulate of designing space with a view of supporting creativity as well as
psychological and physical stimulation is currently popular primarily in the context of
designing space for children or space for people with disabilities - for example the
principles of creating sensory gardens, the interiors of pre-schools, nursery schools and
schools. In the author’s opinion, bringing together the results of the research and the
techniques already in use make it possible to develop guidelines and models for
designing spaces which stimulate adult creativity.

3 State of the Art

The theoretical basis of the work is constructed upon publications of sociologists,

psychologists and economists who have been depicting a “society of the future” for
several decades. The below publications describe the changes of society, and their
authors treat the occurring spatial changes in terms of the secondary consequence of the
described state of affairs. Their considerations are, however, the basis for the claim that
the appropriate shaping of space can help in the creation of the information society and
as a consequence, “creative class”. The authors of the particularly inspiring works
include: Toffler (1980) who called the projected transformation as the “third wave”—
in comparison with the first wave, which was a civilizational transition to the agri-
cultural system, and the “second wave”, brought by the industrial revolution.

2
Cf. Bonenberg A. “Cityscape in the Era of Information and Communication Technologies”, Springer
International Publishing, 2018, ISBN 978-3-319-69541-9.
316 A. Bonenberg

The picture of a society of the future outlined by Toffler in 1980 has not become
outdated, and we can still treat it as one of the most important opinions on forming a
society of the future. The author depicts possible extensive cultural, social and eco-
nomic changes: in the family, pluralism, employment, education system, the end of
national states, new forms of corporations. Graham (1995) perceived and described the
similarities between a real space and a digitalized world, whereas Jeremy Rifkin defines
the coming era as the “age of access” claiming that the most important value is the
possibility to use, access to information and goods. Several authors, however, include
information on the expected impact on the surrounding space: Elżbieta Wysocka in her
published work “The Impact of the Information Society on the Spatial Planning” took
up the studies on the impact of the development of information technology on the
development of geographic regions.
The theme of the impact of the development of information technology on a city
scale was undertaken by subsequent authors. In 1995, William Mitchell published a
now classic book “The City of Bits”, in which he compared the actual urban spaces and
places in cyberspace. According to his concept, virtual and real spaces overlap each
other - and they will be able to interweave, replace and support one another. According
to Mitchell, the impact of information technology will be an important factor in the
urban design. This new form is called “E-topia” (Mitchell 1996). The important shift in
understanding consequences of the information and telecommunication technologies is
the “Rise of creative class”, by Richard Florida (2002), and then followed by Vanolo
(2008), Boren and Young (2011) “The migration dynamics of the ‘creative class’:
evidence from a study of artists in Stockholm, Sweden” explaining tendencies and
trends in new habitation preferences. Rem Kool has talks about adapting architecture to
delocation. He sees Lille Grand Palais Convention Centre as the expression of the
“space of flows”. In summary, the above-mentioned authors agree on the principles of
changes in information and communication technologies and existence of creative class
as a consequence, affect the spatial environment.
For research methodology author followed Rose (2001) “Visual Methodologies:
An Introduction to Researching with Visual Materials, and Ferenc (2007). Furthermore,
the author has published several texts, which deal with the subject of the impact of
current socioeconomical changes driven by information and communication tech-
nologies on architectural and urban space: Bonenberg A., Cityscape in the Era of
Information and Communication Technologies”, Springer International Publishing,
2018, ISBN 978-3-319-69541-9, and Bonenberg A., Postrzeganie i ocena miejskich
przestrzeni publicznych w kontekście rozwoju społeczeństwa informacyjnego in
Przyszłość miasta – miasto przyszłości, red. J. Gyurkovich, Czasopismo Techniczne.
Architektura/ Politechnika Krakowska z.1-A, z.1 (109), Krakow 2012, pp. 91–96.

4 Method and Research Tools

For the purpose of understanding the impact of architectural and urban spaces on
creative process the author build original research tool combining two elements, which
support one another. First is a visual data analysis of the architectural and urban spaces
where creative process takes place, and second is a survey (questionnaire) regarding
 Architectural and Urban Spaces for Creative Thinking 317

physical and psychological circumstances of creative thinking. The information

obtained by means of the visual data analysis pertains to spatial aspects of the issue,
whereas the survey delivers an insight into the actions and motivation of users (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Research plan, source: author

The method for processing data (photograms) is based on standards used in social
sciences, systematized by G. Rose in her theoretical works (2001). The research is
based on individual experiences of people engaged in creative work. During the first
stage, every member of the sample group defines three instances where they arrived at a
satisfactory conclusion of a creative process after an extended struggle with a creative
problem. The task of the participants is to recreate in their memory as accurately as
possible the circumstances, in which they positively concluded conceptual process. The
purpose is to capture the context and conditions accompanying the conclusion - a
“revelation moment”, understood in this case as experiencing a sudden creative
accomplishment.
Research participant is invited to note down on a piece of paper three creative
accomplishment moments, which satisfy mentioned criteria. The note is not subject to
research assessment but is only be used to focus attention on events which were the
respondents’ first choice and to discourage changing the research case during the
course of the test. The participants are asked to only take into account those events that
occurred within 4 months of the research, to avoid the recollections from becoming
blurred.
Subsequently each participant is asked to make three photograms which depict
three different “creative accomplishment moments” as accurately as possible. The
photographs are made in the “as seen by the respondent” convention and depict as
faithfully as possible the image which the given research group member had in front of
their eyes at that moment.
Whilst discussing the research scenario, participants are asked to ensure the images
are as accurate as possible: to take into account the surrounding space, time of day,
persons or animals accompanying the event as well as objects and the prevailing
atmosphere. They are also asked not to use graphic filters or otherwise interfere with
the images for the purpose of improving the appearance of the photograms.
318 A. Bonenberg

4.1 Research Sample

Respondents constitute group of individuals who are often confronted with the need to
carry out conceptual-design as well as creative work, understand its nature and con-
sequently the instructions contained in the research scenario, and who are part of the
“creative class”.

4.2 Data Reduction and Treatment Schemes

The graphic materials provided by respondents, containing a collection of visual data is
cohesive and concerns the same matter satisfying the basic methodology criterion. The
set of categories, which the author uses in the presented research is exhaustive and
takes into account the full range of aspects, which are the subject of the research. The
scope of categories according to which the photograms are analysed in exclusive,
therefore the categories do not overlap.
The coding process is a significant stage of the analysis, entailing a reduction of the
variety of visual materials and facilitating the capture of the main, reoccurring motifs.
Analysis of the material is aided by saving the results of the coding onto a computer.
The first and fundamental step in processing the data is to count the frequency with
which given categories occurred. This fundamental operation will make it possible to
spot trends and to draw the research conclusions. List of codes created by the author
contains (Table 1):

Table 1. Example of visual data assessment categories and list of codes. Source: author
Visual data assessment Codes
categories
Location Interior space: residential, commercial or other interiors
External space: public city spaces, parks, mass communication,
individual communication
Intermediary spaces: open window, terrace
Type of activity Depiction of professional work (computerised)
Depiction of attributes of manual creative work
Performance of housekeeping
Relax/entertainment
Time of day Morning
Midday
Evening
Night
Difficult to determine
Presence of people No other people
One or two people
A group of people
Presence of animals Yes
No
Lighting Natural daylight
Artificial lighting from above
Dimmed artificial lighting
 Architectural and Urban Spaces for Creative Thinking 319

4.3 Results of Visual Data Analysis

The graphic materials received from respondents were subjected to analysis in accor-
dance with the specified visual data assessment categories. As expected, photograms
illustrating architectural interiors were most frequent (48%), closely followed by those
with external spaces (40%). The remaining constitutes intermediary spaces, between
external and internal. Amongst the illustrated architectural interiors, professional work
spaces, desks with computer equipment are dominant. There are also some residential
interiors, suggesting housekeeping works. In the exterior spaces category, most pho-
tographs depict parks or other high vegetation areas (39%). Elements of mass public
communication in the form of tram interiors, stations and stops. Streets are shown in
19% of these materials. Intermediary spaces are an interesting category, represented on
a number of photograms. Intermediary moments, moments of gazing down onto the
surrounding landscape. Implicates a moment of separation, retreat and distancing
oneself from the surrounding. A significant majority of photograms does not show
people nor animals (87%). Whereas lighting can often be identified as artificial, not
intensive, dimmed, suggesting going to sleep (16%) (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Examples of researched images: depiction of professional work (computerised), source:

author

4.4 Results of Analysis of Survey Data

The survey (questionnaire) constitutes the second element of the research tool. Its
purpose is the acquisition of descriptive information pertaining to a broader psy-
chophysical context, one that motivates creative events. The research conclusions
coming from the questionnaires, which regard psychophysical state, say that the pro-
cess of creation is favoured by factors listed in Table 2.
320 A. Bonenberg

Table 2. Physical and psychological factors influencing creative process in architectural and
urban spaces resulting from analysis of survey data. Source: author
Physical factors • Performing simple, schematic actions that enable you to “stay in the
background”
• Situations “on the way” in movement/travel
• Interlacing of intellectual and physical activity
• Changes in the position of the body or light physical activity
Psychological • Spatial situations which arouse associations
factors • Spatial situations which surprise
• Spatial situations which provoke to stop
• Spatial situations which encourage exploration
• Spatial situations which effect of changing perspective

5 Possibilities of Research Application

Creative thinking which takes place in urban spaces may be aided for example by
designating informal rest, seclusion and concentration spaces balanced by places for
interaction. Relaxation enclaves provide a feeling of intimacy, and enclosed structures
with openwork partitions modulate the appearance of urban interiors, the city land-
scape, parks and passages3. Mobil street furniture should be composed into functional
zones, the location of which depends on the site associated with the urban or landscape
context. The lead narrative of these sites should be in accordance with the evaluation of
the cultural landscape and the curve of impressions.4 Application of solutions stimu-
lating creative process in common interaction spaces is important, and should be
supported in open to gathering spaces. Additionally, use of colour is important: vivid
colours emphasising sequences, functions, enclaves and, which is still poorly explored
in urban research, the significance of smell - by planting aromatic vegetation in parks
(Table 3).
As a result of the survey (questionnaire), a combination of non-standard techniques
of shaping public space has been proposed:
• Creating abstract contexts
• Creating intentional scale disorder
• Intentional change of perspective
• Influence of illusion
• Constructing surreal spatial situations
• Motor activation kinetic objects
• Fragrance therapy
• Chromotheraphy.

3
See Folie matrix Tschumi B., “Cinegram Folie: Le Parc De La Villette”, Princeton Architectural
Press 1988.
4
Wejchert K., “Elementy kompozycji urbanistycznej” pub. by Arkady, Warsaw, 1984.
 Architectural and Urban Spaces for Creative Thinking 321

Table 3. Non-standard techniques of shaping public spaces.

Constructing sur- Creating intention-

real spatial situa- al scale disorder:
tions: „Warde”, Jerusa-
Sunken Bridge lem, Hq Architects
Ro&Ad, Fort De Fot.https://aasarchitectur
e.com/2015/11/warde-in-
Roovere Belgium, vallero-square-
Fot.https://www.detail- jerusalem-by-hq-
online.com/blog- architects.html
article/moses-bridge-by-
road-architects-25574/
Intentional change Fragrance therapy
of perspective Installation At
Uk Pavilion for Euroflora 2018,
Milan Expo 2015, Genova, Italy. Fot.
Wolfgang Buttress. Author.
Fot. Author.

6 Conclusions

The visual data and questionnaire results subjected to analysis depict many various
types of spaces - architectural interiors, external public spaces, intermediate spaces,
wherein the research participants declare arriving at a positive conclusion of the cre-
ative process. The most significant reflection stemming from the research is the fact that
the creative process very often does not conclude at a desk - the traditional work or
study location. It is surprising how many people experience “revelations” outdoors,
during activities not directly associated with work, including in parks and public
spaces. In this context, urban public spaces may in fact become innovation generating
space. Role and significance of open public space within the boundaries of major cities,
large service centres, technology parks and academic centres may be much more
profound than is assumed. The right design can improve the quality of leisure or
recreation in a park for all residents but also the quality of “results of work” wherever
representatives of the “creative class” are users of public spaces and where innovation
is the driving force behind the economy.

References
Bańka, A.: Architektura psychologicznej przestrzeni życia. Behawioralne podstawy projektowa-
nia. Gemini, Poznań (1997)
Biggs, M., Buchler, D.: Eight criteria for practice-based research in the creative and cultural
industries. ADCHE 7(1), 5–18 (2008)
Bonenberg, A.: Cityscape in the Era of Information and Communication Technologies. Springer,
Cham (2018). ISBN 978-3-319-69541-9
322 A. Bonenberg

Bonenberg, A.: Postrzeganie i ocena miejskich przestrzeni publicznych w kontekście rozwoju

społeczeństwa informacyjnego [w] Przyszłość miasta – miasto przyszłości, red.
J. Gyurkovich, Czasopismo Techniczne. Architektura/ Politechnika Krakowska. - 2012,
z.1-A, z.1 (109), s. 91–96 (2012)
Boren, T., Young, C.: The migration dynamics of the ‘creative class’: evidence from a study of
artists in Stockholm, Sweden. Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr. 103(1), 195–210 (2011). https://doi.
org/10.1080/00045608.2011.628263
Castells, M.: The Rise of the Network Society. Blackwell, Oxford MA (1999)
Ferenc, T.: Analiza obrazów – przegląd metod i inspiracji teoretycznych [w] Acta Universitatis
Lodziensis Folia Sociologica 32 (2007). dostęp 09 July 2018
http://yadda.icm.edu.pl/yadda/element/bwmeta1.element.hdl_11089_11073/c/Folia_
Sociologika_32_2007_6-27.pdf
Florida, R.: The Rise of the Creative Class (2012)
Graham, S.: Cities, nations and communications in the global era: urban telecommunications
policies in France and Britain. Eur. Plan. Stud. 3(3), 357–380 (1995)
Mitchell, W.: City of Bits: Space, Place and the Infobahn, p. 48. MIT Press, Cambridge (1996)
Nęcka, E.: Psychologia twórczości. Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne, Gdańsk (2005)
Rahner, K., Vorgrimler, H.: Mały słownik teologiczny. Wydawnictwo PAX, Warszawa (1987)
Rose, G.: Visual Methodologies: An Introduction to Researching with Visual Materials. SAGE,
London (2001)
Thackara, J.: In the Bubble: Designing in a Complex World. MIT Press, Cambridge (2006)
Tinagli, I., Florida, R.: Italy in the Creative Age, publ. Creativity group Europe (2006). https://
www.creativeclass.com/rfcgdb/articles/Italy%20in%20the%20Creative%20Age.pdf. dostęp
31 Aug 2018
Toffler, A.: The Third Wave. Bantam Books Toronto, New York, London (1980)
Wejchert, K.: Elementy kompozycji urbanistycznej. wyd Arkady, Warszawa (1984)
Vanolo, A.: The image of the creative city: some reflections on urban branding in Turin. Cities
25(6), 370–382 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2008.08.001. Accessed 9 Feb 2010
 Possibilities of Using Architecture in Striving
to Maintain Balance Between Natural
and Built Environment: Architecture
in the Invisible Borders of Greenery

Anna Wojtas Harań(&)

Department of Architecture, Housing, Industrial, Interior,

Rural Planning, Landscape, Visual Arts, Faculty of Architecture,
Technical University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
anna.wojtas-haran@pwr.wroc.pl

Abstract. Space is a potential that can be managed in different ways. In many

countries, laws and policies have been implemented that promote sustainable
development, including sustainable tourism, which is accompanied by concern
for the quality of the surrounding space. As part of the application of these
principles, the mountain countries undertake various initiatives, in particular in
overlapping issues, in which historical or contemporary architecture plays a
significant role. Selected enterprises, taking into account the role of architecture
and greenery in the Alpine countries or in the Giant Mountains, may be an
incentive to solve problems in other locations. Project applications are proposed
in the conclusions.

Keywords: Urbanization
Mountain settlement
Sustainable development

Greenery planning

1 Introduction

“Nature is a doctor for all diseases” (Hippocrates).

The purpose of our study is analysis of applied solutions that would allow to
maintain a spatial balance between the built environment and natural environment.
A method of observation and the study of individual cases - good practices
regarding: protection and management of natural and cultural resources, adaptations to
climate change, mitigating tourist pressure, friendly transport, touristic infrastructure,
and sustainable architecture - were adopted. Modern solutions from Alpine countries
and historical solutions from the turn of the 19th and 20th century from the Giant
Mountains were compared. On the basis of the above, and also on the basis of the
analysis of philosophies, views, debates, campaigns, challenges of the era of climate
change, it was stated that some modern innovations in which we hope to deal with
crises seem illusory. Meanwhile, other solutions, historical, proven and perhaps too
stereotypical to label them directly as sustainable, may constitute a model of right
proportions of elements that are produced by man to the natural ones in the landscape.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 323–334, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_31
324 A. W. Harań

A threat to health safety, which is caused by crossing planetary boundaries, justifies

taking pro-environmental solutions in the field of architecture and urban planning and
the sense of this research.

2 Illusory Nature of Pro-environmental Solutions

The discourse on the environment takes place in the world of science1 and is also
undertaken by representatives of politics, business and economics. A real threat to
health safety, which results from crossing planetary boundaries2, justifies such exten-
sive search for preventive measures. Also, discovering pro-environmental solutions in
the sphere of architecture and urban planning is justified. The development infras-
tructure affects hydrological relations, geological layers systems, functioning of zoo-
cenoses, the world of plants, and landscape geo-complexes.
At present, protection of natural resources or even their restoration is postulated, i.e.
compensation for damages done to the planet or withdrawing influences. However,
the existing paradigms of domination and use of nature still prevail3. All the time
nature is seen as an object of business and not a priceless good4. The promotion of
innovative building technologies does not solve the problem of pressure on nature, but
additionally provides a stimulus to the construction business. Therefore, optimistic
associations may result from aspects of modern ecological construction, unfortunately
covering up the negative consequences (intensive construction in mountain areas which
takes place under the slogans of savings, destruction of the lithosphere under the
pretext of harmonious blending in with the surroundings, pretentious architectural
forms under the pretense of inspiration with surroundings, ecological construction as a
pass to invest in areas protected, apparent, non-standard construction propositions
instead of comprehensive authentic accomplishments, etc.).
Reflections on the nature, climate, future of civilization and health of societies
appeared as early as at the beginning of the industrial revolution. At the turn of the 20th
century, views about greenery crystallized, which limited a negative impact of build-
ings and objects on the natural environment and human health. It is worth confronting

1
The position of science on the subject of current climate change and its causes, discuss Marcin
Popkiewicz, Szymon Malinowski, Aleksandra Kardaś in “Learning about the climate” [1]. Professor
Szymon Malinowski an atmospheric physicist, warns that climate changes we observe can lead
to the destruction of humanity.
2
Four of nine planetary boundaries have now been crossed. The four are: climate change, loss of
biosphere integrity, land-system change, altered biogeochemical cycles according to Stockholm Res-
ilience Centre https://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/research-news/2015-01-15-planetary-
boundaries—an-update.html.
3
The authors of the book “Inside the Green Economy – promises and pitfalls” [2] question
the possibility of reconcile climate change prevention and the same time protect resources
with economic development and even the green economy. Distrust raises the perception of nature
in terms of capital or business in the concept of green economy.
4
Ewa Bińczyk in her work “Rhetoric and apathy of anthropocene” [3] analyzed the philosophies,
views, debates, campaigns, challenges of the era of climate change.
 Possibilities of Using Architecture in Striving 325

the views which contributed to the creation of sustainable settlement forms with
modernity. They result from a harmoniously introduced sport, recreational and tourist
function, in connection with greenery and mountain settlements.

3 Shaping Greenery - an Expression of Culture

The way of treating nature changed depending on the prevailing philosophy, i.e. nature
as an atavistic or rational need as the work of the Creator or the material of garden
compositions as well as the utilitarian structure of the city.
Originally, nature was given a divine dimension. It was a retreat for people
and animals.
The view of the supremacy of reason cognition resulted in the fact that nature lost
its spiritual dimension, but useful values were discovered in it. In the epochs in which
the rationalist philosophy of significance dominated, sanitary, functional meaning
of greenery increased. Greenery became an element of the scientific concept of
establishing cities. Already at the end of the 16th century, the British first introduced
rules for the protection of greenery from development for health and leisure reasons5.
In the 18th century, apart from practical functions, the aesthetic values of greenery
were of the same importance. Claude Nicolas Ledoux designed cities in which garden
compositions, boulevards (the utopian town of Chaux) played an important role [5].
In the 18th century, a return to an idealistic vision of nature is visible at the same time,
contrasting it with the evil of civilization [6]. Except for advantages resulting from
physical and psychological contact with nature, a spiritual manifestation of contact with
the landscape was distinguished. In Bath, John Wood’s design buildings are con-
structed, which are immersed in gardens and open to the landscape on the other side. In
the towns of the 18th century, squares were most often a substitute for nature. Their
compositions were changed into irregular ones to give the impression of merging into
the natural landscape.
In the European civilization until the beginning of the 19th century, there were
mostly small towns, in which the influence of sun, air and wind was comparable to
areas outside the walls. The urban organism comprised a variety of green areas such as
little gardens, gardens, courtyards, parks, green areas, which were difficult to develop
due to physiographic conditions, as well as gardens near residences of monarchs, post-
fortress terrains, meadows in the suburbs which were famous in the 18th century. New
relations of a town and nature were developed at the end of the 18th century and during
the 19th century. When the towns extended, the number of residents increased, the
intensity and the height of buildings increased, and the green space in the town and
outside it became smaller changing the health conditions [7]. It was at that time that

5 “
For the first time, the idea of surrounding the city with a green belt appeared in the work of Thomas
More, and Elisabeth I led to the legal approval of this idea by the English parliament in 1592, when
a ban to build was introduced in London in a protective belt of greenery, which was supposed to
serve, inter alia, health and relaxation residents … ”. The English in 1617 also introduced legal
regulations to improve the living conditions in the city, which ordered the allocation of a part
of the area for development to internal gardens constituting squares [4].
326 A. W. Harań

‘the utopian conviction about the collision-free unity of man and nature disappeared
[8]’. There was also a growing awareness of the role that green areas perform in the
urban organism. The disappearance of the green space and fascination with the beauty
of virgin nature resulted in criticism of the destruction of nature and landscape by
civilization and the search for methods of protection.
The trend was favoured by the simultaneous romantic understanding of the native
rural landscape. Admiration of untouched landscapes, concern for the environment
which was polluted and destroyed by technological progress and the lust for wealth
were expressed also by John Ruskin. These became an inspiration for the Arts and
Crafts artistic movement as well. The movement had an impact on European art at the
turn of the 20th century. Creative enthusiasm was drawn from traditional, folk and
romantic models. The Domestic Revival prevailing in the 19th century in the archi-
tecture of England reinforced the interest in traditional and vernacular motifs.
Urban planners and hygienists tried to introduce greenery systems into settlement
organisms. In the 19th century, urban concepts referring to the landscape parks were
developed. A type of buildings surrounding a centrally located park was widespread
(first used in the Regent’s Park in London – 1824, according to the design by John
Nash) [8]. There were proposals for a greenery system for cities, e.g. by John Claudius
Loudon from 1829 for London. It was a system of green belts surrounding the city
(greenbelt, breathing zones, breathing places round London) deliberately preventing
any development. Greenery was a permanent component of the first developed housing
estates for workers. The housing estates were supposed to satisfy the basic needs and
aesthetically refer to the landscape of a village, drawing residents away from the
factory reality (Housing Estates of Milton Abbas in Dorset from 1770 and Blaise
Hamlet from 1810 - designed by John Nash) [8].
In the 19th century, the ring system of greenery in the city was supported by
architect and town planner Ebenezer Howard. The radial or wedge system was used in
the Berlin plan in 1910 according to the concept by Rudolph Eberstadt, Bruno
Möhring, and Richard Petersen. The combination system (ring-radial) was proposed by
Georg Pepler. The spot system was promoted by Eugène Alfred Hénard [9].
In the 20th century in urban planning, ‘the perception of the environment as nature,
the elements of which should be skilfully used in a scientific way for the good of man
and civilization’ was definitely predominant [6]. Greenery was used as a structural
element, which required previous specialist research.

4 The Role of Green Areas and Initiatives of Contemporary

Sustainable Development

Greenery (in the city) performs multiple functions: health, biological, mental,
educational, aesthetic, artistic, visual, fire protection, feeder, social, recreational
and economical [10]. Health values clearly speak for the protection of the environment,
which is part of the system of sustainable development principles or sustainable
 Possibilities of Using Architecture in Striving 327

tourism6. This tourism, the one which is also called responsible, is based on the concept
of sustainable development.
Within the framework of this policy, the Alpine countries take various initiatives
which are connected with protection of the environment and include the following
terms [12]:
– promotion of natural and cultural heritage, preservation and raising respect
for nature and achievements of the local community,
– marking out areas of ‘silence’ without tourist facilities,
– moderate opening - reasonable sharing of protected zones, ‘without profit rules’,
– striving to spread and diversify the supply and demand of tourist offers in space and
time in order to efficiently flow tourist traffic (alternatives to Alpine skiing, extension
of winter and summer seasons – all year-round season),
– balancing areas under intensive and extensive tourism,
– providing support for weaker areas, less attractive for tourists, carrying out
and implementing projects with a local specificity,
– preference of revalidation, revegetation of the existing development over extension,
– prioritizing tourist accommodation in the existing or modernized construction,
– favouring housing for rent and a rigorous approach to having ‘second homes’,
– verification of permits for the installation of ski lifts,
– care for the aesthetic inclusion of, among other things, ski slopes into the natural
scenery of the mountains,
– limiting the use of artificial snow for locations which are equipped with necessary
hydrological, climatic and ecological conditions,
– supervision over sporting activity using motor vehicles,
– developing new forms of tourism in connection with sports,
– preservation of the cultural landscape created by farmers who run mountain farms -
shelter caretakers.
These are coupled actions for sustainable development and the environment, which
briefly consist in limiting the construction interference, minimizing an impact,

6
It is worth quoting some of these obvious advantages. Depending on the area and nature
of the vegetation, the impact may be different. Wooded areas constitute a biological filter with
the properties of absorbing dust and gas pollution. The ability of vegetation to release oxygen
and assimilate carbon dioxide, to increase light ions in the air - creates favourable conditions for
the human body. Many plant species emit bactericidal substances with healing properties -
phytoncides. Particularly important in the city is the natural property of green regeneration of the air
composition.
Green areas contribute to balancing the water cycle by storing water resources and slowing down
surface water runoff. Trees delay the penetration of rain to the ground, enforce infiltration, retain
some of the water resources in the soil, litter and crown. In this way they prevent extreme conditions:
floods, excessive humidity and droughts.
Complexes of compact vegetation perform a soil-protective function causing reinforcement
of the soil structure and protection against erosion (water and wind).
Larger groups of greenery contribute to the thermal balance and ventilation of the area. They affect
the weakening of the excessive wind power and at the same time stimulate air circulation.
They disperse the places of stagnation of cool, polluted, moist air masses and, on the contrary, urban
heat islands. Moreover, the vegetation absorbs sound waves, suppressing noise [11].
328 A. W. Harań

and introducing green areas to urban layouts to a larger extent. Some of the rules were
discussed already in the 16th century as it can be seen from the historical note. The turn
of the 20th century brought interesting realizations, which in principle implemented
these beliefs in the area of the Giant Mountains.
In the landscape of the most popular tourist resorts in the Giant Mountains,
greenery has always dominated and has been related to the natural conditions of the
area. The resorts of Szklarska Poręba and Karpacz were famous for a healthy and high-
mountain climate. Szklarska Poręba (Schreiberhau) was referred to as a climatic and
high-altitude spa as well as a winter sports station [13]. It was a diversified large town
which was centered in the River Kamienna Valley. The upper part of Karpacz
(Brückenberg-Wang) was valued for its perfect, spa, and athletic climate [14], which
resulted from its location and forests.
Tourism development, however, brings a transformation of the landscape and air
pollution. Nowadays, the more and more compact, bulky development begins to
dominate not only in the centers, but enters the areas of forests, meadows, mountain
peaks of the Izera Mountains and the Giant Mountains.

5 Examples of Greenery in the Spatial Composition

of the Karkonosze (The Giant Mountains) Towns

5.1 A Colony of Houses in Szklarska Poręba Fig. 1

The intermingling of greenery and architecture at the turn of the 20th century is visible,
for example, in the recreational areas of Szklarska Poręba, including in Marysin dis-
trict, Kilińskiego street, Stara Droga Route, which used to be the toboggan run from
the Pod Łabskim Szczytem shelter. Representative guesthouses which are regularly
situated along the route give the impression of being freely incorporated into the green
space. Buildings somehow discreetly blend in with the virgin areas of the northern
slope of the Śląski (Main) Grzbiet of the Giant Mountains.
Buildings were constructed on large plots (on average over 0.5 ha), often naturally
undulating, and situated evenly in the street development line or at a considerable
distance from the road, i.e. 20, 100, 200 and even 300 m, as well as in some cases away
from the center in the surrounding meadows and at the edge of the forest. Natural and
scenic values that were offered by newly occupied virgin lands were used. Numerous
streams and lakes snaked between the plots. Their traces can be found on old maps and
photographs7. Slopes of the terrain were adjusted to the development by means of
artificial slopes. The landscape model of the layout was complemented by park
greenery. At present, it has grown to fit perfectly into the forest space of the Giant
Mountains National Park. In the shadow of branches of the forest, the houses became a
trifle - unexpectedly gaining additional qualities despite the passage of time. The
consequence of this practice is spacious and scattered development in recreational
districts of Szklarska Poręba as well as other towns in the Giant Mountains.

7
For example, Map of Szklarska Poręba 1: 5,000 from 1913 [15].
 Possibilities of Using Architecture in Striving 329

Fig. 1. Szklarska Poręba – the plan based on the Map of Szklarska Poręba 1: 5,000 from 1913
(author’s drawings).
330 A. W. Harań

At that time, the new forms of residence, which were uninhibited by space, created
a catalogue of architecture of great diversity. A characteristic feature of this architec-
ture includes balconies, loggias, bay windows, and verandas facing the south, from
where the panorama of the Giant Mountains can be seen, as well as the north, where
the view of the Jeleniogórska Valley and the Jizera Mountains could be admired.
View-related reasons often prevailed over the principles of orientation towards the sun
and sides of the world. Open and glazed architectural elements were meant to enable
patients to contemplate the landscape and stay outdoors, regardless of the season and
weather.
Some often duplicated architectural elements were similar to regional rural archi-
tecture, for example, the use of native material (granite, wood), large sloping roofs,
skeletal structures, muntin windows, shutters and window casing. The solutions which
used a visible wooden pole-frame structure and framework filled with a usually plas-
tered bright wall or façades boarded with planks were particularly sophisticated.
Usually, these were two-storey buildings with an attic or one-story buildings with
an attic on a high foundation and on a slope, which intensified the impression
of monumentality. The buildings were designed more or less on a similar scale –
with a building area of 300 even up to 900 m2 and a capacity of 1500 to 4500 m3.
Smaller objects performed residential and tourist functions. Larger objects with a
similar function, constituted part of sanatorium and hotel complexes. Distances
between buildings on the neighbouring plots were sporadically close to a minimum of
15 m. The standard distance was about 50 m. However, these parameters are only
approximate because as mentioned above, the essence was to merge several buildings,
which were concentrated in the area of Kilińskiego Street, into a disproportionately
larger area of green open spaces.

5.2 A Colony of Houses in Karpacz Fig. 2

The intermingling of greenery and architecture from the turn of the 20th century is also
visible in the areas of Karpacz - including the area of Gimnazjalna, Świerkowa, Armii
Krajowej Streets and at the route that once connected numerous sledging routes
descending from the slopes of the Giant Mountains, i.e. from Pod Śnieżką (Schle-
sierhaus), Strzecha Akademicka (Hampelbaude) and a network of other shorter ones.
The ski routes intersected here and the bobsleigh track from the Hotel Orlinek finished
its course. The development line of splendid guesthouse buildings marked the interior
of streets. The buildings were embedded in the green space of the north - eastern slope
of Śląski Grzbiet of the Giant Mountains. The ratio of building heights to road widths,
the development distance from the roadway, the towering position above transport
routes, the rhythmic distribution of detached bodies influenced a representative artistic
effect. High and low greenery created a distant and closer plan, which was a link
between the building and the street interior as well as the surroundings.
The buildings were usually arranged with their longer façades facing the street.
Horizontal accents of the roof setting were contrasted with the gable development
layout, a vertical drawing of dormers, bay windows and avant-corps. They were
constructed on large plots (on average from 2000 m2 to 0.5 ha and larger), on naturally
undulating or steep slopes (on average with a slope of 20%). The development lines
 Possibilities of Using Architecture in Striving 331

Fig. 2. Karpacz – the plan based on concept of spatial development plan of Karpacz 1: 2,000
from 1922. The concept made on the basis of the state of 1913 (author’s drawings).
332 A. W. Harań

were withdrawn from the road by about 10 m and up to 20 m at some locations. The
road axes reproduced the outline contour lines smoothly, while others diagonally
overcame differences in levels, turning into toboggan and ski trails in winters.
Natural and scenic values were used. Forest vegetation, which grew on the façades
of new buildings, was saved. Loggias, balconies, and terraces overlooked the scenery
of Pogórze Karkonoskie, the River Łomnica Valley, spectacular peaks of the Giant
Mountains range. The distance between the capacities was approximately 40 m and
bigger with larger capacities (one- or two-storey buildings with one- or two-storey
attic). In the case of smaller capacities (one-storey with an attic) a distance of 20–30 m
was planned. It provided a panoramic view and necessary contact with greenery.
Inclinations of the terrain were adjusted to the development by means of artificial
slopes, merging the buildings in the concavity of the area, exposing them to
embankments or they were included in the concepts of buildings. Slopes were marked
on the zoning plans. The consequence of this practice is spacious and at the same time
orderly development in the recreational district of Karpacz.
Many representative layouts were constructed which constitute examples of resi-
dential houses. A high foundation made of raw granite, gable or broken roofs, multi-
surface roofs, wooden facing varied on particular floors, the Prussian wall on attic
floors, decorative window and door woodwork, extended or irregular plans - these were
the elements that despite their originality created a similar fairy tale atmosphere of the
neighbouring villas. The objects blended in with the contemporary tendency which was
propagated in Europe, including the above-mentioned English artistic movement which
referred to native building forms. The architecture of some buildings was derived from
‘a popular type of the elegant suburban villa in a summer resort’ [16]. The projection of
a rectangle, a mansard roof, annexes, a smooth line of dormer windows, gable walls
and windows, rustication, loggias, verandas are a collection of forms most often used in
this type of objects.
The distance between the buildings, which was larger than the width of the façades,
introduced gentle liveliness to the rhythm of buildings of more or less similar
dimensions [17].

6 Summary

The analysis of architecture and development of the Giant Mountains towns from the
turn of the 20th century enabled the selection of solutions that made them recognizable
and at the same time coincided with the aspirations of modern sustainable
development:
– Sensitivity in the way nature and landscape are treated, which was implanted in the
culture of Romanticism and then cultivated as part of various reform movements
related to architectural and urban activities, made the villages an integral part of
nature.
– The design style, which included the rite of folk architecture and Alpine guest
houses closely related to greenery, created an idyllic climate and excellence asso-
ciated with the mountain environment.
 Possibilities of Using Architecture in Striving 333

– The inclusion of spa and architecture motifs with orientation to the sun, landscape
and nature emphasized modernity associated with hygiene and health - hardly
achievable in an industrialized and urbanized city.
– A skillful combination of the style motifs of past epochs introduced homogeneity
and the desired picturesqueness and consistency with an equally expressive
landscape.
– The reproduced model of a villa, a guest house, a detached hotel in a green setting
within the accepted proportions and spatial composition, provided a human scale in
a world undergoing universal mechanization and concentration of developments.
– The natural predispositions of the area were used in a reasonable way, i.e. topog-
raphy, water, vegetation, allowing only minimal interference in the environment.
The roads, squares, meadows, streams and ponds existing in the districts were used
for sports and tourist purposes (including ski and toboggan courses, bobsleighs,
jumps, swimming pools, ice rinks). Most of the recreational areas were of an
outdoor nature, contributing to a favourable balance of green spaces in the housing
estate.
– Observance of standards regarding dimensions and development layouts as well as
view requirements and preservation of relatively large green areas in the natural
form limited urbanization and negative impacts on the natural environment. The
rational relation of the development to existing nature contributed to the creation of
new and valuable layouts in terms of architecture, urban planning, landscape and
health.
A skilful combination of natural and man-made factors in a given geographical
environment resulted in the fact that the landscape, vegetation, and architecture remain
fascinating even after one hundred years (with small exceptions that have been
introduced in our times).
At the turn of the 20th century, in the Giant Mountains towns we can observe a
desire to compose greenery in accordance with rational principles aimed at improving
functional, sanitary, social and aesthetic living conditions.
The above principles, perhaps forgotten, used nowadays, could contribute to the
reduction of excessive use of natural resources and help to preserve the values of
mountainous regions, and thus contribute to the sustainable use of terrestrial
ecosystems.

References
1. Popkiewicz, M., Malinowski Sz., Kardaś, A.: Nauka o klimacie. Sonia Draga, Warszawa
(2018)
2. Fatheuer, T., Fuhr, L., Unmüßig, B.: Inside the Green Economy – Promises and Pitfalls. UIT
Cambridge Ltd., Cambridge/Monachium (2016)
3. Bińczyk, E.: Retoryka i marazm antropocenu. PWN, Warszawa (2018)
4. Bińkowska, I.: Natura i miasto. Publiczna zieleń miejska we Wrocławiu od schyłku XVIII
do początku XX wieku, p. 25. VIA NOVA, Wrocław (2006)
5. Bińkowska, I.: Natura i miasto. Publiczna zieleń miejska we Wrocławiu od schyłku XVIII
do początku XX wieku, p. 27. VIA NOVA, Wrocław (2006)
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6. Bińkowska, I.: Natura i miasto. Publiczna zieleń miejska we Wrocławiu od schyłku XVIII
do początku XX wieku, p. 29. VIA NOVA, Wrocław (2006)
7. Tołwiński, T.: Urbanistyka. Zieleń w urbanistyce, p. 25. PWN, Warszawa (1963)
8. Bińkowska, I.: Natura i miasto. Publiczna zieleń miejska we Wrocławiu od schyłku XVIII
do początku XX wieku, p. 30. VIA NOVA, Wrocław (2006)
9. Czarnecki, W.: Planowanie miasta i osiedli. Tereny zielone, p. 16. PWN, Warszawa (1961)
10. Czarnecki, W.: Planowanie miasta i osiedli. Tereny zielone, p. 8. PWN, Warszawa (1961)
11. Szponar, A.: Fizjografia urbanistyczna. PWN, Warszawa (2003)
12. Report on the State of the Alps Sustainable Tourism in the Alps. Pemanent Secretariat of the
Alpine Convention (ed.) Linea Grafica, Castelfranco Veneto (2013)
13. Wohnungs - Verzeichnis. Sommer 1939. Winter 1939-40. Heilklimatischer Kurort
und Wintersportplatz Schreiberhau im Riesengebirge. Hrsg.von der Ortsstelle Schreiberhau
der Wirtschaftsgruppe Gaststaetten und Beherbergungsgewerbe in Zusammenarbeit
mit der Kurverwaltung Schreiberhau, Hirschberg (1939)
14. Reichs Handbuch der Deutschen Fremdenverkehrsorte, p. 556. Verlag Erwin Jäger, Berlin
(1938)
15. Plan von Schreiberhau 1: 5000. Alexander Rath – Special Büro für Bebauungspläne, Breslau
(1913)
16. Szymanski-Störtkuhl, B., Ilkosz, J.: Wspaniały krajobraz. Artyści i kolonie artystyczne
w Karkonoszach w XX wieku. In: Bździach, K. (ed.) Od zagrody do willi. Architektura
Kolonii Artystycznej w Karkonoszach. Gesellachaft für interregionalen Kulturaustausch
e.V., Berlin Muzeum Okręgowe w Jeleniej Górze, Berlin i Jelenia Góra, p. 116 (1999)
17. Siedlungsplan für die Gemeinde Krummhübel im Riesengebirge 1: 2000. Breslau (1922)
 Functional and Aesthetic Aspects
of Modernization of Large Panel
Residential Buildings

Przemyslaw Nowakowski(&)

Faculty of Architecture, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology,

Wroclaw, Poland
przemyslaw.nowakowski@pwr.edu.pl

Abstract. A significant part of the population of Central and Eastern Europe

lives in multi-family residential buildings made of large prefabricated concrete
slabs. Such buildings are often heavily depleted, as they are 30–50 years old and
they do not meet the current utility needs of tenants in functional terms. Such
multi-storey buildings dominate urban landscapes and make them look mono-
tonous. Internal infrastructure (e.g. heating or plumbing installations) is out-
dated, while thermal insulation is insufficient. It is necessary to improve the
structural, functional and energetic efficiency of the said buildings through
renovation solutions, which would bring economic and social benefits, as well
as a reduction in energy consumption. The article presents the aspects of
technical, functional and aesthetic modernization of prefabricated panel build-
ings in order to improve the quality of entire housing estates and individual
apartments. The analyses will be carried out in the context of technical and
social requirements. The aim of the research is to present various design criteria
and examples indicating preferred directions of revitalization and adaptation of
housing estates to current needs. Modernization actions will be presented basing
on case studies from Germany and Poland.

Keywords: Residential architecture
Modernization of residential buildings

Design and modernization criteria

1 Introduction

After the Second World War major social and economic changes took place in Western
and Central Europe. Reconstruction from war damage, industrialization of countries, as
well as demographic and migration processes were associated with a high demand for
new housing, which could not be satisfied by construction of brick buildings. There-
fore, the traditional building technologies were abandoned and replaced by industri-
alized technologies. Thanks to the advanced prefabrication of assembly elements, it
was possible to erect large blocks with many apartments in a short time. As a result, it
was possible to satisfy housing needs faster. This was particularly true for Central
European countries, where war damages and urban development processes, such as
migration from rural to urban areas, were the most substantial. On the other hand, large
housing estates became merely so-called “urban bedrooms”, whose big scale led to

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 335–346, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_32
336 P. Nowakowski

breaking of local human ties. Currently, the technical and moral wear and tear of large
panel buildings results in the need for various revitalization actions, which encompass a
wide scope of interventions, such as renovation and modernization works aimed at
improving the technical condition of buildings. Among the most radical actions is
demolition of buildings, especially due to various social processes.

2 Housing Development in the Second Half of the 20th Century

In the initial period after the end of World War II two basic directions of housing
development were established. This was mainly the removal of war damage (which in
Poland covered about 60% of urban housing substance) and the introduction of the
foundations of modern housing management, corresponding to the current needs [1, 9].
Nevertheless, the improvement in the housing situation in the following years was
mitigated by the baby boom and the following migration of rural population to cities
(mainly due to the development of industry and higher standard of living). Housing
was then still built with the use of traditional methods; buildings were built mainly of
brick, with the use of human labor. Such method proved to be quite ineffective due to
the shortage of building materials and qualified workers.
As early as in 1950s, actions aimed at replacing labor-intensive brickwork tech-
nologies with more efficient industrialized methods were commenced in many coun-
tries. These included the use of large prefabricated wall and floor slabs. What is more,
the systems of medium-size prefabricated elements (so-called large blocks) were
developed. The main principles of medium-size prefabrication were industrialized
production of ready-made building elements, ease of their transportation and use on the
construction site, without the need to use special construction equipment, with rela-
tively little human labor input (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Structure made in large block technology with division into medium-size façade and
ceiling panels. The image shows cracks in the panels, sealed with bitumen (image and
photograph by the author).
 Functional and Aesthetic Aspects of Modernization 337

In the 1970s and 1980s housing estates of a huge scale located on the outskirts of
cities were built; currently such estates are called “urban bedrooms”. Quantitative
housing needs and stemming from it need to “build faster and more” were the basis for
the introduction of large panel prefabrication systems, which dominated the building
technology for more than 20 years, especially in Central and Eastern Europe. The main
feature of large panel systems was so-called open typing, which relied on the possi-
bility of designing buildings with diversified functional and spatial arrangements using
modular, typed prefabricated elements, constituting the structure, filling, finishing and
oftentimes furnishing of a building [10]. Large wall and floor slabs covered even the
entire rooms (Fig. 2). The elements were produced in so-called house factories and for
their transport and assembly on the construction site, it was necessary to use specialized
equipment. The aims of such advanced prefabrication were to: shorten the construction
time, reduce the use of materials, shorten the time of construction (both human and
mechanical labor), eliminate defects and necessary corrective works, and provide
higher quality of housing thanks to the accuracy of building execution and compre-
hensive technical control [3]. In the development of large panel systems, factors such as
simplicity of structural arrangement, reduction in the number of structural spans and
types of pre-fabricated elements, as well as provision of adequate housing arrange-
ments were taken into account.

Fig. 2. Structure made in large panel technology with division of large façade and ceiling panels
(image and photograph by the author).

In the 1960s and 1970s numerous large panel systems were developed. They
differed in production technology, structural layout as well as functional and spatial
layout of apartments. Among the common features of all systems there was shaping of
design dimensions on modular grid [10]. The intention of the creators of the systems
was quick and cheap construction of residential buildings. However, complex tech-
nology of production of elements, their transport, assembly, as well as exploitation of
finished buildings proved to be much more expensive than originally assumed. What is
more, the quality and standard of such housing quickly ceased to meet social expec-
tations. Nevertheless, large-scale prefabrication dominated the Central and Eastern
European construction in the 1970s and 1980s.
338 P. Nowakowski

The assumed flexibility of design solutions, e.g. concerning façade design and
greater diversity of apartment layouts, turned out to be merely theoretical. Economical
concerns, pressure to complete as many apartments as possible, as well as creation of
housing for anonymous users led to an extreme unification of forms built during that
period. Specific needs of residents (e.g. people with disabilities), as well as regional and
local conditions were not taken into account.
Apartments had similar sizes and technical standards, which were officially adapted
to the number of household members. Moreover, almost all of them were well-planned
(all rooms were accessed through the hall). Occasionally, the kitchen was adjacent to
the living room, e.g. in studio apartments or in so-called suites. The area of rooms was
small, allowing basic furnishing with contemporary furniture. The area and functional
and spatial layouts were derivatives of the adapted large panel system. One type of
plumbing system was envisaged, regardless of the size of the apartment, and thus the
size of the family. The layout of rooms in relation to the plumbing system (the kitchen
and bathroom) usually caused disturbances in the functional division into day and night
zones. Narrow proportions and limited area of some rooms (especially children’s single
rooms) limited the furnishing variants, which was manifested, among others, by the
lack of possibility to position the beds across the room, which was less than 240 cm
wide. In addition, too little space was devoted for the storage of belongings. The sizes
of closet recesses were insufficient and, as a result special additional cabinets had to be
hung under the ceiling. The majority of flats built in large panel technology had a
balcony or loggia, less often the so-called French window (porte-fenêtre). However, the
actual depth of balconies was about 120 cm, which made it difficult to use them
effectively for recreation, that is why they were often used as additional storage space
(e.g. for storing bicycles).
Technical and social considerations, as well as high investment and operating costs
led to a departure from large panel technologies in some countries as early as in the
mid-1980s, and in others after 1990.

3 Condition of Large Panel Residential Buildings in East

Germany and Revitalization Measures

In the years 1949–1990, Eastern Germany, similarly to Poland, was part of the block of
socialist states, dependent on the Soviet Union. The massive use of large panel tech-
nology satisfied the demand for new housing in that area [11]. German reunification
caused a considerable migration of population to the western part of the country as a
result of the collapse of an obsolete and inefficient industry and service sector (increase
in unemployment). This in turn resulted in depopulation of entire housing estates in
many big cities and smaller settlements. Migration processes (abandonment of housing)
affected the most large panel housing estates, especially due to poor technical condi-
tions of buildings, utility standards of flats, monotony of development and lack of
service infrastructure (commercial, sports, and cultural and educational facilities).
According to Federal Institute for Research on Building, Urban Affairs and Spatial
Development (Das Bundesinstitut fur Bau-, Stadt- und Raumforschung) approximately
2 million apartments currently remain unoccupied, which constitutes about 5% of the
 Functional and Aesthetic Aspects of Modernization 339

entire housing of the country with a population of 82 million inhabitants. While in the
eastern part of Germany the vacancy rate amounts to as much 10% [6]. Therefore,
various investment programs are being implemented to revitalize large panel housing
estates, e.g. City Changing Program (Stadtumbau Program). Comprehensive revital-
ization can be carried out thanks to the cooperative form of ownership of housing and
rental of individual apartments. Such ownership structure favors migration and easier
relocation.
The increase in the attractiveness of large panel housing estates is to be achieved by
partial or complete demolition of buildings, their renovation and modernization and the
introduction of additional functions in the urban structure, such as: diverse forms of
housing, retail, services, different forms of leisure and introduction of more greenery.
The aforementioned costly revitalization measures are not only of economic,
but also of social significance, as housing estates included in for instance the
Stadtumbau Ost program had lost as much as 30–50% of their residents [5]. The changes
are mainly introduced in housing estates in smaller towns (e.g. Cottbus, Leinefelde,
Eisenhuttenstadt, Hoyerswerda) which used to accommodate up to 70% of their
population. Similar initiatives also apply to housing estates on the outskirts of large
cities (e.g. Berlin-Marzahn).

Fig. 3. Three-family houses built of large panel pre-fabricates reclaimed after the demolition of
a large building (photograph by the author).

Adaptation to the new needs of residents as well as improvement of the quality of

housing estates and individual buildings encompassed comprehensive urban planning
and renovation activities (Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6). Therefore, the following revitalization
measures were undertaken:
• change of the urban structure (reduction of development intensity by partial or total
demolition of certain buildings, construction of multi-family houses and service
facilities at the site of demolished buildings),
• construction of access roads and car parks,
• change in the structure of buildings (transformation of apartment buildings into
houses with several apartments, introduction of service functions),
340 P. Nowakowski

• change in the structure of buildings’ interiors (diversification of the size and

functional and spatial layouts of apartments, creation of two-storey apartments,
enlargement of kitchens and bathrooms),
• formal and aesthetic diversity of buildings (various forms and shapes of buildings,
diverse façade colors, new balconies, loggias and glass winter gardens),
• improvement of ventilation and the amount of sunlight reaching apartments (e.g. by
enlargement of windows),
• use of areas adjacent to the buildings for home gardens for apartments located on
the ground floor,
• adaptation of certain apartments to the needs of people with disabilities (using
wheelchairs),
• diversification of urban infrastructure (in order to improve spatial orientation, as
well as identification with the place of living and to create social relations).

Fig. 4. Reduction of the number of floors (reduction of number of apartments) and obtaining a
more diversified look of buildings (photograph by the author).

Fig. 5. System and complex glazing of balconies (photographs by the author).

 Functional and Aesthetic Aspects of Modernization 341

Fig. 6. Architectural transformation of the building entrance area and its adaptation for people
on wheelchairs (photograph by the author).

The above actions have led to a general decrease in the intensity of development in
housing estates and a decrease in the total number of dwellings by about 30%. In some
housing estates such actions were managed in accordance with the principles of sus-
tainable development. Large plate elements recovered from the dismantling of high
apartment blocks were used for the construction of smaller houses or recycled into
secondary raw material [5].

4 Condition of Large Panel Residential Buildings in Poland

and Revitalization Measures

In between 1945–1990 the housing economy in Poland (e.g. distribution of apartments)

was managed by the State. Building materials as well as apartments were among deficit
and regulated goods. The allocation of a flat (especially in the earlier period) was asso-
ciated with a significant improvement of living conditions and even with social
advancement (migration from rural to urbanized areas). Users of new apartment blocks
appreciated their technical standard, especially access to hot and running water, central
heating and flushing toilet. On the other hand, concentration of people from different parts
of the country in settlements, lack of service infrastructure (shops, schools, sport facilities,
etc.) led to alienation of residents and lack of social ties. The monotony of development
hindered spatial orientation and identity with the place. This, in turn, led to crime and
deliberate devastation, negative phenomena which began to be noticed as early as in the
1980s, and which contributed to the widespread criticism of large panel housing estates.
In the 1990s large panel building technologies were abandoned, as a result of
criticism of the monotony of buildings and relatively low technical standard of
apartments. At that time, new housing estates with low buildings built using traditional
(brick) technologies attracted a lot of attention. Many of them were built on the out-
skirts of large cities or even outside their boarders. The consequence of such location is
a need of extensive commute to work and schools. What is more, new housing estates
feature a high density of development, which causes deterioration of sun exposure and
ventilation conditions, as well as annoying lack of parking spaces.
342 P. Nowakowski

Current housing situation in Poland in different when compared to that of Eastern

Germany. According to Central Statistical Office (Glowny Urzad Statystyczny),
approximately 38 million inhabitants live in about 14.5 million dwellings.
Of these, approximately 4 million apartments are located in prefabricated apartment
blocks, with a population of about 12 million people, which constitutes more than 30%
of the population. At the same time, the entire post-war period is characterized by a
high housing deficit. In 2002, there was a shortage of approximately 1.6 million
apartments, while currently this number amounts to 750 thousand [4, 7].
Obtaining of a dwelling usually involves buying it on the free market, which is
oftentimes treated as an investment of capital. At the same time, such purchase is
connected with a receiving a share in a large housing cooperative or a smaller tenant
community. Apartment renting is less popular, as the monthly rental cost is similar to
the amount of the loan installment taken out for the purchase of an apartment. Such
ownership structure hinders population migration, especially when compared with
Germany, as it makes it more difficult to change the dwelling place.
The technical lifespan of large panel buildings is determined to be of approx.
100 years. At the same time, the economic depreciation of such type of development (lack
of adaptation to current needs) is estimated to be 60 years [8]. Therefore, the resources of
this type constitute a significant fixed asset of the country, which will be still used for
many years to come. Taking into account the deficit of apartments, it is necessary to
assume that the buildings will be used also after their economic depreciation.
The functional and technical quality of large panel buildings is considered to be low
and no longer sufficient to modern needs; the issues include: low functional comfort of
apartments, excessive thermal conductivity of building envelopes, insufficient condi-
tion of installations, as well as poor (monotonous) aesthetics of façades. Further use of
buildings is connected with the need of assessment of their technical condition and
suitability for use, taking into consideration the costs of renovation works [2].

Fig. 7. Thermomodernization works carried out in order to reduce heat losses and improve the
aesthetics of façades (photographs by the author).
 Functional and Aesthetic Aspects of Modernization 343

Commonly carried out renovation and modernization works consist primarily of the
removal of manufacturing and material defects, as well as improvement of energy
standards and thermal protection of buildings (Fig. 7) [2]. Modernization of large panel
buildings and entire housing estates include such works as:
• thermomodernization of external walls and flat roofs of large panel buildings,
• improvement of aesthetics of insulated façades,
• replacement of staircases and window frames in apartments with energy-efficient
ones,
• renovation of damaged balconies and loggias and their possible development,
• replacement of used and corroded wires, as well as elements of plumbing, and gas
and heating installations,
• modernization of natural gravitational and mechanical ventilation,
• replacement of doors and reconstruction of building entrances,
• construction of new car parks for residents’ cars,
• construction of service facilities,
• improvement of the condition of green areas and construction of recreational
infrastructure.
In large panel housing estates in Poland, no demolition works are undertaken in order
to reduce the development intensity and the number of apartments. What is more, unlike in
Germany, there are no vacant buildings. Even multi-storey buildings are fully inhabited.
Nevertheless, their technical condition is better when compared, for example, to many
tenement houses dating back to the end of 19th century, as many of the oldest housing
resources in Poland are depreciated and do not meet basic needs of their users.
It is generally recognized that large panel apartments are small, with room heights
lower than those currently under construction, and that materials and construction work
applied in the past were of poor quality. Nevertheless, after modernization they
regained their appreciation on the real estate market, as such apartments are located in
the vicinity of city centers and they are well communicated with them. Usually they are
also surrounded by sufficient, newly built retail and service facilities. Moreover, the
density of buildings in the area is lower than in modern housing estates, which provides
favorable sun exposure and ventilation.
More complex upgrades and modernizations seem necessary due to the expected
improvement of the functional and usable standards and adaptation to current needs
(different layouts of flats, sizes of rooms, access to natural lighting, etc.) and adaptation
to the needs of people with disabilities (mainly those who use wheelchairs). Therefore,
in large panel buildings revitalization measures are recommended due to current social
needs and functional and utility requirements (Figs. 8 and 9). They may take into
account such actions as:
• reconstruction of a building by correction of its shape and size, adding of new
elements or partial demolition (superstructure of additional storeys in low buildings,
demolition of top floors in high buildings),
• transformation of façades (change of window frames, adding new balconies, winter
gardens, etc.),
344 P. Nowakowski

• changing of the shape of roofs in order to obtain additional living space in attics or
creating additional floors,
• reconstruction of entrances of buildings, staircases, lifts and apartments in order to
adapt them for the needs of people with disabilities,
• transformation of the structure of apartments by joining too small flats or demol-
ishing partition walls to improve their functional standard (a considerably difficult
action due to the fragmented ownership structure),
• changing of the communication system in the building (elimination of the “hotel”
corridor system and its replacement by staircases and elevators),
• construction of elevators in four- and five-floor buildings,
• introduction of heating systems using renewable energy sources (e.g. underground
heat exchangers, photovoltaic batteries),
• additional introduction of lower housing and service buildings,
• revitalization of green areas and their adaptation to modern recreational needs (e.g.
playgrounds for children, sport facilities, bicycle lanes).
More and more often thermomodernization works on already insulated buildings
are undertaken. The renovations carried out 10–15 years ago are currently considered
as insufficient and the insulated partitions do not meet the current, stricter standards of
thermal insulation of walls and roofs.

Fig. 8. Extension of a lift at the staircase in a four-storey building and glazing of balconies
installed by individual tenants
 Functional and Aesthetic Aspects of Modernization 345

Fig. 9. Apartment in a large panel building before and after the change of the functional and
spatial layout

5 Potential Future Use of Large Panel Technologies

In recent years, investors have returned to the use of industrialized concrete tech-
nologies, including large panel and skeleton technologies for the construction of new
residential buildings, even despite the widespread criticism of this type of construction.
The availability of high quality materials and products enables elimination of the
majority of defects, as well as negative opinions [3]. What is more, the possibility of
using cheaper materials made of concrete and the ease of their assembly have been
appreciated.
Another form of prefabrication used in construction industry are spatial, monolithic
modular elements. Prefabricated products are delivered from the prefabrication plant to
the construction site, installed on a prepared foundation and joined together. Such
facilities are usually built in order to quickly create temporary or replacement rooms,
e.g. in places of catastrophes and natural disasters. They are also used as commercial
retail centers, small catering facilities, as well as elements of school and kindergarten
extensions. Their use can contribute to speed up the implementation of investments and
reduce the inconvenience during the construction process.

6 Summary

Large panel buildings constitute a significant part of the housing stock in Poland as
well as other countries. This type of housing is distinguished by a significant degree of
so-called economic depreciation, which proves their insufficient adaptation to the
contemporary needs of the residents. Even wealthier countries than Poland, such as
Germany, do not undertake programs aiming at a complete replacement of large panel
apartments with new buildings. The need to revitalize large panel housing estates
becomes a general social and economic issue. The use of formulated criteria supple-
mented by specific requirements, resulting from highly industrialized construction
technology, may ensure effective adaptation of changes to contemporary needs. Due to
limited financial resources and a different ownership structure, it is not possible to copy
German solutions on a wider scale. However, they may serve as a model both for
modernization activities and learning about the technical possibilities of potential
changes. Renovation of large panel buildings is still a part of current architectural
trends applied in shaping of the residential environment. Nevertheless, they require
appropriate qualifications and knowledge of large panel technologies.
346 P. Nowakowski

Prefabricated technologies can still be regarded as an opportunity for faster devel-

opment of modern residential construction. However, it is necessary to comprehensively
develop modern (innovative) building, material, construction and technological
solutions, as well as to create accompanying organizational and financial measures.
At the same time, the broadly considered housing needs of people and the requirements
related to protection of the natural environment, energy and other resources should be
also taken into consideration.

References
1. Dabrowski, J.: Cala prawda o budynkach wielkoplytowych, pp. 28–35, Przeglad budowlany
9/2012, PZITB, Warsaw (2012)
2. Dzierzewicz, Z., Starosolski, W.: Systemy budownictwa wielkoplytowego w Polsce w latach
1970–1985. Przeglad rozwiązan materialowych, technologicznych i konstrukcyjnych,
pp. 20, 102, 205–209. Wolters Kluwer Publisher, Warsaw (2010)
3. Fangrat, J., Sieczkowski, J.: Budownictwo innowacyjne. Technologie prefabrykowane i
modulowe w budownictwie mieszkaniowym, pp. 58–61. Builder 12/2017, Builder, Warsaw
(2017)
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Office, Warsaw (2018)
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de/wohn_wandel/567.php
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2020. http://orka.sejm.gov.pl/Druki6ka.nsf/wgdruku/3725/$file/3725.pdf
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marktbeobachtung/ProjekteFachbeitraege/Wohnungsleerstand/wohnungsleerstand.html
8. Kalinowska, H.: Racjonalizacja napraw wielkoplytowych budynkow mieszkalnych,
pp. 64–72, dissertation, Civil Engineering Institute, Wroclaw University of Science and
Technology, Wroclaw (1992)
9. Krause, Ph., Weber, K.: Transformation der Wohnungswirtschaft in Polen. Deutsche
Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart (1994)
10. Systemy budownictwa mieszkaniowego i ogolnego, p. 13. Arkady, Warsaw (1974)
11. Wohnwerterhohung durch bewohnergerrechte Moderniesierung der Wohngebaude in
Fertigbaweisein den neuen Bundeslandern und Berlin (Ost), pp. 11–14. Bundesministerium
fur Raumordnung, Bauwesen und Sadtebau (BM Bau), Bonn (1996)
 The Influence Factor for Walkability
of Street Furniture: In Case of Turin

Xiaolei Shi(&), Daniela Bosia, and Lorenzo Savio

DAD – Dipartimento di Architecttura e Design,

Politecnico di Torino, Viale Mattioli 39, 10125 Turin, Italy
xiaolei_hit@yahoo.com,
{daniela.bosia,lorenzo.savio}@polito.it

Abstract. The street furniture supplies convenience in residential daily life,

where walkability has been shown associated with people’s behavior pattern
including walking outside, life circle, and personal preference: (a) walking
behavior is mainly limited by the urban spatial configuration; (b) life circle
means the usage of street furniture as an event during the walking route; and
(c) personal preference appears in the different utilizations among the urban
facilities in some same conditions. The usage data was collected in Turin, by
mapping, counting, tracing, and so on (PSPL). The geographical data was
analyzed by space syntax theory. Influence factors for walkability of street
furniture were proposed by overlaying different behavioral layers. With the
combination of qualitative and quantitative analysis, the result grasped the
public activities in open public space and behavior characteristics, providing the
basis for designing and placing new street furniture in existing square for pro-
motion of public daily life.

Keywords: Walkability
Street furniture
Urban design
PSPL

Space syntax

1 Introduction

The design of street furniture has come into a new stage with the evolution of urban
daily life and fast development of global urbanization. Informatization, diversification,
and intelligentization have become the main themes in the current tendency in every
conceivable area including both design and plan of the new-generation street furniture.
With the evolution of city life, the function of street furniture not limited by basic
convenience, as an element of landscape, has been extend to be multi-functional,
integrated, and polytechnic to inspire citizens take part in the urban public life to
improve residential communication by utilization of new street furniture. In that case,
the placement of street furniture plays an important role in its usage to guarantee that
pedestrian could reach it.
In the actual situation, the usage of street furniture usually happens on one’s walk.
Consequently, the walkability of street furniture is the vital condition of its accessibility
in open public space. The influence factors are necessary to study for better under-
standing potential determinants of active living to promote the quality of social life [1].

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 347–357, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_33
348 X. Shi et al.

2 Influence Framework

The walkability of street furniture, as an artifact, could be researched from three

aspects: the usage environment, users, and features of itself. The influence framework
is shown as Fig. 1. In the context of walkability, the pedestrian living in the city
follows with daily life circle forming local behavior pattern; the placement of street
furniture as a part of local layout is located in the urban spatial structure relying on the
configuration; and the street furniture services people with the function and the per-
sonal preference showed during the interaction.

Fig. 1. The relationship among usage environment, pedestrians, and the street furniture

2.1 Spatial Configuration

The structure to reflect the relationship between city spaces and street system is defined
as the urban spatial configuration. That is the premise of discussion on the walkability
of street furniture, which is low when the accessibility of open public space it located in
is low. In addition, the configuration affects the walkability of street furniture from
urban multi-scales: city, district, and place.
City Layer. Cities are the largest and most complex artefacts that humankind makes. It is
reflected in the scale of city far exceeds human being (Hiller 2007). On the other hand, it is
too complicated of the process to transform the existing urban image immediately or
handily. During the slow growth of knowledge of urban development and the even slower
timescale of human apprehension, designers and planners still pay tireless efforts in a
deeper theoretical understanding to make city better serve residents and guide progress in
urban life. The walkability of street furniture should be studied from the citywide view.
 The Influence Factor for Walkability of Street Furniture 349

In addition, walkability is an important part of urban transportation, whose distri-

bution is closely related to the urban physical and functional conditions. Physically,
cities are stocks of buildings linked by space and infrastructure. Functionally, they
support economic, social, cultural and environmental processes (Hiller 2007). That’s
the reason the city layer is discussed firstly for the walkability of street furniture, which
cannot be discussed away from macroscale perspective.
District Layer. Urban spaces are composed by a series of subsystems and subunits.
There are both competition and collaboration spatial units and local spatial organiza-
tions as urban operation motivation among existing within a city. Each subsystem has
relatively integrated self-organizing ability in daily life, that is, residents can complete
almost life loops in this area by walk, which, at the same time, start and are influenced
by human and natural forces producing the synergistic effect of collective movement.
In other words, the degree of self-organizing ability is significantly associated with
walkability of the whole district. In addition, the configuration of district can be used to
research on both physical and psychological foundation of the walkability of street
furniture from mesoscale perspective.
Place Layer. Practically, the significant differences between street furniture and other
landscape elements lie in that the street furniture is not only for ornament or create a
relaxed atmosphere for people, but also supplies exact service and convenience in
citizen’s daily life even promotes it. It is much easier to find the street furniture with a
higher walkability and inspire people to use it: the layout of certain place plays an
important role in pedestrians’ potential route – physical walkability and the visible area
determines psychological walkability. That research is for a detailed understanding of
walkability of street furniture from microscale perspective.

2.2 Life Circle

The activities people taking in the city open public space could be regarded as a serious
of destinations linked by routes. That means the occurrence of street furniture used
needs a consecutive behavioral context forming the motivation. The street furniture
without enough motivation implies that its placement isn’t located in a life circle with
low walkability.

2.3 Personal Preference

In the open public space, the usage of street furniture is in many different ways and
influenced by personal preference. The different behaviors reflected in walkability of
street furniture mean residential selectivities corresponding according to different
personal patterns. That means the influence factors also could be studied from users’
pattern, which could be investigated by in-field study for a certain place.
350 X. Shi et al.

3 Methods
3.1 In-Field Data Source
Data was collected by Public Space & Public Life (PSPL) survey, the main method for
Jan Gehl’s research of the relationship between public space and public life as well as
usage. It aims to find and understand people’s activities and behavior patterns in the
public domain, its results presented by quantitative and qualitative analysis to provide
supports for urban public spaces construction and remodel that lead to creating high
quality of public space for citizens’ use. Each data in this research is the average
number of 20 groups according to counting the population passing in 15 min.

3.2 Configuration Index Analysis

A concept of ‘space syntax’, developed by Professor Bill Hillier and his research team
from UCL in 1970s, focuses on the solution to the visualization of city space indexes
through trying to explain the connection between people and the public space they take
activities in with data [4]. It has considerable potential in developing a walkability
index with 70% reliable [5] and is fundamentally concerned with street network [1].
Space syntax measures are related to pedestrian movement [3]. Through discussion
on the relationship among urban spatial geometric forms, the walkability of the certain
place in the city is linked with its configuration index. In addition, the specific local
behavior pattern can be found as per the comparison between walkability by spatial
configuration and actual residential movement [2].

4 Case Study in Turin

4.1 Environmental Condition

The case study is based on Lavazza garden, a new designed open public space in Turin,
closed by Via Bologna and Via Ancona, to show the different influence factor and the
results from urban multi-scale analysis.
Economic Walk Analysis. Firstly, according to geographic map, the axial map for the
whole city was drawn (Fig. 2a). The good experience for economic activity always
follows with the walkability of certain urban area, which relates to the integration of a
street. Integration in space syntax theory means the ability to get-together citizens.
Commercial areas always exist along highly-integrated street for more accessibility
from other locations city wide [6]. In addition, different depth radiuses represent the
integration with the certain turns to simulate people’s daily walk range: the aging with
3 depths and the adult with 5 depths.
As shown in Fig. 2b, the shallower the color is, the higher the integration is. Red
means the street with higher integration than the blue ones. And there is a positive
correlation between integration and accessibility of the certain place [3]. The acces-
sibility of city center and Porta Nuova is higher than other places. It is to form walk
area for street network with high density in red. Actually, The city main pedestrian
commercial streets gather in the high-density red zone in Fig. 2b.
 The Influence Factor for Walkability of Street Furniture 351

(a) (b)

Fig. 2. (a) shows the axial map transferred from geographic map; (b) shows global integration

Correspond the situation of the global integration, the R3 means a shorter outdoor
travel: someone leaves for some place across three depths. That can be used to simulate
aging people’s walk in open public space (Fig. 3a). And R5 is used for the adult’s walk
in open public space (Fig. 3b). It is easy to find that, some places are friendly and vivid
for a local walk movement but not in the city center. The area lying in these kinds of
places belongs to neighborhood public space.
The Fig. 2c and d are the scatter plots between global integration and local inte-
gration. Shown as Fig. 2e, when the integration is high, the ration between global
integration and local integration R3 less than 1, in other word, some walk-friendly open
public spaces forming separated from city center. Those areas are fit for aging people’s
outdoor walk, with the reason that the elder complete their most social life during
outdoor walk [7]. And through analysis on Fig. 2d, the shallower area indicts the
community fit for adults’ walk, and by overlaying the Fig. 2a and b, we can summarize
that some areas are adapt to both the elder and adults’ walk and some are just wel-
comed by adults or the senior people. The each part of whole city connects with each
other closely, so we could get a smooth regression line.
Through the analysis according to integration graph, the main service subject
belonging to aimed open public space could be deduced. Largo Alessandria taken for
example (Table 1),
– The area is fit to leave for by bus or car with the integration value is 1.15152 more
than average value 0.817128;
– The area is friendly for the aging people’s walk with the integration value is
3.93375 more than average value 1.88378;
– The area is suit for the adult people’ walk with the integration value is 2.68369
more than average value 1.64756;
– There is no remarkable tendency to move there by walk or car.
352 X. Shi et al.

(a) local integration R = 3 (b) local integration R = 5

(c) x = integration, y= integration R3 (d) x = integration, y= integration R5

Fig. 3. Local integration analysis of axial map

Table 1. The attribute of both global integration and local integration

Property Integration [HH] Integration [HH] R3 Integration [HH] R5
Average 0.817128 1.88378 1.64756
Selection 1.15152 3.93375 2.68369

Positive Walk Between Global and Local Analysis. Historically, the extension of
urban pattern is a process to inspire people to take activity in open public space, which
benefits urban evolvement to improve the social opportunities formed by promotion of
positive walk and interaction among people flow through well-designed spatial layout.
Well-design spatial layout means to create positive relationship among different travel
measures such as the people flow in the building and on the outdoor road, the local
people flow on the secondary street and the overall flow in a large-scale, and the
resident flow and the stranger moving among cities. Dr. Pepoins stated that city is the
interface collection of people flow outdoor in various scales [3].
 The Influence Factor for Walkability of Street Furniture 353

To analysis the positive walk of Lavazza garden, an area including Lavazza garden
is chosen as Fig. 4a, and the Fig. 4b shows the scatter plot about global integration and
local integration with 3 depths as the radius. The black points measure the axe chosen
for analysis the local walk. The point group forms a regression line with high slop,
which intersects with the regression line between global integration and local inte-
gration. Consequently, the local integration is higher than the global one and with more
characteristics [3]. The area Lavazza garden lying can supply positive walk opportunity
with pedestrian there through integration global – local analysis. At meanwhile, the
integrations of main streets enclosing Lavazza garden are above to the regression line.
That means the street could get together people city wide not limited in the area.
Actually, the traffic flow of Via Bologna is the busiest in the area through the in-field
study, as far as number of pedestrian. Obviously, Lavazza garden owns well-designed
spatial structure, which fits for positive walk and high walkability citywide.

(a) the range area (b) x = integration, y= integration R3

Fig. 4. Lavazza garden in global integration of the whole Turin

4.2 Psychological Need

Security. According to the comparison between the global integration map and
pedestrian distribution (Fig. 5) of a chosen district Largo Alessandria sited in, it is easy
to find a positive correlation between the average pedestrian number and the integration
relationship among streets. This is due to the location of Largo Alessandria belongs to
neighborhood area, most of where the function of buildings is dwelling. The users’
structure there is stable from the workplace, school, and residence surrounding. This
kind of partial configuration benefits walkability for local self-organizing in life cycle.
For the sense of security, people prefer to walk on the street with high integration to get
more monitors. As a result, the walkability of street furniture is high when its location
is in high integration in a general view. In addition, the sense of security is reflected the
mixability of permeability of streetscape façade. The potential opportunity of pedes-
trian’s staying could be inferred from the permeability of façade of streetscape. In other
words, the speed of walking would be slow down, and the possibility of usage of street
354 X. Shi et al.

furniture near the interface is higher. The passing-through could be dived from two
sides: body and sightline, which was called permeability of the façade. Through the
investigation, the permeability is shown as Fig. 6. Red means accessibility of body to
public; orange means accessibility of sightline of public; and blue means no accessi-
bility neither.

Fig. 5. Average pedestrian distribution Fig. 6. Mixability of permeability of facade

According to the comparison between actual pedestrian distribution and the mixability
of permeability of facade, the higher mixability of the segment is, the more people get
together there. The higher mixability implies different potential destination in life cycle
and more opportunities for interaction of people flow between indoor and outdoor.
In addition, it is easy to find that even if the openness and environment condition is
good for some street furniture, its walkability is low. Without enough sense of security,
few people prefer to leave for to use the street furniture.
Intelligibility. Both free-movement and ideal community rely on people’s intelligi-
bility, which implies the global accessibility of the space. The higher the global choice
and integration are, the higher spatial intelligibility is [3]. On the contrary, the lower
value causes distress to your misunderstanding to environment. Intelligibility measures
the relationship between local space and global space. In other words, the intelligibility
of global space could be inferred, is quantitative analysis of pedestrians’ understanding
potential spatial configuration, which could be illustrated by linear regression rela-
tionship between connectivity and global integration. In the scatter plot, the vertical
axis means global axial connectivity, horizontal axis represents integration, and the
regression line shows the correlation between them. Shown as Fig. 7, the spots are
centralized in the scatter graph with value of R2 is 0.7515. As per space syntax theory,
 The Influence Factor for Walkability of Street Furniture 355

the value of R2 less than 0.5 replies that the vertical axis doesn’t relate to the horizontal
axis – the spatial intelligibility is low; the value of R2 more than 0.5 replies the two
factors are relevant – the spatial intelligibility is high; when the value of R2 more than
0.7, there is significant correlation between vertical and horizontal axes [8].

(a) Depth map (b) x = connectivity, y= integration

Fig. 7. Intelligibility analysis

4.3 Potential Motivation

Visibility. Most daily behavior and cognition to environment people living rely on
sign-gestalt-expectancy theory. The form of square layout will also affect the walka-
bility. When people walk in a place, the information from vision for the layout is by
fragment. The symmetry is helpful to identify a space, especially to the aging, whose
intelligence from visibility is decaying day by day. In some complicated designed and
woody place, it is necessary to check the symmetry to guarantee the walkability of
street furniture there. The RA graph for Lavazza garden is shown as Fig. 8 and the RA
of Diamond for Lavazza garden is 0.19734973, which is more than the RA value of all
the axes. The symmetry of layout of Lavazza center is too low for users to understand.
The walkability of street furniture there is low. In addition, some activities taken in
open public space, but the people trend to find a position where cannot be disturbed by
others. The street furniture supplying convenience for this kind of situations is suited to
be placed in the location with high visual angular depths, which means the sum of turns
to see other points from the observation position when people staying in the certain
open public space. Shown as Fig. 9, the warmer the area is, the higher of angular depth
is. Through comparison with the connectivity of Lavazza garden, higher connectivity
means higher accessibility of sightline of the certain position. It is easy to find that, the
high-accessibility area is not close to the 4 entrances, which goes against people to
understand the whole layout and cannot get information from first-glance.
356 X. Shi et al.

Fig. 8. RA graph Fig. 9. Connectivity of visual area

Usage Manner. The activity taken in open public space is quite different from each
other depending on the both physical and humanistic condition of the site and its
surrounding. The information through the statistic of the usage manner of different
functional street furniture could reflect different walkability. In 2 neighborhood areas
Largo Alessandria and Lavazza center the activity structures differs each other a lot.
Their main entrances are both on Via Bologna and the accessibilities of exterior
environment are almost same. But the user’s personal preferences are quite different.
According to in-field study, we can find Lavazza center creates semi-private and space
and peaceful atmosphere. On the contrary, that in Largo Alessandria is much freer. So
the usage manner gap appears in various activities with the same functional street
furniture. The users sitting to read and have a lunch in Lavazza garden is much more
than that in Largo Alessandria. And the resident sleeping on the bench is never
observed in Lavazza center. In addition, the ratio of female users of Lavazza garden
(63%) is higher than it in Largo Alessandria (49%). And comparably, there are fewer
parents with infant take activity in Lavazza garden. Some influence element of walk-
ability of street furniture hidden behind these appearances could be explored:
– The characteristics of open public space will follow with the surrounding building
property. As a result, the structure of users attracted is link by the whole atmo-
sphere, such as jobs, ages, genders and so on.
– The height gap between street side way and square limits the activities of crossing
the public space. On the other hand, the people will stay longer in the space with a
small gap.
– The usage manner of street furniture doesn’t only depend on its own function, but
also its surround landscape and the path to its location.
 The Influence Factor for Walkability of Street Furniture 357

5 Conclusion

Our study suggests the discussion on artefact cannot depart from the users or usage
environment. The description of walkability for street furniture is multiscale to rep-
resent different issues in the city. Consequently, the framework of influence factor of
walkability should be multidimensional and comprehensive. An influence framework
of walkability for street furniture developed in this study through combining the spatial
configuration analysis and in-field study. Further application and study for other typical
cities, districts and places are to compare in the future research.

References
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for transport: characterizing the built environment using spacy syntax. J. Int. J. Behav. Nutr.
Phys. Act. 13, 121 (2016)
2. Sallis, J.F., Owen, N., Fisher, E.B.: Ecological models of health behavior. In: Granz, K. (ed.)
Theory, Research, and Practice, 4th edn. San Health Education: Theory, Research, and
Practice, pp. 465–482. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco (2008)
3. Hillier, B.: Space is the Machine. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, London
(2007)
4. Zhang, Y.: The Analysis of Space and its Configurations Based on Visibility. D. Southeast
University, for the Academic Degree of Master of Architecture, 33 (2004)
5. Liu, C.L: Spatial Complexity of Urban-rural Road Network: A Case of Wuhan Metropolitan.
D. Huangzhong University, for the Academic Degree of Engineering of Doctor, 39 (2011)
6. Hillier, B., Penn, A., Hanson, J., Grajewski, T., Xu, J.: Natural movement: or, configuration
and attraction in urban pedestrian movement. Environ. Plan. B Plan. Des. 20, 29–66 (1993)
7. Shi, X.L., Bosia, D., Savio, L., Zhang, Y.: Senior-suited evaluation framework of city public
space plan. In: Safe and Inclusive Housing for an Ageing Society, p. 269. Anteferma, Roma
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J. Modern Urban Res. 9, 55 (2008)
 An Attempt to Assess the Need and Potential
of Aesthetic Regeneration to Improve
Walkability and Ergonomic Experience
of Urban Space

Tanima Bhattacharya1(&), Suparna Dasgupta1, and Joy Sen2

1
Ranbir and Chitra Gupta School of Infrastructure Design and Management,
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India
tani.bhattacharya1@gmail.com,
suparnadasgupta0@gmail.com
2
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India
joysen@arp.iitkgp.ernet.in

Abstract. The tempo of Industrialization within a city and that too in a

developing context, along with rapid and uncontrolled urbanization and con-
sequent expansion tend to reveal a lack of attention to the inner well-being of its
communities and constituent individuals comprising the communities. Hence, a
gap between the choice of a decision maker determining the expected conditions
of the livability of urban environment and the quality of life expected by
communities and individuals is gradually aggravated. Contemporary approaches
in city planning however advocates more inclusive and ‘people-centric’ devel-
opment to ensure processes of regenerating the city, as a whole.
To explore the interrelationship between the communities and the spaces, the
paper focuses on two specific public spaces of Kolkata. They are a dense urban
retail activity-feeding armature called Gariahat, and a relatively interspersed
green belt dotted with recreational facility called Rabindra Sarovar. The paper
compares the two areas based on imageability, average footfall of users or
people and their impact on the basic functionality, overall aesthetics, image-
ability, and the inclusion of livable infrastructure design.
The paper assesses the gap between available and expected levels of infras-
tructure and designed aesthetics concerning the two cases. It subsequently draws
meaningful insights for creating a stronger linkage between the variable needs
and collective decision-making. The objective is to augment a range of expe-
rience of urban spaces including variety and heterogeneity. The linkages will
boost aesthetic regeneration and that may be possible through an integration of
improved walkability and ergonomic experience in the urban spaces.

Keywords: Aesthetic regeneration
Public spaces
Ergonomic experience

Space design
Pedestrian planning
Soft infrastructure

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 358–370, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_34
 An Attempt to Assess the Need and Potential of Aesthetic Regeneration 359

1 Introduction

The paper deals with urban space, its form and functionalities in enhancing the vitality
of the cityscape. The premises are two, i.e., one, different types of urban space deal
with individual considerations and capacities; and two, the capacity of a particular
space has altered with time, population pressure, and diversity. Therefore, maintaining
the indigenous character of the space is a constant process of adaptation and evolu-
tionary dynamism. The dynamism consists of the change in the existing space utility,
community clusters, deep space design pattern existing through ages and the evolution
of pattern of space design. The exponential increase in the population index and a
further increase in the floating population to avail the benefits of advanced resources
and opportunities in the cities would create the dystopic imageries of the city. Thus, the
essential qualities of urban space are on stake and retaining its cultural, social, spatial
identity, become a major issue.
Therefore, to retain the crux of the city itself, regeneration of its social, cultural, and
spatial fabric is the pressing need. Regeneration of spaces can be elaborated further as
the process of transformation of a place, individual or public (residential, commercial
or open-space) that have demonstrated the symptoms of environmental (physical),
social, economic or aesthetic decline [8, 20]. Regeneration can be physical (tangible),
social, economic, or aesthetic and the urban-psychic (intangible) that enhance the
imageability of a space. In effect, aesthetics regeneration has the potential to bring back
vitality to a degenerated space, add livability to an ailing community, revive the
obsolete industrial area and all these collectively can have long-term improvements in
the local quality of life, happiness and sustainability restoring the hierarchy of social,
environmental and aesthetic needs [12].
Finally, the paper deals with attempts to assess the need for aesthetic regeneration
to improve the ergonomic experience of the space. Therefore, the paper builds upon an
argument for the need for an aesthetic regeneration considering the present urban
scenarios. Secondly, it identifies the visual parameters based on their potential to
enhance aesthetic sensitivity of urban space. Then the argument proceeds to understand
the point-of-view of the stakeholders through field surveys that helps to comprehend
the basic distinction between the top-down approaches and grassroots people’s per-
ception. Finally and conclusively, the paper forwards preferred imageability based on
the user’s reaction Cues and the directions of development.

2 Review of Literature

The history of urban design and planning is one of many attempts to manage public
space in ways that build sociality and civic engagement out of the encounter between
strangers, be it in the form of community interaction or gentrification or others. It draws
upon a long pedagogy of planning thought including the classical Greek philosophers,
theorists of urban modernity such as Mumford, Benjamin, Simmel, Lefebvre and
Jacobs, and contemporary urban visionaries such as Sennett, Sandercock and Zukin, all
suggesting a strong link between urban public space and urban civic virtue and
citizenship [9].
360 T. Bhattacharya et al.

Two interventions are possible by apprehending the potentiality of a space to

redeem its lost visual-aesthetic framework. They are, one, policies on art interventions,
synthesizing both physical (hard infrastructure) and normative (visual-cultural-
aesthetics) and, two, which Rautenberg [14] suggests as aesthetic regeneration by re-
appropriating visual-cultural design sensibilities that incorporates tangible-intangible,
physical-normative dimensions. Considering Rautenberg, urban ecology is evident
globally, as an integrally related paradigm of contemporary interest. To enhance urban
space design by parameters of the visual-cultural heritage for a better ergonomic
experience of the space is therefore the prime focus of this paper.
On the other hand, recent urban trends suggest that visual attractions enable
stakeholders with a better experience, satisfaction and promote walkable city concept,
that has become one of the relevant approaches of urban revitalization [10, 18, 19]. This
has further escalated possibilities of reduction of congestion and car dependency in
terms of transportation, although it is difficult to retrofit existing built-up areas [5, 6, 18].
Hence, aid to the enhancement of a healthy lifestyle by facilitating outdoor walking and
exercise [11, 17] may promotes social interaction through “face-to-face collaboration”
[19]. Therefore, integration of normative designs has a direct proportionate relationship
with walkability and experience of a space.
A city worth living has required the aesthetic disposition of spaces and edifices, a
symbiotic relationship between ecology, human, and design aesthetics; to best cater the
users in both the physical and the normative dimensions of infrastructure [4]. Today
conservation and ecological balance are issues taken with much seriousness. The
present trend in conservation is ‘eco-management or community-based approach’,
where participations of local communities maintains the ecosystem [1]. In the case of
Rabindra Sarovar, which is one of the lungs of the city in south Kolkata, has also given
way to a huge number of structures built during 1966–1986 [7]. Rabindra Sarovar zone
has also been converted to a residential conglomerate, over the years [1] compromising
its ecological sensitivity largely. The case of Gariahat is similar agglomerate com-
promising its retail ribbon within a dense residential zone.

3 Methodological Constructs

To explore the interrelationship between aesthetic regeneration and the ergonomic

experience of urban space, the paper focuses on two specific public spaces of Kolkata.
The two lies in the proximity to each other, i.e., Gariahat and Rabindra Sarovar.
Gariahat is a densely knit, throbbing market area having high footfall throughout the
day, whereas, Rabindra Sarovar is an ecologically sensitive zone accommodating the
most significant green plot of south Kolkata. Even after the proximity of two study
areas, both the spaces do not reflect much homogeneity to cater to the community and
individual needs. Hence, this paper compares the two areas concerning aesthetic
parameters that secures imageability and measuring an undeniable impact on the
overall ergonomic experience, soft-infrastructure and functionality of the spaces.
As can be seen in Fig. 1, to forward the cues and directions of aesthetic regener-
ation and development, the paper first identifies a set of aesthetic regenerative
parameters. User’s opinion survey uses these parameters. Analysis of the survey results
 An Attempt to Assess the Need and Potential of Aesthetic Regeneration 361

further lead to defining the gap between the available parameters (present imageability)
and the aspirations of the user’s. Assessment of the gap between available and expected
levels of infrastructure and aesthetics, concerning different urban contexts (land-use,
aesthetics, soft infrastructure, green margin) have helped to draw meaningful insights to
create a stronger linkage and complementarity between the variable needs and col-
lective decision making to best augment the experience of urban space.

Identification User satisfac- Identification Cues and the

of visual param- tion analysis of the gap directions of
eters in an urban (present imagea- areas development (Preferred
space bility) imageability)

Fig. 1. A four step methodological flow followed in the paper

In summary, to assess the available and expected levels of infrastructure and aes-
thetics, two specific areas, i.e., Rabindra Sarovar and Gariahat have been surveyed of
based on their (a) mosaic of visual taxonomies and (b) user’s reaction to find the extent
of aesthetic regenerative possibility.

3.1 Visual Taxonomies: Elements of Aesthetic Regeneration

Visual taxonomies for aesthetic regeneration of urban spaces are concerned with
classification, especially of organisms of place, actors (users) and activities.
The features of visual taxonomies used in this paper can be broadly divided into
three domains, based on, (1) their ability to secure basic sense of beautification [Basic
Features] (2) ability to augment sensitivity of the space [Advanced Facilities] and (3) to

Table 1. Visual taxonomies used to assess the extent and possibility of aesthetic regeneration of
urban spaces

Basic Features
Adequate Presence
Availabil- Availabil- Presence
facility to use and mainte-
ity of ade- ity of ade- Visibility and mainte-
and promote nance of
quate green quate open of color-scape nance of water
recreational heritage
space space body
spaces structure
Advanced Facilities
Visual Visual Visual Visual Visual
Presence
augmentation augmentation augmentation augmentation augmentation
and mainte-
by Using/ by Using/ by Using/ by Using/ by Using/
nance of
applying applying applying applying applying art
topiary
murals graffiti paintings sculptures installations
Facilities for regeneration
Facilitating the Facilitating the stakehold-
Adequate facility Adequate facili-
stakeholders with ers with community space to
to arrange art per- ty to arrange Per-
economic regenerative promote community interac-
formances forming arts
opportunities tions
362 T. Bhattacharya et al.

improve the ergonomic experience of urban space by aesthetic regeneration [Facilities

for Regeneration]. Table 1 explains the domains and their features. The user’s reaction
survey of the two areas, i.e. Rabindra Sarovar and Gariahat have applied these elements
to discover multiple ways to respect and include urban diversity.

4 Selection and Introduction to the Study Areas

Based on the land use, population density, activity concentration of the majority of the
stakeholders, two urban nodes are identified, namely, ecologically sensitive recre-
ational zone and throbbing commercial zones aided with transit-oriented transportation
facility catering to a large number of population. As is clearly stated in Table 2, It is
crucial to notice that the two selected areas, i.e. Rabindra Sarovar and Gariahat,
(situated within the periphery of 1 km), but exemplifies different scenarios regarding
planning, development, community system, organizational principles of space and
finally, imageability [2, 3].

Table 2. Comparison between Rabindra Sarovar and Gariahat based on activity pattern
Location Description Major land use Major activity pattern
Rabindra Rabindra Sarovar Ecologically Natural retreat, Joggers
Sarovar (Dhakuria Lake) is an sensitive, Green park, The area around was
artificial lake in zone, developed for residential
south Kolkata, West Recreational, use, lakes and parks are
Bengal. It is flanked Residential used by different age
by Southern Avenue to the groups
North, Shyamaprasad
Mukherjee Road to the
West, Dhakuria to the East
and the Kolkata Suburban
Railway tracks to the south
Gariahat Gariahat is a throbbing Commercial, The space under
market area in the southern Recreational, Gariahat flyover hosts one
part of Kolkata, India. In Residential of the most
Gariahat, intersects some prominent open air public
of the most important roads chess playing areas in
of the city, Kolkata. It is the hub and
namely, Ballygunge shopping capital of South
Circular road, Gurusaday Kolkata, housing hundreds
Dutta Road, Hazra of informal shops
Road, Rash-behari
Avenue, Southern
Avenue and Prince Anwar
Shah Road

The two urban spaces exemplify a different set of challenges regarding its image-
ability. Both the areas come under the Kolkata Metropolitan Area. Kolkata Municipal
 An Attempt to Assess the Need and Potential of Aesthetic Regeneration 363

Corporation (KMC) represents the core city of Kolkata, the largest city in Eastern India.
KMC consists of 141 wards, covers an area of 185 km2, with 4.48 million populations,
approximately and a population density of 24000 persons/km2. The two locations as
identified for the study are well-known activity centers [2]. The majority of urban
dwellers have visited these locations and they have offered opinions based on local
experience.

4.1 Rabindra Sarovar: Location, Land-Use and Challenges

Rabindra Sarovar is an artificial lake in south Kolkata excavated in the early 1920s by
the Calcutta Improvement Trust (CIT), in the Indian state of West BengaI. for devel-
opmental of the Kolkata metropolitan area, CIT acquired about 192 acres (0.78 km2) of
marshy jungles. Their intentions are (refer Fig. 3),
• To develop the area for residential use
• Improving the roads by raising and levelling some of the adjacent lands
• Building lakes and parks
The area is flanked four boundaries. It is Southern Avenue in the North;
Shyamaprasad Mukherjee Road in the West, the Dhakuria residential zone to the East
and the Kolkata Suburban Railway tracks that bounds the southern edges (refer Fig. 2).

Physical-Ecological factors of Rabindra Sarovar area:

• The green open spaces have acted as a lung of the city, and therefore considered as a
very important ecological and socio-cultural reserve. It is a green patch of southern
Kolkata (Refer Fig. 2) alongside the waterbody.
• The lake holds different expression and meaning to both the young and old.
• Throughout the day about 10,000 people visit it daily to conduction physical
exercise, sit, relax, meet friends, enjoy nature and witness a variety of bird species.

Fig. 2. Land-use map of Rabindra Sarovar and adjoining areas (Source: Wikimapia)

With the onset of time, lack of maintenance the lake had undergone a complete
ecological degradation. Dumping of sewerage, water contamination, unhygienic
environmental condition, decaying vegetation and neglected landscape were some of
364 T. Bhattacharya et al.

the commonly identified concerns. Degradation of the place also concerns the points
mentioned below:
• Multiple entry points with no access control of any
• Unguarded vehicular and pedestrian movement around the lake
• The area around the lake become unsafe after dark due to poor lighting
• Vandalism and inadequate maintenance of hardware
• Ill barricaded fringes and lack of public signage

Fig. 3. Glimpses of Rabindra Sarovar and adjoining areas (Source: Author)

4.2 Gariahat: Location, Land-Use and Challenges

Gariahat is a vital junction (refer Fig. 4) that has good connectivity with all other parts
of Kolkata, especially south Kolkata. It is one of the largest informal shopping area of
the city, which satisfies all the needs of people. The space under Gariahat flyover hosts
one of the most prominent open-air public chess playing areas in Kolkata. It intersects
some of the most important roads of the city namely Ballygunge Circular Road,
Gurusaday Dutta Road, Hazra Road, Rashbehari Avenue, Southern Avenue and Prince
Anwar Shah Road. The land-use pattern of Gariahat exemplifies a mixed-use pattern,
where informal footpath shops and big malls are juxtaposed, posh areas of Ballygunge
circular road coexisted with nearby informal low to medium income households.
Figure 4 forwards the detailed descriptions of the locations [3].

Gariahat Crossing

Fig. 4. Land-use map of Gariahat and adjoining areas (Source: Author)

 An Attempt to Assess the Need and Potential of Aesthetic Regeneration 365

Physical Factors of Gariahat area:

• Densely knitted commercial and residential areas
• Well connected with transit nodes of the city
• Housed largest informal shopping market of south Kolkata
• Caters to a huge amount of visitors and pedestrians everyday
Dense and informal footpath shops is the most prominent feature of Gariahat. “The
Hawkers of Gariahat are a post 1947 phenomenon; they exist alongside regular shop
owners on the same stretch. They have been part of the city’s economy for long despite
efforts to evict them, some of these efforts being state sponsored. Now, both the Centre
and the State have decided to accept the existence of the hawkers as a community that
generates its own income and need to be formalized” [15].
Gariahat has been the heart of the informal vending since its inception [16]. The
importance of aesthetics in urban planning does not allow for the unpredictability,
temporality and visual chaos of street vending arrangements but urban public space is
an essential physical capital used by poor urban households everywhere [13]. Hence
provide a unique opportunity to understand and assess the situation from the bottom’s
up approach considering aesthetic regeneration for enhancing the experience of space
and walkability (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Glimpses of Gariahat market (Source: Author)

5 Results and Discussion

Surveys occurred on sample size of 60 people. They are applied to understand the
public perception towards the places, with a. The survey was done based on design
parameters divided into three sections, namely, a. Basic features; b. Advance facilities
and c. Facilities for regeneration. The scores obtained in the surveys are accumulated
and presented in Table 3. The accumulated scores displayed in Table 3 clearly stated
the opinion of the stakeholders. The surveys used a questionnaire. Scorings were a 1–9
point Likert scale. In a 1–9 point scale based investigation, a score of 5 is the inter-
mediate threshold. It marks that states the need of regeneration. Scores below 5 need
immediate consideration.
Rabindra Sarovar fulfils the need of the stakeholders by providing basic, advanced
facilities of visuals, social, ecological and aesthetics. The area further provides the
scopes for regeneration by proving space for community interaction and economic
regeneration.
366 T. Bhattacharya et al.

Table 3. Accumulated obtained scores of the surveys done with 60 stakeholders (each space) in
Rabindra Sarovar and Gariahat

Rabindra Gariahat
Sarovar
Availability of adequate green space 6.65 3.09
Basic Features

Availability of adequate open space 6.58 4.05

Adequate facility to use and promote recreational spaces 6.46 4.64
Visibility of color-scape 6.96 5.09
Presence and maintenance of water body 6.04 3.18
Presence and maintenance of heritage structure 6.46 3.77
Presence and maintenance of topiary 7.27 3.82
Visual augmentation by Using/ applying murals 6.85 3.91
Facilities
Advance

Visual augmentation by Using/ applying graffiti 6.54 3.50

Visual augmentation by Using/ applying paintings 6.58 3.68
Visual augmentation by Using/ applying sculptures 6.46 5.55
Visual augmentation by Using/ applying art installations 6.62 3.36
Adequate facility to arrange art performances 5.88 4.55
regeneration
Facilities for

Adequate facility to arrange Performing arts 5.96 4.82

Facilitating the stakeholders with economic regenerative 6.23 4.64
opportunities
Facilitating the stakeholders with community space to 6.62 4.23
promote community interactions
Average of the scores obtained 6.51 4.12

On the contrary, Gariahat fails to provide basic features to secure the imageability
and ergonomic experience of the space. Gariahat only scores above five on the
parameter of visibility of color scape (considering the variety of footpath shops and
products displayed). The scope of applying any form of art and installations are scored
below 4. It exemplifies the problems due to space crunch and the pressure of huge
footfall that demands immediate consideration.

5.1 Rabindra Sarovar and Gariahat: Survey Results and Analyses

The scores obtained in three gradual progressive domains of aesthetic regeneration
clearly shows that the average scores of Rabindra Sarovar, i.e., 6.51 is quite above of
the average score line (in green) of score 5. On the other, it is evident in Fig. 6, average

Fig. 6. Comparative study of the visual representation of the obtained scores of Rabindra
Sarovar (left) and Gariahat (right) (Source: Author)
 An Attempt to Assess the Need and Potential of Aesthetic Regeneration 367

score of Gariahat is 4.12, calls for immediate consideration of restoring basic and
advanced facilities to improve walkability and ergonomic experience of the space.
Lack of basic features, as, availability of adequate green space, availability of
adequate open space, facility to use and promote recreational spaces, presence and
maintenance of water body, presence and maintenance of heritage structure in Gariahat
caters to degrade the imageability. That further degrade the visual attractions for the
pedestrians, their safety, and hence, walkability and overall experience of urban space.
As evident in Fig. 7, weightage assigned to the elements of design shows lack of
availability of open green spaces in Gariahat area, followed by the presence and
maintenance of water body. Absence of the scope of installing art and visual elements
degrades the experience of space that further discourages pedestrians and commuters
movement.

Fig. 7. Visual representation of the scores of three stage development parameters for aesthetic
regeneration of Rabindra Sarovar (above) and Gariahat (below) (Source: Author)

5.2 Experience of Space and Pedestrian Activity

The aesthetic regenerative characteristics have considered two aspects, viz., a. A three-
step design parameters b. Accessibility in terms of aesthetic traits. The indicators
represent the integral relationship between the urban design parameters and ergonomic
experience of the space. Applying and maintaining design sensitivity of urban space is
highly dependent on the average footfall and pedestrians of the space itself. Consid-
eration of footpath and pedestrian activity in the two selected areas are also found
necessary.
The average width of footpath in and around Rabindra Sarovar is 3.5 m with
encroachments at nodes, in front of commercial spaces and in front of the temple, i.e.
Lake Kalibari. The huge Lake or ‘Sarovar’ is comprised of large green spaces, rich in
natural elements like trees, inclusive of a mosaic of parks, and all that positioned in the
heart of the city with adequate transport and communication facilities and near to the
other case, the ribbon of commercial hub, i.e. Gariahat. To Gariahat, the Rabindra
Sarovar acts as a natural retreat, and vice versa. The range and heterogeneity are the
strengths and opportunities. The officer’s commuters also use Rabindra Sarovar in the
368 T. Bhattacharya et al.

Pedestrian activity of Rabindra Sarovar

Pedestrian activity of Gariahat

Fig. 8. Visual representation of pedestrian activities at Rabindra Sarovar and Gariahat

throughout the day (Source: Author)

morning evening and in the afternoon for lunch. So, the average number of pedestrian
considers,

Pedestrian Volume=minute ðmeasured at nodesÞ

Average pedestrian density ¼
Effective width of Foot Path

On the other and, Gariahat caters to a huge number of pedestrians that varies with
time over the day, which is clearly evident in Fig. 8. In the morning hours, the average
number of pedestrians are between 450–900/h at the main crossing of Gariahat that
gradually decreases towards the area of Golpark and Parkcircus. Pedestrian density is
highest during the mid-day (11 am–12.00 pm) with footfall of more than 900/h. The
rush continues until late evening and gradually decreases up to 400–900/h.
Huge footfall leads to the deterioration of the space that further discourages
stakeholders and commuters to use the pedestrian pathways. Lack of proper lighting,
ill-maintained barricaded fringes, lack of visual attractions, art installations degrades
the imageability and therefore overall experience of the space.

6 Conclusion

The paper has looked into the range of gaps between the available and expected levels
of infrastructure and the designed aesthetics of soft infrastructures concerning the two
different urban contexts. The outcomes of the study presses for the variable needs and
collective decision making that may combine aesthetic regeneration with good ergo-
nomic experiences of peddlers and pedestrians. They are evident by virtue of exploring,
likening, contrasting and bringing together the two vital urban place-making zones
within a large metropolis like Kolkata. On one hand, Rabindra Sarovar has self-
revealed as a place of immense opportunity in sports, serene eco-leisure and quiet
recreation based on its potential eco-transit features within a dense urban fabric. On the
 An Attempt to Assess the Need and Potential of Aesthetic Regeneration 369

other hand, a chain of lively and pulsating pedestrian networks accessing the complex
retail armature is evident in Gariahat, which is itself a highly dense zone. In bringing
together the variety and the contrasts embedded in the two cases, the study has been
able to reveal:
• Not contrasts but good complementarities that exists within the two different but
closely networked armature or mosaic that offer immense possibilities of integration
through art-based and urban design driven innovations. The integration will bring
along facilities that may promote walkability with leisure and walkability for varied
retail experience by pedestrians. The innovations may also cater to the high com-
mercial footfall in Gariahat though it may appear to be in opposition to the serene
green urban ecosystem of Rabindra Sarovar.
• Better walkability and possible design interventions aiming at reduction in use of
vehicles, and thereby demanding application of good visual aesthetics and spots of
attractions through integration of art and aesthetics. The interventions will lead to a
range of applications appreciating the heterogeneity embedded in the two cases.
• Good recovery of connections between the psychological needs of pedestrians to
choose from multiple ways to commute for commerce and leisure, yet with expe-
rience of good imageability of visual attractions, which is also varied and diverse.
In summary, the paper makes a discovery of multiple ways and means to respect
and include urban diversity and user’s heterogeneity in urban design processes. It
proposes an integrated approach to best assimilate the discovered features of urban art
and commuting infrastructure. It finally earmarks ways to regenerate by combining
ergonomic experience and walkability. The combination can be a vital key to bring
back good livability through good aesthetic regeneration within a metropolis.

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New Delhi (2011)
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10. Imrie, R., Lees, L., Raco, M.: Regenerating London: Governance, Sustainability and
Community in a Global City. Routledge, Abington (2009)
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Areas (2013)
 Design and Thinking of Urban Ecological
Symbiosis Community Under
the Background of Globalization

Chen Liexue and Zhou Wuzhong(&)

School of Design, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road,

Minhang District, Shanghai 200240, China
chenliexue@163.com, indi_go@126.com

Abstract. As the process of globalization continues to develop, Chinese

society has gradually evolved from mechanization to digitalization. The
development of the city is also undergoing continuous changes. Future cities
will be based on R&D, marketing and finance, and will require more frequent
interpersonal and face-to-face communication. Cities, especially urban centers,
should be a gathering place for young people. So, a “shared community” should
be built. The “shared community” has the following characteristics: environ-
mentally friendly materials, efficient modules, and symbiotic models. In the
same community, the pattern of parallel living should be abandoned. Based on
the organizational compatibility of residents and true spatial sharing, a green
symbiotic community can be created using a sustainable symbiosis model.

Keywords: Urban symbiosis
Sustainable architecture
Modular building

Human factors

1 Introduction

As the process of globalization continues to develop, Chinese society has gradually

evolved from mechanization to digitalization. The development of the city is also
undergoing continuous changes. Future cities will be based on R&D, marketing and
finance, and will require more frequent interpersonal and face-to-face communication.
Cities, especially urban centers, should be a gathering place for young people. How-
ever, in China’s first- and second-tier cities, high housing prices have restricted young
people to staying in business and work. The lack of communication and lack of human
touch is the universal status quo of the living community in today’s cities. There is a
lack of intersection between people, people and space. At the same time, the population
is large, the area is small, and resources such as public facilities and urban furniture are
relatively scarce.
China’s first- and second-tier cities urgently need a sustainable community. Here,
young makers meet face to face, learn from each other, and work together. In this area,
they have their own private space to live, and also have shared space to communicate.
Everyone in the community knows and respects each other, and this respect will be
transformed into different community resources, supporting each other. Such a com-
munity should be called a “symbiotic community”.
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 371–380, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_35
372 C. Liexue and Z. Wuzhong

2 Advantages of Urban Symbiosis

The “shared community” has the following characteristics: Material environmental

protection, Module efficient, and Pattern symbiosis. The use of stainless steel and wood
to build community housing for building materials, while using residential industrial
production methods, has comprehensively improved the overall quality and quality of
the residential. The kitchen, dining room, living room, entertainment area and office
area can be interspersed between the home and the home. Each home is a module, the
gap and the middle area as a social communication space, avoiding the infinite repe-
tition of a single unit between modules, they contain a variety of mixed type. And
consider the agglomeration mode.

2.1 Material Environmental Protection

The Relationship Between Traditional Building Materials and the Environment

Many traditional building materials contain more or less chemical materials due to
process and other reasons. These chemical materials themselves contain toxic sub-
stances, which can continuously volatilize toxic components into the outside air, which
will adversely affect the environment.
Artificial decoration panels contain more or less formaldehyde, such as large core
boards (carpentry boards), plywood, particleboard, etc. used to make laminate flooring
and furniture.
Formaldehyde is mainly derived from the resin glue used in the production of
composite sheets. This rubber has high strength and good adhesion. It is a commonly
used binder for the production of various traditional sheets, but formaldehyde will form
free formaldehyde gas and be released into the air. Air produces pollution.

Fig. 1. Comparison of building materials characteristics

 Design and Thinking of Urban Ecological Symbiosis Community 373

Paints, coatings, and various paint additives and thinners used in house decoration
contain harmful substances such as benzene. In stone building materials, traditional
granite, marble, ceramic tiles, etc. all contain a harmful substance called cockroach.
Both benzene and hydrazine are environmental carcinogens published by the World
Health Organization. Long-term exposure can lead to lung diseases. Building materials
such as cement mainly contain harmful substances such as ammonia, which has no
color and is a gas with a strong pungent taste (Fig. 1).
Advantages of Environmentally Friendly Building Materials. Environmentally-
friendly building materials are new building materials that are different from traditional
brick and stone, limestone and other building materials. They include many varieties
and categories.
From the function points: there are wall, decoration, insulation, waterproof mate-
rials, including various hardware, plastics and various auxiliary materials.
From the material: not only natural materials but also chemical materials, metal
materials, non-metallic materials and so on. Environmental protection not only greatly
improves the function of the house, but also makes the design and construction of the
building more scientific, meeting the mechanical properties, practical functions and
durability of the building. All environmentally-friendly building materials have the
characteristics of low energy consumption, low pollution and beautifying the envi-
ronment. They are based on the principle of affinity for the natural environment and
conform to the principle of sustainable development. This saves resources and energy,
reduces the harmful substances that pollute the environment and destroys the ecology,
thereby reducing the load on the earth and ecosystems and realizing the recycling of
resources.
At the same time, environmentally-friendly building materials have higher appli-
cation value, not only can build a warm and healthy living environment for human
beings, but also reduce people’s energy consumption through a series of energy-saving
technologies.
High User Experience Comfort. From the user experience, living in a building that
uses environmentally friendly materials will feel more comfortable, not cold in winter
and not hot in summer. Because the roof is made of energy-saving paint, the doors and
windows are made of insulating glass, and the outer wall is made of thick plates. The
building’s thermal insulation is very good, which is very obvious when the weather is
extremely hot or cold. Due to the energy-saving function of the building materials
themselves, residents can save a lot of electricity bills. According to the calculation,
under the same area conditions, even if the user keeps the electricity habit, the energy-
saving building can reduce the electricity cost by 30%. At present, the choice of
environmentally-friendly building materials only needs to increase 80–100 yuan per
square meter for the construction budget.

2.2 Module Efficient

Compared with traditional production methods, residential buildings built with resi-
dential industrial production methods have comprehensively improved the overall
quality and quality of residential buildings. Due to the prefabricated monolithic
374 C. Liexue and Z. Wuzhong

concrete shear wall structure technology, all structural components are prefabricated in
the factory and assembled on site, which basically eliminates the common quality
problems such as leakage, cracking, empty drum and room size deviation of the wall.
The accuracy deviation of the main structure is calculated in millimeters, the deviation
is basically less than 0.1%, and the indoor space comfort is also significantly improved.
Adopting industrial production mode, the energy saving and consumption reduc-
tion effect is remarkable. According to relevant statistics, through the use of industrial
production methods, the prefabrication rate has reached more than 90%, the amount of
formwork on the construction site has been reduced by more than 85%, the amount of
on-site scaffolding has been reduced by more than 50%, the steel has saved 2%, the
concrete has saved 7%, and plastering The project quantity is saved by 50%, the water
saving is over 40%, the electricity saving is more than 10%, the consumables are saved
by 40%, the management cost is saved by 00%, the comprehensive cost of the project
is saved by about 15%, and the economic benefits are very obvious.
The use of industrial production methods, greatly shortened the production cycle,
and the production efficiency has been greatly improved.

2.3 Pattern Symbiosis

Attractive to creative and entrepreneurial individuals, they are eager to achieve specific
space needs in a new mixed living environment. For traditional architecture, it is
difficult to combine an office, studio, music studio or commercial kitchen with living
space. However, in the spatial pattern provided by the urban symbiosis, this will be
possible.
Urban symbiosis is a global community framework that caters to the local envi-
ronment. As a highly adaptable frame structure, it fully meets the specific needs of
specific regions. The open floor plan makes the community environment vibrant, and
its unique vertical space layout increases the livability of urban buildings. For the urban
fringe with low land utilization, it can help the local city to rebuild its vitality. Each
independent flexible building forms a community network. On this basis, occupants not
only have the ability to organize their own living space, but also can exchange space
design experience with other community residents, participate in space transformation
projects in person, and stimulate the inspiration of interior design.
Shared spaces and facilities are at the heart of building an active self-organizing
community. The community’s projects offer a unique collection of spaces such as
studios, (roof) gardens, playgrounds, co-working spaces, gyms and communal living
rooms. In this collaborative community, residents have formed close community
connections from the outset and have jointly created and maintained a shared com-
munity environment.

3 Case of Urban Symbiosis

The architects of Penda teamed up with the wood consultants of CLT- brand Timber to
propose a modular and natural high-rise tower in Toronto/Canada.
 Design and Thinking of Urban Ecological Symbiosis Community 375

The tree tower is 62 m long and has 18 floors. The residential area is 4,500 m2 and
the public area is 550 m2. There are cafes, children’s day care centers and neighbor-
hood community workshops. The natural appearance of the building transforms the
relationship between the “building and the city” into the relationship between “building
and nature”. The tower aims to establish a direct connection with nature through plants
and natural materials.
The tree tower adopts modular construction, and the prefabricated and pre-cut
cross-composite timber boards are modularly assembled in the factory room. After the
foundation, the first floor and the basic core tube of the site are completed, all the
modules with the fixing device and the surface treatment are put into the field and
hoisted in place. During the construction of the module, the wood panels covering the
facade are installed and sealed.
Comprehensive modularity and prefabrication accelerate construction speed, reduce
noise and waste, and enable high levels of quality control as most building components
are assembled in a controlled indoor environment. The building structure mainly uses
large wooden planks, and with the cross-composite wood panels, concrete and steel
components as needed, highlighting the application of composite wood products in the
vertical structure. In addition, the implementation of the modular structural system also
takes into account the repeated use of building components after the tower has expired.

4 Human Factors in the Design of Urban Ecological

Symbiosis

The project is located in the center of Hongqiao Road Block in Xujiahui, next to the
Xuhui District Subway Station in Shanghai. The specific construction locations are:
Gongcheng Road in the east, Yishan Road in the west, Hongqiao Road in the south,
and Mingshiyuan in the north.
Shanghai is an international financial center with a well-developed financial
industry (Fig. 2).
Xuhui District is one of the nine central districts of Shanghai. The famous Xujiahui
commercial district/city sub-center is well-known both at home and abroad. The total
economic value is at the forefront of the city.
The project site is located next to the subway station and the traffic is very
developed and convenient. In this project, some residential modules are designed, this
residential module, from the scale of the human body, makes full use of the relationship
between the three postures and the height of the person’s sitting, lying, standing, to
determine the different floor modules, and finally, analyze the factors on the base, and
turn back Make the appropriate adjustments to the unit (Figs. 3 and 4).
The design of the project was inspired by the game “Russian” box. Different types
of squares are combined in different ways to leave roads and public spaces in the
middle. The house type is only 12 m2 and 16 m2, which only meets the privacy
activities such as sleeping and showering; people can meet, read, cook, eat, work and
so on in public spaces (Figs. 5 and 6).
The area of the site is about 28,800 m2. To meet the symbiotic mode of 1,000 units,
the location of public entertainment facilities such as cinemas, bar coffee shops,
376 C. Liexue and Z. Wuzhong

Fig. 2. Project address

Fig. 3. This apartment is suitable for single occupancy, with one single bed, one desk, one
wardrobe, one wet and dry separation bathroom. Features: the middle depth is relatively long,
you can add a TV set.

Fig. 4. This apartment is suitable for single occupancy, with one single bed, one desk, one
wardrobe, one wet and dry separation bathroom. Features: the cabinet is properly partitioned,
space is more privacy, and there is a sense of security.
 Design and Thinking of Urban Ecological Symbiosis Community 377

Fig. 5. This apartment is suitable for single occupancy, with one single bed, one desk, one
wardrobe, one wet and dry separation bathroom. Features: the bathroom area is small, the living
space is relatively large, and the ventilation is good.

Fig. 6. This apartment is suitable for single occupancy, with one single bed, one desk, one
wardrobe, one wet and dry separation bathroom. Features: square space and open view.

Fig. 7. This apartment is suitable for single occupancy, with one single bed, one desk, one
wardrobe, one wet and dry separation bathroom. Features: compact space, tatami to desk,
convenient living.

bookstores, etc. must be kept, and the floor area ratio and greening rate should be met
(Figs. 7 and 8).
After calculation, 5 small units can be the smallest aggregation mode, sharing
kitchen, dining room, living room, rest area, office area; 250 small units for larger
gathering mode, sharing bar, coffee shop, bookstore and other small entertainment
facilities (Figs. 9 and 10).
It is better to occupy m2 after combining 5 small units (Figs. 11 and 12).
378 C. Liexue and Z. Wuzhong

Fig. 8. This apartment is suitable for double occupancy, with a double bed, a desk, a shoe rack,
a wardrobe, a dry and wet separation bathroom. Features: good lighting and ventilation, high
furniture usage.

Fig. 9. This apartment is suitable for double occupancy, with a double bed, a desk, a wardrobe,
a wet and dry separation bathroom. Features: long in depth, the house type is transparent, and the
ventilation is better.

Fig. 10. This apartment is suitable for double occupancy, with a double bed, a desk, a wardrobe,
a wet and dry separation bathroom. Features: 2*4 space can be felt at every angle, and the field of
view is wide.

Fig. 11. This apartment is suitable for double occupancy, with a double bed, a desk, a wardrobe,
a wet and dry separation bathroom. Features: open access to the field of view, vertical space
utilization is better.
 Design and Thinking of Urban Ecological Symbiosis Community 379

Fig. 12. Schematic diagram of residential quarters

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program 1997–2006. J. Environ. Manage. 90(3), 1544–1556 (2009)
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Asian cities. J. Cleaner Prod. 114, 376–386 (2016). S0959652615003807
3. Farmer, G., Guy, S.: Making morality: sustainable architecture and the pragmatic
imagination. Building Res. Inform. 38(4), 368–378 (2010)
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agriculture and sustainable architecture. Desalination 211(1), 296–303 (2005)
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directions in sustainable architecture - Edited by Alanna Stang & Christopher Hawthorne.
J. Archit. Educ. 60(4), 61–62 (2010)
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assembly line. Autom. Constr. 21(1), 229–236 (2012)
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modular building blocks. Chemistry 15(45), 12292–12302 (2010)
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9. Llinares, C., Iñarra, S.: Human factors in computer simulations of urban environment.
Differences between architects and non-architects’ assessments. Displays 35(3), 126–140
(2014)
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Annu. Meet. 58(1), 500–504 (2014)
 The Perception Reshaping Strategy
of Campus Public Space

Huifang Shang1(&), Maiqi Lin1, and Yongtao Zheng2

1
School of Design and Media,
East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
hfshang@ecust.edu.cn, linmaiqi@126.com
2
School of Design and Art, Guangdong University of Technology,
Guangzhou 510006, China
jimzheng2019@163.com

Abstract. With the development of digital technology, the virtual space is

expanding, and enhancing the perception of the place becomes an important way
to improve the user experience in physical space. As a space carrier of multi-
culturalism, the university campus aims to be an inclusive and dynamic envi-
ronment, which helps the integration of science, technology, history, society,
politics and economy, and makes university to play a more innovative role. This
paper conducts a questionnaire survey on the university campuses in Shanghai
and a case study on the campus of East China University of Science and
Technology. Through the observation of human behaviors, the relationship
among inner drive, perception and external behavior is analyzed from the per-
spective of environmental perception. In addition to the basic five senses,
activity perception and time perception also play an important role in this
process. Consequently, this paper put forwards a perception reshaping strategy
for campus public space, that is hierarchically sharing space at time level by
multi-perception elements to achieve long-term enculturation. The strategy uses
the single-day timeline as the basic perception dimension. By deepening the
contextual association of the site features of the campus public space in different
time periods, the perception difference is strengthened. By creating inclusive and
adaptable physical space and various multi-perception elements, the campus
public space will be richer and can meet the diverse needs of people.

Keywords: Environmental perception
Campus public space

Perception reshaping strategy
Human behavior
Enculturation

1 Introduction

People and the environment are mutually influential. The environment not only has the
use value and aesthetic value, but also has important social significance. It is a clear
proportionality between the environment and human behavior. Then the environment
can provide inspiration for people’s behavior, influence and guide the generation of
behavior [1]. Long-term immersion in a certain environment, those incidental passive
behavior will unconsciously become a kind of fixed active behavior habits. The ideas
will change with unconsciousness, then realize the impact of the environment on people.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 381–391, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_36
382 H. Shang et al.

Chinese traditional culture has always attached great importance to the influence and
shaping of the environment on people. In the story of Mencius’s (Mencius, the great
Chinese ideologist in the ancient time) mother’s three migrations, Mencius’s mother
eventually chose to live next to the school to better educate Mencius is a typical
example. As a container of a complex educational complex that combines teaching,
research, and social services, the modern campus has a strong cultural influence on
students. In the 21st century, the way students acquire knowledge has changed under the
influence of the Internet. Students’ learning space in university has shifted from tradi-
tional classrooms to anywhere in public spaces [2]. As long as there is enough effective
learning-related information as clues in the space to interpret the meaning of the envi-
ronment, this space can support and nurture students’ learning behaviors, especially
various informal learning behaviors. Thus, it become a learning environment in a broad
sense. This has created new demands on the university environment. People no longer
perceive the campus in a traditional way, and students’ demand for the campus envi-
ronment is constantly increasing. Improving the experience of campus physical space
and enhancing the sense of place have become new challenges in the design of campus
environment.
The environmental influence on people is realized subtly in a relatively long period
of time. Generally speaking, enculturation belongs to the spiritual level occurs very
early in people’s life. From birth, people have no choice but to enter the process of a
certain cultural immersion. The rapid cultural change period is a relatively late stage of
enculturation, and the university period is a very important stage of late enculturation in
human life.
As a multi-cultural space carrier, the campus should have a rich, perceptive and
active environmental atmosphere. It is conducive to promoting communication activ-
ities at all levels and promoting the collision of various factors such as science,
technology, history, society, politics and economy, so that universities can better play
the role of enculturation and promote education and innovation. In this sense, this study
believes that reshaping the perceptive elements of the place can be an effective design
strategy to improve the quality of the campus environment. Due to the long-term
characteristics of enculturation, this paper will focus on the role of time in the per-
ception reshaping strategy, and explore the relationship between perception mode such
as vision, auditory, tactile, olfactory, and time.

2 Research on the University Campuses in Shanghai:

Through the Time, Environment Achieves
Enculturation on Students

Generally speaking, college students, as a group with higher cultural accomplishment,

are more sensitive, open and observant. Their perception and understanding of the
campus environment are better than those of ordinary young people. Along with the
university education, the comprehensive quality of students is constantly improved, and
this ability will continue to strengthen. In order to understand how the environmental
factors influence the behavior and psychology of students in detail, based on the
 The Perception Reshaping Strategy of Campus Public Space 383

comprehensive consideration of the discipline composition of the college and the

characteristics of the campus environment, this paper distributed questionnaires to the
students in eight campuses of six universities in Shanghai, namely Fudan University,
East China University of Political Science and Law, Tongji University, Shanghai
University, East China University of Science and Technology and Shanghai Normal
University, by means of stratified random sampling survey. Considering that the
enculturation of the campus environment on students is gradually realized over a long
period, in order to understand the changing process of students’ behaviors and thoughts
under the influence of the campus environment in detail, the questionnaire was strat-
ified according to the grade of students. Samples were taken from four grades of
undergraduate and three grades of graduate students in six universities according to the
principle of balancing male and female gender and the distribution of liberal arts and
science majors. A total of 1020 questionnaires were distributed and 938 valid ques-
tionnaires were collected. The effective rate of the questionnaire is 91.96%.
The pilot question of the questionnaire show that the overall atmosphere of the
campus environment has a great impact on students. 78.4% of the students think that
the campus environment influents their sense of identity with the college. Only 11%
and 10.6% of the students think it does not influence and indifferent. Cross-analysis
based on grades shows that the degree of students’ attention to the campus atmosphere
presents a stable and continuous rising trend with the increase of grades. For under-
graduate students, 76.6% of freshmen think “influence”, sophomores drop to a mini-
mum of 70.9%, the percentage of juniors begin to rise, and reach the highest point of
88.6% in seniors. For graduate students, the percentage is 86% in first grade, 92% in
second grade, and 94.9% in third grade (Fig. 1). Similarly, cross-analysis based on
gender and major shows that students of different majors and genders also pay attention
to the campus environment. The percentage of liberal arts students who believe
“influence” is 81.9%, which is slightly higher than the percentage of 73.8% of science
students. The percentage of girls who believe “influence” is 83.5%, slightly higher than
the percentage of 76.3% of male students. The results of this survey show that the
campus environment has a significant impact on students, and it is very important that
this influence continues to rise. The sensitivity of students does not reduce with their
familiar of the campus. After living in campus for a period, students gradually matured
in ideology and their cultural accomplishment gradually improved. Their emotional
needs for the environment become stronger, and the influence of the environment on
them become more obvious. The questionnaire then investigated the interpersonal
relationship of students. Cross-analysis based on the grades shows that the attitudes and
abilities of students dealing with interpersonal problems also improved with the
increase of grades. The proportion of freshmen and sophomores who think they have
problems in getting along with others of different living habits and family backgrounds
is the highest, but the proportion of students who are optimistic about interpersonal
communication has been increasing year by year since the junior year (Fig. 2). The
trend of students’ attitudes toward interpersonal communication in Fig. 2 is basically
the same as the trend of students’ recognition degree of the college under the influence
of environmental atmosphere. The subtle correspondence between the two reflects that
it takes a long time for students to adapt to the college life, accept the ideas of the
university and finally assimilate the information obtained from the university into their
384 H. Shang et al.

own thoughts. In this process, students not only need direct education and guidance but
also need introspection from the heart. As a container, the campus provides space for
students to stay and introspect. A good place experience and rich environmental per-
ception elements play an important role in spiritual support in this process, which is the
real significance of the campus environment.

Fig. 1. The campus environment influences students’ recognition of the university.

Fig. 2. Changes in students’ attitudes toward interpersonal communication.

Under the influence of a good campus environment, students’ recognition of the

university is stronger than that of the students in the general campus environment. For
example, in Handan Road campus of Fudan university and Changning campus of East
China University of Political Science and Law, which have a long history and beautiful
scenery, percentage of students’ recognition of the environment is 91.3% and 94.8%,
which is much higher than other universities. From the perspective of psychological
characteristics, college students as a group with higher cultural accomplishment gen-
erally have delicate feelings, high level of aesthetic and emotional needs, and can deeply
perceive the environment. According to the questionnaire, students generally like the
plant landscape most in all campus landscape elements, followed by the historical
buildings (Fig. 3). In addition to the aesthetic value, plant landscapes and historical
buildings are essentially information related to time factors. Dense plants need time to
 The Perception Reshaping Strategy of Campus Public Space 385

develop, while more various time-related information is stored in historical buildings,

such as the imprint of times when they were built, the change of form and function in the
process of use, and the stories that happened in it, etc. All the information is the clue of
environment that is waiting to be perceived. Further analysis based on university shows
that when there are excellent historical buildings on campus, students will appreciate
the building more than plants (Fig. 4). Take the Changning campus of East China
University of Political Science and Law for example, there are many excellent century-
old buildings on campus, the proportion of students who prefer historical buildings is
not only higher than that of other universities, but also exceeds the students who prefer
the plant landscape. In Xuhui Campus of Shanghai Normal University, the traditional
red brick buildings on campus also attract the attention of students.

Fig. 3. Students’ perception of landscape elements on campus

Fig. 4. Perception of historic buildings on campus of students in specific universities

These studies show that time is implied in the perceptual elements of campus
environment. College students are sensitive to all kinds of information implied in the
campus environment, especially time. The longer the vertical time axis that the campus
can present, the easier it is to gain the recognition of students.
386 H. Shang et al.

3 Case Study of Riverside Forest Square of East

China University of Science and Technology:
The Multi-perceptual Elements on Campus
Influence Students in the Time Unit of Day

People’s perception of space is a complex holistic perceptual response, which is the

result of the interaction of visual, auditory, olfactory and tactile responses, and is
affected by time and context. [3] To establish the environmental perception transfor-
mation model, it is necessary to understand how users perceive the elements of the
campus environment. According to the previous research on the university campuses in
Shanghai, time as an implicit clue plays an important role in the perception of campus
environment. In order to fully understand the way in which the timeline works in a
specific day and how it connects with the perceptual elements, this study selects a
riverside forest square in Xuhui campus of East China University of Science and
Technology as a research object for case study.

3.1 Diversified Daily Activities Share Space Hierarchically

in Time Dimension
The riverside forest square is located in the adjacent area between the campus and the
nearby community. A river in the west separates the campus from the community. The
north and east are the teaching buildings built in the 1950s. A road to the south crosses
the river to the community. This square has always been a pleasant space on campus,
and the atmosphere is quiet and vibrant. Flow statistics and behavior observing are used
to investigate the use of the square. It was conducted on weekdays and weekends
respectively. Six time periods were selected from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m., and three 5 min
were taken for each time period for the flow statistics. As the square is close to the
community, the users are not only students but also residents and other non-student
person. The statistics divide the users into two types: student and non-student.
The data analysis (Fig. 5) shows that on the week day, the distribution curves of
student flow and non-student flow basically show a complementary form. Students tend
to show up in the square in the morning, at noon and in the afternoon after school,
while non-students tend to show up in the square in the middle of the morning and
afternoon. The two groups of people use the square at different time, and the distri-
bution of people in the square is always in a relatively balanced state. The flow
distribution curve is different on weekends. The peak point of non-student flow occurs
in the morning and afternoon respectively, and the peak point of student flow occurs
mainly in the afternoon. According to the weather conditions, the total flow shows
obvious peak point in the morning or afternoon.
The survey observed that the types of activities performed by people here are
diverse, and activities such as commuting, studying, exercising, and communicating are
all carried out in the square at different times. On weekdays, around 6:30 in the
morning, there are community residents exercising here. Later, students come here for
morning reading. Around 8:00, a large number of students pass by and go to the
classroom. Then between 8:00 to 10:00, the square is mainly used by non-students.
 The Perception Reshaping Strategy of Campus Public Space 387

Fig. 5. Behavioral characteristics of people on weekdays and weekends

People dance, exercise, and chat here. 10:00–12:00 is another time for student activ-
ities, students frequently pass through, read, eat or chat with others here. From 12:00,
the number of students decreased and the number of non-students increased. After
14:00, the number of non-students decreased, and a large number of students appears in
the square again, and last for the whole afternoon. Non-students also increased around
16:00. Therefore around 16:00 is the most active time in the square, the two groups of
people share this place, students and non-students sometimes talk with each other or do
something together. The activities in the square on weekends are more diverse. During
the 17:00–18:00 pm, the traditional martial arts team of university teaches here,
causing some residents and students to watch (Fig. 6).
Diverse daily activities alternate in the square at different times, and people
dynamically perceive the space through these activities, which enhances the perception
of the space. The diversified use of space by different group of people in different time
dimensions in a single day is an important reason for this simple square to always show
vitality.
388 H. Shang et al.

Fig. 6. Divers daily activities

3.2 Three-Dimensional Shaping of Time Dimension by Multi-perception

Elements

(1) Perception of environmental meaning brought by fixed environmental

elements
Fixed environmental elements such as the style of the buildings, the size of the plants,
and the type of facilities allow people to make judgments about the area that the space
have experienced. When people first contact with a place, they will visually observe the
color, shape, and size to make a preliminary perception and judgment. Whether in
indoor or outdoor environments, perception of time is implicit in the visual perception
of these elements. No matter where we are, no matter how far and wide the scale of
visual perception is, no matter what the visual perception conditions are, the space
under our feet and around us is always within our sight range. [4] From the whole to the
part, from far to near or from near to far, people can see all kinds of elements in the
scene one by one, such as woods, squares, teaching buildings and various facilities, and
even details of ground pavement, street lamp materials and texture on the trunk can be
clearly seen. All of these are more or less reminders of the shaping and changing of
time, as well as the sense of the times. Visual perception of fixed elements of space
helps people to judge the meaning and applicability of the environment, so as to easily
understand the meaning of space and subconsciously use the space in accordance with
design intent.
(2) Perception of scene attributes brought by crowd activities
Outdoor public space is a space full of various activities. People’s movement, sound and
communication behavior are also a part of environmental perception. People will judge
and perceive spatial attributes through activities in space. When people are doing out-
door activities, they are often in a relationship of watching and being seen. When a
group of people are active in the space, others will be attracted because of the herd
mentality (Fig. 7). In the public space of the campus, people’s activities are divided into
general activities and special activities. General activities refer to those that are certain to
happen, such as commuting, morning reading, chatting, and so on. Special activities are
 The Perception Reshaping Strategy of Campus Public Space 389

different in different space. In some cases, special activities can promote the transfor-
mation of spatial functions. In this riverside square, the diverse activities of residents
from the neighborhood communities establish a clear communication attribute here,
which promotes students to choose this place for their own communication activities to a
certain extent. Of course, if communication activities from community residents exceed
a certain level and cause tremendous hubbubs, students may withdraw from the square.
Fortunately, this situation did not occur due to the blockage of river and university gate.

Fig. 7. Perception of crowd activities

(3) Time and space perception brought by light and other natural factors
Light is the foundation of visual perception. One of the biggest differences between
outdoor and indoor spaces is the ever-changing natural light. With the penetration of
natural light, space will have a sense of time and become a dynamic space, which can
activate human perception sensitivity. Frequently, people judge time according to the
movement of sunlight and specific activities at a specific time, but not the reminder of
clock. Light can enhance the sense of place. The space defined by light first possesses
the meaning of time, then the spirit of place, and eventually infects people’s emotions.
The comfortable and charming light will make the place more attractive, and attract
people to stay for a long time. The riverside forest square is covered with proper
density of trees, the sun shines through the leaves, making the square bright and not too
dazzling. This kind of brightness has a positive meaning, making it possible to turn the
campus public space into a comfortable informal learning place.

4 Strategies: Hierarchically Sharing Space at Time Level

by Multi-perception Elements to Achieve Long-Term
Enculturation

The happiness of students depends on the quality of campus life. One of the effective
ways to improve the quality of life on campus is to create attractive public spaces. [5] For
students with high emotional needs, the campus public space should be a place where he
or she feels safe and beautiful, a place to meet his or her needs and expectations, a place
he or she wants to stay. Today, people’s expectations for public space on campus are
increasing. They hope to have more convenient facilities, can do more diverse activities
at different times, and even hope that benches can be more meaningful than ordinary
benches. Obviously, campus public space design should meet these expectations.
390 H. Shang et al.

Based on this goal, this paper proposes a perception reshaping strategy of campus
public space based on the timeline. The core of the strategy is time. Firstly, hierar-
chically sharing of space occurs at time level. Secondly, multi-perception elements are
related to time. Finally, enculturation needs a relatively long time to accomplish. This
paper believes that the university campus should be inclusive and adaptive in the first
place, so that different people can share campus in diverse ways at different times. As
far as possible, campus influence should be constructed at three levels: breadth, depth
and complexity. In this process, cultural symbols implicated in the fixed environmental
elements such as buildings, landscapes, facilities, and non-fixed environmental ele-
ments such as crowd activities, ever-changing natural factors are perceived and
understood by people through visual, auditory, tactile and olfactory ways in each day.
Over a long period of time, the campus completes the enculturation on students and
those who closely related to the campus, and continues to have a significant impact on
their life (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8. Campus public space perception reshaping strategy

5 Conclusion

The enculturation of campus environment is a slow process, and various environmental

elements are built around the time axis. Time is the core issue. This paper attempts to
reveal how the environment works through time. The perception reshaping strategy of
campus public space proposed in this paper takes the single-day timeline as the basic
perception dimension. By deepening the contextual association of the site features of
 The Perception Reshaping Strategy of Campus Public Space 391

the campus public space in different time periods, the perception difference is
strengthened. By creating inclusive and adaptable physical space and various multi-
perception elements, the campus public space will be richer and can meet the diverse
needs of people, which will make the campus environment have a long-lasting and
positive impact on people.

Acknowledgments. Fund Program Shanghai Pujiang Program, No.18PJC002.

References
1. Amos, R.: The Meaning of the Built Environment. University of Arizona Press, Tucson
(1990)
2. Dorota, W.J., Tymkiew, J., Fross, K.: Open-Air Work Zones for Students at the Faculty of
Architecture Depicted on the Basis of Pilot Student Projects. In: International Conference on
Applied Human Factors & Ergonomics. Springer, Cham (2018)
3. Montemayor, C.: Conscious awareness and time perception. Psych. J. 6(3), 228–238 (2017)
4. Xili, H., Peter, S.: City sense[s]: Hidden dimensions in urban spaces. China Building Industry
Press, China (2015)
5. Andrew, M.: Heterogeneity in the preferences and pro-environmental behavior of college
students: the effects of years on campus, demographics, and external factors. J. Clean. Prod.
112, 3451–3463 (2016)
 Dynamic Façades: Optimization of Natural
Light at Workplaces

Sandra Preto(&)

Faculty of Architecture, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal

sandrapreto@hotmail.com

Abstract. The dynamic façades in workplace environs demands multidisci-

plinary knowledge and inclusive solutions. Companies begin to know that taken
advantage from the natural light turns out to decrease the artificial light use and
its cost. The main goal of the present article is a critical review of how dynamic
façades works and how to provide natural views through windows, allow access
to natural light and the importance of promoting the vitamin D production.
Dynamic façades should react differently according with the meteorological and
geographic conditions to optimize human’s health. Workplaces are evolving
rapidly to respond to economic pressures, but considerations about optimization
of natural light from dynamic façades are fundamental to have a comfortable and
healthy environment. To achieve such goals the research will be conducted
through literature review and the analysis of four case studies: Arab World
Institute (Paris), Gardens by the Bay (Singapore), Investment Council Head-
quarters (Abu Dhabi) and Homeostatic Façade System (Prototype).

Keywords: Daylight
Dynamic façades
Vitamin D
Biophilia

1 Introduction

Aspects like the amount of ultraviolet radiation (especially UV-B) necessary to pro-
moting the vitamin D production must be considered. In addition, human beings must
preserve a connection with nature (biophilia). Managing light, natural and artificial, is
more challenging that it seems, and that the reason why it is imperative to discuss about it.
The dynamic façades, also called smart or sensitive façades, are starting to be a
practical solution, especially, in countries where the climate is more challenging. At
present, architects, engineers and designers are more focused on conceiving façades
more autonomous and not dependent on computer systems and on human interaction
[1]. Homeostatic façades could be the right answer, since they are not non-dependent
on human interaction or informatic systems, and, can help to reduce the need for energy
[2]. Architects want, in a certain way, that the buildings have a brain, in order to seek
and provide a more efficient response. A digital program does not mean that there is,
always, a reduction on energy cost, the controls may not be reliable when they are

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 392–402, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_37
 Dynamic Façades: Optimization of Natural Light at Workplaces 393

controlled by workers [2] because their individual, or collective, wellbeing often

overcomes energy gains.
So, in the first part daylight, vitamin D and biophilia are going to be discussed.
Afterwards, the dynamic façade systems are going to be analised. The case studies are
going to be focused in dynamic façades on four solutions (though not all of them are
workplaces but can be adapted):
• Arab World Institute (Paris, France) – Jean Nouvel;
• Gardens by the Bay (Singapore) – Wilkinson Eyre Architects;
• Investment Council Headquarters (Abu Dhabi, U. A. E.) – Aedas Architects + Arup
Engineers;
• Homeostatic Façade System (Prototype) – Decker Yeadon.
These systems were chosen since they are the most recent technological advanced,
except for the Arab World Institute. The buildings are in different geographic locations.
In Europe it is essential to optimize the natural light to the. Conversely, in Asian
countries need to control the cooling of the interior spaces. And, finally, dynamic
façades are going to be analised in order to understand what can be added to improve
the occupants’ needs and health.

2 Literature Review

2.1 Daylight (Sunlight) and Vitamin D

Human kind have evolved under daylight since the beginning of time, and that is why
we are adapted to natural light and its spectrum [3]. Sunlight can protect and damage
human health, for instance when the exposure is scarce it can cause Seasonal Affective
Disorder (SAD), rickets, however the opposite can also happen and cause melanoma
(skin cancer), cataract (opacity in the lens of the eye) and other eye diseases [4, 5]. In
this article an atmosphere that promote vitamin D production, since it is one of the
benefits from sunlight, that only occurs under UV-B radiation (between 290 and
320 nm) is going to be emphasised [6, 7]. The provitamin D7 is transformed into pre-
vitamin in the outer skin, and the bioform D3 is formed in the liver and kidneys
(Fig. 1). To produce 25.000 international units of Vitamin D the skin has to be exposed
to sunlight for approximately 20 min [8]. An UV-B exposure vital for our health since
there are very few foods contain natural vitamin D3 and are not enough to fulfil the
vitamin D necessities [2, 9]. Moreover, in the winter months, no production of vitamin
D3 is promoted, in latitudes above 42ºN. So, it is not easy to get the right amount of
vitamin D (Fig. 2) [10].
394 S. Preto

Fig. 1. Biological functions for genes whose expression levels were altered after 2 months of
vitamin D3 supplementation. After receiving vitamin D3 supplementation were identified 291
genes whose expression was significantly decreased or increased. Some of these genes influence
several pathways that are involved in response to stress and DNA repair, DNA replication,
immune regulation, epigenetic modification, transcriptional regulation and other biological
functions [9].

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the relation between UVR exposure and the burden of disease.
Point A and C represent inappropriate UVR exposure. Point B represents optimal UVR exposure:
a person with correct UVR dose for skin type [5].

2.2 Biophilia
Biophilia has to do with our connection to nature and it is why we feel happier and
healthier in its presence. Unfortunately, over the last century there was a separation
between us and nature that has put our psychophysiological wellbeing in jeopardy. In
an artificial landscape, like a city, humans do not feel so good, so nature should not be
removed from our lives [4, 11]. At workplaces, we should have a view to a natural
 Dynamic Façades: Optimization of Natural Light at Workplaces 395

garden or to a sea landscape, regrettably, this is not always possible [10]. The obser-
vation of natural landscapes helps our recovery from stress situations and, at least, to
decrease its intensity, while in the urban environment this recovery is slower [4].

3 Case Studies

3.1 Arab World Institute (Paris, France) – Jean Nouvel

Adaptive façades have been conceived to control sunlight, and Arab World Institute
(Figs. 3 and 4), conceived by Jean Nouvel, in 1987, is one of the first building to
employ sensor based responsive architecture which open or close based on the envi-
ronment conditions. The façade is divided into 240 quadrangular panels, which com-
prise of photosensitive mechanical devices that automatically control light. There are
30.000 photoelectric cells, which are light sensitive diaphragms of steel on 1.600
elements (Figs. 5 and 6), which function like a lens of the camera and all the
mechanical devices are connected to a central computer [13].

Fig. 3. Façade of the Arab World Institute Fig. 4. Aerial view of the Arab World
(Paris, France) [Author]. Institute location [12].

Fig. 5. Panel of the Arab World Institute Fig. 6. Lighting effect in the interior, Arab
[14]. World Institute [15].
396 S. Preto

3.2 Gardens by the Bay (Singapore) – Wilkinson Eyre Architects

Gardens by the Bay (Figs. 7 and 8) is located near the Singapore Marine Reserve, in an
urban area where the construction is not dense, that was designed by Wilkinson Eyre
[16, 17]. The Gardens by the Bay includes two domes, one recreates the Mediterranean
climate, and the other simulates a tropical forest and its humid environment [17]. The
two domes benefit from an external solar protection consisting of 25.000 sq ft of
greenhouses screens that maintains the needs of the environmental level requirements.
Simultaneously, the solar gain related with the weather in Singapore (tropical) is
diminished [18]. The outer retractable structure of 419 panels is hidden in the structure.
The automated control system has an intelligent algorithm that regulates the light level
inside the greenhouses. This shading system diminishes the solar heat gain by
approximately 30%, which decreases the energy consumption of air conditioning
[17, 18] (Fig. 9).

Fig. 7. Aerial view of Gardens by the Bay [13]. Fig. 8. Aerial view of the Gardens
by the Bay location [12].

Fig. 9. Dynamic Façade (sequence) [19].

3.3 Investment Council Headquarters (Abu Dhabi, U. A. E.) – Aedas

The Abu Dhabi Investment Council Headquarters (Fig. 10) designed by Aedas
architects and Arup engineers is shaded by a system of PTFE (Polytetrafluoroethylene
is a polymer known by teflon) [19]. The concept of the towers derived from Islamic
traditional Mashrabiya (Fig. 12). The new Mashrabiya was transformed in the shading
system of the glass envelope of the two towers, and the screen solution has the
ambition to become a leader in the field of alternative energy, and significantly reduce
about 20% of the carbon footprint [17, 20]. The Investment Council Headquarter
Towers are distant from the center of Abu Dhabi (Fig. 11), in an area not densely
constructed, nearby of Mangroves Forest, a natural reserve, so there are no obstacles
that intercept the sun rays that create shadows [1].
 Dynamic Façades: Optimization of Natural Light at Workplaces 397

Fig. 10. Exterior view of Investment Council Fig. 11. Aerial view of Investment
Headquarters [1]. Council Headquarters location [12].

Fig. 12. Restoration of Mashrabiyas, Palace of Aljafería, Spain [1].

Mashrabiyas are intertwining oven screens of wood, with a geometric design that
fills the window spans of traditional Arabic architecture since the 14th century [1].
Traditional mashrabiya is passive, whereas in the recent interpretation of Aedas it
adapts according to the sun. The skin is composed of 1.049 modules per tower, like
umbrellas that open and close, to regulate the amount of shadow, sunlight and
brightness (Fig. 13). These umbrellas are controlled by an automatic system that gather
data from anemometers (wind-sensitive) and photo-sensitive sensors. The
opening/closing system is in the center of each triangular module, controlled by the
Building Management System, which analyses the response of each module, enhancing
the comfort settings and avoid the use of darkened glass (Fig. 14) [1, 19]. The towers
contain approximately 753.000 sq ft of offices [1].

Fig. 13. Operation sequence (simulation) of the dynamic façade - Investment Council
Headquarter [1].
398 S. Preto

Fig. 14. Construction and integration of the façade - Investment Council Headquarters [1].

3.4 Architects Homeostatic Façade System (Prototype) – Decker Yeadon

Decker Yeadon’s research has developed design applications for smart materials and
nanotechnology, such as the homeostatic façade system [19]. The homeostastic façade
(Fig. 15) is based on dielectric elastomers that allow the building façade system to
control and regulate the internal environment according to external conditions [20]. The
elastomer has a silver coating that opens when it is illuminated by the sun and closes in
its absence, and when the materials expand causes deformation of the inner layer
(Fig. 16). The silver coating produces an electric charge on the surface that is pro-
portional to the incident light and which drives the elastomer. The system is highly
responsive even to small changes, like the sun going behind the clouds [19, 21]. The
glass surface reflects the colours of the surrounding buildings with the sunlight, that
changes throughout the day (Fig. 17) [20, 21].

Fig. 15. Sequence of operation (simulation) of the homeostatic façade [19].

Fig. 16. Detail of dielectric elastomer system [22].

 Dynamic Façades: Optimization of Natural Light at Workplaces 399

Fig. 17. Homeostatic façade system simulation [20].

4 Comparison Between the Case Studies

See Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1. Geographical location, season of the year, meteorological weather between the case
studies [Author].
Building Location/Latitude Angle of solar Summer Equinox Winter Temp. (°C)
incidence (sunlight) (sunlight) (sunlight)
Arab World Paris (France) 65º ENE-WSW – 16 h 9,5 h 8h 3 °C
Institute 48º5′36′′ N Summer/18º (between (between (between (January)
ESE-WSW – 05h47 and 07h30 and 9h00 and and *20 °C
Winter 21h58) 18h00) 17h00) (July)
Gardens by Singapore 68º ENE-WSW – 12 h 12 h 12 h 26 °C
the Bay (Singapore) Summer/65º (between (between (between (January)
1º18′0′′ N ENE-WSW – 07h00 and 07h00 and 07h01 and and 27 °C
Winter 19h12) 19h00) 19h04) (June)
Investment Abu Dhabi 90º ENE-WNW - 14 h 12 h 10 h 19 °C
Council (U. A. E.) Summer/42º (between (between (between (January)
Headquarters 24º28′48′′ N ENE-WSW – 05h35 and 06h30 and 07h02 and and 36 °C
Winter 19h15) 18h00) 17h39) (July)
Homeostatic - - - - - -
Façade
System

Table 2. Comparison of dynamic façades, according to their location, control device, location
(system) and materialization between the case studies [Author].
Building Façades Control device Location Materialization
(system)
Arab World Façade Photo-sensitive sensors Within Photoelectric cells
Institute Northwest double
glass
Gardens by the Bay Domes (and Photo-sensitive sensors Exterior Outer retractable
Façades) structure panels
Investment Council Façade Anemometers (wind-sensitive) and Exterior Shading system in
Headquarters photo-sensitive sensors PTFE
Homeostatic Prototype Photo-sensitive sensors Within Dielectric
Façade System double elastomers
glass
400 S. Preto

Regarding location and latitude, the Arab World Institute is the only located in
Europe at latitude 48º (Paris), further south we find the Investment Council Head-
quarters at latitude 24º (Abu Dhabi) and finally, closer to the Equador, at latitude 1º, the
Gardens by the Bay (Singapore). The angles of incidence are determining factors to
clarify the reasons associated with the structural systems and the need for shading
systems. The buildings considered in the location/latitude were analised due to the
angles of solar incidence, in the summer and in the winter. Paris has similar angles of
incidence in the two seasons of the year, 65º in the summer and 18º in the winter. In
Abu Dhabi, something different happens, 90º in the summer and 42º in the winter,
where there is a greater thermal amplitude and in the summer the sun’s rays are at 90º
which justifies the fact that it is the only case study in which the shading system
happens in the façade and the coverage. As for Singapore, solar rays are quite balanced
in summer and winter, since there have no significant differences between 68º (sum-
mer) and 65º (winter). Due to its location (latitude) the number of daily hours of
sunlight is variable in the selected buildings. In Paris the variation is between 16 h in
the summer and 8 h in the winter. Abu Dhabi has almost the same duration of daily
hours with (sun) as it varies between 14 h in the summer and 10 h in the winter.
Finally, Singapore is the most uniform throughout the year, always presenting 12 h
daily with natural light. About the differences in temperature, Paris varies between 2 °C
and 19 °C. In Singapore there is a very similar minimum and maximum temperature,
26 °C and 27 °C. Abu Dhabi varies between 19 °C and 36 °C.
As for the shading systems, other considerations are necessary to be made. The
shading system in Paris, for instance, is applied on the façade, where there are no
obstacles surrounding. While the building that is situated in Abu Dhabi all the façade
has a second skin. In Gardens by the Bay, the domes protect the two greenhouses and
due to its shape also works as a façade and is located by the water, without obstacles
nearby. About the homeostatic façade, since it is prototype, there are no references.
Dynamic façades controls are composed of photoelectric sensors, where the sun’s rays,
outside temperature and wind speed are the key factors in activating its operation,
which closes or opens, according with the data collected from the outside. The pro-
totype homeostatic façade is designed to be inside the double glass. All systems are
based on the same type of external information, solar rays, wind speed and thermal
factors. However, the way they work is different. The photoelectric cells of the Arab
World Institute operate on panels of several dimensions that open and close like a
camera, whereas Gardens by the Bay coverings seek to protect the plants within from
the external factors that may jeopardise their survival. The shading system in Abu
Dhabi functions as screens that cover the façade like umbrellas.

5 Discussion

Regarding shading systems there are several alternatives, and since it is not subjected to
human intervention and/or data processing, thanks to technology, man is freed from the
management and control. Another point to be considered and analysed is the option of
 Dynamic Façades: Optimization of Natural Light at Workplaces 401

not activating these sensors, but in some of the systems of façade analysed, this pos-
sibility does not exist. That is, it should be possible that during the night, for instance,
the façade may be closed, for privacy. Factors such as location, orientation, number of
hours with natural light and angles of incidence of solar rays, as well as the type of
climate and state of meteorology are quite important for these systems to work effi-
cently. However, the systems still have an intrusive and unnatural form and causes
some strangeness about their integration into façades. Biophilia, alone, does not
respond to the needs that promote comfort in the interior space. However, visually, they
could be more appealing and look less intrusive. Another very important factor, is the
promotion of vitamin D production, and for that to happens it is necessary to be
exposed to sunlight (UV-B radiation, between 290 and 320 nm) about 20 min per day
to produce 25.000 international units of Vitamin D. So, there are other factors that can
be included in the dynamic façade system, and not only being concerned with geo-
graphic, climatic and energy-related issues. Lighting Design and façade design is not
enough to meet the needs of the human being, other approaches are necessary to
humanise interior spaces. In fact, to work in offices, is necessary to give attention to
issues of maintenance costs and energy consumption, but it is also clear that it is people
who work in these spaces and that comfort issues must be considered - both psycho-
logically and physiologically. The use of natural light benefits human productivity,
safety and health and can prevent/cure some pathologies and contribute to the reduction
of stress levels. Stress can be caused by the internal environment and consequently the
worsening or the appearance of pathologies in the short or long term, both mentally and
physically, and we are treating the symptom rather than the problem. Human wellbeing
should be a crucial concern in the design of indoor environs and should be seen
holistically and be closely connected with the material and immaterial components of
the human condition which contains the biological, physical, physiological and psy-
chological as well as the social and aesthetic aspects [23]. External views, particularly
natural landscapes, could induce positive reactions and more effective in reducing
stress and anxiety, as well as in the ability to increase concentration and improve mood.
Already there are solutions, in façades, where the vegetation functions as an outer
coating, for instance. However, the vegetation does not respond to environmental
factors, such as the case of the sun, whether thermal factors or incidence angles. So,
how can we achieve a natural façade that responds to environmental factors and
changes to control luminance and thermal conditions? Perhaps through a dynamic
façade system that has the natural appearance allows the advantages of the two solu-
tions: a façade that answer to external factors and with a non-metallic (artificial,
unnatural) appearance. The shadowing systems studied in the case studies, practically
all have a considerable dimension that can make them as intrusive [2, 17, 18]. Factors
such as location, orientation, number of hours with natural light and angles of incidence
of solar rays, as well as the type of climate and meteorological state are important and
for this reason should not be neglected, as it was possible to observe in the buildings
presented.
402 S. Preto

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Sustainable Urban Planning and
Infrastructure
 A Sociotechnical Systems Approach
for Assessing University Campus
Developments

Eduardo Navarro(&), Graeme Bowles, and Guy H. Walker

School of Energy, Geoscience, Infrastructure and Society,

Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, UK
en13@hw.ac.uk

Abstract. Recent university campus developments in the UK represented

capital investments of more than 3 billion GBP in 2016/2017. They are, driven by
the need to provide an excellent student experience and the prevalence of student-
centric learning approaches. These developments, need to prove effective in use,
promote institutional ethos and image, prove efficient in terms of resource use,
make effective uses of learning technologies, and support its users. This has
placed pressure on campus planning professionals to ensure the development of
satisfactory solutions to meet multiple, and sometimes conflicting, stakeholder
requirements. This paper sets out to explore the application of sociotechnical
systems, in particular Work Domain Analysis (WDA), as a novel approach to
model and understand these complex requirements, and thus, support campus
design professionals develop new learning spaces and facilities. A first iteration
of WDA is developed based on the review of recent learning space design
guidelines, the analysis policies and documents from the HEI, and through
interviews with stakeholders. The results provide insights on the complex criteria
and general functions that informal learning spaces need to meet. This initial
template is expected to serve as the basis of a holistic assessment of the effec-
tiveness of existing and prospective campus developments. The initial findings
show promise in regard to the suitability and applicability of WDA as a com-
plementing instrument for early design stages of learning environments and
facilities.

Keywords: Human factors
Sociotechnical systems

Cognitive Work Analysis
Abstraction Hierarchy
Higher Education

Campus design
Learning environments

1 Introduction

Higher Education facilities and spaces should support and structure the diverse learning
and non-learning activities performed by its diverse users [1]. In the past decades,
Higher Education sector in the UK has undergone important changes such as;
(1) raising student expectations, resulting in “the student experience”, including the
campus experience, becoming a top priority for university’s management [2], (2) the
widespread and prevalence of information and communication technologies (ICT) in

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 405–417, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_38
406 E. Navarro et al.

learning practices [3, 4], and (3) the emphasis on socio-constructivist and student-
centered approaches to learning and teaching [5, 6]. These have considerably trans-
formed the university campus and its spaces. In response to these changes, capital
investments, including retrofits and development of new facilities, have reached a total
of 3 billion GBP in 2016 [7].
A resulting implication is that campus developments should not be considered an
isolated matter to be planned and developed by one department (Traditionally, the
estates department). Instead, newly developed learning spaces should integrate and
reflect upon pedagogies and practices that aim to be enabled, how these support users’
needs, and how both the spatial characteristics and technologies can enhance them [8,
9]. However, research highlights that the effectiveness of learning spaces, particularly
in higher education, remain a worrisomely under-researched area [10, 11].
The aim of this paper is to contribute to the ongoing discussion in learning space
design and evaluation, by proposing a novel sociotechnical systems approach to better
understand the effectiveness of campus developments. This paper sets to discuss the
complexity involved in campus space planning and to showcase the similarities
between recently proposed space design principles for higher education, and the
principles underpinning the design of Sociotechnical systems (STS). Finally, using the
case-study of a UK higher education institution (HEI) as a reference, a novel work
domain analysis (WDA) is developed.

2 Designing Effective Learning Environments: Trends

and Limitations

In higher education, the design of learning spaces has received an increasing attention
from disciplines and researchers not traditionally involved in space design, such as
technologists and education researchers [3, 8, 9]. These initiatives have brought ped-
agogies and technologies to the forefront of the learning space design discussion.
However, this new direction has highlighted limitations in regard to the understanding
of higher education learning spaces. Pearshouse and Bligh [12] offer a perspective on
dominant evaluation methods for HEI. There are two main types; those dominated by
quantitative traditional estate measures (occupancy rates, efficiency or income effec-
tiveness) or, secondly, by evaluations aiming to measure the outcomes/impact on the
user, commonly in the form of user/occupant satisfaction metrics. Recent critical
reviews on Higher-Education space design and evaluation [10, 11] identified a number
of gaps within contemporary practice and research in the field:
(1) Development of methods to analyze the effectiveness of learning environments
in supporting desired teaching and learning practices, activities and behaviors
[5, 10, 11].
(2) Development of formative evaluation approaches, relevant throughout the life-
cycle, starting from early briefs and concept designs [6, 11].
Arguably, human factors and ergonomics, particularly approaches with roots in
sociotechnical systems, are well-equipped to address the research gaps mentioned
above [13].
 A Sociotechnical Systems Approach 407

3 Campus Developments: A Complex Matter

The campus, derived from the Latin world for ‘field’, commonly refers to the land
and/or buildings belonging to a university. The term has its origins in medieval uni-
versities and their tradition in which learner and teacher lived and studied in cloister
settings. According to Chapman [14], the notion of campus developed based on ‘how a
scholarly community can be shaped by the character of its setting’, bringing together
accommodation, social life and learning. In this paper, when referring to ‘campus’, the
infrastructure (virtual and physical) developed and used by the university is considered.
Den-Heijer [15] suggests that organizational performance, can be seen as emerging
from the interactions amid 5 resources; human resources, capital, information, tech-
nology and real estate. Among these, human resources are arguably the key strength of
a university in order to fulfill its basic mission, as its main outputs for society are the
development of ‘knowledge and (potential) knowledge workers’. However, the other

Table 1. STS and complex systems characteristics in Higher-Education Institutions (HEI).

Characteristics of STS [16] Incidence in HEI
Large problem space: System deals with a large number of Very high
elements
Social: Multiple users/workers, need of collaboration or power Very high
dynamics
Heterogeneous Perspectives: Different points of view amid Very high
stakeholders
Distributed: Users/Workers are located in distinct geographic Medium-high (Depends
positions – E.g. Branch campuses, distance learning on the HEI)
Dynamism: Complex systems are dynamic, however, due to their High
large problem space, they require time to adapt. For instance, a
new facility/building takes over three year to be built, from the
early discussions
Potential of high hazards: Limited impact in the environment or Medium
safety, however, HEI have a large impact on national economies
Many coupled sub-systems: E.g. Divisions in schools, High
departments and multiple temporary organizations such as
programs and courses
Automation: Use of automated technology systems – E.g. Low (Increasing)
Learning analytics, space allocation systems etc.
Uncertain data: Long-term planning based on estimated Medium
recruitment numbers, possible scenarios, advancements in
technology etc.
Mediated interaction: Properties of the system not directly High
observable, performance only observable through multiple and
complex indicators
Disturbances: Unanticipated events occur, where users have to Medium
respond and adapt to maintain the proper functioning 8 (e.g.
changes in national policy and university funding, or fluctuations
in recruitment numbers)
408 E. Navarro et al.

four resources remain crucial for humans to accomplish university’s core purposes.
These technical and human resources have been structured and organized across many
years, centuries in some cases, into functioning sociotechnical systems (STS).
Table 1 presents characteristics of STS [16] and provides an overview of their
prevalence in HEIs. HEIs, in concordance with humans being their most important
resource, are highly complex in relation to their social subsystems, including large
numbers of users, complex organizational structures, and stakeholders with distinct
views and roles [5]. However, it is important not to diminish challenges regarding the
technical subsystems, as the second largest expense of universities is often the Estate
costs [15]. Furthermore, the role of technology is likely to increase, through the
implementation of new learning technologies (e.g. augmented and virtual reality,
learning analytics) [4], improved management systems, and a continual development of
new and refurbished spaces.

4 Sociotechnical Systems Theory and Principles

STS theory not only concerns with analyzing the technical and social structures that
interact and organize to achieve certain purposes/goals, but it is also underpinned by a
set of principles for design. Three key principles underpinned the design of STS classic
theory [17], resulting from humanistic and participatory values; (1) responsible
autonomy, (2) adaptability, (3) meaningfulness of tasks. These principles, from the
classic account of STS, have been further expanded to account for the new reality of
technological developments (e.g. ICT) and to broader issues - e.g. urban planning or
workplace design [18, 19].
When comparing STS theory principles and learning space design principles
(Table 2), some relevant synergies arise. For instance, the move from didactic towards
learner-centered pedagogies highlights an emphasis on the adaptability, learner’s
agency and personalization. Such humanistic principles, are clearly prevalent within
STS theory, highlighted through the emphasis on adaptability and change, or in the
principles regarding the need to design systems where users are able to adapt and
co-evolve with the systems to suit their preferences and needs. Technological matters,
i.e. blended and online learning, are also highlighted in the design principles. In this
regard, STS theory principles aim to ensure the joint optimization between the technical
and social sub-systems, avoiding technology-led changes and ensuring changes con-
gruent with pedagogic practices and user preferences. Finally, the importance and
meaningfulness of the task design, pedagogical tasks in this context, is another idea
shared between STS and student-centered learning principles, which point towards the
increasing need of involving instructional experts and practitioners to ensure congru-
ence between activities and the spaces being designed. Based on this, and the previ-
ously discussed complex nature of HEIs, the application of design approaches for STS
seems appropriate, particularly to address the change happening within HEI, including
campus developments.
Amid existing human factors methods, Cognitive Work Analysis (CWA) is a
framework originally developed to analyze and design complex STS systems [16, 21].
It promotes designs with user adaptation and flexibility in mind, and it is consistent
 A Sociotechnical Systems Approach 409

Table 2. STS principles and learning space design guidelines and principles.
STS theory principles [18] Principles for learning 7 principles for Knowledge
space design [3] Generation Spaces [20]
Social and technical systems have to Flexible: To accommodate Comfort: Physical and Mental sense
be designed together current and evolving of ease and well-being
pedagogies
Balance between top-down and Future-Proofed: Enables Aesthetics: Recognize symmetry,
bottom-up design approaches space reconfigurations harmony, simplicity and fitness for
purpose
Designs are contingent (context Bold: Beyond tested Flow: Enable a state of mind for
dependent) pedagogies and immersion in learning
technologies
User needs and requirements Creative: Energize and Equity: Consider cultural & physical
co-evolve with the system use inspire learners needs & differences
Change and adaptability, for users to Supportive: Develop Blending: Mix of technological and
interpret and adjust potential of all learners face-to-face resources
Produce meaningful tasks to enable Enterprising: Spaces Affordances: Design with the ‘Action
seeing their significance capable of supporting possibilities’ the environment
different purposes provides in mind
Minimal critical specification: User Repurposing: Explore potential
‘finishes’ the design based on his/her multiple and diverse uses of the
preferences space
Congruent with existing practices
The system, once used, is
co-evolving with its users

with previously discussed STS theory and principles [18]. Moreover, CWA is differ-
entiated from other human factors methods due to its focus on constraints and its
formative nature. This is, it explores how work, or learning and teaching in this case,
could take place within the constraints of a given system, rather than prescribing or
describing how work can be or it is done. The formative nature and congruence with
STS theory principles makes CWA a framework that offers promising venues to
advance learning space design research, by also attending to the shortcomings previ-
ously listed [10, 11].

5 Work Domain Analysis

Work Domain Analysis (WDA), is the first phase, of five, of the CWA framework.
WDA concerns with modelling the constraints places by a system’s functional structure
onto its users. This functional structure is not only conformed by the physical, but also
by social, organizational and cultural environments. These constraints form a ‘rela-
tively permanent’ structure that constraints how users/actors behave in the system [22].
Thus, WDA concerns with the environment in which the actors work, in this case, amid
others, learn, teach or research, rather than with their specific behaviors. The constraints
410 E. Navarro et al.

caused by the latest are covered by later phases of the CWA. The functional structure is
commonly modelled under five levels, which connect constraints across levels through
means-end (Why-What-How) relationships [23]. The five levels used to model the
constraints are the following ones:
– Functional purposes: Modelled constraints regarding the fundamental reasons for a
system’s existence and the general limits on its operation are represented.
– Values and priority measures: Modelled constraints represent the criteria, values
and principles that need to be met to achieve the purposes, providing the basis to
evaluate how the general functions achieve the functional purposes.
– Purpose-related/general functions: Constraints represents the general functions that
the system should support to achieve its purpose. They are enabled through multiple
affordances of the objects.
– Object-related functions: Constraints represent the affordances and limitations
(what can be done) of the objects. Derived from their properties and characteristics.
– Physical objects/form: Represent the objects of the system that users or other
objects interact with. These are not only physical, they can include virtual/online
form.
The CWA analytical frameworks used to model these constraints are the
Abstraction Hierarchy (AH) and the Abstraction Decomposition Space (ADS) [22].
The ADS is commonly used to explore, not only the constraints across abstraction
levels, but also the whole-parts relationships between the system, sub-systems and their
components. The AH is then used to model the constraints and relationships across the
levels described beforehand, aiding in the integration of the perspectives of the different
stakeholders involved in campus space planning [24].

5.1 The Domain and Scope: Informal Spaces on Campus

As discussed above, the university system is highly complex, particularly in its social
dimensions, e.g. the heterogeneity of its users, the high numbers or the large problem
space it encompasses. Naikar [22], suggests delimiting the boundaries of the system so
the research can model the relevant aspects to the aim of the analysis. The aim with the
WDA model is to enable exploring the effectiveness of campus developments (physical
and technology related) in achieving HEI aims and the criteria of different stakeholder
groups. Although, common university activities also include formal/structured teaching
and research, this paper will focus on modeling constraints relevant to the informal,
self-directed and student-centered learning activities, and its associated spaces and
facilities, such as learning commons, social learning spaces or learning hubs [9]. These
space types represent a major part of campus developments in the last decade [5].
This paper covers the development of the top 3 levels of the AH; functional
purposes, value and priority measures, and generalized functions. These levels focus
primarily on the constraints placed by the culture, social and institutional norms and
requirements, and the general activities/functions that should be supported. These three
levels enable establishing what needs to be support and how (criteria), and thus, serving
as the basis to assess how future design solutions support the effectiveness of the
 A Sociotechnical Systems Approach 411

informal learning processes. The template presented here will serve as the basis for
future steps in order to evaluate design solutions.

6 Methods

The data collection to build the AH is based on the analysis of sources widely rec-
ommended by researchers with expertise on CWA [22, 25]. The AH nodes at the levels
of Functional Purposes, Values Priority Measures and Generalized have initially been
defined by the analysis of institutional documents and relevant literature on learning
space design in HE. The learning space design guidelines and toolkits reviewed include
the following ones:
• Linking Pedagogy and Space [26]
• Designing Spaces for Effective Learning [3]
• Designing Next Generation Places of Learning [9]
• Spaces for Knowledge Generation [20]
• The UK Higher Education Learning Space Toolkit [27].
To ensure a relevant AH model was developed, a case-study UK HEI has been used
to inform them AH. This has provided the opportunity to engage with analysis derived
from the HEI strategic and policy documents. These documents have been reviewed,
using codes to find constraints that can be linked to the top 3 levels (Functional
purpose, Values and priority measures and Generalized functions). To gain a broader
understanding and to refine the higher-levels of the AH, seven semi-structured inter-
views have been conducted with stakeholders involved in the management of the HEI:
• Learning and Teaching (L&T): The HEIs director of L&T, one departmental
director of L&T, and a L&T quality enhancement manager.
• Information Services (IS): Director of information services, and the director of
library and student services.
• Estates/Campus Services: Director of campus services, and the head of capital
projects.
The interviewees have been selected based on their involvement in decision-
making around enhancements and improvements of the learning environment, such as,
implementation of learning technologies, learning spaces, and development of new
facilities.

7 WDA Model

The summarized AH resulting from the analysis, based on a British HEI and scoped
around informal spaces, is presented in the Fig. 1. Although the detailed analysis
remains out of the boundaries of this paper, the lower two levels of the abstraction have
been grouped into broad categories to enable the representation in the article format.
412 E. Navarro et al.

7.1 Functional Purpose

The top level provides the reasons for which the campus and its infrastructure are
developed. The primary purposes for a university campus, in regard to learning, can be
defined as, ‘Provision of an excellent student experience’, ‘Support and enhance
learning’, ‘Support general inhabitant needs’, ‘Support Community Identity: Shared
social and cultural values’. These link to key purposes of universities, for instance, to
educate and form knowledge workers, or to be places that promote shared social,
cultural and scholarly values [10, 15]. The campus, as a sub-system of a HEI, cannot
form or educate students, however, it can support the HEI on achieving it, by ensuring
users’ needs are satisfied and by supporting necessary learning activities. The campus,
and the university, operate within wider systems, i.e. national economic and regulatory
systems, which impose limits on the availability of resources ‘Economically Sustain-
able Operations’ and regulates the impact of its operations ‘Meet environmental
performance’.
Although these nodes are not key purposes of a campus, they represent external
constraints imposed on the system and that must be met for its proper functioning. As
shown in Fig. 2, means-ends relationships emerge when the functional purposes, and
link to the values and priority measures as these provide reasoning and criteria for how
the purposes are to be met.

7.2 Values and Priority Measures

This second tier includes the constraints regarding the criteria and principles that are
used measure the performance towards the above purposes. Based on the reviewed
documents, the learning space design reports and the interviews, 18 principles and
criteria have been identified for the HEI under study (Fig. 1). The criteria include a
combination of qualitative/subjective measures, such as ‘Maximize aesthetics and
image’ or ‘maximize student comfort and satisfaction’, with easily quantifiable criteria,
such as ‘Meet capacity requirements’ or ‘Minimize property costs’. These criteria
reflect the views and priorities of different stakeholders, including metrics traditionally
used in estates management (‘property costs’), information services (‘provide easy to
use and intuitive resources’) or used in learning and teaching matters (‘provide a
variety of settings to support diverse learning styles and activities’ or ‘student
satisfaction’).
When looking at the interactions, it is clear that nodes such as ‘(provide) settings to
support diverse learning styles and activities’ (colored red), is a key node in achieving
the pedagogic and student experience purposes of the campus as it connects with all but
2 functional purposes. Meanwhile, a facility that meets the engineering and technical
requirements for non-domestic buildings (colored blue), would not necessarily enhance
the student experience or student learning, while it would ensure its environmental
performance, and meeting its inhabitant general needs, such as provision of a com-
fortable indoor environment or securing sheltering. In some instances, different criteria
can be conflicting, for instance, maximizing the flexibility and adaptability of equip-
ment and spaces, might result in spaces that are not always optimized for specific
activities (fit for purpose). The AH aids analysts on revealing contradictory and
 A Sociotechnical Systems Approach

Fig. 1. Summarized AH: campus informal learning environments

413
 414
E. Navarro et al.

Fig. 2. Extract from the AH for informal learning spaces

 A Sociotechnical Systems Approach 415

synergistic criteria used by different stakeholders, enabling to explore the limitations of

different designs. For campus space planning, a more holistic perspective would avoid
on falling in the pitfalls of decisions solely based on traditionally quantifiable criteria,
such as capacity of a space, occupancy rates or space efficiency, which might result in
spaces that lack flexibility or hinder teaching and learning practices.

7.3 Generalized Functions

In the model, 26 generalized functions have been identified, which model what needs to
be done within the system in order to achieve its purposes. In this case, the functions
focus on informal/multi-purpose spaces at HEI. The general functions found within
informal learning settings have been organized in three main groups, ‘general learning
activities that should be enabled’, ‘general non-learning activities that should be
enabled’, ‘functions that should be enabled to meet user’s general needs’ and ‘functions
related to the infrastructure and general facility services for the proper functioning of
the space’. This typology of spaces (informal), tend to offer a variety of settings and
services in the same area, with the purpose of enabling different learning and non-
learning activities to take place in within. Furthermore, they have to provide basic
infrastructure and facility service functions, and support basic user needs, such as
‘accessibility for all’, ‘sanitation’, ‘Access/Provision of food and drinks’ to success-
fully operate. Following the means-ends logic, the general functions provide the means
through which criteria and values of the system are met, while they emerge from the
uses that objects of the system and their affordances (lower two levels) are put towards.

8 Discussion and Conclusion

This paper set out to explore how approaches for the design of STS, have the potential
to complement the shortcomings identified by research on higher education space
assessment and evaluation approaches [10–12]. HEIs should be considered highly
complex STS, particularly in regard to their social structures and sub-systems. Thus,
developing the campus in which they operate, requires careful consideration of the
needs of multiple stakeholders and the institutional culture. Moreover, recent designs,
particularly those directed by contemporary learning space design guidelines, share
similar guiding principles to those of sociotechnical systems theory. It is argued that
established STS design methods, such as WDA and the AH, offer a novel approach to
assess the effectiveness of existing and prospective designs.
As shown by the developed AH, functional purposes of a campus, particularly
pedagogic and social ones, cannot be directly attributed to a specific design. Instead,
they emerge from the complex interrelations amongst constraints and criteria estab-
lished over time through internal and external influences and decisions that have
shaped the system (i.e. the university). By making constraints explicit, is possible to
ensure careful consideration of the impacts that different design concepts and solutions
seen as, physical objects and their affordances, have on the criteria and general func-
tions, enabling better informed decisions. This approach is formative in nature,
enabling to explore the impact and opportunities offered by different designs and the
416 E. Navarro et al.

implementation of novel learning technologies. WDA aids in integrating and providing

a broader view of the environment beyond traditional estates/architectural considera-
tions, by including views on pedagogic matters, or by offering a framework to explore
how the physical environments synergizes with the virtual and technical ones, to form a
truly “blended” campus.
This work has showcased the possibility of applying an approach underpinned by
STS theory for assessing the effectiveness of learning spaces in HEIs. This paper
presents preliminary results of an ongoing research. In following steps of the project,
the presented AH is expected to be externally validated with relevant campus planning
stakeholders, and its internal validity established with human factors and CWA experts.
The resulting AH template will be applied by means of modelling existing and
prospective informal space designs, to assess their impact on the higher levels through
the use of network metrics. The use of network metrics is a recently used method to
quantify and estimate the impact of alterations within an AH, by enabling analysts to
quantify the centrality and connectedness of the different nodes at a certain abstraction
level [28, 29]. Lastly, the application of further CWA phases will be explored, par-
ticularly in the context of exploring the possibilities of CWA in informing the design
process through evidence-based user requirements and participatory processes, as
shown in its recent application of the framework as a design toolkit [30].

Acknowledgements. The authors want to thank the James-Watt bursary, for supporting the
ongoing research project.

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higher education: differing responses to market pressures. Lond. Rev. Educ. 14(1), 33–46
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3. JISC: Designing spaces for effective learning. A guide to 21st century learning space design
(2006)
4. Johnson, L., Becker, S.A., Cummins, M., Estrada, V., Freeman, A., Hall, C.: NMC Horizon
Report: 2016 Higher Education Edition. The New Media Consortium, Austin (2016)
5. Boys, J.: Towards Creative Learning Spaces: Re-thinking the Architecture of Post-
compulsory Education. Routledge, New York (2011)
6. Beckers, R., van der Voordt, T., Dewulf, G.: A conceptual framework to identify spatial
implications of new ways of learning in higher education. Facilities 33(1/2), 2–19 (2015)
7. AUDE: AUDE Estates Management Report 2017. AUDE, Loughborough, UK (2017)
8. Oblinger, D.G.: Learning Spaces. EDUCAUSE, Washington DC (2006)
9. Radcliffe, D., Wilson, H., Powell, D., Tibbetts, B.: Learning Spaces in Higher Education:
Positive Outcomes by Design. The University of Queensland, Brisbane (2008)
10. Temple, P.: Learning spaces in higher education: an under-researched topic. Lond. Rev.
Educ. 6(3), 229–241 (2008)
11. Cleveland, B., Fisher, K.: The evaluation of physical learning environments: a critical review
of the literature. Learning Environ. Res. 17(1), 1–18 (2014)
 A Sociotechnical Systems Approach 417

12. Bligh, B., Pearshouse, I.: Doing learning space evaluations. In: Boddington, A., Boys, J.: Re-
shaping Learning: A Critical Reader. Sense Publishes, Rotterdam (2011)
13. Salmon, P.M., Walker, G.H., Read, G.J.M., Goodle, N., Stanton, N.A.: Fitting methods to
paradigms: are ergonomics methods fit for systems thinking. Ergonomics 60(2), 194–205
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with cognitive work analysis: putting theory back into practice. Ergonomics 58(5), 822–851
(2015)
19. Davis, M.C., Challenger, R., Dharshana, N.W., Clegg, C.W.: Advancing socio-technical
systems thinking: a call for bravery. Appl. Ergon. 45(2), 171–180 (2014)
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 Village Regeneration Through Cultural
Creativity. Polish Case Study

Wojciech Bonenberg(&)

Faculty of Architecture, Poznan University of Technology,

ul. Nieszawska 13A, 61-021 Poznan, Poland
wojciech.bonenberg@put.poznan.pl

Abstract. The paper presents the results of research carried out at the Faculty
of Architecture of the Poznan University of Technology, concerning the
revitalization of rural areas based on the cultural potential located in these areas.
The aim of the research is to answer the question whether the Charles Landry
theory of the creative city may also apply to the countryside. Is the cultural
potential located in rural areas so strong that it will have a significant impact on
the revitalization of the countryside? Research is carried out in the Wielkopolska
province. The partial results we obtained are so interesting that we decided to
present them in this publication.

Keywords: Village regeneration
Rural architecture
Cultural creativity

1 The Concept of Creative Revitalization

The concept of creative revitalization has been introduced in the work. It refers to the
concept of “creative city” and “creative industry”, peddled mainly by Charles Landry.
In his work entitled “The Creative City: A Toolkit for Urban Innovators”, he laid the
grounds for the idea of using cultural capital to activate communities, mainly urban
ones.
The idea of creative revitalization proposed in the paper aims to use the cultural
potential to revitalize rural areas. Creative revitalization can bring benefits to country
dwellers, be the beginning of building an active rural community, recognizing direct
economic benefits in caring for the existing cultural heritage and the surrounding
landscape. It is connected with a completely new approach to the idea of revitalization
of rural areas based on the re-evaluation of the mentality of people in rural areas, which
due to its specificity (weak economic potential, lack of scientific background) are less
predisposed to rapid changes. It is cultural potential, often unnoticed and untapped in
poor areas, that can become an impulse for local development, changing of people’s
thinking, and provoking them to act.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 418–426, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_39
 Village Regeneration Through Cultural Creativity 419

2 Economisation of Culture

Contemporary globalized reality forces the need for a new look at the role and place of
culture in the spatial and economic development of the settlement network. Culture in a
functional sense becomes a product [1]. It is no longer a set of ideal values shaping the
attitude towards space, but it becomes an economic value. Therefore, it is associated
with material values, which in the form of a scenic attraction, image, sign, symbol,
event, are intended for the consumer market [2]. Examples of such products are old
manors and farm estates located in an attractive rural landscape. They constitute the
contours of architectural forms cumulating over decades, and they create interesting
landscape interiors admired by the consumers. The art of landscape composition can
display such values as picturesqueness, uniqueness, atmosphere, romantic character,
for which the consumer (e.g. a tourist) is willing to pay a specific price.
In the economic approach, beautiful architecture in a beautiful landscape, unique
atmosphere, intimate scale, interesting landscape views, architectural detail, contact
with water and greenery are gaining more and more importance and affect the price of
real estate. They are positive factors in the new spatial economy which become attractive
for those who can bring creative potential for economic growth. In this phenomenon, the
authors see a chance to obtain a real economic basis for the revitalization of rural areas.
For a long time, the considerations of urban planners and architects regarding the
revitalization of rural areas were related to the spatial and social structure of the
countryside, in isolation from economics. Contemporary economic transitions have
significantly changed this approach [3–6]. Spatial development of rural areas is
strongly dependant on their ability to adapt to the changing economic reality. The fall
of traditional ways of farming in the countryside, globalization of the market of agri-
cultural products and migration of country dwellers result in the progressive degra-
dation of rural areas and depopulation of the countryside. It has terrible consequences
for the state of antique architectural tissue and degradation of the rural landscape.
Contemporary development conditions have led to the loss of the importance of tra-
ditional agricultural production (which in the old days was the economic basis for the
functioning of the countryside) in favour of specialized services and creative
entrepreneurship. In economic analyses, the concept of cultural capital appeared as an
important development factor. Cultural capital includes cultural goods that are traded in
a global society: knowledge, skills and creativity [7]. The essential feature of cultural
capital is that it can be converted into economic capital. This applies both to cultural
capital having a material form (attractive architecture) as well as non-material one
(skills, ideas, innovativeness, education, etc.). It is worth noting that cultural capital is
the most stable type of capital, and its accumulation can take place for many genera-
tions. In addition, it is an extremely secure form of investment, difficult to obtain, but
also very difficult to lose. The cultural capital of rural areas is of great practical
importance. It is an undervalued economic potential, not yet accounted for as rural
resources. These resources, being the effect of the centuries-old accumulation of cul-
tural heritage, can be transformed into development capital. Culture and economics
become increasingly interrelated and interdependent elements. The former perception
of culture as a function generating costs and requiring subsidies has been replaced by
420 W. Bonenberg

an approach that perceives the culture as the source of profits driving the economy. The
process of cultural economization is connected with new needs at the intersection of
production of goods, consumption and lifestyle. A. Toffler calls this phenomenon a
“cultural explosion”, the sign of which is the individualization of needs, access to
cultural goods, and the increase of the cultural capital of society [8].
Such perception of evolution of the approach to cultural values, including the
architecture and landscape of the countryside, results from general civilization transi-
tions re-evaluating the traditional 20th century agricultural model of rural development.
It is the basis of the approach to revitalization presented in this paper.

3 Creative Revitalization

The idea of “creative revitalization” is a reaction to the decline in the attractiveness of

rural areas and the increasing migration of dwellers. A creative approach to revital-
ization of the countryside means that under favourable conditions dwellers can see new
opportunities and, with imagination, direct their activity to solve difficult problems of
renewal of rural areas. This includes a wide range of activities, from the improvement
of the quality of landscape interiors, renovation of the historic architectural substance
and through the activation of dwellers, to the fight against poverty and social exclusion.
In most villages, you can find potential that at first glance is not promising and not
attractive, but thanks to commitment, promotion and advertising, it gains in importance
and becomes a lever of development [9]. Creativity can be associated with various
mobilization ranges:
– based on symbolism referring to historical events (reconstructions of historical
battles, festivities commemorating historical figures and events),
– based on art and local handicraft tradition (fairs),
– based on the agricultural tradition (trade fairs of regional food products),
– based on symbolism referring to faith and spirituality (sanctuaries, monasteries,
church fairs, pilgrimages, etc.),
– based on leisure and recreation (accommodation in historic residences, agritourism),
– based on a unique architectural form and high landscape values (regional museums,
folk art galleries, conference and training services in an attractive spatial
environment).
Creative revitalization programs focus on strengthening functions related to art and
culture. Attention is drawn to the network structure of functional connections, based on
individual talent and skills. The UNESCO report “Our Creative Diversity” [10]
emphasizes that the development of civilization is associated with the growing
importance of choice, where culture plays an important role. Cultural diversity is the
source of the attractiveness of the village, a factor that gives the opportunity to use
human experience and wisdom.
Lash and Friedman in the work “Modernity and Identity” [11] discuss the dynamics
of contemporary cultural links and the impact on the behaviour of the people involved
in them (identity transformation). They analyze the problems of globalization and the
importance of tradition in relation to new cultural phenomena.
 Village Regeneration Through Cultural Creativity 421

Landry and Bianchini [3] argue that improving the quality of life of dwellers can be
achieved thanks to innovation and not necessarily with the involvement of a lot of
resources. They describe, on one of the examples of a depopulating mountain settle-
ment in northern Italy, how the initiative of few people can contribute to the revital-
ization of the town. The local population, under the guidance of invited artists, was
encouraged to create wall paintings depicting scenes from everyday life of the dwellers.
Thanks to this, the unknown settlement, located off the beaten track, soon became
fashionable and incorporated into popular tourist routes. New restaurants and shops
were opened and the town began to revive.
The achievements of the Partners for Livable Places Association [12] are widely
known. This Association is probably the oldest organization focused on the rebuilding
local communities. Thirty years of practical experience focuses on informing, con-
sulting, and management of initiatives that creatively activate local communities.
Loisa Raija-Leena in a comprehensive analysis presents the multiperspectivity of
the concept of creative entrepreneurship [13]. In the research, she discusses several
possible meanings of cultural industries, including: critical, emancipatory, descriptive,
normative, legal and instrumental aspects. According to the author, each of these
factors has a specific context in the production and distribution of cultural goods.
From Polish studies it is worth paying attention to the book by Monika Smoleń
“Przemysły kultury” [2], in which the author analyses, among others, the influence of
the cultural sector on the economic structure of Cracow and the attractiveness of the
city as a place of residence.
Researches for Wielkopolska
The above-mentioned premises became the basis for analysing the possibilities of
activating rural areas in Wielkopolska based on the concept of creative revitalization.
The assumption of the research was that the element that crystallizes the revitalization
activities should be attractive architectural objects of historic nature The aim of the
research is to find the relationship between the condition of architectural monuments
and the attractiveness of the village, predisposing to to revitalization activities [14, 15].
A list of 1041 such objects which have been qualified for four groups due to the
technical condition according to the following criteria has been made:
3 – condition of the object/park is good or very good,
2 – condition of the object/park is satisfactory,
1 – object/park is neglected and on the verge of collapsing,
0 – object is ruined and it is impossible to rebuild it.
Out of 1041 registered objects, 285 (33%) are in good condition, 248 (28.5%) -
satisfactory, and 270 (31%) - neglected. At the time of the analysis (2016–2018), 53
antique residences (about 6%) were under renovation. Only 1.5%, or 13 objects, are in a
state of ruin, and there is virtually no chance of renewing them, as it would involve huge
costs, comparable to the cost of constructing the building from scratch. It is comforting
that despite the fact that many monuments are in a neglected condition, an increasing
amount is restored and brought back to life. The observation shows that currently more
objects are restored and renovated, in contrast to monuments, whose condition is
deteriorating. The consequence of this fact is the improving general condition of historic
mansions in WIelkopolska. While at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries the condition
422 W. Bonenberg

of private-owned monuments improved, after Poland’s accession to the European Union

in 2004, many state-owned projects related to the revitalization of mansions, palaces and
castles were co-financed and their condition improved. Analyzes show that church
facilities are in the best condition. In the group of all the checked objects (241), 7 out of 8
churches are in good condition. Private facilities are in a fairly good condition, and state
facilities are in a slightly worse condition. In the worst condition are cooperative
facilities, and those partly belonging to the state, and partly to private individuals. In the
further part of the research, representative examples for each group of objects were
selected. The group includes 241 out of 1041 analyzed facilities.
Regardless of the technical condition, other factors influence the attractiveness of
architectural objects:
– condition of accompanying steam facilities,
– investment adaptability of the existing function profile,
– functional spectrum (number of functions possible to be located in the facility),
– architectural qualities of the object, architectural detail,
– the attractiveness of the surroundings, the visual quality of the landscape,
– travel time to the facility from current or former provincial cities,
– administrative status of the place.
The examined objects were evaluated in terms of the above-mentioned attractive-
ness factors. The method of expert scores was used. After determining the rank
(hierarchy of importance) for individual partial assessment criteria, a synthetic evalu-
ation of the examined objects was obtained. Then, the examined objects were assigned
to the poviats of the Wielkopolska voivodship. Table 1 presents a point score for the
attractiveness of rural monuments located in poviats of the Wielkopolska voivodship.
The next step was to assess the investment attractiveness of the cities in which the
architectural facilities under examination are located. The following indicators were
used to measure investment attractiveness:
– number of cultural events,
– number of objects in the Register of Monuments of the voivodship,
– number of citations in historical books,
– investment expenditures of communes and cities with poviat rights,
– number of entities of the national economy,
– employment status (professional activity),
– number of secondary and higher schools,
– security status (crime).
Aggregation of results was made using a similar method as in the assessment of the
value of historic buildings.
In order to determine whether the current state of historic buildings and architec-
tural facilities affects the investment attractiveness (hence the economic potential that
gives a chance for an effective rural revitalization), a comparison of these two factors
was made in each poviat. The preliminary results of the tests seem to confirm the high
correlation coefficient between these factors. The derogations concern only five out of
thirty-one districts of the Wielkopolska voivodship.
 Village Regeneration Through Cultural Creativity 423

Table 1. Evaluation of the attractiveness of rural heritage located in the counties of the
Wielkopolska Region [14].
County Number of Number of Percent of Overall Average
classified analyzed analyzed attractiveness attractiveness
monuments monuments objects of monuments of monuments
1 2 3 4 5 6
chodzieski 7 2 28,57 16,21 8,11
czarnkowsko- 13 0 0,00 0 0,00
trzcianiecki
gnieźnieński 61 3 4,92 30,21 10,07
gostyński 47 4 8,51 33,22 8,30
grodziski 19 11 57,89 75,50 6,86
jarociński 28 10 35,71 80,86 8,09
kaliski 4 0 0,00 0 0,00
kępiński 20 0 0,00 0 0,00
kolski 3 0 0,00 0 0,00
koniński 15 0 0,00 0 0,00
kościański 45 11 24,44 94,36 8,58
krotoszyński 21 4 19,05 28,79 7,20
leszczyński 48 4 8,33 36,00 9,00
międzychodzki 29 5 17,24 42,43 8,49
nowotomyski 24 10 41,67 79,93 7,99
obornicki 26 3 11,54 25,22 8,41
ostrowski 33 3 9,09 24,00 8,00
ostrzeszowski 12 0 0,00 0 0,00
pilski 26 2 7,69 17,36 8,68
pleszewski 40 11 27,50 78,50 7,14
poznański 120 35 29,17 292,65 8,36
rawicki 24 2 8,33 18,36 9,18
słupecki 19 2 10,53 18,00 9,00
szamotulski 44 13 29,55 104,07 8,01
średzki 46 13 28,26 96,58 7,43
śremski 43 13 30,23 104,43 8,03
wągrowiecki 50 8 16,00 52,21 6,53
wolsztyński 20 2 10,00 17,00 8,50
wrzesiński 39 8 20,51 58,57 7,32

In order to show how the new architecture can help creative revitalization of the
countryside, a design experiment was carried out. The experiment was performed with
students in design studio classes at the Poznań University of Arts in 2017. under the
supervision of the author. The experiment involves designing new multi functional
spaces for activation through tourism, creative industries and accompanying services.
The designed architectural structure has the ability to adapt to almost any terrain.
Buildings can be used for tourist purposes (hotel) and for business activities related
to the creative industry. Figures 1, 2 and 3 represent the design concept.
424 W. Bonenberg

Fig. 1. An experimental design of a multi-functional unit for creative regeneration through

cultural creativity. Part #1/2017. Autor: Nowacka A. (student), supervision: Bonenberg W.,
Regimowicz N., Wielgosz A.
 Village Regeneration Through Cultural Creativity 425

Fig. 2. An experimental design of a multi-functional unit for creative regeneration through

cultural creativity. Part #2/2017. Autor: Nowacka A. (student), supervision: Bonenberg W.,
Regimowicz N., Wielgosz A.

Fig. 3. An experimental design of a multi-functional unit for creative regeneration through

cultural creativity. Part #3/2017. Autor: Nowacka A. (student), supervision: Bonenberg W.,
Regimowicz N., Wielgosz A.
426 W. Bonenberg

4 Summary

At this stage of the research it can be concluded that there is a connection between the
attractiveness of architectural monuments and the investment attractiveness of the
poviats of the Wielkopolska Voivodeship. The obtained result is a preliminary con-
firmation of the thesis that the location of historical residences with high architectural
values affects the economic condition of poviats, and thus gives a greater chance for
effective revitalization of rural towns in which historical objects are located. The
planned next stage of research will include the construction of a creative model of
revitalization of rural areas based on architectural monuments located there.

References
1. Throsby, D., Withers, G.: The Economics of the Performing Arts. Edward Arnold, London
(1993)
2. Smoleń, M.: Przemysły kultury. Wpływ na rozwój miast. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu
Jagiellońskiego, Cracow (2003)
3. Landry, Ch., Bianchini, F.: The Creative City. Demos Publishers, London (1995)
4. Landry, Ch.: The Creative City - A Toolkit for Urban Innovators. Earthscan Publications,
London (2000)
5. Andersen, A.: Cultural Activity and Economic Development. The Council of Europe,
Brussels (1987)
6. Throsby, D., Withers, G.: Economics and Culture. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
(2001)
7. Bourdieu, P.: Teoria obiektów kulturowych. Translation by Andrzej Zawadzki. In: Nycz, R.
(ed.) Odkrywanie modernizmu, Universalis, Cracow (1998)
8. Toffler, A.: Trzecia fala. PIW, Warsaw (1986)
9. Landry, Ch.: The Art of City Making. Earthscan Publications, London (2006)
10. Our Creative Diversity. Report from the Word Commission on Culture and Development.
UNESCO (1995)
11. Lash, S., Friedman, J.: Modernity and Identity, pp. 1–30. Blackwell Publisher, Oxford
(1992)
12. Hunter, P.: Towards Livable Communities. Partners for Livable Communities, Washington
(1983)
13. Raija-Leena, L.: The Polysemous Contemporary Concept: The Rhetoric of the Cultural
Industry. Jyväskylä University Printing House, Jyväskylä (2003)
14. Zierke, P.: Kreatywny zabytek. Modelowe formy aktywizacji obszarów wiejskich. PhD
thesis, promoter: Bonenberg, W., Poznan University of Technology (2013)
15. Bonenberg, W., Zierke, P.: Dobra kultury współczesnej jako element krajobrazu Powiatu
Poznańskiego. Wydawnictwo WA Politechniki Poznańskiej, Poznan (2014)
 Synergistic Processes in Functional-Spatial
Development of Communes
in a Metropolitan Area

Hanna Borucińska-Bieńkowska(&)

Faculty of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Environmental Engineering,

Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of Zielona Gora,
ul. Szafrana 1, 65-516 Zielona Góra, Poland
hanna@bienkowscy.pl

Abstract. The article discusses selected functional-spatial and socio-economical

issues taking place in communes in a metropolitan area. The processes under
investigation pertain to the transformation period in Poland after 1989. Poland’s
accession to the European Union in 2004, development of self-governmental
policies, and introduction of market-oriented economy boosted, among others,
further spatial diversification of communes adjacent to the central city. The
selected social and economic phenomena under analysis include years 2000–2017
with reference to results of earlier research of the above-mentioned processes in
years 2000–2010 and 2010–2015 in 17 communes of the Poznań county, which
together constitute the Poznań Metropolitan Area (Polish: POM). The functional
and spatial structure of housing areas in communes of the Poznań county is
dominated by single-family housing. Urban planning of communes adjacent to the
central city is linked to, among others, human migration into the areas of the
communes and development of business activation areas.

Keywords: Economic
Ecological and social factors and determinants

Synergy
Urban planning

1 Introduction

Functional-spatial transformation of Polish metropolitan areas and rural communes in

the impact zone of the central city stems from, among others, current environmental,
geographical and historical determinants, tangible cultural heritage and the potential of
technical infrastructure development. Additional influence on the transformation is
exerted by internal and external socio-demographic and economic processes which
have been taking place in Poland after the political transformation in 1989. The scale
and pace of the above-mentioned phenomena vary, but they tend to be particularly
dynamic in communes adjacent to the central city (i.e. bordering the central city).
Expansion of the city means that many areas adjacent to the border undergo complete
transformation. Primary agricultural functions give way to the development of areas
where housing and business activation functions prevail. Agricultural land is desig-
nated for single- and multi-family housing as well as for business activation areas along
with land for the development of necessary technical infrastructure. The designation
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 427–435, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_40
428 H. Borucińska-Bieńkowska

processes start as early as at the stage of spatial planning drafts resulting from the
current Polish legal environment, i.e. such documents as a study of conditions and
directions of spatial management (Polish: suikzp) and a local spatial management plan
(Polish: mpzp). The developing economic zone generates new attractive job opportu-
nities, which are an alternative to people employed in the agricultural sector. The
processes have changed economic conditions of local communities, boosted living
conditions of the residents, and changed natural environment of rural communes.
Development of technical infrastructure and transportation network for cars and pas-
sengers has also strengthened development of municipal structures in rural communes
situated in the impact zone of the central city.
The article discusses selected issues concerning transformation (caused by, among
others, social, demographic and economic processes in 2000–2017) of 17 communes in
the Poznań county – zone I of the impact zone of the central city (Fig. 1) – which
constitute Poznań Metropolitan Area (POM) (Fig. 2).

Fig. 1. Capitals of European countries, european Pentagon, Poznań Metropolitan Area Source:
author’s study based on data from: University of Warsaw, Warsaw 2005.
 Synergistic Processes in Functional-Spatial Development 429

Fig. 2. Polish cities forming metropolitan areas. Source: author’s study based on data from:
Statistical Office in Poznań, Poznań 2015.

2 Human Migration

Population growth in the communes adjacent to the central city gave rise to, among
others, both functional and economic development, and it directly influenced their
transformation, change of lifestyle and quality of life of rural residents. The interaction
of many various internal and external factors, whose joint impact is greater than the
sum of individual effects, can be classified as synergy in functional-spatial development
of rural communes. Transformation of communes in a metropolitan area shows that,
among others, population growth and the number of business entities influence many
other aspects in the ecological, economic and social context. In effect, living standards
and the need for sports and recreational services increase.
In 17 years (2000–2017), population growth in communes of the Poznań county
soared spectacularly by 119 112 (45.2%) and is presented in Table 1. Over 100% of the
population growth is registered in the communes of Komorniki, Dopiewo and
Rokietnica. During the same period, 43 621 (7.5%) residents left the central city, which
is proof of the development and growing popularity of the adjacent communes not only
among Poznań dwellers, but also residents from other regions of the county and all
over Poland. The scale of the processes varies. In years 2000–2010, the dynamics of
the migration were as follows: 26 640 (−4.6%) dwellers moved out of Poznań, while
the the population of the communes grew by 69 727 (26.8%) [1] new residents. In
years 2010–2015, 13 266 (−2.4%) dwellers moved out of Poznań, while population of
the adjacent communes grew by 40 179 (12.3%) [2] new residents. The migration
volume decreased, but the central city is still undergoing depopulation, while the
adjacent communes are gaining more and more residents. The scale and variable pace
of the processes show that the communes of zone I of the metropolitan area have
tendency for transformation. It should be noted that not all dwellers moving out of the
central city settle in the adjacent communes; many of them choose to live and work in
430 H. Borucińska-Bieńkowska

Table 1. Population in 17 communes of the Poznań county in years 2000–2017 Urban

communes (2) - U, urban-rural communes (8) - U-R, rural communes (7) - R
No Commune Type of commune 2000 2017 Balance %
1. Poznań U 582 254 538 633 −43 621 −7.5
Poznań county
2. Suchy Las R 10 129 17 100 6971 68.8
3. Czerwonak R 21 522 27 450 5 928 27.5
4. Swarzędz U-R 36 513 47 727 11 214 36.2
5. Kleszczewo R 4 689 7 998 3 309 70.6
6. Kórnik U-R 14 955 26 901 11 946 79.9
7. Kostrzyn U-R 15 139 18 095 2 956 19.5
8. Puszczykowo U 8 983 9 693 710 7.9
9. Luboń U 23 589 31 653 8 064 34.2
10. Mosina U-R 23 570 32 350 8 780 37.3
11. Stęszew U-R 13 414 15 013 1 599 11.9
12. Komorniki R 11 677 28 149 16 472 141.1
13. Dopiewo R 10 702 25 692 14 990 140.1
14. Buk U-R 11 622 12 495 873 7.5
15. Tarnowo Podgórne R 16 140 26 178 10 038 62.2
16. Rokietnica R 7 729 16 905 9 176 118.7
17. Murowana Goślina U-R 15 107 16 820 1 713 11.3
18. Pobiedziska U-R 15 038 19 411 4 373 29.1
Poznań county 260 518 379 630 119 112 45.2
Total 842 772 918 263 75 491 8.9
Source: author’s study. Data from publications: Statistical Office in Poznań, Poznań
2001 and 2018.

other places, while a number of them decide to emigrate. However, it should also be
highlighted that a number of people are currently coming back to live in the central city
to work or study. They belong to the next generation of residents who settled in areas of
communes of zones I and II of the metropolitan area, which took place in the 1990s.
Investigations of the phenomena render it possible to show tendencies of current
ecological, economic and social changes, and to diagnose their impact on economic
development of the communes. Schematic directions of human migration in the
metropolitan area (Fig. 3) present processes investigated on the basis of comparison of
statistical data of 17 years (2000–2017). Information on the number and structure of
commune residents are one of the key issues that influence the development of
investments as an economic category, influence the sphere of tangible property,
stimulate modernization, extension and construction of particular assets, and influence
changes of formal and legal conditions (suikzp and mpzp), which are crucial to
development and business activation. In addition, they facilitate development of the
sphere of intangible property, and ensure personnel, intellectual and scientific resources
for developing economy. The increase in intangible values constitutes a vital factor in
 Synergistic Processes in Functional-Spatial Development 431

transformation of rural communes. Other economic and social values (both internal and
external) result from, among others, the expansion of the central city, and they affect
ecological processes.

3 Economic Entities

In compliance with the Polish law, business entities are economic entities set up by
self-employed individuals who sell a product or service to make a profit. The dynamic
increase in the number of business entities was primarily caused by transformations of
the political system after 1989. However, further economic progress results from,
among others, external economic conditions and Poland’s accession to the European
Union, and internal economic conditions linked to activities of local communities and
self-governments that create conditions favourable to development.
Table 2, which shows a comparison of statistical data of years 2000–2017, illus-
trates the increase in the number of business entities. People who settle in the areas of
communes adjacent to the central city also create a new social and economic quality,
and, through their impact on natural environment, an ecological one as well. A certain
type of feedback occurs: when new housing estates are developed, their new users
transfer their workplace, companies and workshops near their place of residence.
Workers employed in the areas of business activation look for flats or houses near their
workplace. In effect, the increase in the number of residents boosts the number of
business entities employing more and more workers. The processes generate further

Fig. 3. Diagram – directions of human migration in the metropolitan area. Source: author’s
study.
432 H. Borucińska-Bieńkowska

development of the business activation sphere, both in terms of primary and secondary
services. In 17 years (2000–2017), communes of the Poznań county gained 34 071
(136%) new national business entities, while Poznań gained 32 022 (39.8%) business
entities registered in the National Business Registry (Table 3). In years 2000–2010, the
Poznań county area gained 22 071 (22.6%) new business entities, while the central city
gained 17 566 (21.8%) [2]. In years 2010–2017, the increase in the number of business
entities was as follows: In Poznań, 10 729 (10.9%) new business entities were regis-
tered, while in the Poznań county communes, their number increased by 8 787 (18.6%)
new entities [2]. Despite the fact that the number of Poznań dwellers has been dwin-
dling, the city is a strong economic centre, and along with the county, it creates a
dynamically developing economy with a local, regional, national and national effect.

Table 2. National business entities in the National Business Registry (Polish: REGON) of the
Poznań county in years 2000–2017. Urban communes (2) - U, urban-rural communes (8) - U-R,
rural communes (7) - R
No Commune Type of commune 2000 2017 Balance %
1 Poznań U 80 526 112 548 32 022 398
Poznań county
2 Suchy Las R 1 543 3 887 2 344 151.9
3 Czerwonak R 1 990 3 422 1 432 71.9
4 Swarzędz U-R 1 108 7 594 6 486 585.4
5 Kleszczewo R 240 973 733 305.4
6 Kórnik U-R 1 525 4 091 2 566 168.3
7 Kostrzyn U-R 1 186 2 122 936 78.9
8 Puszczykowo U 1 262 1 985 723 57.3
9 Luboń U 2 970 4 881 1 911 64.3
10 Mosina U-R 2 508 4 349 1 841 73.4
11 Stęszew U-R 1 108 1 870 762 68.8
12 Komorniki R 1 339 4 823 3 484 260.2
13 Dopiewo R 938 4 244 3 306 352.5
14 Buk U-R 1 123 1 782 659 58.7
15 Tarnowo Podgórne R 2 453 5 603 3 150 128.4
16 Rokietnica R 770 2 638 1 868 242.6
17 Murowana Goślina U-R 1 588 2 280 692 43.6
18 Pobiedziska U-R 1 408 2 586 1 178 83.7
Poznań county 25 059 59 130 34 071 136
Total 105 585 171 678 66 093 62.6
Source: author’s study. Data from publications: Statistical Office in Poznań, Poznań
2001 and 2018.

Personnel employed in business entities situated in the area of Poznań county com-
munes influences economical, social and ecological transformations. Self-governments,
in an attempt to accommodate citizens with social needs, take actions to create and direct
the ongoing changes onto the sphere of sustainable development. Functional-spatial
 Synergistic Processes in Functional-Spatial Development 433

changes are implemented through introduction of provisions in strategic (suikzp) and

planning (mpzp) documents, which renders it possible to convert agricultural land into
housing areas or areas of business activation. Yet, the scale of the transformation does not
always come up to the actual needs. In the analyzed strategic documents (suikzp),
planning provisions often exceed the need for investment areas. Despite a negative bal-
ance of the population growth in the central city, a dynamic increase in the number of
business areas, which took place both in the central city and in Poznań county communes,
means that local communities are economically active.

4 Culture, Tourism and Sport

Caring for tangible and intangible heritage as well as timeless local, regional and
national values is a vital part of sustainable development policy for communes of the
metropolitan area. Maintenance of historic rural systems and revitalization and mod-
ernization of architectural facilities translate into attention to the need to care about
historical heritage. Support and promotion of local folklore, song and dance ensembles
and local craft influence stimulation of investments in areas of communes. People who
migrate into rural areas situated in environmentally attractive spots near lakes and
woods also change the way of spending their free time. Growing pro-ecological
awareness, which consists in responsibility, is a criterion for respect for nature, which
in turn renders it possible to avoid uncontrolled transformation of natural environment.
The awareness also means protection of agricultural land with high quality soils, and it
allows people to understand the influence of agriculture and industry on the state of
fauna and flora as well as human health. The current trend towards doing physical
activity and living in an attractive healthy habitat promotes further development of
recreational infrastructure in areas of rural communes, as well as development of
tourism and sports services. New kindergartens, schools and outpatient clinics are
realized, the trade and services sector expands, new sports clubs are opened etc.
Investments like new cycling lanes, beaches, sports fields and spa resorts are crucial to
development of sustainable tourism and generate new jobs, but they first of all improve
quality of life. The key issue of transformation of communes is modernization and
construction of technical infrastructure, as well as a transportation network for cars and
passengers. Among others, the development of the above-mentioned elements can be
defined as synergy in socio-economic and functional-spatial transformation in areas of
communes of metropolitan areas.
To highlight the importance of transformations in the quantitative range, which is
an added value of socio-economic transformation, selected culture-, tourism- and
sports-related facilities were analyzed. Statistical data were presented in tables, com-
paring years 2000–2017 (Table 3) and 2010–2015 (Table 4). Despite a dynamic
population growth in communes adjacent to the central city, years 2000–2017 regis-
tered a decrease in the number of public libraries by 3 (4.3%), while the number of
cinemas remained unchanged. The decrease in the number of public libraries may result
from, among others, a growing number of opportunities of obtaining access to different
sources of knowledge and information, and the development of information society
based on new technologies. Cinemas were replaced by multiplexes and complexes of
auditorium systems in shopping centres. In years 2010–2015, the number of museums
434 H. Borucińska-Bieńkowska

Table 3. Culture, sport and tourism – Poznań county in years 2000–2017. CP – city of Poznań,
PCC – communes of the current Poznań county (17)
No Culture, sport, tourism 2000 2017 Balance
CP PCC CP PCC CP PCC
1 Public libraries 79 69 41 66 −38 −3
2 Museums 15 9 20 10 5 1
3 Cinemas 15 1 11 1 −4 -
4 Tourist accommodation 47 43 95 73 48 30
5 Sports clubs 40 18 149 127 109 109
Source: author’s study. Data from publications: Statistical Office in
Poznań, Poznań 2001 and 2018.

Table 4. Culture, sport and tourism – Poznań county in years 2010–2015. CP – city of Poznań,
PCC – communes of the Poznań county (17)
No Culture, sport, tourism 2010 2015 Balance
CP PCC CP PCC CP PCC
1 Public libraries 57 67 43 65 −14 −2
2 Museums 21 10 19 12 −2 2
3 Cinemas 8 1 11 1 3 -
4 Tourist accommodation 75 64 88 70 13 6
5 Sports clubs 78 56 126 116 48 10
Source: author’s study. Data from publications: Statistical Office in
Poznań, Poznań 2011 and 2016.

in the central city decreased, whereas Poznań county communes gained two. Addi-
tionally, the number of tourist accommodation facilities and sports clubs grew. The
comparison of selected statistical data (Tables 3 and 4) shows that the investigated area
is characterized by significant development of sport and tourism. The process of
activation of commune dwellers may be interpreted as an added value resulting from
socio-economic development, and the spectacular increase in the number of sports club
has been following an upward trend.

5 Conclusion

The example of the analyzed selected economic and social issues concerning trans-
formations of communes within the impact zone of the central city, which together
form the Poznań Metropolitan Area, shows that the transformation process in
metropolitan areas in Poland after the political change occurs at different levels and to
varying degrees. In result, the new situation rendered it necessary to connect devel-
oping economic functions, urban in character, with traditional functions of agricultural
production space. However, expansion of the central city caused a lot of rural
 Synergistic Processes in Functional-Spatial Development 435

communes to lose their primary agricultural character. Combination of housing and

economic functions along with traces of agricultural functions (with land often con-
verted into orchards, gardens, and adapted for the needs of agriculture and food pro-
cessing businesses), development of technical infrastructure, and transportation
network for cars and passengers caused qualitative and quantitative changes in areas of
communes adjacent to the central city.
The functional-spatial changes and socio-economic transformation in Poland began
a dynamic urbanization process of areas of rural communes bordering the central city.
All the processes facilitated synergy in transformation of communes. A variable pace
and scale of the ongoing ecological, economic and social phenomena requires constant
monitoring both by architects and urban planners, both in practice and theory to
examine synergistic processes occurring in contemporary urbanization in rural areas.
Self-governments and local communities, who share responsibility for functional-
spatial planning and management of communes in a metropolitan area, should modify
tendencies of sustainable functional-spatial and socio-economic development. The
need to design and realize new buildings with diverse functions in rural communes
activates their further development. Finally, this need stimulates synergistic processes
occurring in functional-spatial and socio-economic development in communes of a
metropolitan area.

References
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 The Various Factors Affecting Occupants’
Satisfaction in the Open-Plan Shared Office

Shaoning Ren and Linong Dai(&)

School of Design, Shanghai Jiaotong University,

No. 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 210000, China
pakeypay@foxmail.com, Lndai@126.com

Abstract. With the change social relations, the shared office is becoming more
famous. The open office layout is still the first choice for most shared office
spaces. It is assumed to increase communication and interaction between
occupants and increase user satisfaction with the workplace. However, noise
control and privacy issues are considered to be detrimental to user satisfaction.
In order to find out how indoor quality affects user satisfaction in an Open-
plan shared office space. This paper conducted an open-plan shared space POE
survey. The survey covered the satisfaction of the open-plan shared office space
occupants with overall satisfaction with IEQ and the individual factor. More-
over, the results are analyzed to determine the impact of various factors on the
overall satisfaction of occupants.

Keywords: Shared office
Indoor environmental quality (IEQ)

Office layout
Privacy
Satisfaction
Post-occupancy evaluation (POE)

1 Introduction

People’s satisfaction with space depends on people’s comfort and health. Previous
research has established that the discomfort caused by the indoor environment can lead
to a significant decline in performance [1]. The indoor environmental quality (IEQ) of a
building, such as thermal, acoustic, visual and air quality issues, directly affects the
comfort, health, and productivity of the occupants. This effect may be likely to have
short-term and long-term effects on the individuals.
Furthermore, the space environment is not limited to simple physical environments,
such as thermal, acoustic, visual and air quality, it also covers a wider range of factors,
including nutritional diet, physical activity, psychological experience, and other areas.

1.1 The Open-Plan Shared Office Satisfaction

With the change of social work relationship, shared office space has become more and
more popular, becoming a new form of office rapidly [2]. The open-plan layout is
considered one of the main layouts of shared office space. The evaluation of it has been
mostly positive so far. For example, an open-plan shared office can lead to greater
employee satisfaction [3], greater productivity [4], easier exchange of knowledge and

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 436–446, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_41
 The Various Factors Affecting Occupants’ Satisfaction 437

skills, and economic benefits it brings [5]. The benefits include an increase in net
available area, greater staff mobility, higher user density, and lower placement and
renovation costs.
Whereas, previous research has established that the main reason is that noise and
loss of privacy can cause inconvenience to the occupants. The research reports based
on user research and experiments show that the efficiency of user-reported noise
interference has doubled in an open office environment compared to a closed office
environment. In addition, exposure to uncontrollable noise may also result in a decrease
in user motivation for task processing [6]. As space becomes more open, occupants will
receive unnecessary sounds and observations [7]. This will lead to the loss of privacy
and a decrease of satisfaction.
In recent years, there have been researchers on how shared office space affects
occupants, the research has been conducted from various perspectives in architecture,
engineering, health, and psychology.

1.2 Post-occupancy Evaluation

Post-occupancy Evaluation (POE) is a user’s evaluation of the built environment. It
reflects how the post-construction environment supports and meets the needs expressed
or implied by people. It is considered the most important part of spatial feedback [8].

1.3 Problem to Be Solved

This paper will use the POE method to study the impact of various parameters of IEQ
on user satisfaction. To explore how it affects user satisfaction in space. This study
focused on the following questions:
1. What is the satisfaction of the various influencing factors for an Open-plan shared
office area?
2. What are the priorities of various factors for open-plan shared office?
3. Is there a correlation between environmental factors for Open-plan shared office
areas?

2 Methods

In recent years, the shared office has attracted interdisciplinary research attention, but
the shared office environment literature has not focused on the open-plan shared office
environment experience. There may be two reasons for this:
The proportion of shared office occupants among the entire office users is too small,
and user needs are still changing.
Researchers have failed to agree on common or standardized tools for measuring
user ratings in their work environment [9].
In this study, the survey respondents evaluated IEQ factors by fulfilling the POE
survey.
438 S. Ren and L. Dai

2.1 Post-occupancy Evaluation Survey

The survey in this paper refers to the POE survey from the Center for the Building
Environment (CBE). It is a web-based research tool to assess building user satisfaction
ratings for various IEQ factors, including thermal comfort, air quality, lighting,
acoustics, office layout, office furniture, cleaning and maintenance, and overall satis-
faction [10]. It is one of the most widely used POE tools. Table 1 summarizes the items
in the questionnaire. To match the Open-plan shared office, we have made the fol-
lowing adjustments to the items:

Table 1. List of questionnaire items

IEQ dimensions Survey questions
Thermal comfort How satisfied are you with the temperature in your workspace?
Air quality How satisfied are you with the air quality in your workspace?
Lighting How satisfied are you with the amount of light in your workspace?
How satisfied are you with the visual comfort of the lighting?
Acoustic quality How satisfied are you with the noise level in your workspace?
How satisfied are you with the sound privacy in your workspace?
Office design How satisfied are you with the amount of space available for
personal work Area?
How satisfied are you with the level of visual interference?
How satisfied are you with the level of visual privacy?
How satisfied are you with ease of interaction with other occupants?
How satisfied are you with the space design?
Office furnishings How satisfied are you with the comfort of your office furnishings?
How satisfied are you with your ability to adjust your furniture to
meet your needs?
How satisfied are you with the design of the furnishings?
Cleanliness & How satisfied are you with service facilities in your workspace?
maintenance How satisfied are you with cleaning service provided for your
workspace?
How satisfied are you with general maintenance of the building?
Overall satisfaction How satisfied are you with your work efficiency?
How satisfied are you with your mood?
All things considered, how satisfied are you with your workspace?

“Satisfaction with personal work and storage” are reduced to “satisfaction with the
personal workspace” in the office layout column;
“Satisfaction with interaction with colleagues” was changed to “satisfaction with
interaction with people around”;
“Satisfaction with general cleaning of the entire building” was removed.
 The Various Factors Affecting Occupants’ Satisfaction 439

In order to study the relationship between the overall satisfaction of the space and
the user’s work efficiency, mood. We added satisfaction with productivity and mood in
the survey. The questionnaire also has demographic data of the occupants (gender, age,
education, etc.), whether they are freelancers and their company volume.

2.2 The “Obvious Dissatisfied Occupants” Interview

Dissatisfaction is considered a meaningful and useful indicator, because it can be
interpreted as indicating the number of potential complaints [11]. To study the reasons
for the dissatisfaction and the corresponding user needs. The study conducted inter-
views with occupants who were “obviously dissatisfied” (those who voted on “−3” and
“−2”). The interview questions are as follows:
Why they are not satisfied?
What are the complaints?
What are the related IEQ solutions?

2.3 Data Analysis

Firstly, we verified the validity of the adjusted questionnaire. The validity of the
adjusted questionnaire items was tested by reliability, validity, and analysis of variance.
Meanwhile, for the new “Efficiency” and “mood” items, the difference between these
two items and the overall satisfaction is verified to see if it’s necessary to add these 2
items.
Secondly, we go through the satisfaction level in the respondent’s table. the average
satisfaction of each item in Table 1 showed the lowest factors. Furthermore, the per-
centage of occupants who are “obviously dissatisfied occupants” is also considered a
practical indicator. It’s able to represent the attitude of the user community to various
factors.
Thirdly, we explored the importance of various IEQ factors. In order to do this, we
conducted a correlation analysis. Taking the overall satisfaction of space as the
dependent variable, the 17 IEQ factors were used as independent variables. Differ-
ent IEQ factors were prioritized based on their relationship strength. Some factors were
not found in the above analysis, but by stepwise regression analysis, we can simulate
the overall results of 17 factors with a few factors. These factors are known as “hidden”
important IEQ factors. When an attribute performs well, its positive impact increases
overall satisfaction, and when the attribute does not perform well, it has a negative
impact, which reduces overall satisfaction. This analysis is more commonly used in
indoor environments [12].

3 Results

3.1 Reliability and Validity

Table 2 shows, the research data reliability coefficient value is higher than 0.9, indi-
cating that the research data reliability is very high. The value of the reliability
440 S. Ren and L. Dai

coefficient after deleting the item will not increase significantly, indicating that all items
should be retained. The CITC values of all items are all higher than 0.4. Thus indi-
cating a significant correlation between the analysis items. The comprehensive
description of the data reliability is high and can be used for further analysis. The
common value corresponding to all items is higher than 0.4, indicating that the research
item information can be effectively extracted.

Table 2. Reliability and Validity.

Items Reliability (CITC) Reliability (a coefficient Validity
of deleted term.) (common degree)
Temperature 0.413 0.965 0.672
Air quality 0.687 0.963 0.616
Amount of light 0.727 0.962 0.641
Comfort of the lighting 0.589 0.964 0.568
Noise level 0.734 0.962 0.801
Sound privacy 0.72 0.963 0.719
Visual interference 0.793 0.962 0.832
Visual privacy 0.724 0.963 0.829
Work area 0.872 0.961 0.807
Interaction with others 0.709 0.963 0.581
Furniture and furnishing 0.822 0.961 0.867
Ability to adjust furniture 0.787 0.962 0.671
Design of the furnishings 0.777 0.962 0.809
Space design 0.797 0.962 0.799
Service facilities 0.766 0.962 0.78
Cleaning service 0.761 0.962 0.734
General maintenance 0.752 0.962 0.71
Overall satisfaction 0.87 0.961 0.831
Efficiency 0.799 0.962 0.716
Mood 0.823 0.961 0.78
*Note: Cronbach a degree: 0.964

The analysis of variance shows that: “Overall satisfaction” is significant for both
“Efficiency” and “Mood”. (P = 0.000 < 0.05). This means that efficiency and “mood”
are necessary to retain.

3.2 Satisfaction with Different Factors

Figure 1 can be seen as the average satisfaction with different factors. All the 17
factors’ satisfaction is above 0. The 2 lowest satisfaction are voice privacy and visual
privacy. Followed by noise and visual interference. It proved that occupants are more
concerned about the privacy control of Open-plan shared office areas. The Satisfaction
of following items are slightly higher but lower than 1.0, including: amount of light,
work area, and the ability to adjust furniture. All these 3 items are to adjust
 The Various Factors Affecting Occupants’ Satisfaction 441

Fig. 1. Average satisfaction rating (−3 = very dissatisfied, through 0 = neutral to 3 = very
satisfied) for IEQ questionnaire items in open-plan shared office

environment factors to match their own needs. According to this data,we can infer that
the adjustable is a important factor to the occupants.
Three factors of high satisfaction including, temperature, Interaction with others,
clean environment. Meanwhile, we found that “Interaction with others” and “cleanli-
ness” showed significant discreteness. In terms of this, we believe that the user can
freely choose the location where there is no need for a fixed working position, so the
temperature satisfaction of the selected area is higher. Occupants are more satisfied with
the interaction with others, but the greater degree of dispersion indicates that different
occupants have different requirements for “cleaning” and “interacting with others.”
Figure 2 indicates the percentage of people who are “obviously dissatisfied” by
each factor. The percentage of people who choose “−3” and “−2” in each item is
combined. As it shows, the percentages of the noise level (15.72%), voice privacy
(20%) and visual privacy protection (18.57%) are much larger than rest factors.

Fig. 2. Percentage of dissatisfied occupants for each items in open-plan layout office.
442 S. Ren and L. Dai

Another finding was that the percentage of the “ability to adjust furniture” is up to
10%, but the average satisfaction of the actual “furniture” in Table 1 is higher (+1.39),
we can infer that the satisfaction of the furniture style is quite personalized. The same
thing happens with the “work area” factor.

3.3 Implicit Relative Importance of Different IEQ Factors

The relative importance of the IEQ factors. Correlation analysis was used to study the
correlation between these 17 factors and overall satisfaction, and the Pearson corre-
lation coefficient was used to indicate the strength of the correlation. The specific
analysis shows that: there is a significant correlation between the satisfaction of the
above factors and the overall satisfaction.
The correlation coefficient is shown in Fig. 3. In terms of temperature satisfaction,
although the average satisfaction rate and dissatisfaction ratio are both low, the cor-
relation between the correlation and the overall satisfaction is weak. It can be con-
cluded that the requirement of the temperature is low.

Fig. 3. Implicit importance of each IEQ factor in relation to the overall satisfaction.

For the most relevant items, “work space” and “furniture and furnishings” (more
than 0.8), it shows that the user’s satisfaction with this two items will directly affect the
overall satisfaction of the space.
Before the stepwise regression analysis on the data, we use linear regression anal-
ysis, found that, the factors were collinear. Indicates a high degree of correlation
between the data. The results of the stepwise regression analysis in Table 3. The analysis
found that air quality, personal space, furnishings have a significant positive impact on
the “overall satisfaction”. The R2(0.833) indicates that these three items can simulate
83.3% of the results. The regression coefficients of the three are as follows: air quality is
0.243 (t = 4.346, P = 0.000 < 0.01), work area is 0.322 (t = 4.860, P = 0.000 < 0.01),
furniture and furnishings are set to 0.353 (t = 5.275, P = 0.000 < 0.01).
 The Various Factors Affecting Occupants’ Satisfaction 443

Table 3. Stepwise regression analysis.

t p VIF R2 Adj R2 F
Constant 2.744 0.008** - 0.833 0.825 109.395**
Air quality 4.346 0.000** 1.538
Work area 4.86 0.000** 2.412
Furniture and Furnishing 5.275 0.000** 2.258
Dependent variable: Overall Satisfaction
Note: D-W: 1.530; * p < 0.05 ** p < 0.01

3.4 Interview of the Dissatisfied Occupants’ Requirements

For occupants with lower satisfaction, as Table 4 showed, we interviewed them about
their compliant and the direct needs. It indicates that the occupants are more concerned
about the environment in which they can directly sense the workspace in the shared
office space. Most occupants expect to have the ability to adjust the environment. In
other words, occupants are more concerned about the “personal space” that are closer
to them.

Table 4. Occupants’ compliant and needs.

Items Complaints Occupants’ needs
Temperature I don’t know how to change the temperature Adjustable
Air quality The air is not fresh Fresh air
Amount of light The light is too bright Dimer lighting
Comfort of the lighting I can’t adjust the lighting Adjustable
Noise level I hear the phone clearly when someone else Sound barrier
talked
Sound privacy I don’t want others to hear me on the phone Sound barrier
Visual interference Someone walking around is walking around Visual barrier
Visual privacy My screen is seen by others Visual barrier
Work area Too many people Less people
Density
Interaction with others Unnecessary activities around Focused area
Furniture and furnishing The seat is cheap Furniture quality
Ability to adjust The stool is too high for me Adjustable
furniture
Design of the Furniture style is not attractive Attractive
furnishings furniture
Space design The ceiling is too low Spatial feeling
Service facilities The printer is very complicated Easy guidance
Cleaning service It’s dirty sometimes Clean work space
General maintenance The seat is often broken In time
maintenance
444 S. Ren and L. Dai

4 Discussion

An analysis of average satisfaction and dissatisfaction shows that: The lowest satis-
faction scores in open-plan shared office space are noise control, followed by sound
privacy, visual privacy protection, and visual interference. Moreover, “noise control,
sound privacy, visual privacy” are also the three factors with the highest percentage of
dissatisfaction, which are 15.72%, 20%, and 18.57%. This result also verifies that the
problem of open space is mainly the theoretical conclusion of noise control and privacy
protection. Studies have shown that there is a positive correlation between the physical
degree of closure and perceived privacy [13]. This also explains the complaints from
the occupants “there are always people walking around”.
According to the correlation analysis, “work area” and “furniture furnishings” are
the most relevant to the overall satisfaction, in terms of the correlation between IEQ
factors and overall satisfaction. The stepwise regression analysis shows that personal
space, furniture, and furnishings have a significant impact on overall satisfaction.
The above two analysis proved the previous study: The available work area is the
most important predictor of overall workspace satisfaction in open-plan shared office.
It’s on the baseline expectation of the users. “personal work area” and “furniture and
furnishings” are closer to the occupants. The occupants are more likely to be affected
by what they can touch. It can be predicted that if the design of the open workspace is
focused on the design of the individual workspace, it will be of great help to the overall
satisfaction improvement.
The factors level varies among different occupants. Analysis of variance for a single
factor shows that Occupants have a large discrete type of Interacting with others. It
shows that different occupants have different needs for “interacting with others”. It also
indicates that in the open office area, to encourage occupants to communicate is not an
effective design principle.
After interviewing dissatisfied occupants, we found that occupants’ dissatisfaction
with the space environment is often due to other people in this space. Such as, the
density of people, other people’s activities. But, the survey of other people’s activities
is not included in our POE survey.
In addition, this research also proves that, in the open-plan shared office space,
occupants pay more attention to their personal area, which is the area that occupants
directly use. The occupants will take activities to achieve a comfortable personal area.
To do this, the adjustable of various IEQ factors is becoming more important.

5 Conclusion

After the POE survey of shared office users and users interview, in Shanghai, we found
that:
Different indoor environmental factors affects the overall satisfaction differently.
The most influential are: noise control, sound privacy, visual interference, and visual
privacy protection. Moreover, the correlation analysis shows that these four items are
also the most relevant to each other, and together constitute the “most dissatisfied
factor” of space satisfaction.
 The Various Factors Affecting Occupants’ Satisfaction 445

The occupants cares more about his personal area. Such as, the work area, furniture
and furnishing. Different IEQ factors affect the overall satisfaction differently. Stepwise
regression analysis shows that “personal space” is considered to be the most influential
factor influencing the overall satisfaction of the existing space. Other factors, such as
“air quality,” “furniture, and furnishings,” also showed significant positive correlations.
Furthermore, not all occupants expect to communicate with others. This result is
contrary to the previous research, that open office layout increases communication
between members and improves the overall environmental satisfaction of occupants. It
can thus be suggested that to encourage the occupants to communicate may not
improve the overall satisfaction.
This study provides a certain reference path for the future research of shared office
space. But there are still some limitations. In this study, the respondents evaluated their
workspace with a POE survey. This may not be sufficient to express their subjective
feelings. The survey is concentrated in Shanghai, China. The number of respondents is
limited. This may also lead to limitations during data conclusions.

References
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Student Performance and Case Studies (2000)
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3, 52–54 (2017). (in Chinese)
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consequences for comfort, satisfaction and productivity. Intell. Build. Int. 4(3), 182–196
(2012)
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work and employee behavior: an effective events perspective. J. Organ. Behav. 35(8), 1169–
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Rehabilitation (1998)
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different office types–a laboratory experiment. Indoor Air 19(6), 454–467 (2010)
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job satisfaction, and job performance in open-plan offices. In: Human Factors & Ergonomics
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8. Friedmann, A., Zimring, C., Zube, E.: Environmental Design Evaluation. Plenum Press,
New York (1978)
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findings. J. Environ. Psychol. 27(3), 177–189 (2007)
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37(4), 369–380 (2009)
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McGraw-Hill, New York (1972)
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12. Kim, J., Dear, R.D.: Nonlinear relationships between individual IEQ factors and overall
workspace satisfaction. Build. Environ. 49(1), 33–40 (2011)
13. Meliza, L.L.: Measuring the performance of armor platoons in the Simnet environment. In:
Proceedings of the Human Factors & Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, vol. 37, no. 1,
pp. 1186–1190 (1993)
 Effects of the Urban Form on the External
Thermal Comfort in Low-Income
Settlements of Guayaquil, Ecuador

Virginia Ricaurte1(&), Byron Sebastián Almeida Chicaiza1,2,

Jesús Rafael Hechavarría Hernández1, and Boris Forero1
1
Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo, Universidad de Guayaquil,
Guayaquil, Ecuador
{maria.ricaurter,byron.almeidac,jesus.hechavarriah,
boris.forerof}@ug.edu.ec
2
Departamento de Construcción y Tecnología Arquitectónicas,
Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

Abstract. In the present work, the effects of urban morphology on the external
microclimatic conditions and its incidence on the thermal comfort level were
determined in one of the most important low-income settlements in Guayaquil,
Ecuador. For this purpose, one sector of the Socio Vivienda II urbanization were
morphologically characterized. The virtual modeling of the physical environ-
ment of the urbanization was carried out through simulation programs, in order
to obtain microclimatic data at different times of the year and hours of the day.
Data were obtained as temperature, relative humidity, wind direction and sky
view factor. Variables were taken into consideration: solar orientation, distances
between buildings, building heights, among others. The comfort conditions of
the thermal environment were quantified in terms of the Physiological Equiv-
alent Temperature index (PET), calculated through the RayMan model, which
made it possible to identify relationships between the climatic and morpho-
logical variables of the urban configuration.

Keywords: Housing
Low-incoming
Thermal comfort
Microclimate

Habitability
Urban morphology

1 Introduction

The morphology of the built environment can change the climatic variables that affect
the human body and its conditions of thermal comfort, which is one of the factors that
most influence the habitability of spaces. Especially in outdoor environments at the
pedestrian level, the profile of a canon of urban road, has a fundamental impact on
thermal conditions [1].
Various microclimates are generated by different urban forms, which provide
multiple conditions of comfort for people. According to results of research, the duration
of direct sunlight and the mean radiant temperature, are the most important variables in
the thermal comfort and are determined by the urban form [2].

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 447–457, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_42
448 V. Ricaurte et al.

Specially in warmer climates are expected to a serious climate problem due to

global warming, with the generation of higher projected the air temperature and more
frequently in periods of intense heat [3].
The objective of the article is to determine the effects of urban morphology on the
external microclimatic conditions and their incidence on the thermal comfort level of
the public space of a housing complex called “Socio Vivienda”, in the city of
Guayaquil. This is a case of social housing, where there is a high degree of population
with vulnerability due to its socioeconomic status, so it is essential to provide adequate
hygrothermal conditions that provide a higher level of habitability and healthiness [4].
The research presents the simulation of microclimates in outdoor urban environ-
ments as a method to obtain reliable data for calculating the thermal comfort index
using the RayMan model [5]. The Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET) index
was chosen for the determination of thermal comfort because it has been extensively
tested in different types of weather [6], It is also currently the index most commonly
used in investigations of thermal comfort in outdoor environments [7]. The PET index
facilitates the comparison of the conditions of the external environment with the
experience of the same person for controlled conditions of the indoor environment [8].

1.1 The Weather in Guayaquil

The city of Guayaquil is the international sea and airport of the Ecuadorian coast and
the most populated city of Ecuador. It sits on the western margin of the confluence
sector of the Daule and Babahoyo rivers, which form the Guayas River.
The city has developed on plains, floodplains, estuaries and mangrove swamp areas
and is located at the geographical coordinates S2 °07 ′W79º58.
The climate of Guayaquil is hot humid, influenced by the cold current of Humboldt.
It has two seasons: the dry between May and mid-December, with an average tem-
perature of 27.18 °C, and the rainy season from December to April with average
temperatures of 25.34 °C [9].
The rainfall in the dry season reaches values close to 3 mm, while in the rainy
season they exceed 1000 mm. The relative humidity in Guayaquil ranges between 47%
and 98%, being the annual average with a value of 76%.
Cloudiness values vary between 5 and 8 octas. Solar radiation is strong throughout
the year. The prevailing winds in Guayaquil come from the direction SW, with an
average speed of 5 km/h [9].

1.2 Study Area

The housing project “Socio Vivienda”, is a set of social interest housing planned in
2007 and which envisaged having more than 15,000 homes in a land of 245 ha located
northwest of the city of Guayaquil.
The project was in charge of the Ministry of Urban Development and Hous-
ing MIDUVI [10]. Within this project, a sector named “Socio Vivienda 2”, Stage 4 has
been considered (Fig. 1); where 344 dwellings of two floors were organized in rows
 Effects of the Urban Form on the External Thermal Comfort 449

and 4 towers of 32 apartments each, with a total of 128 apartments. These buildings are
implanted forming groups, with different orientations and generating central empty
spaces that serve as recreational areas and pedestrian paths.

Fig. 1. Photography of Socio Vivienda II urbanization, stage 4. The typology of the buildings
constructed on a terrain with slopes is observed.

The set has been adapted to the natural topography through terraces. A network of
pedestrian routes that connect the whole and some vehicular roads with collective
parking are predominant.
The urbanization is surrounded by large stretches of land not yet developed by the
“Socio Vivienda” project and close to the lands of the Polytechnic School of the
Litoral.
Previously, research has been carried out to improve the thermal conditions of the
houses of this housing project [11]. The aim of the present research is to analyze the
thermal comfort conditions in outdoor areas and find the relationships with the con-
figuration of the built environment.

2 Methodology

The simulation of the microclimatic conditions of the study site was carried out with
the Envimet 4.4 software [12], because it allows to simulate urban environments and
analyze interactions between various surfaces and materials with solar radiation flows
and wind fields, using the Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) model, to determine a
variety of climatic data in 2 and 3 dimensions. Similar studies in warm climates have
used microclimate simulation to analyze the behavior of climatic variables in built
environments [13], especially at city or neighborhood scales, when on-site measure-
ments are difficult to perform.
450 V. Ricaurte et al.

The digital model of a sector consisting of groups of semi-detached houses of two

floors and a building of 4 floors, with orientations NE-SW and NW-SE, was proceeded
(Fig. 2). We entered the data of construction materials, height of buildings, soil types,
soil levels, among others.

Fig. 2. 3D view of the analyzed sector of Socio Vivienda II urbanization, modeled in the
software tool Spaces of Envi-met 4.4.

The simulated area has a size of 99.60 m  110.40 m  30.00 m, with a grid
resolution of 1.25 m in directions dx and dy and 1.00 m in the direction dz.
The simulations were carried out for January 3rd (typical warm day) and July 16th
(typical fresh day). Guayaquil’s climate data was validated with measurements on the
site. The simulation period covered 24 h for each day.
The simulation data, extracted from the Leonardo tool software were: Air Tem-
perature (TA), Relative Humidity (RH), Wind Speed (WS), Mean Radiant Temp
(MRT), at a height of 1.50 m from the ground. With these results, through the RayMan
model [5] PET values were obtained, to know the thermal comfort level in all the grids
of outer space in the analyzed sector.

3 Results

3.1 Microclimatic Variations in the Study Site

The results obtained show significant variations according to the time of year and the
hours of the day in which the simulations made.
On the typical warm day in the month of January, at 2:00 PM, the average MRT is
62.73 °C (Simulation 1). Noting that, in the public space at a distance of 1.25 m from
the two-story buildings, the MRT is between 60.96 and 62.90 °C, and in open spaces
greater than 10 m between these buildings, the MRT increases to values above
62.90 °C, as shown in Fig. 3. The spaces between several buildings have a larger area
 Effects of the Urban Form on the External Thermal Comfort 451

with lower MRT, due to the shading produced between them. In the case of the 4-story
building, where the shadow area is larger due to the orientation of the building, the
value of the MRT is less than 49.33 °C. The shadow produced by the orientation of the
buildings at this time of year, could contribute to reducing the MRT by approximately
12 °C.

Fig. 3. Simulations of Mean Radiant Temperature (MRT) in January and July at 14:00.

In simulation 2, on July 16th at 2:00 pm (Fig. 3), corresponding to the typical fresh
day of the year, MRT was presented between 24.75 and 30.78 °C. As in the previous
case, lower MRT values are observed in the proximity of the buildings, especially in
the shaded areas of the higher building.
The variations in the values of the PET, through the hours of the day in the two
dates analyzed are observed in Fig. 4, where it can be seen that between 14:00 and
16:00 h on the typical warm day, the largest values of temperatures, and on the typical
fresh day the highest temperature value is observed at 2:00 PM, after which it begins to
decrease. These results show the relation of the PET with the level of MRT, due to the
large amount of solar radiation that is reflected in the proximity of the buildings.
452 V. Ricaurte et al.

Fig. 4. Values of PET, air temperature (TA) and mean radiant temperature (MRT) at different
times of the day, on January and July.

The influence of wind speed on buildings at pedestrian level is evidenced in Fig. 5.

The highest wind speeds are recorded in the southern sector, due to the direction of
prevailing winds since there are no obstructions there that slow down the wind flows.
Low wind speeds are observed in the spaces between houses where the SW-NE-
oriented pedestrian paths are located, because these buildings block the dominant
direction of the winds. In contrast, in NW-SE orientation the wind flows with greater
speed between the buildings.
It is important to mention that it is evident in the graphic results obtained, that the
topographic levels of the urbanization have an influence on the distribution of the
MRT, since the values vary according to the shape of the terraces, due to the shadows
projected in that configuration of levels and buildings. Similarly, the TA and RH
present lower and higher values respectively, at a higher ground level.
 Effects of the Urban Form on the External Thermal Comfort 453

Fig. 5. Wind Speed (WS) in typical warm day of January at 14:00.

Figure 6 shows in section view how the buildings and the spaces between them are
affected by the climatic variables on the typical warm day at 2:00 p.m. The highest air
temperatures at 3 m above the ground are observed in the vicinity of the buildings, with
values ranging between 31.66 and 43.22 °C. In contrast, the lowest RH values at the
building level are illustrated, with percentages between 18.84 and 35.41. MRT levels
remain high; especially in open spaces can reach 45.74 °C, while at approximate
distances of 3 m from homes ranges between 60.67 and 62.53 °C. At some points,
lower values are observed, either because there is less distance between the buildings or
because the own shadow projected in a certain orientation allows the MRT to be
considerably reduced. The differences in WS can be seen in Fig. 6, which illustrates
how at the height of the buildings the speeds are in the range of 0.73 to 1.70 m/s, while
at higher altitudes wind speeds of up to 5.43 m/s are observed.

3.2 Relations Between Variables

To analyze the relationships between the variables involved in the level of thermal
comfort in outdoor spaces, the Pearson correlation coefficient was used (Fig. 7).
The effects of the MTR on PET at 14:00 were analyzed (Fig. 7a), and it was
determined that there is a positive correlation with an index value of 0.16, which means
that both variables tend to increase or decrease at the same time, mainly due to at the
level of solar radiation or shading that external surfaces receive. By reducing the MRT
from 63 to 45 °C on the typical warm day, keeping the TA, RH and WS constant, an
8 °C reduction of the PET is achieved, on the typical fresh day, a decrease in the MRT
of 31 a 24 °C, produces a 2 °C decrease in PET.
454 V. Ricaurte et al.

Fig. 6. Simulation in section plane for the typical warm day at 14:00.
 Effects of the Urban Form on the External Thermal Comfort 455

Fig. 7. Relations between PET with Mean Radiant Temperature (MRT), Wind Speed (WS) and
Sky View Factor (SVF).

The influence of the WS on the PET was also analyzed, determining a correlation of
−0.77, which indicates a strong relationship between these variables in which while the
WS increases, the PET decreases.
This is evidenced in the data examined at 14:00 in the month of January and July,
with constant TA, RH and MRT, when increasing the wind speed from 0 to 1 m/s, the
PET is reduced by 5 °C, but at greater increases in wind speed, the PET does not
present a greater reduction than 1 °C.
Regarding the relationship between Sky View Factor (SVF) and PET, it was found
that they maintain a negative correlation whose coefficient is −0.21. According to the
research carried out, when the SVF increases from 0.2 to 0.9, there is an increase in the
PET of 7.5° C. This indicates that the greater the urban compactness, that is, the smaller
distance between buildings, improve the PET values and the thermal comfort of the
outdoor spaces.
456 V. Ricaurte et al.

4 Conclusions

Urban morphologies with proportions between streets and buildings that generate
shadows are recommended in humid warm climate. The smaller distances between the
buildings and their correct orientation with respect to the sun and the wind can con-
tribute to improve the thermal comfort level of the outdoor spaces.
The reduction of the MRT is fundamental to decrease the values of the PET, reason
why the shade of the pedestrian paths must be tried by means of the utilization of
vegetation and pavement materials with low absorption of solar radiation. In open
spaces it is recommended to incorporate trees that contribute with shade to reduce
MRT.
According to the results obtained, the wind has a strong influence on the level of
thermal comfort in this type of climate. The proper orientation of buildings and roads
with respect to the dominants breeze, produce wind speeds in public spaces that mit-
igate high temperatures and reduce PET values.
From this research, it is proposed to carry out new studies that complement the
analysis of the morphological variables of the urban design and its relations with the
microclimatic conditions of the site.

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 Research on the Transformation Model
of Spiritual Requirements
in Elderly-Oriented Design

Maiqi Lin1, Huifang Shang1(&), Chuanshun Wang2,

and Yongtao Zheng3
1
School of Design and Media, East China University of Science
and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
linmaiqi@126.com, hfshang@ecust.edu.cn
2
Shanghai Xian Dai Architectural Design (Group) Co., Ltd.,
Shanghai 200237, China
2079226881@qq.com
3
School of Design and Art, Guangdong University of Technology,
Guangzhou 510006, China
jimzheng2019@163.com

Abstract. In the context of global aging, the elderly-oriented design of resi-

dences has become popular area within the field of building refurbishment.
Spiritual needs are more complicated. Due to the long span of life experience,
the spiritual needs of the elderly population are influenced by the evolving social
culture and lifestyle, and characterized by the blending of the old with the new.
Currently, a key issue is to determine the degree of association between the
spiritual needs of the elderly and the residential space, and to assessed their
impact on residential renovation. Another significant problem that needs to be
addressed is which influencing factors can be reused in aging design, and what
the array is. Therefore, the paper analyzes the elderly groups who are aging in
place in the rural areas of southern Fujian, China, from the four aspects of
behavior, history, society and organizational culture. On the basis of qualitative
research, a model for the transformation of the spiritual needs of the elderly was
proposed. The gathered research results confirm that the core of the spiritual
needs of the elderly lies in social integration. The basis of triggering social
integration is to establish an inclusive environment that is in line with modern
society. This environment is functionally oriented with spiritual needs, and the
cultures of social relations and religious belief play an essential role. Each
spiritual need is transformed into spatial modules that are combined into a cross-
chain, and various spatial modules should ensure that social contacts are
established at all levels. This model emphasizes the complexity of the spiritual
needs of the elderly and the significance of integration into society. Furthermore,
it combines architectural refurbishment with aging design. The research results
determine the direction and verification mode of the transformation process,
which will be widely applicable to various aging living environment designs to
meet the real needs of the elderly.

Keywords: Elderly-oriented design
Transformation model
Spiritual needs

Architectural refurbishment

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 458–470, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_43
 Research on the Transformation Model of Spiritual Requirements 459

1 Introduction

In the context of global aging, the elderly-oriented design of residences has become
popular area within the field of building refurbishment. From a point view of design,
physiological needs can be met by modern technical means which have strong oper-
ability. Spiritual needs are more complex and abstract. The first is a series of psy-
chological symptoms caused by physical aging, such as fear, loneliness, emotional
vulnerability and decreased risk tolerance. They need to communicate with others,
participate in society, and gain emotional support through communication. If there is no
comfort from relatives, friends and society, a series of psychological and physical
diseases are inevitable. In addition, they need the craving and spiritual sustenance of
their children and family. It can be said that the family is a support system that old
people mainly rely on [1]. Secondly, due to the age span and life experience, the
spiritual needs of the elderly are influenced by the changing social culture and lifestyle.
In other words, the needs of the elderly are developing dynamically. Since the life
experience of the elderly is trans-era, many old people’s ideas are contradictory. They
have a strong traditional concept, and also accept some of the new perceptions brought
about by modern society. Third, studies have shown that physical fitness and mental
health become more interdependent with age [2]. This highlights the importance of
studying the means of satisfying the spiritual needs of the elderly. Therefore, it is
necessary to pay more attention to spiritual needs in the elderly-oriented design.
The concept of aging design is based on a multi-dimensional study of changes in
old-age needs. The latest research provides a detailed literature review of the aging
design methodology. It shows the impact of cultural factors on design and also
determines the variability of old-age needs. Their conclusion is that “the relationship
between people cannot be fully described [3]. Therefore, the design for the elderly must
be situational rather than universal. The current difficulty is how to analyze the abstract
relationship in the needs of the elderly. Chinese scholar Jinqun Shi also emphasized the
importance and complexity of the spiritual needs of the elderly, specifically analyzed
the psychological factors in the current Chinese pension, and proposed the construction
of the psychological safety guarantee system for the elderly from the perspective of
government policy [1]. Some scholars have proposed to promote brain and cognitive
health by enriching the elderly residential environment (EE, rich environmental ter-
minology) [2]. Not only has emotional research, but in recent years HCI International
has proposed a research concept of “scientific and humanistic” to promote active aging,
from Design For Everyday Life (2015), Design For Aging (2015), and Healthy and
Active Aging (2016) to explore the auxiliary environment, ageing information tech-
nology and product use for the development of the elderly. The design strategies and
technical methods focused on human-computer interaction and evaluation of the
elderly have been detailed. The study found that the key to proper aging design is the
insight of demand, but it is still difficult for designers to understand the real needs of the
elderly. Although there may have been many studies examining factors that affect the
satisfaction of the needs of the elderly, they failed to consider how the constructed
method and constructed environment increase the satisfaction of the spiritual needs of
the elderly.
460 M. Lin et al.

In China, the urbanization movement in the past three decades has exacerbated the
difficulty of living for the elderly. and the elderly who remain in the countryside have
become “empty nesters”. By the end of 2009, more than 50% of elderly families were
empty-nest families. In some large and medium cities, the proportion can reach 70%,
and rural empty nesters account for 37% [4]. The old people are out of touch with
modern society, and there is a big gap between young people and them which makes it
difficult for them to get emotional support from communication. On the other hand, the
elderly living in the city are affected by modern residential model and modern lifestyle.
The neighborhood is indifferent, and interpersonal relationships are limited. Especially
the elderly who were received by young people to live in the city. They left the area
where they lived in the past, came to an unfamiliar city, became a “following old man”,
which made it more difficult for them to integrate into the city. In such a family,
although the elderly and children live together, the psychology of the elderly is still
empty due to differences in lifestyles and values and the lack of filial piety. In China,
the definition of family is complex. Due to the influence of traditional culture, when it
comes to the issue of family pension, people often think that their children, especially
their sons, should take charge of the elderly services. From the results of the psy-
chological support network’s survey of the elderly, the role of the family in providing
emotional communication support for the elderly is obviously more important than that
of non-family members. Especially in rural areas, rural elderly are more dependent on
family members than urban elderly [1]. From a social point of view, the Chinese tend to
become independent “family” individuals. The traditional elderly people who left the
family to live alone are easily subject to gossip. From a personal point of view, the
emotional dependence of Chinese elderly on the family is stronger than other countries.
It can be seen from the above that the research on aging design needs to have a
situational scene. As a large population country that has begun to enter an aging
society, it is very urgent for China to study the needs of the elderly. Therefore, this
paper selects the old-age elderly groups in the “Southern Fujian” townships in southern
China as the research object. The southeast coastal area is the place where Chinese
began to develop earlier, and the urbanization process is relatively mature. However,
the local residents still retain complete, unique, regional and cultural customs, and the
local elderly have a strong demand for spiritual needs. Locally, modern life mode
collided with the traditional life mode, in which you can see the fierce contradiction and
find the part that merges with each other. Many of the social problems that existed are
typical and worth studying.

2 Methodology

Currently, a key issue is to determine the degree of association between the spiritual
needs of the elderly and the residential space, and to assessed their impact on resi-
dential renovation. Another significant problem that needs to be addressed is which
influencing factors can be reused in aging design. In order to accomplish this goal, we
will investigate the daily life behaviors of the elderly in the towns and villages of
southern Fujian and research literature to understand the spiritual needs of the elderly in
the area. To do this, all aspects of qualitative research must be analyzed and interpreted
 Research on the Transformation Model of Spiritual Requirements 461

because it involves the social sphere. In addition, this study will use case studies to
provide reference for the project.
Considering the authenticity and accuracy of the participatory research, we invited
three local old people to complete the survey. They are more likely to interact with
other local elderly people and have an accurate understanding of the behavior of the
elderly. This makes it easier to understand the true psychological needs of the
group. The survey will be divided into three areas:
• Observe the relationship between the daily behavior of the elderly (including
conscious behavior and unconscious behavior) and the spatial interface, and
defining the space;
• Compare the similarities and differences of residential (daily activity area) space,
and rank them in primary and secondary correlations;
• Conduct in-depth interviews with the elderly and analyze the “factors” affecting
social integration issues.
The research method draws on the participatory design concept and emphasizes the
autonomy of the elderly because there is no better understanding of what they want
than the elderly themselves.

3 The Relationship Between the Elements of Spiritual

Requirements and the Space in Southern Fujian

3.1 Definition of Space

The residential area in the central district of Maxiang Town, Xiamen City is a typical
traditional residential area. The loss of young and middle-aged people is serious,
leaving a large number of empty nesters. With the affluence of material conditions, old
people have more time to physically and mentally cultivate and socialize. The private
sector has a certain number of self-organizing institutions [5]. Most of them gather in
the traditional Red Bricks Houses which are sacrificial and social spaces (Fig. 1).
Although this residential space meets the traditional cultural needs, it lacks the medium
to communicate with younger groups such as children, and is out of touch with the
modern lifestyle. Adult who remain in towns and villages generally live in new
buildings 3–5 km away from the old house, and have a certain distance from the living
space of the elderly. Although social support can be given in this space, due to the
outdate facilities, self-fulfilling space provided by the space is insufficient.

Fig. 1. Life behavior of the elderly in the Red Bricks House of Southern Fujian
462 M. Lin et al.

Housing is the space carrier for most elderly people. It is a closed unit, but the
scope of activities of the elderly is not completely closed. By tracking the behavior of
the target population, we found that most of their daily activities revolve around the
radius of the house within 1 km (Fig. 2). Within 1 km of the house, they can carry out
daily activities such as worship, shopping, chatting, sports and so on. This distance is
suitable for walking and is within the physical capacity of the elderly. In addition, in
this area, you can find a space where old people can socialize with other people. This
space may be at a crossroads on the road to buy food, or it may be a pavilion at the
entrance of the temple. When a home becomes a carrier of social integration, its design
pattern is not limited to technical transformation in physical space. Its focus will shift
from the individual needs of life to the connection with society. Its boundaries are no
longer the building with closed enclosures. This living space will include a living space
and a social area. According to the behavior habits of the elderly, we believe that the
intersection of their daily behavior can become the interface of social integration.

Fig. 2. Elderly daily life unit

3.2 Factors of Elderly Spiritual Requirements in Southern Fujian

In the traditional sense, people generally think that security is the core of spiritual
needs. However, some scholars have already proposed that spiritual happiness is an
important part of mental health, especially for the Chinese. Many Chinese old people
are more susceptible to religion and traditional culture which is superstitious [6]. This
feature is in conflict with young people influenced by modern ideas, which leads to
difficulties in the social integration of the elderly. Jinqun Shi emphasized the role of
social inclusion in the needs of the elderly when studying the social factors of the
Chinese elderly. Lau Langeveld also shows that “integration” has a positive impact on
the perception of elderly in society. The key to a sense of integration is to create a
“connection.” However, the traditional “connected” mode is now replaced by social
 Research on the Transformation Model of Spiritual Requirements 463

media. The old people are still adapted to the past connection mode, and the new
connection means have not solved the inherent problems of interpersonal relation-
ship. The meaning of contact is to share your knowledge and experience with family,
friends and acquaintances. Face-to-face communication has the benefits of sensory
perception, such as images, smells, tensions, feelings and glamour [7]. The Internet
cannot bring a complete sense of social integration to the elderly. Therefore, it is
necessary to study the patterns of old people connecting to society in the past, that is,
from the perspectives of society, history, organizational culture and behavioral patterns.
(1) Society: paying attention to the religious culture
The religious culture in southern Fujian is prevalent, and this culture is not only
integrated into daily life behavior, but also embodied in residential design. In the
traditional dwelling “Red Bricks House”, the sacrificial space often exists in the center
of the building. With the rise of modern houses, there are still sacrificial areas in most
apartment houses. Although the area of worship is getting smaller due to the size of the
space, it is still a necessary space for the lives of local residents. And the culture of faith
can directly affect people’s behavior [8]. At a fixed time, the elderly will go to their
own recognized temples for religious activities. With the evolution of the times, the
sacrificial space is not only the spiritual sustenance, but also the space for people to
socialize. These religious activities have become the areas where relatives, neighbors,
and friends produce the most intersections. Therefore, the existence of such social
activities cannot be ignored in the design of spatial units.
(2) History: the contradiction and intersection between traditional living
conditions and modern lifestyle
Studies have shown that Chinese elderly have a strong sense of social participation.
However, the contrast between the subjective desires of older people and objective
conditions is still large [1]. First of all is physical space support. For China’s rapid
aging, infrastructure conditions have not fully kept up, especially for the residential
space where the elderly live. The invasion of modern lifestyles has brought about new
phenomena in the life and social process of the elderly. The function and space of
contemporary elderly residences have created new needs. For example, the demand for
entertainment and social spaces for the elderly has increased dramatically, and these
needs are diverse. Second, society’s perception of the elderly is still in a one-sided
state. Old people have a participatory heart but have no power to participate. Or, the
definition of the elderly in the society has unconsciously segregated them into separate
groups, which has aggravated their contradiction and distance from young society. This
easily leads to mutual incomprehension between young people and the elderly because
the social information they receive is not equal.
(3) Organizational culture: Neighboring interaction
Compared with young people, the elderly are more adaptable and familiar with the
“acquaintance society” and pay more attention to family culture. As far as the current
situation is concerned, many young people are far from their parents, which makes the
family culture weak. This status quo cannot be changed at present, so strengthening the
relationship between neighbors can help and support the social integration of the
elderly to a certain extent. The findings suggest that neighborhood relationships are an
464 M. Lin et al.

informal early warning system because neighborhoods first know what is happening to
older people. When an elderly person encounters an emergency, the respondent is
usually a neighbor. For example, they will call an ambulance to inform relatives or
related organizations of the elderly. Sometimes, neighbors also provide temporary help,
such as helping to care for the elderly or providing life assistance. In addition, Visiting,
chatting and caring between neighbors are also an important part of the emotional
comfort of the elderly. However, mutual help between neighbors is mutually rein-
forcing. If the neighbors are not connected, they will have a hard time helping each
other. Or asymmetric demand can also lead to the collapse of neighbor support [1].
However, at present, there are many high-rise buildings in Chinese cities. The old
iron gates locked the hearts of the city dwellers and even destroyed the joy of getting
along with their neighbors. The neighbor became a stranger both near and far. Some
communities hold meaningful events, such as “neighborhood festivals” and “neigh-
borhood conferences”, to create new neighborhoods. Due to the communication dif-
ficulties caused by the heterogeneity of urban communities, the insecurity caused by
high liquidity, the extensiveness of social interpersonal circles, the rapid pace of life
brought about by the popularity of private cars and networks, and the establishment of
new neighborhoods still has a long way to go.
(4) Behavior: the show of self-character
The experience of solving the problem of the elderly at home and abroad shows that
“self-reliance of the elderly” is of great significance. “Self-esteem” will require older
people to do their best to become independent and support themselves. Also, when you
have spare time, you are more willing to create new characters to satisfy yourself.
In China, most older people stop working until they are too old to work. When the
role of the work stops, the old man is more likely to feel the inner emptiness. At this
time, you need to change your role to continue to maintain their mental state. For
example, Chinese 50–60 generations of older people are more willing to help their
children to take care of their grandchildren after retirement. On the one hand, they are
influenced by the objective factors of youth economics and time, and more importantly,
the elderly have a new “work role”. When they become “grandparents”, they can have
the ability to enter the same social circle and gain a sense of social integration.

3.3 The Relationship Between the Element of Spiritual Demand

and the Space for the Elderly in Southern Fujian
By analyzing the past social integration patterns of the elderly in southern Anhui, it is
found that the needs of beliefs, the display of self-characters, and the interaction with
the people around them are a means for them to participate in society. Combined with
on-site research and interviews, we link these tools to the behaviors of today’s old
people and get their specific behavioral needs and frequency (Fig. 3). In this picture,
these behavioral requirements can be directly related to space requirements, so These
space requirements have become the entry point for aging design.
The research results show that the direct social space is the basic condition for the
social integration of the elderly, and the role is the driving factor for social integration.
Social spaces are not only newly created, but the original, traditional social areas can
 Research on the Transformation Model of Spiritual Requirements 465

Fig. 3. Social integration-oriented analysis of the relationship between daily behavior and
spatial interface

still be reused directly. For example, the local tea culture and sacrificial culture orig-
inally had social attributes, which are also familiar to the old people. By restoring and
expanding the unique cultural space of the region, it is possible to increase the social
connection points of the old people. Second, each old man has diverse and complex
character attributes, which can be divided into old characters and new roles. The old
role refers to the professional characteristics that can highlight the past personality of
the elderly. For example, some people used to be teachers, and they have their own
specialties for education. Their strengths and experiences represent their past social
attributes, and these attributes can be re-energized when the elderly live. The new role
refers to the new role that they have changed over time as some characters lose. When
they are old, their physiology continues to decline, causing them to suffer constant
losses, such as lost roles, income, relationships, loved ones and ideals. According to the
“activity theory” proposed by American scholar Robert Harvey, the elderly should
actively participate in society. They should maintain the lifestyle of middle-aged people
as much as possible, deny the existence of old age, and replace the role lost by factors
such as the death of a spouse and retirement. In other words, they should get rid of the
depression caused by the interruption of social roles through new participation and new
roles. Many scholars also actively affirm the “activity theory” based on their own
research results. They believe that only through participation, the elderly can under-
stand themselves from a new perspective and maintain a positive and happy mood.
466 M. Lin et al.

4 Spiritual Needs Transformation Model

4.1 Role Formation
It has been confirmed that the construction and mutual transformation of roles will be
the means to stimulate the initiative of the elderly. The formation of the role is not
made out of thin air, but the demand for the investigation of the local elderly spirit to
draw conclusions. This conclusion is regional, but it does not mean that there is no way
to help designers better understand the needs of the elderly. Through the research and
induction of actual cases, we find that self-cognition, memory extraction and local
cultural customs are the entry points of research. Agnieszka [2] provide us with a
strategy to use residential space to stimulate brain cognition in the elderly: by inspiring
curiosity and exploring spirits; guiding spatial memory through activities; introducing
novelty to stimulate attention and memory Formation; encourage meaningful social
interaction.
At the same time, the role is not just an independent individual, but a social role.
People are social animals in groups. The realization of personal values is inseparable
from the support of society. Everyone’s past role can continue in his old age. For
example, some elderly will continue to play the role of “salesman” in the past; some
women are more willing to do housework, washing dishes and other housework.
Although there are many technological machines that can replace these simple daily
behaviors, these simpler behaviors are effective means of keeping their minds active
and easing their physical function. Let the old people take the initiative to move, there
is a small goal that is pursued every day, and will not become lazy because there is no
pursuit, leading to deterioration of the body. It can not only meet the basic needs of the
elderly, but also encourage the elderly to create their own activities to meet their
spiritual needs [9].
In addition, the extraction of memory is also the focus of shaping the role. For the
elderly, the impact of their past life experiences on their cognition is subtle. These
behaviors can be obtained from the unconscious daily behavior of the elderly and can
also be obtained from communication with the elderly. The expression of these
memories in space often appears in the objects and traces contained in the space. These
objects contain special forces that evoke memories and should be properly retained or
redesigned.

4.2 Opportunity to Convert Characters into Space

Once the role is established, we will explore the potential of the character to be called
into a spatial interface. We define this environmental unit as the daily living space of a
freely active elderly population, including residential buildings and public support
around the home. In China, the living of the elderly is not isolated and there are many
old people around. They will be combined into a space network for the elderly, and the
edge of these cyberspaces will become the medium of communication (Fig. 4). The
overlap of the unit bodies will become the focus of the design, and the “link” medium
will be developed.
 Research on the Transformation Model of Spiritual Requirements 467

Fig. 4. Elderly living space network

The linked media will use the “role cognition” of the local elderly as the basis for
functional selection and arrangement. And proposed three design elements of cognitive
impact space design (Fig. 5):
• Residential decoration, such as color, form, shape, material, etc.;
• Changes in the spatial layout brought about by the material needs of regular
activities, such as sacrificial activities, which need to reserve space for ritual
activities and storage space;
• Self-awareness and aesthetic preferences influence the way entertainment is played
and directly generate functional requirements.
These elements need to provide complex multi-sensory stimuli (such as visual,
auditory, olfactory, tactile) and novelty, and leave room for design because they change
unpredictably over time and interact with the space environment.

Fig. 5. Three design elements of cognitive impact space design.

468 M. Lin et al.

4.3 Arrangement of Role Modules in the Environment

The external manifestation of spiritual needs will be directly conveyed to the surface
decoration of the space through aesthetic preferences. The inner needs of the spirit will
be expressed through the daily behavior of the elderly, which will be embodied in the
function settings and activity routes of the space. Taking residence in southern Fujian
as an example, according to the physical structure of the Red Brick Building itself and
the original facility layout, we still place the sacrificial space in the central area of the
building. In the southern part of the building, daily activities are arranged, and in the
north, social and recreational activities are placed (Fig. 6). At the same time, this space
should be a space of inclusiveness and variability, because the needs of the elderly are
constantly changing, and to a certain extent can stimulate their autonomy.

Fig. 6. Role and space conversion method

5 Conclusion

We provide theoretical basis and practical guidance for the social integration design of
the living space of the elderly. The social inclusion needs for elderly are designed to
stimulate their spontaneous exploration, curiosity and opportunities for social inter-
action. This is consistent with previous research, which shows that joint social activities
and living spaces have greater benefits for the cognitive, physical and mental health of
older people [2]. In addition, because of its large audience base and small economic
costs, this easier-to-use approach is more promising.
The application of social integration in elderly homes faces many challenges. One
of them is to strike a balance between richness, accessibility and security in an envi-
ronment that serves residents with different functional capabilities and self-efficacy
levels. In other words, the framework we propose here needs to comprehensively study
the connection between local social culture and personal preferences in practice.
 Research on the Transformation Model of Spiritual Requirements 469

Another challenge is to overcome the notion of aging and stereotypes. Families and
designers often think that the design style needed for old-age housing is obsolete (such
as traditional heavy furniture and interior decoration). This leads young people to
believe that “old age” space is not attractive, which may hinder participation and social
interaction. Providing a novel design that combines the emotions of the elderly in
public spaces, may provoke dialogue between two generations, and is of interest to
young people with inflammatory items. What makes older residents proud is the sto-
rytelling design.
Our recommendation is to provide several overlapping rich levels of space for the
residents based on their abilities and motivations. For example, there may be game-like
activities that create small challenges to encourage them to be more active in their
environment. For those who are most mobile and motivated, this may involve inter-
active exploration of socially-friendly gardens and natural landscapes. For people with
limited mobility (such as walking aids or wheelchairs), activities can be limited to the
same floor, using modern technology to deliver more social information. Every old
man should have the same opportunity to socialize in a well-lit space with plenty of
greenery, interesting sounds, scenery and aromas, and a delightful design.
In summary, we combine sociology and architecture to fill an important gap in the
theory of how elderly residential design positively influences user cognition and social
integration. Our demand transformation model framework provides a starting point for
developing a stimulating, interactive and attractive environment for older residents.
Ultimately, our goal is to provide a reference tool for demanding aging design that
provides specific, actionable advice for older people, complementing existing aging
design guidelines.

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 Current Situation and Countermeasures
of Chinese Street Furniture Design
in Intelligent Development Context

Tongwen Wang(&) and Wuzhong Zhou

Design Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China

794375648@qq.com, wangtongwen@sjtu.edu.cn

Abstract. This paper first explains the concept and classification of “urban
furniture”, analyzes the current situation of Chinese urban furniture and con-
cludes that Chinese traditional urban furniture has been abandoned because it
doesn’t suit needs of the times. Combined with the recent discussions and
reports of the Chinese government meeting, based on the new era of “achieving
urban intelligent management”, it is concluded that in the process of building
“smart city”, urban furniture development will enter the “intelligent” trend.
Combined with the concept of intelligent products, examples of smart city
furniture in developed countries such as the United States and Singapore are
presented. Finally, it is concluded that the development of urban furniture design
in the context of intelligent development should consider the product, service
and system layers of urban furniture products.

Keywords: Intelligent
China
Street furniture
Smart city

Current situation
Countermeasure

1 Introduction

This paper first explores the concept of street furniture. In the global intelligent
development context, to cope with the contradictions in urban development, such as
urban transportation, public facilities, urban environment and other aspects, the con-
struction of smart city becomes increasingly important. As a product with a high usage
rate and high penetration rate in urban everyday life, street furniture is undergoing a
new transformation on meeting the need of a basic function as well as aesthetically
improve the image of the city. Traditional street furniture has been abandoned from the
need of times. Foreign technology companies have begun to transform traditional street
furniture, while future urban lifestyles will be connected with intelligent street furni-
ture. However, the development of the smart city in the world has not been fully
established. Many of them simply remained at the surface stage of digital information
transmission where they have not yet reached the stage of true intelligence of data
decision-making ability.
Based on this problem, this paper draws on the concept of intelligent products in
the field of industrial design. “Intelligence” in “smart products” can be seen as the
process of the product itself, from feeling to memory to think, that is, the ability to

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 471–479, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_44
472 T. Wang and W. Zhou

sense, predict, react and collaborate. The predecessors defined smart products as
products that are with information-awareness, action-autonomous and data-awareness.
In the context of intelligent development, smart city furniture has become an important
part of building a smart city. This article takes on Singapore, United States and other
developed countries as examples to illustrate the case of smart city furniture in the city
of information awareness, action autonomy and data collaboration for summarizing the
current status of Chinese street furniture for comparison.
China has now adopted new districts as huge testing grounds for various types of
technologies of artificial intelligence, big data, and Internet of Things. The planning
and development of “smart street furniture” have also been heavily emphasized.
Chinese street furniture designers have begun to try to superimpose the concept of
intelligent products with traditional street furniture functions. However, in practical
applications, the public user experience has not been fully considered on the basis of
satisfying basic functions and aesthetically improved the image of the environment due
to lack of integration between “technology”, “social” and “culture”. Currently, China’s
existing smart city furniture still exists as a single product and has not yet formed a
complete service system. Most cities in China also lack the standards and guidelines for
the city’s street furniture. In the existing street furniture planning and design guidelines,
“smart city furniture” section is not been fully systematized. Therefore, it is difficult to
effectively promote the development of China’s smart city furniture at the management
level. Consequently, this paper also proposes constructing corresponding solutions.

2 Definition of Urban Furniture

The definition of the definition of “urban furniture” can be broken down from the
literal: “city” and “furniture”. That is to put the concept of “furniture” into the “urban
outdoor space”, and a more macroscopic perspective compared with “indoor space”. In
1960, Europe first appeared “street furniture” and “urban furniture” [1]. It can be
literally translated as “furniture of street” and “furniture of city” in China. In Japan, the
relevant research was written like “furniture of the pedestrian street” or “device of the
road or street”. A generally accepted definition is “a collective term for a private or
public object or device that is installed in an urban public space in order to provide a
public service or function” [2]. In China, “urban furniture” can be understood as
“public environmental facilities” and refers to various outdoor environmental facilities
in the city [3]. The specific classification of it can be classified into functions according
to functions in the study of Chinese scholars: municipal, transportation, security,
information, environmental facilities and so on.

3 The Status Quo of Chinese Urban Furniture

Traditional urban furniture is dominated by static urban public facilities, such as public
trash cans, telephone booths, bus waiting booths, and so on. Nowadays, with the rapid
development of various technologies, the original urban public facilities have been
abandoned by the public due to the transformation or improvement of the basic needs
of the public.
 Current Situation and Countermeasures of Chinese Street Furniture Design 473

Taking Chinese capital Beijing as an example, the telephone booths around the
Beijing International Hotel have almost lost their value of existence. The taxi stops on
the roadside are standing in the real use process. According to data released by the
Beijing Municipal Transportation Department as early as 2013, Beijing has built more
than 600 taxi stops in many important business districts and residential areas to
improve the public waiting environment for taxi passenger [4]. However, with the rapid
development of the times, taxi App is becoming more and more popular, and the
original taxi stop has gradually lost its original value. According to relevant infor-
mation, we can see that Beijing urban furniture is divided into 38 categories with a total
quantity of over five million pieces. However, in reality, not only telephone booths, taxi
stops, and other traditional urban furniture are gradually being phased out, but also
some urban furniture that is more scientific and technologically designed has begun to
be abandoned. Taking the intelligent digital bus station pavilion in South Xiaojie
Street, Chaoyangmen, Beijing as an example, intelligent digital bus stations have added
other comprehensive information such as predicted road conditions and weather than
traditional bus stations. However, in the specific use process, the screens of more
intelligent digital bus stations are in a long black state. The public is also not concerned
about its status. Urban furniture, similar to what appears to be using smart technology,
has also been ignored because it does not really meet the needs of the public.

4 Chinese Smart City and the Intelligent Development Trend

of Urban Furniture

In the context of global intelligent development trends, Chinese cities and towns are
gradually moving from urbanization to modernization. In order to cope with the
contradictions in the transportation, environment, and infrastructure that may occur in
the process of social development, the construction of “smart city” is particularly
important. In the 2018 National Conference of China, smart tourism, smart trans-
portation, and smart retirement have become the focus of the conference. The master
plan for the smart city of “Hundreds of Rivers Confluence” has also begun to become
clearer [5]. In this era, more cities have begun to use advanced information technology
to integrate information on urban business activities, services, people’s livelihood and
environmental protection. They also respond to their respective needs based on this
information and strive to achieve intelligent operation and management of the city.
As a product with high usage rate and popularization rate in urban daily life, urban
furniture will undergo a new transformation in the construction of “smart city” on the
basis of achieving basic functions and beautifying urban space functions. Foreign
technology companies have begun to transform traditional urban furniture. The intel-
ligent urban furniture will be the trend of urban lifestyle in the future.

5 Intelligent Products

Searching for “intelligence” in the knowledge base of the conceptual relationship from
www.cnki.net, it first appeared in the field of philosophy and social sciences in China.
In Chunmei’s article, “intelligence” is described as “making students develop scientific
474 T. Wang and W. Zhou

thinking, independent work and creativity on the basis of mastering a solid and
extensive knowledge” [6]. With the development of computer technology, related
concepts have begun to be applied in the industrial field. Regardless of whether the
subject of the research is human or machine, “intelligence” refers to the ability to
analyze, solve, and deal with various problems [7]. “Intelligence” is the direction of
“smart” promotion of products, which emphasizes the larger and higher level.
“Intelligence” in “Intelligent Products” can draw on relevant concepts in the field of
philosophy and social sciences. It can be understood that products themselves have the
ability to solve problems on their own with certain knowledge. That is, from feeling to
memory to thinking, with the ability to sense, predict, respond and collaborate.
Therefore, intelligent products have certain learning and memory and can give relative
behavioral responses according to different situations. Summarizing the previous
research on intelligent products, it can be defined as information-awareness, action-
autonomy and data collaboration.

5.1 Information-Awareness
Information-aware technology refers to the processing and processing of collected
information by the Internet of Things [8]. Information-awareness refers to the aware-
ness of the state of things and the way they change. This kind of products focus on
information awareness. They often take some individual or behavior information as the
aware object. When the object changes, such as the surrounding environment or user
behavior changes, the information-aware product will respond to this change, which is
intelligent from the product level. Therefore, its premise is that it needs to fully and
timely sense the state and change of the object through the sensor. Designers of the
information-aware products need to consider more variables that trigger various user
behaviors and the surrounding environment, and what feedback the product is intended
to make in various changes.

5.2 Action Autonomy

Information-awareness is intelligent at the product level. At the service level, it can be
promoted to the extent of autonomy. This is the ability of the product itself to have
significant learning and memory and decision-making. This type of product is signif-
icantly more prominent than other products in understanding user behavior. It not only
emphasizes reacting to change. It focuses on predicting future user behavior by
learning past changes in user behavior and can provide a more systematic solution
based on changes in environmental factors. These products can be used to solve
problems at the service level. Products with this capability need to combine the wisdom
of intelligent hardware memory learning and big data processing.

5.3 Data Collaboration

“Collaboration” refers to the strategy of problem-solving in the form of a team in the
field of humanities and social sciences [9]. And when “collaboration” is put into the
digital background, “data collaboration” is created. It means that products can be
 Current Situation and Countermeasures of Chinese Street Furniture Design 475

processed in big data at the system level. It enables data to be strategic in the form of a
problem-solving strategy. In this data team system, smart products can exchange big
data with other products in the system based on the analysis and processing of the big
data generated by itself and its system. For example, the use of cloud computing
technology to collaboratively analyze the massive data provided by different systems,
enabling more macroscopic data research and analysis to generate new applications.

6 Smart City and Intelligent Urban Furniture

6.1 Smart City

The concept of smart city was first proposed in 2008 [10]. Scholars from different fields
have different definitions because of different research perspectives. The definitions of
the predecessors can be roughly divided into narrow sense and broad sense. In the
narrow sense, it can be defined from the technical point of view: “Based on the Internet
of Things, through the means of materialization, interconnection, and intelligence, the
functions of the city can be coordinated with each other. This is a new urban devel-
opment model with high integration of smart technology, high-end development of
smart industry, and efficient service and convenience. Its essence is more thorough
perception, wider connection, more concentration, and more in-depth calculation,
implanting wisdom genes for urban developing” [11]. In a broad sense, it can be
defined from the perspective of social function: “The goal is to develop more scien-
tifically, manage more efficiently, be more harmonious in society, and have a better life.
Based on a top-down, organized information network system, the entire city has a
relatively new urban form of perfect perception, cognition, learning, growth, innova-
tion, decision-making, regulatory and behavioral awareness” [11].
But at present, the actual “smart city” development in the world is not mature
enough. Many practices simply stop at the surface stage of digital information delivery
and have not yet reached the stage of true “intelligence” with data decision-making
capabilities.
The true “intelligence” emphasizes the rise of products from the service-providing
terminal to multiple terminals and their complete service system. Therefore, intelligent
urban furniture is not only a single outdoor environment facility with intelligent
capabilities, but also covers the entire service system composed of many intelligent
facilities. For example, intelligent city furniture service systems such as “intelligent
information guidance” and “intelligent transportation service” in “smart cities”. It needs
to work together every step that is touched. As the “smart city” is currently pursuing in
the planning: not only to be able to provide intelligent products to the public but also to
pursue information integration and data sharing in all aspects, from the product layer,
service layer, system layer can provide higher public Quality experience. From a
macro-social perspective, intelligent urban furniture that achieves system-level design
can weave the data it collects in the region into a complete macro information network.
It can invisibly empower the public and motivate the public to be more active and
powerful.
476 T. Wang and W. Zhou

6.2 Information-Aware Urban Furniture Case

In New York, USA, where science and technology are rapidly developing, designers
have designed intelligent road signs that integrate information such as Rss, Twitter, and
Foursquare at the information level, and users can navigate and check stores. The smart
street sign can display more content according to specific needs: including hotel guides,
entertainment guides, news, social platform information and so on. When the user
clicks the icon button of “Dinner” at dinner time, the smart street sign will automati-
cally direct to the corresponding position to display the direction and direct distance of
the nearby restaurant. Its design comes from the trend of large-scale large-screen touch
screens around the world. It provides exclusive instructions based on user behavior. It
provides valuable informational instructions in a more enjoyable way. The project
manager also mentioned in the interview the current shift in demand from stationary
fixed signage to a new type of signage. The way in which data was presented through
digital screens in the past has been overlooked by the public. In this way, the intelligent
road signs interconnected with the network can collect information according to the
changes in people’s behavior and give feedback in time. Moreover, compared with the
traditional street signs that have been used in the past, such smart city furniture can give
its own power saving scheme when needed, so it is better in terms of energy
consumption (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Photo of smart rotating street sign (Source: http://www.shejipi.com/17544.html)

 Current Situation and Countermeasures of Chinese Street Furniture Design 477

6.3 Action-Autonomous Urban Furniture Case

Action-autonomous products are different from automation products. In the true sense
of action-autonomous products will make relevant judgments and decisions based on
their existing knowledge reserves and environment. Its goal is to build a complete
mindset and even to master the expertise. Automation products only work according to
previous human presets. Taking the outdoor automatic sprinkler as an example, the
truly self-contained watering system will combine the current environmental factors—
whether the temperature continues to warm up and whether there is rain in the near
future to get the amount of water to be watered. Such behavioral autonomous products
have a high degree of judgment on the environment and will consider external envi-
ronmental factors when deciding whether to take action (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Photo of Singapore’s smart trash can (Source: https://www.wanbao.com.sg/keywords/

zhi-neng-la-ji-tong)

6.4 Data Collaborative Urban Furniture Case

Data-coordinated urban furniture is endowed with high demands for information
gathering and data processing information interaction capabilities. Data-coordinated
urban furniture allows more urban furniture units to be organically combined to form a
large and unified system. In such a system, each individual smart city furniture product
can collect data and exchange data with other products in the system.
Also in the case of Singapore’s smart trash can, Wisma Plaza’s smart trash can is a
data collaboration product in addition to the above-mentioned actions. It can collect
internally generated data, such as the frequency of garbage recycling, the proportion of
478 T. Wang and W. Zhou

garbage, and so on. When the garbage is compressed and still reaches a certain level of
overflow, it can connect to the system network and automatically notify the cleaning
personnel to clean up the garbage. Users can also query the trash can be compressed
record, battery capacity and other information through the system. They can also use
the historical data in the system to compare the rate of garbage filling in each region,
thus adjusting the distribution of garbage bins in the city (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Photo of Singapore’s smart trash can (Source: http://www.yan.sg/zidaiwifihaineng/)

7 Conclusion

In today’s rapid development of the Internet of Things, the intelligent development

context has not only greatly affected the industrial design fields such as product design.
It has a greater impact on urban spatial planning from macro to micro. It has brought
inspiration to the development of urban furniture, making it possible for smart city
furniture to become an important part of “building a smart city” to some extent. In
China, traditional urban furniture is gradually beginning to break away from the needs
of the times, and urban furniture with intelligent technology is in urgent need of
improvement in meeting the needs of the public. In developed cities such as Singapore
and the United States, smart city furniture capable of information perception, action
autonomy, and data collaboration can bring more inspiration to China’s urban furniture
development: in the future, China’s urban furniture design It can learn from the suc-
cessful urban furniture cases in foreign countries and iteratively update urban furniture
products from the product level, service level and system level. At the micro level,
humanistic design factors such as semiotics can be incorporated into intelligent tech-
nology to stimulate citizen’s identity and pride, for smart city furniture and its behind-
the-scenes system can incorporate as a part of urban sustainability [12].
Designers should also consider whether information and data can be shared in all
aspects and whether individual smart city furniture products can be upgraded from a
 Current Situation and Countermeasures of Chinese Street Furniture Design 479

single node providing services to a complete service system. Every city furniture
product node and related links are fully integrated, such as “intelligent information
guidance” and “intelligent transportation service”. In addition to helping urban man-
agers manage, smart street furniture service systems can utilized data to promote social
supervision processes, which can give the public a sense of responsibility for the future,
and raise citizens’ executive ability to a new level. At the macro level, planning
managers can formulate a more detailed standard of urban intelligent furniture in city
planning guidelines. They can further subdivide the concept of intelligence, for
example, information-awareness can be further subdivided into the detection of
physical indicators such as urban microclimate.

References
1. Yu, F.: Research on the adaptability design of urban furniture. Master, Central South
University of Forestry and Technology (2012)
2. Lu, S., Zu, Y., Yu-tao, F., Fu-chang, Z.: A survey of humanized design of urban outdoor
furniture. J. South. Yangtze Univ. (Hum. Soc. Sci. Ed.) 4(1), 119–122 (2005)
3. Jiawei, W.: Research on Intelligent Urban Furniture Design Based on Internet of Things,
Dalian University of Technology (2016)
4. People’s Daily Online. http://bj.people.com.cn/n2/2017/0104/c82840-29549198.html
5. The Editorial Department of the Journal: China’s dream, wisdom, smart city, and the Internet
of Things become the hotspots of the two sessions. The fifth meeting of the 11th National
Committee of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference, the 11th National
People’s Congress, special report, 5–8 (2013)
6. Chunmei, Y., Shumei, L.: Some understandings on teaching and cultivating people.
J. Qiqihar Univ. (Philos. Soc. Sci.) 111–113 (2002)
7. Lun, X.: The relationship between intelligent control and traditional control. Electron.
Technol. Softw. Eng. 17, 141–142 (2016)
8. Hu, S.: Information and Information Technology of Internet of Things. Southern
Agricultural Machinery, p. 142 (2018)
9. Xiaolei, Z., Lizhong, C.: Construction of independent innovation learning model under the
network environment. J. Jiangsu Radio Telev. Univ. 10–13 (2007)
10. Qun, H., Fangkun, W., Mingchuan, Y.: Research and practice of building smart cities based
on operator data. Telecommun. Technol. 06, 32–35 (2017)
11. Lin, L.: Smart City Construction Ideas and Planning. Southeast University Publishing House
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12. Xin, L.: Urban Furniture Design Based on Intelligent Technology. Southwest Jiaotong
University (2018)
 Inspiration Mining: Intersecting Improbable
Connections in a New Landscape of Cultural
Reflection and Influence

Paulo Maldonado1,2,3(&) and Leonor Ferrão1,2

1
CITAD – Centro de Investigação em Território, Arquitetura e Design,
Universidades Lusíada, Rua da Junqueira, 188-198, 1349-001 Lisbon, Portugal
paulomaldonado@inspaedia.com
2
Faculdade de Arquitetura, CIAUD – Centro de Investigação em Arquitetura,
Urbanismo e Design, Rua Sá Nogueira, Polo Universitário,
Universidade de Lisboa, Alto da Ajuda, 1349-055 Lisbon, Portugal
lferrao@fa.ulisboa.pt
3
Escola de Artes, Departamento de Artes Visuais e Design, CHAIA – Centro de
História de Arte e Investigação Avançada, Palácio do Vimioso,
Universidade de Évora, Largo Marquês de Marialva 8, 7000-809 Évora, Portugal

Abstract. This article aims to present a critical reflection on the collabora-

tive curatorship of the exhibition “Intersecting Improbable Connections”. It is a
transdisciplinary exhibition covering architecture, design, arts, among other
fields, and calls for non-linear productive thinking strategies. It explores the
intersection of unlikely relationships to inspire memorable visits to museums,
and it feeds the Inspædia platform, creating a new landscape of reflection and
cultural influence. It advocates a new concept of exhibition curation that min-
imizes costs (because it does not involve transportation or insurance for the
pieces) and is intended to help stimulate creative processes. Based on a selec-
tion of content from the participating museums’ permanent exhibitions, duly
marked with QR Codes, visitors can access that content that is already available
on the Inspædia platform and explore potentially endless connections, without
losing contact with the physical object (and vice versa).

Keywords: User Experience Design
Inspiration mining
Curatorship

Interaction design
Inspædia

1 Introduction

The article aims to present and encourage a critical reflection on the curatorial project
of the exhibition “Intersecting Improbable Connections” (2019–2023). The exhibition
follows the interactive and collaborative intelligence platform <www.inspaedia.com>1

1
“Inspædia is a kind of a revolution in perception, because it enables a new kind of visualization and
the use of related contents, as well as a new kind of interface and interaction. It encourages non-linear
thought, productive thought (high creativity) and inspiration – a memorable and playful user
experience” [11]. Inspiring experiences “to be innovation” together is the Inspædia ethos.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 480–489, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_45
 Inspiration Mining: Intersecting Improbable Connections in a New Landscape 481

(Fig. 1), whose development comes from doctoral research in design with the title
Innovation, Design et cetera at the Faculty of Architecture of the Technical University
of Lisbon, Portugal (2006–2012) [1].
The Inspædia project (“an inspiring collaborative intelligence network”) was later
supported by financial and human resources provided by the CAPES /Brazil Science
without Borders Program, through the Special Visiting Research fellowship in the Post-
Graduate Program in Design of the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
(2014–2016). It culminates with the post-doctoral research “Inspædia Design UXD:
inspiring collaborative and interactive intelligence” at the Lisbon School of Architec-
ture, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal (2016–2017).
During this process, the project was presented, discussed, validated and published
on several occasions in different contexts and media (international conferences and
national meetings, in paper and digital formats) [2–10].
The Inspædia project brings together a research team to review and achieve the
Inspædia objectives. The research team has been instrumental in preparing the launch
of the Inspædia platform. The exhibition “Intersecting Improbable Connections” will
celebrate that launch. Next, an outline of the procedural itinerary of this exhibition is
presented for reflection and discussion. Considering that the launch objectives need
emotional and collaborative involvement of the largest possible number of users at a
global scale – the Inspædiers2 – we set up an online and offline launch strategy that is
viral and innovative. The curatorial and exhibition concept aims to inspire memorable
experiences in a new landscape of cultural reflection and influence which crosses,
directly or indirectly, the following curating areas of interest: Design; Innovation; Art;
Photography; Cinema; Performing Arts; Video Art; Architecture; Painting; Sculpture;
Conferences; Exhibitions; Multimedia; Materials; Music; Historic Sites; Libraries;
Universities; Teaching; Research Centers; Research; Media; Sustainability; Inclusive
Design; Color; Digital Media; Digital Games; Trends; Fashion Design; Branding;
Entrepreneurship; Augmented Reality; Digital Technology…
The strategy that informs the following curatorship project is related to the growth
strategy of Content Curators, as well as the amount of content and relationships among
content to be made available on the Inspædia platform: once the number of 100 Content
Curators (CC) has been reached, each one refers 2 new CCs and is responsible for
checking and validating the new content on the platform. The process is repeated until a
network of 700 CCs is attained. Estimating an average production of 3 pieces of
content per day and 9 related pieces of content per CC, this means 766 500 new pieces
of content per year and 2 299 500 new related pieces of content per year as well.

2
The inspædiers are collaborative visual storytellers who are always looking for the next productive
spark (designers from a large variety of areas, architects, photographers, film directors, teachers from
all teaching levels, researchers, artists from a large variety of areas, curators, entrepreneurs,
managers, politicians, philosophers, university students et cetera).
482 P. Maldonado and L. Ferrão

2 Methods

“Intersecting Improbable Connections” is an inspiring transdisciplinary exhibition that

crosses several fields and summons, from a methodological point of view, nonlinear
strategies3, productive thinking4 and collaborative curation, exploiting the intersection
of improbable relations between content to inspire5 new experiences.
Collaborative curatorship is both the underlying concept of the Inspædia conceptual
model and the online platform that makes it operational: “We have developed a new
way of operationalizing innovation and design processes inspired by the three previous
models of providing knowledge (library, encyclopedia and museum), reverting them to
the virtualities that the network allows. We crossed the notes of the concept of rhizome
with those of the concept of library and arrived at the concept of labyrinth” [12]. The
content from different curatorial areas available on the platform derives from an
individual and collaborative ability to discover and present them visually, as well as
unlikely relationships that can be established between them (existing or new rela-
tionships) to provoke jumps in the Inspædiers’ perception and inspire productive
thinking processes.
The method used during the research process to build the Inspædia platform
focused on: Case Studies, Concept Mapping, Content Analysis, Contextual Design
Custom Experience Audit; Ergonomic Analysis; Experience Prototyping; Experiments;
Exploratory Research; Focus Groups; Interviews; Literature Reviews; Mind Mapping;

3
The collaboration of Content Curators from different disciplinary areas makes it possible to make
numerous connections and configure non-linear itineraries in inspiration processes in the context of
productive thinking. “Creativity is just connecting things. When you ask a creative person how they
did something, they may feel a little guilty because they didn’t really do it, they just saw something.
It seemed obvious to them after a while. That’s because they were able to connect experiences
they’ve had and synthesize new things. And the reason they were able to do that was that they’ve had
more experiences or have thought more about their experiences than other people have.
Unfortunately, that’s too rare a commodity. A lot of people in our industry haven’t had very
diverse experiences. They don’t have enough dots to connect, and they end up with very linear
solutions, without a broad perspective on the problem. The broader one’s understanding of the
human experience, the better designs we will have” [13].
4
Wertheimer [14] coined the term “productive thinking” and Mari [15] proposed its use instead of
creativity, because this term has suffered much wear and tear given its abusive application in
common discourse. The context in which we speak of productive thinking is that of high creativity –
a concept that is opposed to that of common creativity (Csikszentmihalyi 1997) [16]. Rudolf
Arnheim (1904–2007) grasped the essence of the concept in the same sense we intend to use it:
“Productive thinking is characterized, in arts and in sciences, by the interplay between the free
interaction of forces within the field and the more or less solidified entities that persist as invariants in
changing contexts” [17].
5
Inspiration means: encouragement; enthusiasm; genius; incentive; influence; insight; motivation;
revelation; vision; afflatus; animus; approach; arousal; awakening; brainchild; brainstorm; creativity;
elevation; exaltation; fancy; flash; hunch; illumination; impulse; motive; muse; notion; rumble;
spark; spur; stimulation; thought; whim; deep thing; inflate. The Visual Thesaurus [18] relates
Inspiration with: idea; thought; stirring; divine guidance; intuition; brainchild; inhalation; breathing
in; intake; aspiration and Inspire with: instigate; prompt; occasion; enliven; exalt; invigorate;
animate; revolutionize; breathe in; inhale; cheer; exhort; pep up; root on; urge; urge on.
 Inspiration Mining: Intersecting Improbable Connections in a New Landscape 483

Observation; Participant Observation; Personas; Prototyping; Rapid Iterative Testing

Evaluation (RITE); Research Through Design; Scenarios.
We have called on Kumar’s “Seven Modes of the Innovation Process” [19]:
(i) “sense intent”; (ii) “know context”; (iii) “know people”; (iv) “frame insights”;
(v) “explore concepts”; (vi) “frame solutions”; (vii) “realize offerings” to set up the
scenarios that are both at the origin of our online and offline exhibition concept and the
user experience (UX).
Firstly, the Content Curators (A1 + A2) (i.e. the Authors) select other Inspædia
Content Curators (B1 + B2 + B3 + B4 …) from different cultural areas (architecture,
design, cinema, photography, media arts …) to create (or insert) new content to feed
new visual narratives (“Trails”). The Content Curators also select the hosts of the
exhibition “Intersecting Improbable Connections”: starting with a list of 137 museums
(from 32 countries), they invite each director to participate, choosing one or more
Content Curators (C1 + C2 + C3 + C4…). The three curatorial teams (A + B + C) –
select and relate each pair of pieces of content, both physical (from the museums’
permanent collections) and digital (what is already available on the Inspædia), duly
marked with QR Codes, so the visitors can access that particular piece of content
and explore its endless connections, without losing contact with the physical object
(and vice versa). The following Inspædia functionalities allow those interactions:
“Map”, “Time Line”, “My Collection”, “Collections”, “My Trail”, “Trails” and “Get
Inspired” (the latter challenges flâneurs to explore Inspædia) (Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6).

Fig. 1. Inspædia imagotype. Source: Authors, 2016.

Fig. 2. (a), (b) Visiting the Design Museum permanent exhibition: Braun content. Source:
Authors, 2018.

The relationships between the different Content Curators are collaborative and
interactive, dynamic and rhizomatic, to produce unexpected intersections between
different cultural areas and allowing Inspædiers and museum visitors to jump to
484 P. Maldonado and L. Ferrão

Fig. 3. QR Code to access to Braun content on Inspædia. Source: Authors, 2019.

unexpected contents and contexts; to provide infinite possibilities that may update and
refine creative processes (i.e. to generate new insights and foresights). We also expect
visitors to the exhibition “Intersecting Improbable Connections” to become Inspædiers
(as Flâneurs or perhaps Content Curators).
Each Content Curator creates a narrative linking it to at least one piece from the
museum’s permanent collection to relate it to others on Inspædia. Each of these nar-
ratives (saved in the Inspædia functionality “My Collection”) can intercept others,
provoking detours (jumps) which are essential for the effectiveness of the inspiration
mining processes.
This is the reverse of what Inspædia Content Curators usually use, as it starts from
the real (located) to the virtual (not located). The process of creating new visual
narratives results in the expansion of the Inspædia content and, consequently, increases
the number of opportunities for intersections with related content. Finally, it fulfils
Inspædia’s strategic goals of growth and creates unique experiences for visitors to the
“Intersecting Improbable Connections” exhibition that can stimulate productive
thinking processes.
The exhibition concept is both collaborative and democratic, because it allows any
visitor to become a Content Curator and increases collaborative intelligence and critical
reflection. Visitors are invited to register on the Inspædia platform to be able to save the
content they considered to be the most inspiring, along with the visual narratives of the
Content Curators’ tripartite team to build their own collection in “My Collection”. They
can share it by sending an e-mail. The “Share” and “Send Feedback” functionalities are
fundamental to providing the desired and expected viral contagion (interaction >
attraction > love).
It is our intention to invite the MAAT – Museum of Art, Architecture and Tech-
nology (Lisbon, Portugal) to be the main host of the exhibition “Intersection
Improbable Connections”. A multi-screen will be installed in its entrance space to
access and watch, in real time, all interactions, digital and physical itineraries and the
geo-referenced location of visitors to all the permanent exhibitions of the participating
museums. A series of conferences at the host-museum broadcast via streaming and
workshops for children (K-12 schools) will complement and diversify the visitor
experience.
 Inspiration Mining: Intersecting Improbable Connections in a New Landscape 485

Fig. 4. Visiting Inspædia: from Braun to Jonathan Ive. Source: Authors, 2019.

We strongly believe this to be an unprecedented, memorable and inspiring cura-

torship concept to inspire productive thinking processes. It is part of a multidisciplinary
curatorship and provides an (almost) infinite collection of related digital content that is
transported to reality through bi and three-dimensional physical pieces to produce new
486 P. Maldonado and L. Ferrão

Fig. 5. (a), (b) Back to the Design Museum’s permanent exhibition: Apple content. Source:
Authors, 2018.

Fig. 6. QR Code to access Apple content on Inspædia. Source: Authors, 2019.

reflections and interpretations of material and immaterial culture linked by the fol-
lowing tags: Abandoned Cities; Abandoned Places; Abstract Art; Abstract Expres-
sionism; Abstractionism; Advertising; Aerodynamics; Aesthetics; Africa; Age And
Aging; Alternative Consumption; Amsterdam; Analogy; Anthropology; Architect;
Architectural Restoration; Architectural Renovation; Architectural Theory; Architec-
ture; Art; Art Academies; Art Déco; Art Direction; Art Education; Art History; Art
Manifesto; Art Nouveau; Art School; Art Theory; Artificial Lighting; Artist; Arts And
Crafts Movement; Asceticism; Asia; Authorship; Automobile Design; Avant-Garde;
Aviation; Barcelona; Baroque; Bauhaus; Berlin; Biodiversity; Biography; Biology;
Body Art; Bone China; Book Of Hours; Brand Design; Branding; Bricolage; Bridges;
British Empire; Business Design; Capitalism; Catalan Modernism; Ceramics; Chairs;
Chicago; Childhood; Chinese Porcelain; Christianity; Cinema; Class; Classic; Classi-
cism; Closet; Co-Design; Cognition; Colour/Color; Colour In Architecture; Colour In
Urban Space; Comics; Commodification; Communication Design; Communication
Studies; Competition; Computers; Computer; Communism; Concept; Conceptual Art;
Conservation; Constructivism; Consumer Culture; Consumer Representation; Con-
sumerism; Consumers; Consumption; Contemporary Art; Cookware; Copenhagen;
Corporate Design; Corporate Identity; Crafts; Creative Cognition; Criticism; Crystal-
ware; Cubism; Culture; Culture Industries; Curation; Dada; Dadaism; Dandyism;
 Inspiration Mining: Intersecting Improbable Connections in a New Landscape 487

De Stijl; Decadence; Decorative Arts; Deconstruction; Dematerialization; Design;

Design Centre; Design Consultancy; Design Culture; Design Diary; Design Future;
Design History; Design Journals; Design Magazines; Design Management; Design
Methods; Design Project; Design Studies; Design Theory; Design Thinking; Dialogue;
Digital Art; Digital Media; Disruptive Innovation; Dissertation; Diversity; Divisionism;
Drawings; Dutch East India Company; Economics; Ecosystem; Education; Exhibition
Design; Eighteenth Century; Electronic Video Gaming; Emotions; Empathy; Ency-
clopedia; Engineer; Engineering; Enlightenment; Entrepreneurs; Entrepreneurship;
Environmental Design; Environmental Footprint; Essay; Ethics; Ethnography; Eth-
nology; Europe; Everyday Life; Exhibition; Exhibition History; Experimental Theatre;
Expressionism; Faience; Fantasy; Fanzines; Fascism; Fashion; Fashion Design; Fash-
ion Forecasting; Fashion Industry; Fauvism; Femininity; Feminism; Feminist Move-
ment; Fetishism; Field Theory; Figurative Art; Figure; Figure of Speech;
Flâneur/Flaneuse; Florence; Flower Festivals; Folk Art; Form; Frankfurt School;
Furniture; Futurism; Futurism; Gambling; Game; Gardening; Geography; Ghettos;
Glass; Glassware; Globalization; Glocalization; Grand Tour; Graphic Design; Great
Britain; Habits; Happening; Hedonism; Helsinki; Health; Heritage; Hero; Heroine;
Higher Education; Hinduism; Historicism; History; Home Appliances; Homeware;
Homosexuality; Human Body; Humanist Typography; Hybridization; Idealism; Iden-
tity; Identity; Ideology; Illuminated Manuscript; Illumination; Illustrated Book;
Illustration; Image; Inclusive Architecture; Inclusive Design; India; Informality;
Information Design; Innovation; Insight; Interior Architecture; Interior Design; Interior
Design History; International Exhibitions; International Style; Internationalism; Inter-
net; Islam; Isms; Italy; Jamming; Jazz; Judaism; Jungendstil; Kids; Kitchen Design;
Kitsch; Knowledge Workers; Labour History; Land Art; Landscape Design; Leisure;
Lgbtqia (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, Intersex, Asexual); Liberalism;
Library; Life Sciences; Lifestyle; Light; Light And Colour; Lighting Design; Lisbon;
Literature; Locomotives; Logotype; London; Luxury; Madrid; Magazines; Magazines
Women’s; Management; Mannerism; Mantua; Manufacture; Mapping; Marginalia;
Marketing; Marketing; Marxism; Mass Culture; Material; Material Culture; Material
Culture Of Childhood; Material Studies; Materiality; Materials Engineering; Mathe-
matics; Matter; Memory; Memorabilia; Metal; Method; Middle Ages; Migrations;
Milan; Mimesis; Mimicry; Mind Map; Miniature Illustration; Minimalism; Mirabilia;
Model; Modern Movement; Modernism; Modernist Typography; Modernity; Mod-
ernization; Montréal; Moscow; Motion Graphic Design; Motorcycle Design; Multi-
culturalism; Museums; Museums Studies; Music; Music Festivals; Mythology; Myths;
Naples; NASA; Nationalism; Natural History; Natural Lighting; Natural Sciences;
Nazism; Neo; Neo Crafts; Neo-Impressionism; Neo-Tribes; Neocapitalism; Neoclas-
sicism; Neoliberalism; Neoplasticism; Neorealism; New Look; New Materials; New
Media; New York; Nineteenth Century; North America; Nostalgia; Notebook; Novelty;
Oceania; Office Design; Open Innovation; Opera; Oporto; Oslo; Packaging; Painting;
Panopticon; Paris; Parlour; Participation; Participatory Design; Patent; Pattern; Pattern
Book; PCM (Production-Consumption-Mediation) Paradigm; Performance; Perfor-
mance Arts; Philosopher; Philosophy; Photography; Physics; Pictogram; Picture Book;
Plain Style; Plastics; Plywood; Poet; Poetry; Poïesis; Poietic; Pop Art; Popular Culture;
488 P. Maldonado and L. Ferrão

Porcelain; Porcelain; Portfolio; Portuguese Empire; Post-Impressionism; Post-

Modernism; Post-Structuralism; Postcards; Postcolonialism; Poster Design; Post-
industrial Society; Positivism; Poverty; Prague; Prefabrication; Prints; Product Engi-
neering; Production; Productive Thinking; Propaganda; Prosumers; Prototyping; Psy-
chology; Public Space; Publishing; Purism; Quilting; Radial Plan; Railway Design;
Railways; Rajasthan; Realism; Recreation; Recycling; Reformation; Refrigerators;
Regionalism; Religion; Renaissance; Rendering; Representation; Retail; Retail Design;
Revivals; Revivals; Rhetorics Of Needs And Wants; Rituals; Rococo; Roman Empire;
Romanticism; Rome; Ruins; Russia; Samples; San Francisco; San Petersburg; Sanitary
ware; Scandinavian Design; Scenography Design; School; School Of Design; Science;
Science And Technology Museums; Science Fiction; Scientific Housekeeping;
Scrapbook; Scroll; Seat; Semiotics; Senses; Sensibility; Service Design; Service
Industry; Seventeenth Century; Sex; Sexuality; Shelving; Sign; Silk; Skill; Smart
Phone; Sociability; Social Class; Social Design; Social Distinction; Social Exclusion;
Social Exclusivity; Social Inclusivity; Social Innovation; Social Issue; Social Mobility;
Social Movements; Social Reform; Social Sciences; Socialism; Socialist Realism;
Sociology; Sofa; Software Design; Sound Design; South America; Souvenirs; Space
Perception; Stage Design; Stained Glass; Standardization; Still Life; Storage; Store;
Streamlining; Style; Styling; Subculture; Subjectivity; Suburbia; Suprematism; Surre-
alism; Sustainability; Symbolism; System; Table; Tablet; Tableware; Tableware; Taste;
Taylorism; Technique; Technology; Teenagers; Television; Television Set Design;
Textile Design; Textile Design & Manufacture; Textiles; Theater; Theatre Set Design;
Theory; Thesis; Tools; Tourism; Toys; Tradition; Transculturation; Transgression;
Transport; Transport Design; Transitional Object; Transavanguardia; Trenchcoat;
Trendology; Trousers; Tudor Style; Twentieth Century; Typeface; Typography;
Unesco Heritage Sites; Uniformity; Uniforms; University; Urban Cultures; Urban
Design; Urbanization; Urban Space Renovation; USA; User Culture; UxD (User
Experience Design); Vaporware; Venice; Vernacular; Verona; Vicenza; Video; Video
Art; Vienna; Viennese Actionism; Vision; Visual Culture; Visual Culture; Vorti-
cism; VR (Virtual Reality); Wallpaper; War; Water Closet; Web Design; Well-Being;
Wiener Secession; Wiener Werkbund; Wiener Werksätte; Wikinomics; Wood; Wool;
Work; Workshop; World Exhibitions.

Acknowledgements. This research is financed by national funds by FCT – Fundação para a

Ciência e a Tecnologia, in the scope of the projects SFRH/BPD/98427/2013, UID/EAT/
04008/2019, and UID/AUR/04026/2019. The authors are grateful to the following institutions
and people: Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, Portugal; Programa Ciência sem Fron-
teiras CAPES, Brazil; CITAD – Centro de Investigação em Território, Arquitetura e Design,
Universidades de Lusíada, Lisboa, Portugal; CIAUD – Centro de Investigação em Arquitetura,
Urbanismo e Design, Faculdade de Arquitetura, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal; CHAIA –
Centro de História de Arte e Investigação Avançada da Universidade de Évora, Évora, Portugal;
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Fernando Moreira da Silva, António Pinto
Duarte, António Câmara, Nuno Correia, Fábio Teixeira; Pablo Ermida, Maria Passos, Rita
Noronha, Pedro Silva, Rui Dias, Carlos Bártolo, Pedro Cortesão Monteiro, Inês Simões, Mário
Matos Ribeiro, Graziela Sousa, Marco Neves, Pedro Oliveira, Verónica Conte, Raquel Webber,
Bruna Gugliano, Felipe Viaro, José Rocha and Marcelo Halpern.
 Inspiration Mining: Intersecting Improbable Connections in a New Landscape 489

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 Identification of Residential Well-Being
Factors in Urban Community Design

Xintong Wei1,2, Guangtian Zou2, and Kin Wai Michael Siu1(&)

1
School of Design, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
Hunghom, Kowloon, Hong Kong S.A.R., China
xintong.wei@connect.polyu.hk, m.siu@polyu.edu.hk
2
School of Architecture, Harbin Institute of Technology,
Harbin, Heilongjiang, China
zougt@hit.edu.cn

Abstract. Recent decades, as the rapid development of urbanization in China,

there is a lot of evidence showing that people living in high-density urban spaces
are experiencing increased rates of stress and depression, and the living envi-
ronment takes an important role in this situation. Based on this context, the
identification of comprehensive community design factors from the perspective
of residential well-being, which combines social, environmental and emotional
aspects, can be urgently needed. A list of appropriate factors related to resi-
dential well-being is developed in this paper. Taking urban community as a case
study, this paper aims to explore a set of environmental factors related to resi-
dential well-being in the living environment in China. The results need to be
applied to real Chinese community design cases in order to prove the
generalization.

Keywords: Residential well-being
Community design
Social factors

Environmental factors
Emotional factors

1 Introduction

With the rapid process of urbanization, the built environment in the urban residential
areas is being improved and people begin to concern about their personal well-being
living in this world. In the long process of exploration, a significant amount of research
concerning well-being has been developed in different academic fields. For example,
many researchers focus on exploring impact factors of individual’s satisfaction with
various aspects of their lives, such as job, community and shopping experience [1–3].
In addition, some scholars trend to find out the relationship between physical space and
people’s subjective attitudes in order to optimize the space and promote the public
mental health. Based on this context, an understanding of environmental well-being
draws upon a wide range of studies such as the built environment, subjective well-
being, quality of life and life satisfaction [4–10]. Since a universal definition is lacking,
these terms can be used interchangeably in academic and in practice [11], and this
study is mostly based on the related concepts and theories in the fields of psychology
and social science.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 490–499, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_46
 Identification of Residential Well-Being Factors in Urban Community Design 491

This paper focuses on a comprehensive understanding of the concept of residential

well-being and aims to developing a construct based on the common characteristics
evident in the previous researches and literatures. The basic premise of this study is that
residential well-being is a comprehensive concept including related subjective emo-
tions and environmental aspects in the living environment. For example, if a certain
range of urban residential areas reaches a status of well-being, it can be considered that,
residents are satisfied with living in this kind of environment to some extent and the
residential area provides a specific standard with respect to both infrastructure and
building environmental indicators. Also, residential well-being is significantly driven
by residents’ satisfaction with different environmental factors and their perceived
feelings to the living environment. In this case, potential data gauging residential well-
being emanates not only from subjective attitudes and assessment of their living cir-
cumstances, but also their feelings with the whole living environment in their com-
munity. As a result, residential well-being in this paper can be considered as a
comprehensive judgment result of both the individual’s overall satisfaction with the
living environment and their positive emotions of living in their community. Taking
interviews as approach, this paper reviews the related concepts and documents to
develop a list of environmental factors and emotional factors.

2 Factors of Residential Well-Being

There is a significant amount of evidence linking the built environment with public
health, but most of the researches focus on the physical health at first. Therefore,
medical scientists and planners are increasingly encouraged to consider the built
environment as an important dimension of influencing public health. For example,
some scholars propose to explore the influence of the built environment on some
important health behaviours and outcomes [12, 13]. Although it is not easy to establish
a causal relationship between the built environment and health, many findings and data
from observational epidemiological studies emphasize the associations between the
built environment and health [14–17]. An interpretive approach is applied to investi-
gate the impact factors of well-being in the living environment by reviewing the
existing documents and conducting a small-scale survey.

2.1 Potential Factors of Residential Well-Being

As the growing recognition of the importance of planning healthy cities, researchers
begin to pay attention to the relationship between various types of physical spaces and
mental health of individuals. Since people stay in the living environment for the longest
time in their life, the relationship between the living environment and public health is
the focus of research. However, most research focus more on relationships between the
living environment and physical health rather than mental health such as well-being. As
the lack of general theory explaining the relationship between well-being and envi-
ronmental factors is considered as the gap of current research, the final aim of this
research is to find out potential impact factors relating to the residential well-being in
the urban community.
492 X. Wei et al.

In this context, there is still some evidence to support the changing design of the
living environment while concerning mental health [18, 19]. In the other words, the
recent researches trend to find out the interactions between physical factors and mental
health outcomes. However, due to the evidence on the interaction between physical
health and mental health [20], the change of living environment, such as the distance
from residence to public transportation or surrounding facilities, can be considered to
affect mental health indirectly. Therefore, this study reviews the evidence on the
association among environmental factors and physical and mental health in order to
develop the list of potential factors in the living environment. For example, neigh-
bourhood aesthetic quality and objective measures of greenspace in living environ-
ments have positively associations with higher mental well-being [21]. Similarly, Gong
proposed that neighbourhood quality, quantity of green space and land-use mix are
related to psychological distress [17]. In addition, there are also some studies inves-
tigating effects of changing the quality of housing on mental health and well-being in
adults and older adults [22, 23]. According to the reports of health indicators of
sustainable cities from World Health Organization, neighbourhood form, housing
quality, access to utilities and transport services, public green spaces, street safety and
social cohesion relating to various aspects of urban community may affect mental
health in different degree. Above all, the quality of greenspace, neighbourhood, public
transportation, utilities, community management and housing can be listed in the
impact factors of residential well-being.
On the other hand, as well-being is considered as the state of generally positive
physical and cognitive health and attitude in the psychology dictionary, positive
emotional factors are also important in the study of residential well-being. Based on the
happiness measurement in World Database of Happiness and World Happiness Report
in 2018, positive emotions including pleasure, relaxation, comfort, enjoyment, safety
and happiness are applied to measure well-being. Considering about the elements
relating to community design and combing elements with similar meanings, five
emotional factors including the sense of convenience, comfort, security, belonging and
pleasure are summed up to make sense on residential well-being. To sum up, a theo-
retical model of impact factors with environmental and emotional aspects of residential
well-being (Fig. 1) is developed and can be tested in practice.

2.2 Data Collection

In order to support the initial model above, a small-scale survey was conducted in
Harbin. We selected two communities named Xuanqing Community and Mengkeshidai
community with similar surrounding utilities in Nangang District of Harbin. Two
communities are adjacent to a university, an exhibition centre, and a public square
(Fig. 2).
The total amount of households in Xuanqing Community is about 750, while there
are about 816 households in Mengkeshidai community. By conducting interviews and
questionnaires, 103 valid questionnaires were collected. The distance between the two
communities is not far, so the surrounding medical education and medical facilities are
similar. The main type of dwelling in Xuanqing community are multi-storey buildings,
and the community has a large area of public spaces. While the residential buildings in
 Identification of Residential Well-Being Factors in Urban Community Design 493

Fig. 1. A theoretical model of impact factors of residential well-being

Fig. 2. Location of the selected communities in Harbin (modified from Gaode Map)

the Mengkeshidai community are mostly high-rise residential buildings with limited
public spaces in the community.
Table 1 shows the main components of the questionnaire including residents’
satisfaction with different environmental factors, residents’ self-assessment of overall
residential well-being, and residents’ sense of different emotions living in their com-
munity which can impact their residential well-being. Six questions are used to measure
494 X. Wei et al.

include residents’ satisfaction with different environmental factors, each question

containing a five-scale self-assessment. The overall residential well-being is measured
by respondents’ self-evaluation of their living status. Also, the degree of each emotion
is based on respondents’ subjective feelings of their community.

Table 1. Components of the questionnaire and interview (translated from Chinese)

Dimensions Factors Relevant questions
Environmental Greenspace Q1 How satisfied are you with the area of greenspace
aspect in the community?
Neighbourhood Q2 How satisfied are you with the neighbourhood
quality in the community?
Public Q3 How satisfied are you with the accessibility to
transportation public transportation of community?
Utilities Q4 How satisfied are you with the utilities surrounding
the community?
Community Q5 How satisfied are you with community
management management (waste, health, security)?
Housing Q6 How satisfied are you with the quality of housing
(layout, towards, soundproof)?
Q7 Which three factors would mostly impact your
residential well-being in the community?
Emotional Sense of Q8 How much of convenience you feel in this
aspect convenience community?
Sense of Q9 How much of comfort you feel in this community?
comfort
Sense of Q10 How much of security you feel in this
security community?
Sense of Q11 How much of belonging you feel in this
belonging community?
Sense of Q12 How much of pleasure you feel in this
pleasure community?
Q13 How do you rank the sense of five emotions when
living in the community?
Residential Q14 How much of residential well-being you feel
well-being when living in this community?

2.3 Characteristics of Respondents

The total sample size of male and female in this survey was 40.78% for men and
59.22% for women. The education level was concentrated in junior college/
undergraduate, and the proportion was over half, reaching 67.00%. The age structure
of the respondents was mostly middle-aged and elderly, 56.31% of the respondents
were aged 35–59 years old, and 15.53% of the respondents were 60 years old and
older. In terms of monthly household income, 83.50% of respondents are above 3,000
yuan. In terms of family structure, most of the respondents lived with family members,
 Identification of Residential Well-Being Factors in Urban Community Design 495

with a ratio of 88.35%. Regarding the distribution of the number of years of residence
of the respondents, the number of residents who lived for more than 10 years was the
highest, accounting for 53.40%, and the number of respondents who lived for 5–10
years accounted for 23.30%. Respondents have a wide range of occupations, and the
proportion of them is state-owned enterprises/institutions, accounting for 34.95%.

3 Findings and Discussion

3.1 Statistics
Table 2 shows the statistical results of the overall residential well-being in two com-
munities, the residential well-being of the two communities is relatively strong, mostly
distributed between 3–5, especially the results of the residents in Mengkeshidai
community.

Table 2. Statistical results of the overall residential well-being in two communities

Degree of residential well- Very strong Strong General Weak Very weak Average
being (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
Xuanqing community 4.92% 29.51% 54.1% 8.2% 3.28% 3.25
Mengkeshidai community 7.14% 42.86% 50% 0 0 3.57

According to the analysis of Q7, it can be known that 68 residents thought

greenspace could impact their satisfaction with the community environment, and 44
respondents respectively selected public transportation and housing as one of the
influencing factors. However, only 9 respondents considered community cleanliness as
one of the impact factors related to their satisfaction, while 10 respondents considered
about neighbourhood relating to their satisfaction. This result may reflect residents’
concern for their living environment to some extent.
Regarding the ranking result of Q13, 36 respondents chose convenience as the
emotional component that most affected their residential well-being, and the sense of
comfort was in the second place. However, taking all the rankings together, the final
order of the respondents for five emotions is comfort, security, convenience, pleasure
and belongings.

3.2 Relationship Between Residential Well-Being and Impact Factors

Correlation analysis is carried out by combing the data of two communities based on the
data of Q1-6 and Q14, in order to find relationship between residential well-being and
different factors. Table 3 shows the results of environmental factors and residential well-
being. We can see that satisfactions with three environmental factors are significantly
496 X. Wei et al.

positively correlated with residential well-being, while satisfactions with greenspace,

utilities surrounding the community and quality of housing seems to have weak cor-
relations with residential well-being.

Table 3. Relationship between environmental factors and residential well-being

Greenspace Public Community Neighbourhood Housing Utilities
transportation management
Pearson 0.032 0.255** 0.377** 0.355** 0.161 0.107
correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.752 0.009 0.000 0.000 0.105 0.284
N 103 103 103 103 103 103
* p < 0.05 ** p < 0.01

Table 4 shows the results of correlation analysis between five emotions and resi-
dential well-being based on the data of Q8-12 and Q14. We can see from the results
that all the five emotions are significantly correlated with residential well-being, and the
correlation is always positive. Among them, the sense of pleasure is the most closely
related to residential well-being, and the sense of convenience shows the lowest cor-
relation with residential well-being in the five emotions but still significantly correlated
with residential well-being.

Table 4. Relationship between emotional factors and residential well-being

Convenience Comfort Security Belonging Pleasure
Pearson correlation 0.251* 0.416** 0.360** 0.486** 0.890**
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.011 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
N 103 103 103 103 103
* p < 0.05 ** p < 0.01

3.3 Discussion
It can be seen from the above analysis that the conclusion of correlation analysis is
different from the previous results. For example, greenspace is considered as an
important element in Q7 which can impact respondents’ satisfaction with their com-
munity, but the results of correlation analysis showed that it had a weak correlation
with resident happiness. The reason for this difference may be that the data collected
are people’s self-evaluation and subjective thoughts, which may be influenced by many
factors, such as the respondents’ understanding of the problem and their experiences in
the hours before the interview. Also, the reason for this difference may also be related
to geographical climate. Harbin is in the northern part of China, where the climate is
always cold, so there are few plant species and the green area is relatively small. People
have a strong desire for green space, but they don’t have much contact with green space
 Identification of Residential Well-Being Factors in Urban Community Design 497

in real life. Regarding the quality of housing, which is considered as an important

element of residents’ satisfaction, it showed a weak correlation with residential well-
being in the correlation analysis. Although the result seems a little bit different, we still
argue that the quality of housing has an impact on residential well-being, because the
result of correlation analysis may be affected by other factors. For this reason, it is hard
to say that the quality of housing has no influence on residential well-being, but we can
consider that three satisfactions showing significant correlation may have a stronger
impact on residential well-being than the quality of housing. In this point, this sub-
jective bias cannot be avoided in future studies, but the accuracy of the results may be
improved by collecting more data from various cities and adopting more interview
questions.
In addition, the importance of the five emotions was ranked differently from the
relevance of the correlation analysis. This may be because people’s subjective feelings
of emotions are not totally consistent with their actual cognitive performance. Also,
respondents may interpret different emotions differently which can directly influence
the results. Moreover, there may be some other emotions affecting residential well-
being that were not included in this study. It may be hard for respondents to evaluate
their emotion intensity at a while, so more questions concerning various aspects should
be applied to assess a kind of emotion instead of using only one question. Therefore, it
is essential to have a clear explanation of different emotions before the interview so that
the respondents can understand them as accurately as possible. Also, a further study
should be conducted to develop more potential emotions and find more scientific ways
to measure the intensity of different emotions.

4 Conclusions

The residential communities are the places where people enjoy relaxation and where
they spend most of their time in their lives. How to make residents live a happy life in a
residential community requires the joint efforts of various parties, but as designers, we
have the responsibility to improve people’s living happiness by community design. We
argued that satisfactions with neighbourhood, public transportation and community
management are significantly correlated with residential well-being, and five emotions
also have significant correlations with residential well-being. Also, according to peo-
ple’s choice of important environmental factors for the ideal community, green area
and house quality are also regarded as factors affecting residents’ satisfaction with the
community.
However, more diverse data and analysis methods need to be collected to inves-
tigate the relationship between environmental factors and emotions, and to further
develop more impact factors. Based on investigating what kind of environmental
factors can affect the emotions of residents positively, effective community design
strategies could be developed in the future to improve the residential well-being in
urban community.

Acknowledgments. We would like to thank Harbin Institute of Technology and The Hong
Kong Polytechnic University for the support to carry out the study.
498 X. Wei et al.

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 Planning Regenerative Infrastructure
of the Szczecin Metropolitan Railway – ad hoc
Urbanism and Glocal Activity Development

Leszek Świątek(&)

Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, West Pomeranian

University of Technology Szczecin, ul. Żołnierska 50, 71-210 Szczecin, Poland
swjoan@poczta.onet.pl

Abstract. A case study of Szczecin Metropolitan Railway Infrastructure Space

is an opportunity to discuss concepts of Transit Oriented Development and ideas
of urban mobility. The model of nested infrastructure system was presented,
where adaptive Regenerative Infrastructure, characterized as a whole living
systems support, plays a crucial role in new forms of glocal community building
and a networked mobility ecosystem creation. Only “grey”, technical infras-
tructure modernization is not enough to support Regenerative Development and
to enhance the city resilience. Emergent, hybrid infrastructure and the concept of
“urban glocal village” ad hoc implementation will contribute to social, ecological
and economic activities revival of local communities and culture of glocalization
spread. Therefore the joint development program should be implemented to
integrate elements of techno sphere with natural ecosystems constituents, taking
responsibility for our present and future society of biosphere.

Keywords: Regenerative Development
Glocal village

Nested infrastructure system
Inclusive community

1 Introduction

Mobility and efficient public transportation system, its accessibility and advancement are
influential for the creative city dynamics and a Transit Oriented Development (TOD) in
the 21st century. It is important for high performance of municipal space planning and its
effective management as well as for building inclusive societies with inherent regener-
ative capacity. The intensity of the traffic streams and the transit node routing, diversi-
fication of mobility services and intermodality with supporting infrastructure typology
create emergent transit spaces and activities for contributing to local communities and
culture of glocalization. A Canadian designer and educator Bruce Mau underlined: “The
new mobility culture considers not only transit but also health, education, housing,
waste, and social needs. No transportation system is an island; it must coordinate all
shared systems for maximum effect”. He claims: “… we live our lives within these
invisible systems, blissfully unaware of the artificial life, the intensely designed infras-
tructures that support them” [1]. To paraphrase his sentences from the first pages of the
book Massive Change: “For most of us, infrastructure is invisible. Until it fails” [1].

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 500–510, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_47
 Planning Regenerative Infrastructure of the Szczecin 501

2 Regenerative Infrastructure – Adaptive Part of Nested

Infrastructure System

Infrastructure means connectivity. When we are thinking about connections, services

supply, networking communities, the process of design begins. Colomina and Wigley
assume: “Even the planet itself has been completely encrusted by design as a geological
layer. There is no longer an outside to the world of design. Design has become the
world”. They add: “… every layer of design rests on another and another and another.
To think about design demands an archaeological approach” [2]. Digging in the layers
of infrastructure design archaeology the fuzzy kind of spatial typology could be rec-
ognize today. Expanded grey infrastructure with its airports, railways, roads or har-
bours facilities, supported with power, water or sewage complex systems partly
overlaps a space of sustainable infrastructure. The last one, with its Green and Blue
Infrastructure, including Social and Economic Infrastructure became the nucleus for
Regenerative Infrastructure. Green and Blue Infrastructure facilitates environmental
hydro - biological cycles and enhances resilience or stabilizing ecological dynamics in
natural or semi natural systems such as bio retention areas, wetlands, floodplains or
sustainable drainage systems, as our natural life support system. The capacity of
drainage and rain water systems with the Green - Blue Infrastructure should be
increased and areas for natural retention of rain water (biotops, swamps) as well as
systems of water recycling be created in connection with grey infrastructure areas [3].
The Regenerative Infrastructure characterised as a whole living systems support,
provides cyclical metabolism and systemic vitality enhancement, is an indigenous
continuity of Sustainable Infrastructure as an adaptive part in nested infrastructure
system (Fig. 1).
The Sustainable Infrastructure design should evolve into Regenerative Infrastruc-
ture planning with emphasis on restorative abilities, high level of resilience, self-
organization and adaptability. Converting them together, they are important compo-
nents of larger, Natural Ecosystems Infrastructure defined as practices, services and
industries that support a healthy and variegated biosphere [4]. Therefore Nested Sus-
tainability model represents a transformative development approach with fuzzy logic
and appropriate hierarchy of infrastructure, where law of nature is a basic regulation
[3]. Taking into account the global scale of the environmental impact of technical
civilization, we become a biosphere society. Natural Ecosystems Infrastructure such as
forests, meadows, agricultural lands, rivers, estuaries, swamp areas offers various
benefits with high level of ecological services overlaps ubiquitous Metaverse1 Infras-
tructure – invisible part of technosphere. As Rifkin suggests: “…the great economic
revolutions in history are infrastructure revolutions, and what makes the great infras-
tructure revolutions transformational is the convergence of new communications media
with new energy regimes. Every energy revolution in history has been accompanied by
its own unique communications revolution. Energy revolutions change the temporal

1
The Metaverse is defined as the convergence of (1) virtually enhanced physical reality and
(2) physically persistent virtual space. It is a fusion of both, while allowing users to experience it as
either [7, 3].
502 L. Świątek

Fig. 1. Present spatial correlations in the model of nested infrastructure system.

and spatial reach of society and make possible more complex living arrangements, all
of which require new communication media to manage and coordinate the new
opportunities” [5]. He convinces: “… intelligent foundational infrastructure is com-
prised of three interlocking Internets: a Communications Internet, an Energy Internet,
and a Logistics Internet. When linked together in a single interactive system—the
Internet of Things—these three Internets provide a stream of Big Data on the comings
and goings of society that can be accessed and shared collaboratively on an open global
Commons by the whole of humanity in the pursuit of “extreme productivity” and a zero
marginal cost society” [5]. But in the end the hybrid system of overlaid and blurred
social, technical, economic and natural infrastructure will present a new perspective
looking beyond smart growth and sustainability to thriveability, from coexistence to
cohabitation and coevolution, where adaptive Regenerative Infrastructure will play a
dominant, breakthrough role in global – local collaboration.

3 Glocal Aspects of Hybrid Infrastructure ad hoc

Development

Roland Robertson defined “glocalisation” as an adaptation of global actions to local

conditions and suggested that everything that happens with local communities and
cultures in the conditions of globalization, as well as what these communities bring to
globalization and how they do it, should be treated as a process and define the term
“glocalisation”. He described the oxymoronic character of glocalisation as “universal
particularization and particular universalization” [6].
When a model of nested infrastructure system (Fig. 1) overlaps the areas of global
and local activities, then the area of the glocal infrastructure space will emerge (Fig. 2).
Local, hybrid systems that cooperate at the level of the neighbourhood unit, the local
 Planning Regenerative Infrastructure of the Szczecin 503

community network, the bioregional area of interconnectedness will affect both the
global Metaverse Infrastructure and the planetary, living network of natural ecosystems.
The new social media, energy micro smart grids, city wide video surveillance networks,
big data highways, e-sensors and on-line monitoring for climate change risk assessment
are examples of emergent, complex systems delivered to work at both local and global
levels as part of tech-integrated development. Implementation of bio-productive com-
mons such as the urban agriculture, city aquaculture or aquaponics systems, municipal
forests, rain gardens, water/energy/resources recovery and storage areas are facilitators
of Regenerative Infrastructure and creates enormous potency for glocal activities in
frames of networked communities ad hoc development. This emerging process of a new
spatial organization, local - global symbiosis will release new social forms, glocal spatial
lifestyle [8] the evolution of which can be characterized by the concept of “adhocism”.
“Adhocism” is a term coined by Charles Jencks and first used by him in architectural
criticism in 1968. It can also be applied to many human endeavours, denoting a principle
of action having speed or economy and purpose or utility. Basically it involves using an
available system or dealing with an existing situation in a new way to solve a problem
quickly and efficiently. It is a method of creation relying particularly on resources which
are already at hand. Incidentally, the word adhocism has the property of itself being ad
hoc. An initially clumsy parasynthesis like “oneupmanship” or “feedback,” it forces
recognition of its own birth and history” [9]. So today, the “global city” has replaced
McLuhan concept of the “global village” where citizens live in neighbourhoods of
strangers and virtual map is understood as the territory. Perhaps a “glocal village” is
needed to revive the sense of the local community and a unique, resilient culture of
authenticity, diversity and coexistence with living, natural ecosystems in built urban
environment.

Fig. 2. Model of nested infrastructure system and its correlations with global, local and glocal
scales of ad hoc activities.
504 L. Świątek

4 Szczecin Metropolitan Railway as a Case Study

of the Evolution of the Infrastructure Space

Szczecin, a port city, formerly a Hanseatic town, is located in the estuary of the Odra
River at its mouth to the Baltic Sea. The historical development of the city was
connected with the jurisdiction of various, changing rulers. In Szczecin there are traces
of Slavic and Brandenburgian settlements, the rule of the Pomeranian dukes, the
Danish state and the kingdom of Sweden influences, the Prussian army settled here and
fortified the town, and the German administration managed the spatial development.
The city developed as the main port of the Berlin metropolis, after the Second World
War Szczecin became a Polish border city, one of the largest transshipment ports of the
Baltic Sea and one of the greenest cities in Poland, whose marketing strategy for
sustainable development is the idea of “the Floating Garden”. A vision that assumes the
harmonious coexistence of Natura 2000 sites, water reservoirs in the Odra river delta
and Dąbie Lake in the neighborhood of the transformed urban areas and the integrated
areas of the Great Szczecin agglomeration. In searching the layers of archeology in the
design of the infrastructure space, it is necessary to return to the period of the industrial
revolution, where in the nineteenth century the construction of railway lines for the
needs of dynamically developing industry and trade in port Szczecin was a sign of
time. The new means of transport was necessary for the rapid exchange of goods and
raw materials in a competitive forwarding market, dominated by water transport (on the
Odra river and the Baltic Sea). The railway connection Berlin - Szczecin, launched in
1843, was the second in the history of the construction of railway routes running from
the capital of the German state. In Szczecin, the railway junction was quickly
expanded, new stations, railway lines and transshipment sidings were created together
with the necessary “grey” technical infrastructure. In 1898, the Police line was opened,
which became the landmark of the Stettiner Ringbahn – a town center bypass called
ring line. New station buildings and infrastructure were created in towns located out-
side the administrative borders of Szczecin City. The synthetic gasoline plant in Police
(Hydrierwerke Pölitz), the paper factory in Skolwin (Schlesiche Sulfit-Cellulose Fabrik
Feldmühle), the shipyards Vulkan and Stettiner Oderwerke as well as other areas
served by the regional railway, in 1939 were administratively included in the area of
the Great Szczecin [10]. After the destruction of World War II and the reconstruction of
the “grey” infrastructure, the railway line was used until the 1990s, when passenger
transport was discontinued due to the intense and competitive development of bus and
car transport. Existing station areas have been devastated and transformed, creating
spaces of internal periphery, forgotten waste areas excluded from the use of the local
community. After 2010, the discussion on the use of existing infrastructure resources
was returned. The currently implemented strategy for the development of the public
transport network in the Szczecin Metropolitan Area is to a large extent based on the
existing railway infrastructure and locations of the former stations of the town center
bypass line.
In Szczecin City, it is planned to build only two new stops (Ku Słońcu and
Niemierzyńska) and a new location of the Łękno interchange, which was started at the
end of 2018. Ultimately, 4 lines connecting Szczecin with neighboring towns of the
 Planning Regenerative Infrastructure of the Szczecin 505

agglomeration with a total track length of 118 km, implementation of 40 stops (in-
cluding 31 existing ones), construction of over 2.5 thousand. parking spaces in the Park
and Ride system (Fig. 3). The cost of the investment is estimated at PLN 580 million to
PLN 780 million (around EUR 135-180 million), obtaining co-financing up to 85%
from the European Union funds under Priority Axis V - Development of Rail Transport
in Poland. Measure 5.2 [11, 12].

Fig. 3. Schematic plan of Szczecin Metropolitan Railway (SKM) bypass line with district stops
and stations location as the axis of public transport in the regional metropolitan area. Source:
Pietrzak, Sochanowski [13]

The design work focused mainly on technical aspects, renewal and modernization
of “gray” infrastructure, basic equipment of stops and stations to ensure the basic
comfort of future users. The scope of analyzes has not been extended to the area of
railway stations’ influence and the railway line itself. The issues of the first and last
mile2, accessibility of railway stations areas and the extended functional and spatial
program were not addressed. “Chris Bradshaw, a transport economist, wants planners
and designers to respect what he calls “the scalar hierarchy” This is when trips taken

2
First mile/last mile: before a passenger boards a train, she has to get to the station using other means
of transportation – the so-called first-mile element. And railway stations are rarely the end-point of
her trip; more infrastructure is needed to complete the ‘last mile’ [14].
506 L. Świątek

most frequently are short enough to be made by walking (even if pulling a small cart),
while the next more frequent trips require a bike or bus, and so on” [14]. Therefore, this
somewhat narrowed strategy can be termed ad hoc urban planning. The proposed
technical solutions for Szczecin Metropolitan Railway (SKM) only in the future tend to
trigger the effect of spatial transformations and new investment activities in the railway
station areas and space adjacent to railway lines affecting the built environment to a
greater extent than now due to the higher intensity of use.

5 Potency of the Regenerative Infrastructure Implementation

in Frames of Szczecin Metropolitan Railway Project

The individual SKM station areas differ in their development potential, access spaces,
and the possibilities of integration with other means of communication. These areas
will successively serve various functional needs of the metropolis from 2022, starting
from cyclical mass events (municipal stadium, municipal cemetery, aquapark or
amphitheater), through daily, routine work-home-work transit (Szczecin Shipyard,
Technopark, universities, student housing estates) or individual tourist and recreation
trips (“Różanka” garden park, beech forest “Puszcza Bukowa”, Miedwie Lake).
Therefore, developing the first and last mile strategy for individual stations seems to be
an important element for the efficient functioning of the urban transport ecosystem. The
planned metropolitan railways are to provide the inhabitants of the region with fast
accessibility and comfort of mobility. On the other hand the grey technical infras-
tructure of public railway divides urban fabric and ecosystems for pieces, cuts
metropolitan tissue increasing effect of separation, borders building and fragmentation
of the city. Forgotten infrastructure spaces nearby transit lines like no-go areas, places
non-places, no name lands as inner-city peripheries generate an urban patchwork
defined as Metrozones, which model transformation was demonstrated in the frame of
IBA 2013 (The International Building Exhibition) in Hamburg. “Metrozones open up
considerable spatial resources for new urban-developmental and social strategies of
modernisation in the post-industrialisation process of our cities. As necessary pre-urban
products of industrial modernity, Metrozones can become models of a new form of
inner urban development” [15].
On the same priority level, the Transit Oriented Urban Nodes should be planned as
regenerative hotspots based on space recycling and scenarios of placemaking, adapt-
ability and social inclusiveness, playing important role for a local, positive develop-
ment. Today, so often transit nodes are designed as isolated functional capsules for
aliens called commuters who pass from somewhere to nowhere. Mentioned nodes are
part of the urban communication network, connected with transportation lines, sup-
ported by energy and telecommunication grids as well as internet access and cloud data
facilities to improve comfort of transit space and glocal accessibility. There are dif-
ferent options for the First and the Last Mile strategy: walking, bicycling (including
e-bikes), Segway, taxis and transportation network companies (i.e. Uber), car sharing,
carpooling, neighborhood car, shuttle buses, tramways with appropriate transit access
sheds. Therefore the joint development program should be implemented to encourage
density and access through zoning and enhance compatible land uses near stations [16].
 Planning Regenerative Infrastructure of the Szczecin 507

As the German architect Meinhard von Gerkan underlines: “The railway station should
be a spaciously dimensioned public place that serves passenger transportation and
provides pleasant stays”. There should be: “Integration, not isolation. All building
interventions … are to be integrated into their overall context – either as a landscape
element or as the points of interchange with all traffic systems in a city” [17].

6 Glocal Activities in Transit Oriented Development

Areas – Agenda to Discuss

Effective railway communication between many districts of Szczecin and adjacent

communes will provide a different quality of human and goods flow, stimulate spatial
development around nodal places, multimodal interchange points or railway station
areas in the 21st century. The planning of railway station areas should correspond to the
specificity of the place, the expected frequencies of travel streams, assumed access and
arrival isochards. In the era of crowded cities, this fits in with the principles of spatial
development based on public transport (Transit Oriented Development), promotes the
emergence of new investment areas, attractive public spaces, and the creation of vital
places. Station areas will create opportunity to integrate the local community (place-
making), stimulate to build a local identity fulfilled with glocal activities and appearing
new lifestyles not rarely placed in augmented reality.
For selected, specific SKM station areas called “urban glocal villages” some
architectural concepts were developed, as part of ZUT’s (West Pomeranian University
of Technology) study work for Szczecin City (Fig. 4). There were produced proposals
for spatial interventions that could trigger the involvement of local communities in the
process of creating functions and activities of local residents as well as other public
communication users. The development of the railway station areas was more preferred
than the previously mentioned “Metrozones”. It was accepted that the areas of railway
lines will be another, important stage of spatial analysis of the city in the context of
evolution and integration of green and blue infrastructure, as part of the Regenerative
Development strategy. As a focus, it was assumed that the designed stations were a
platform for various functions and forms referring to the surrounding buildings and the
present and historical atmosphere of districts. These areas were transformed as
important elements of the local, proactive social infrastructure. Neighborhood centers,
day care centers for seniors, points of rapid health interventions and medical services
were designed. Various sports facilities, training rooms for martial arts, swimming and
recreation pools, indoor skateboards and ice rinks were proposed. Sites for mobile work
proved to be important. The projects included CityLabs, office space for short-term
rental, climate-controlled greenhouses for urban farms, bazaars of local vegetables and
fruit. The studies define the spaces of flows of people and products. The possibility of
producing renewable energy, its storage and distribution has been taken into account.
Most of these solutions were treated as elements of an adaptive, Regenerative Infras-
tructure, creating a networked mobility ecosystem. As Thackara concludes: “The
consensus is that mobility, far from being an innate feature of human behavior, is
determined by the needs of communities at a particular place and time. Individuals,
households, and larger groups move around a lot – or not – depending on patterns of
508 L. Świątek

land tenure, and their access to land, the capacity of the commons to support them (or
not), and other socio-economic factors. Mobility, in other words is a second-order need.
We move as much as we have to in order to obtain food, shelter, security, and the
opportunity to connect and transact with each other. The more those amenities are
present in our immediate surroundings, the less we tend to move. This is why economic
localization and sustainability are subtexts of the same story” [14].

Fig. 4. Architectural concepts of new railway stations: “Szczecin Pogodno” and “Szczecin
Niemierzyńska” as proposals of glocal public space and different community organization with
inclusive accommodation of social services; examples of West Pomeranian University of
Technology ZUT’s study works made by J. Mizyn, K. Afeltowicz, T. Sachanowicz, L. Świątek.
Source: ZUT Szczecin

7 Conclusion

The evolution of the Szczecin Metropolitan Railway over the course of civilizational
changes in the 19th and 20th centuries triggers a discussion about the future of public
transport, its prosperity in the light of the planned life cycle, its necessity in the era of
virtual economy and alternative methods of urban mobility in the 21st century. The
infrastructure of the Szczecin ring railroad has left a lasting impression in the urban
tissue, and the ways and consequences of managing adjacent areas remain an open
process, a challenge for future generations of Szczecin residents.
The Szczecin Metropolitan Railway development planned in the ad-hoc urbanism
formula in harbor city called “the Floating Garden” created an opportunity to regen-
erate existing transit zones. To realize a vibrant, inclusive public spaces around the core
 Planning Regenerative Infrastructure of the Szczecin 509

of urban transit nodes, the integration of forgotten inner-city peripheries is required to

be a catalyst of local, positive development.
The Regenerative Infrastructure is needed to sustain and to explore the potency of
Transit Oriented Urban Nodes. This hybrid infrastructure based on ecological systems
dynamics will enhance the city resilience including coherence between social, eco-
nomic and ecological aspects of everyday living in the built environment, enriched with
glocal activities. Such infrastructure serves better than sustainable one, it drives to the
state of vitality and salutogenic society, with focus on interoperability and inclusion
between all parties engaged in the development and maintenance process in a positive
way according to the rules of the Responsible Urbanism.

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 Mountain Home Eco Hotel - Diversity
and Sustainability of Green Roofs

Huang Anjun1(&) and Zhao Shengxuan2(&)

1
School of Art and Design, Wuhan University of Technology,
Wuhan 430070, Hubei Province, China
381825671@qq.com
2
School of International Education, Changchun Institute of Technology,
Changchun 130012, Jilin Province, China
1491262838@qq.com

Abstract. With the development of society, the environment in which we live is

deteriorating. How to improve the environment we live in has become the focus
of attention. The emergence of green design points out a way for our design.
Nature should be protected from human destruction. People should explore a
harmonious relationship between design and humans, design and nature, and
between man and nature. Roof greening is not only the development of green
space into the air, but also the perfect combination of architectural art and garden
art. It is a green and sustainable design method. The design of this eco-hotel is
centered on the theme of “returning to hide” and “mountain residence”, hoping to
keep people away from the hustle and bustle of the city and return to the tran-
quility of nature. The purpose of this design is to integrate the exterior form of the
building, the landscape of the landscape with the surrounding environment, and
at the same time protect the original vegetation of the mountain plants as much as
possible, in harmony with nature. Through the greening of the roof, the green
area is fully guaranteed. Different types of roof greening play different roles. The
large-scale roof greening hides the whole project in the mountains, and looks like
a mountain in the distance, thus achieving the original intention of designing
“returning to the mountain forest”. This paper will focus on the role, type and
development of green roofs, and study roof greening through case studies and
field research. While meeting basic functions, we pay more attention to the
relationship between people and nature and the environment, and achieve sus-
tainable development through various roof greening methods.

Keywords: Roof greening
Green roof types
Sustainable development

1 Overview of Design Scheme

1.1 Project Description
This design is a new building in Lintong, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province (Fig. 1). The project
covers an area of 11,000 square meters and is mainly used for tourism and vacation.
Eco-hotel integrates accommodation, catering and health preservation. The region has
superior geographical position and elegant ecological environment. As the previous
buildings have been abandoned and demolished, this design is mainly to redesign the
hotel’s architecture and landscape (Fig. 2). The hotel is surrounded by mountains with
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 511–520, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7_48
512 H. Anjun and Z. Shengxuan

superior geographical conditions. Close to Lishan National Forest Park Scenic Area,
the transportation is convenient, and the distance between the city is moderate. Rela-
tively speaking, it has great attraction to the modern people who live fast and mono-
tonously in most cities.

Fig. 1. Geographic map Fig. 2. Project plan

1.2 Design Inspiration

The main business items of resort hotels are tourism, leisure and vacation. Because the
project is located near Lishan National Forest Park, While satisfying the basic functions
of the hotel, we should also protect the surrounding ecological environment. Ensuring
the rational use of natural resources in green area is also a key point of this design. In
order to better integrate the hotel into the surrounding environment, the inspiration of
this design is mainly based on mountain dwelling, ecology, and reclusion as the main
design ideas. At the same time, it incorporates the Western minimalism and the design
concept that function is more than form. And joined the more mature concept of
ecological environmental protection, to maximize the guarantee of the original green
area. The design idea of Less is more put forward by famous designer Mies. The design
does not need too much decoration, with the simplest and most efficient way and means
to achieve integration with nature. In modern times, designers should be more socially
responsible. At the same time, we should pay attention to the environment we live in.
With the least things and the simplest way to meet people’s needs, so roof greening has
become a focus of this design.

1.3 Design Innovation

This design mainly integrates the building with the surrounding environment to make
the tourists seem to be in the nature. Using terraced terrain, the building is attached to
the mountain like terraced fields. Different types of roof greening are used on the top of
each floor, which increases the available area of the hotel and better ensures the original
vegetation area of the local mountain area (Fig. 3).
Different types of roof greening have different functions and vegetation types. In
order to enrich the diversity of green space types and plants, the hotel roof greening
also uses different types. Including open, semi-intensive and intensive. Water and patio
are added on the basis of common types (Figs. 4 and 5). Due to the limited area of the
site, in order to increase the visual feeling of the site, the reflection of the water surface
 Mountain Home Eco Hotel - Diversity and Sustainability of Green Roofs 513

Fig. 3. Architectural rendering

on the surrounding landscape is used to increase the site area. On the one hand, the use
of patio is to increase the lighting inside the building, on the other hand, to make the
roof garden and landscape have a rhythmic change and fluctuation in the visual sense,
which increases the overall interest and flexibility (Fig. 6).

Fig. 4. Landscape layered map Fig. 5. Functional map

Fig. 6. Waters rendering

514 H. Anjun and Z. Shengxuan

2 Design Analysis
2.1 Green Roof
In this design, because it is located near Lishan National Forest Park, the protection of
the natural environment is very important. Architectural and landscape design also
focuses on ecological and environmental protection. Roof is not only the “functional
parts” of building structure, but also the greening of roof brings new individuality to the
building and the environment. Green roof provides additional green surface in limited
open-air space, but also improves the value of buildings. Roof garden will be an
important living space for urban people in the future. Roof greening is very important
to increase the area of urban green space and improve the environment we live in. The
author believes that people and nature should live in harmony through green design, so
this design spends a lot of time in roof greening to imitate the natural environment and
landscape, to ensure the green area, as far as possible to reduce the damage to the
natural landscape in the mountains.

2.2 Diversity of Green Roofs

2.2.1 Various Ways of Roof Greening
Roof greening is not a single mode, the ways and types of roof greening are also
different,it is depends on the function of the building itself and the needs of users.
Green roofs protect roofs from ultraviolet radiation, prolong roof life, keep water and
evaporate slowly, thus preventing large-capacity drainage from entering storm sewers,
reducing additional sewage infrastructure, or retaining rainwater for secondary use.
Vegetation reduces dust levels in surrounding areas, regulates air humidity, and pro-
vides new habitats for plants and animals. Different types of roof greening are quite
different.
(1) Extensive roof greening, also known as open roof greening, is a relatively simple
greening style. It is characterized by not spending a lot of time on care, nor
deliberate irrigation, and can survive on natural weather. This design adopts this
kind of greening method on the roof that some tourists cannot reach. The vege-
tation is mainly grassland, which reduces the maintenance cost and can also
increase the green area.
(2) Semi-intensive type is a form between open and dense roof greening. It is char-
acterized by frequent care, and the choice of plants includes lawns and shrubs.
There is not much use of this roof greening method in this design.
(3) Intensive roof greening is often referred to as “roof garden”. This type of roof
greening makes full use of the roof space and is planned to be a garden or park for
tourists (Figs. 7 and 8). The space contains vegetation, landscapes and even water
features, so it has high requirements for building roof loads, which are usually
built on reinforced concrete slabs. Such roof greening can be used as a public rest
space or as a tourist activity scene.
In addition to the traditional roof greening method, a large-scale roof pool was used
in the design of the hotel. On the one hand, the roof pool can use his reflection to
 Mountain Home Eco Hotel - Diversity and Sustainability of Green Roofs 515

increase the visual experience, increase the visual space of the site, and the pool can
also increase the humidity and temperature of the air. In terms of environmental pro-
tection, the pool can store rainwater, purify water and irrigate vegetation. In the roof
landscape design, the single roof greening method will be tedious, so in the design,
different types of roof greening methods are added without affecting the overall style
and effect (Figs. 8 and 9).

Fig. 7. Roof garden rendering

Fig. 8. Roof pool rendering Fig. 9. Roof garden rendering

2.2.2 Diverse Plant Configurations and Planting Methods

Planting on the roof garden also has certain requirements. In this design, the plant
species are selected to be beautiful in shape, small in volume, shallow in roots, drought-
tolerant and water-resistant, and have good wind-resistant plants, such as Rosaceae,
white orchid, scorpion, hibiscus, and small pomegranate. In order to increase the
ornamental nature, we also used species such as Sedum, Golden Leaf Sedum, Sedum,
and shrubs such as Euonymus japonicus to enrich the vegetation. Since some plants
have strong penetrating power to the waterproof layer and the protective layer, the plant
variety should be selected according to the soil thickness of the roof garden, the
strength of the protective layer and the bearing capacity of the roof. This design also
uses local plants, such as cypress, pomegranate and other plants that are easy to grow.
Plants introduced from plants in the field may adversely affect or even destroy local soil
or native plants. Because of the local setting of dry landscape in the roof garden, we
often use evergreen plants and beautiful plants such as cypress, carnivorous plants,
Pyracantha.
Because of the limited load-bearing capacity of the roof, and the greening of the
roof requires planting a large number of plants and setting up different landscapes, so in
516 H. Anjun and Z. Shengxuan

addition to the traditional planting methods, a variety of planting methods have been
adopted. In some landscape areas, soilless matrix planting method is adopted, which
uses light materials such as peat or forest rotten leaf soil, expanded vermiculite as
seedling matrix to fix plants, so that plant roots directly contact nutrient solution. On
the one hand, this planting method can reduce the pollution of waste materials to the
environment and has high efficiency. At the same time, it can make the planting of
plants get rid of the restrictions of soil, water and other conditions. It is a preferred
greening method for roof gardens.

2.2.3 Diversity of Roof Greening Materials

In the use of materials for roof greening, different materials are used depending on the
function. Different materials will give people different visual feelings due to their
different colors, textures and sizes. The use of the material should be coordinated with
the green plants on the roof to give a comfortable visual and use experience.
The main roads on the paved roads of the roof garden use traditional dark floor
tiles, which can contrast with the surrounding environment and highlight the direction
of the road to play a guiding role. At the same time, the bricks are durable and low in
cost, and good repair can reduce the overall maintenance cost. The artificial stone is
used to distinguish the main road from the secondary road.
In the rest area, two different materials are used, one is wood, which is combined
with the surrounding green plants to create a feeling of camping in the forest, allowing
people to integrate into nature. The other one is artificial marble, which forms a contrast
with the surrounding environment and can clearly divide the area. The smooth surface
of this material gives a comfortable and luxurious feeling. At the same time, this
material has a hard texture and strong stain resistance. It has both natural marble and
natural stone, and can be used in various climatic conditions.

2.3 Sustainability of Green Roofs

Sustainable development means that under the premise of fully satisfying the devel-
opment of contemporary society and human beings, it does not overly destroy the
development space required by future generations. It is necessary to make our society
move forward, and to protect the global environment on which human beings depend,
so that future generations can develop sustainably. The green roof is a sustainable form
of design. This roof landscape design reflects sustainability through the secondary use
of natural resources and the effects of plants on the environment.

2.3.1 Sustainable Use of Natural Resources

In this design, the height difference of the building is fully utilized, the rainwater flows
downward, and the plant and soil are purified through the flow process, and finally flows
to the bottom rainwater garden. Then, through the filtration of the roots and stems of the
sandstone vegetation, the water flows into the land to protect the water source or collect
the water source through the diversion pipe, and then the vegetation is irrigated or reused.
The roof is fully illuminated and the sunshine is long. It can fully give the nutrients
needed by the plants and reflect the sustainability through the use of natural resources.
 Mountain Home Eco Hotel - Diversity and Sustainability of Green Roofs 517

2.3.2 Sustainable Use of Roof Greening

Sustainability is also reflected in how long-term green roofs can be preserved and used.
The cost of roof greening is relatively high and cannot be abandoned after a period of
use. Therefore, attention should be paid to the choice of plants, the improvement of
sowing techniques, and the support of the building structure to the roof garden, both to
reduce costs and to increase the survival rate of plants. The plants we use are drought-
tolerant, wind-resistant and viable. In some areas, soil-free substrate carriers are used
for sowing. This planting method can reduce the construction cost of green roofs and
broaden biodiversity, because the soil has certain structure. Corrosive, so as to avoid
the impact on the life of the building, can be used for a long time.

2.3.3 Sustainable Development of Culture

In this green roof design, some traditional Chinese garden gardening techniques were
used. Adapt to local conditions: use local materials and vegetation, and blend with the
surrounding environment. One step at a time: the scenery is different everywhere,
adding a sense of freshness. The winding path is quiet: along the curved road, gradually
deepen and so on. Through the use of these gardening techniques, we will inherit and
develop traditional Chinese gardens. In this design, a pile of horses was set up on the
landscape pieces. The plants were selected with pomegranate and other objects and
vegetation with local cultural characteristics to highlight the regional characteristics.
Shaanxi is a famous historical city in the world. While developing, it cannot completely
abandon the unique and representative things in the locality, so that the historical
context can be inherited and developed.

2.3.4 Sustainable Use of the Site

Roof greening itself is a sustainable use of the site. In this design, the site was reserved
in the three- and four-story extensive roof greening. In the future use process, the
secondary design and utilization of roof greening can be carried out according to the
actual use needs (Fig. 10). Due to the limited space available on the project itself, the
space on the roof is more valuable. Roof greening has certain requirements for the
building itself, such as load bearing and waterproofing. Therefore, the design of these
spaces is pre-covered with extensive roof greening, so that the entire building can
support the design of roof greening and reduce maintenance costs. It provides condi-
tions for future intensive and semi-extensive roof greening, ensuring sustainable use of
the site.

Fig. 10. Lawn-style green roof rendering

518 H. Anjun and Z. Shengxuan

2.4 Green Roof Design Considerations

Roof greening is an energy-saving and environmentally friendly way of greening, but
its design has certain conditions, such as the load-bearing roof of the building,
waterproofing, drainage, planting and distribution of vegetation.
The first is the requirement of the building itself. Because the roof greening needs a
lot of vegetation, soil and even water, it has high requirements for the building load,
garden type and modular roof green roof design. The design building is attached to the
stepped terrain. Each floor is directly connected to the mountain. The load-bearing
columns of the building are also strengthened to ensure the load-bearing capacity of the
roof. These need to be incorporated into the design before construction, and the bearing
capacity of the roof should be planned in advance to avoid problems later (Fig. 11).
Rainwater passes through the vegetation soil and enters the drainage aquifer to facilitate
secondary use of the rainwater. The waterproof layer protects the building. At the same
time, planting should also take into account the thickness of the soil. Generally, the
depth of the lawn is between 10 cm and 15 cm, the depth of the small plants is 20 cm,
and the depth of the shrub is 30 cm.

2.5 The Practical Significance of Roof Greening

With the development of society and the acceleration of urbanization, air pollution has
become increasingly serious, large areas of green space have been developed, and
mountain forests have been destroyed. How to develop green space in a limited space
has become the focus of attention. With the advancement of technology and con-
struction technology, more and more people are beginning to focus on the roof of the
building.

Fig. 11. Roof structural drawings

Foreign studies on roof greening have already begun to study and popularize. At
present, China attaches more and more importance to roof greening. Roof greening in
large cities such as Beijing, Shanghai, and Chongqing has begun to spread, and cities
have begun to carry out roof greening activities in various forms according to their
respective land conditions.
 Mountain Home Eco Hotel - Diversity and Sustainability of Green Roofs 519

Therefore, in the design of this eco-resort hotel, in order to truly achieve envi-
ronmental protection and ecology, the whole project is integrated into the whole
environment of Lishan, and roof greening is a key point. The role of forests in the
overall ecological environment is enormous.

3 Works Display and Design Instructions

3.1 Roof Garden Landscape Design
In the design of the roof garden, the Japanese landscape of the dry landscape is used.
Through the combination of rock, sand and green plants, a unique rhythm is formed.
Taking the water from the sand, it looks like a landscape painting at a distance, forming
a static beauty. At the same time, it is also avoided that the grass is single in the skin,
and the irregular shape of the sand is scattered in it to form a contrast. There is also a
seating area at both ends of the garden, paved with wood and stone, with short shrubs
(Fig. 12). The rest area can be used for rest and tea, and it is also a good viewing
platform. As the project faces the valley, the entire valley can be seen.

Fig. 12. Resting area rendering

3.2 Roof Pool Landscape Design

If the roof garden on the first floor is quiet, the pool on the second floor is active. The
flow of water gives people an active feeling. The combination of motion and static
brings a certain change and rhythm to the whole roof greening. First,the purpose of the
design is to consider the ecological role of water, increase the humidity, cool down the
heat, and at the same time play a reservoir for rainwater collection function, and make
secondary use of rainwater. Secondly, due to the limited space of the site, the reflection
of the entire water surface is like a huge mirror, which visually expands the area of the
entire project. From the perspective of the viewing effect, the indoors look out the
window, the mountains and rivers meet, depicting a landscape painting (Fig. 13).
A small area of green space is set on the water surface to form a visual sense of “Huxin
Island”, which increases the overall interest, and the entire lake surface is no longer
monotonous. The patio in the center of the lake is connected to the second floor, which
is conducive to the lighting of the second floor. It is also in contrast to the lake island. It
is a vertical extension (Fig. 14).
520 H. Anjun and Z. Shengxuan

Fig. 13. Courtyard rendering Fig. 14. Nightscape rendering

4 Summary

The selection of the theme and direction of this design is an experience of returning to
nature and returning to the mountain. According to the trend of today’s design
development, it is closer to the green design. Natural vegetation is restored by blending
with the use of roof greening and different types of greening methods. To gain
experience for future designs, you should focus on these available spaces and use green
design methods to design.
There are also many shortcomings in the design process. In the process of thinking
and design, I also learned more knowledge and skills. In the process of communication
with the teacher, I learned that design is a never-ending learning process. It not only
needs its own enthusiasm, but also comes from the experience and feelings of life, and
constantly breaks through self-innovation.

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3. Qi, Z.: Policy analysis and Enlightenment of roof greening promotion abroad. China
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4. Hongli, W.: Jingxin Xinxin-Japanese Courtyard Design. Huazhong University of Science
and Technology Press, Hubei (2014)
5. Xiang, Z., Ruijie, Z., Ronghai, G.: Present situation and development suggestions of roof
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(2016)
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Author Index

A H
Aceves-González, Carlos, 158 Harań, Anna Wojtas, 323
Almeida Chicaiza, Byron Sebastián, 447 Hechavarría Hernández, Jesús Rafael, 447
Amałowicz, Paweł, 167
Anjun, Huang, 511
J
Jablonska, Joanna, 23, 34, 57, 78
B Jaglarz, Anna, 87, 98
Bardzinska-Bonenberg, Teresa, 113, 221, 279
Bhattacharya, Tanima, 358
L
Bonenberg, Agata, 3, 313
Li, Lin, 279
Bonenberg, Wojciech, 124, 135, 234, 266, 279,
Liexue, Chen, 371
295, 418
Lin, Maiqi, 381, 458
Borucińska-Bieńkowska, Hanna, 427
Liu, Shoufang, 221, 279
Bosia, Daniela, 347
Bowles, Graeme, 405
M
Brzezicki, Marcin, 179
Ma, Zixuan, 266
Maciejko, Alicja, 12, 45, 304
C Maldonado, Paulo, 480
Cellucci, Cristiana, 286 Mireles-Ramirez, Mario, 158
Charytonowicz, Jerzy, 45
Czajka, Roman, 188, 304 N
Navarro, Eduardo, 405
Nowakowski, Przemyslaw, 208, 335
D
Dai, Linong, 436 P
Dasgupta, Suparna, 358 Pelczarski, Zdzislaw, 146
Di Sivo, Michele, 286 Preto, Sandra, 392
Du, Jiangtao, 196
Dudzinski, Andrzej, 256 Q
Qi, Ling, 234, 266, 295
F
Fernández-Rivera, Claudia M., 158 R
Ferrão, Leonor, 480 Ren, Shaoning, 436
Forero, Boris, 447 Ricaurte, Virginia, 447

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

J. Charytonowicz and C. Falcão (Eds.): AHFE 2019, AISC 966, pp. 521–522, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20151-7
522 Author Index

S W
Savio, Lorenzo, 347 Walker, Guy H., 405
Sen, Joy, 358 Wang, Chuanshun, 458
Shang, Huifang, 381, 458 Wang, Tongwen, 471
Shengxuan, Zhao, 511 Wei, Xia, 135, 234, 295
Shi, Xiaolei, 347 Wei, Xintong, 490
Siu, Kin Wai Michael, 490 Wojtas-Harań, Anna, 66
Skrzypczak, Agnieszka, 45 Wojtyszyn, Bogusław, 12
Sobolewski, Andrzej, 188 Wuzhong, Zhou, 371
Świątek, Leszek, 500
Z
T Zallio, Matteo, 158
Tang, Yuyang, 196 Zhang, Man, 196
Trocka-Leszczynska, Elzbieta, 23, 34, 57, 78 Zheng, Yongtao, 381, 458
Zhou, Mo, 135, 234, 266, 279, 295
U Zhou, Wuzhong, 471
Urbanik, Jadwiga, 243 Zou, Guangtian, 490