Table of Contents

Acknowledgment ....................................................................................................................................... 5
Abstract: ..................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.Problem Statement: ................................................................................................................................. 7
2. Introduction: ........................................................................................................................................... 8
3. Background Information: ....................................................................................................................... 9
3.1 Land Use Distribution by Category:(Pie Chart) ............................................................................. 10
3.2 Annual Deforestation, 2015: .......................................................................................................... 11
4. Worldwide Issue: ................................................................................................................................. 12
4.1 Deforestation in Brazil: .................................................................................................................. 12
4.1Amazon Rainforest (South America) – A Global Case of Severe Deforestation: .......................... 13
5. Deforestation in Pakistain: ................................................................................................................... 15
5.1 Case Study: Deforestation in Swat District: ................................................................................... 15
5.1.1 Consequences of deforestation in Swat:...................................................................................... 15
5.2 Deforestation in Punjab, Pakistan: ................................................................................................. 16
5.2.1 Major Causes of Deforestation in Punjab ................................................................................... 16
5.2.2 Case Study: Changa Manga Forest ............................................................................................. 16
5.2.3 Environmental Impacts in Punjab ............................................................................................... 16
6. Causes of deforestation: ....................................................................................................................... 17
Agricultural Expansion: .................................................................................................................... 17
Pakistan Context: .............................................................................................................................. 17
Logging and Timber Extraction ....................................................................................................... 17
Pakistan Context: .............................................................................................................................. 17
Infrastructure Development: ............................................................................................................. 17
Pakistan Context: .............................................................................................................................. 17
Mining Activities .............................................................................................................................. 17
Global Examples: ............................................................................................................................. 17
Fuelwood Collection: ....................................................................................................................... 18
Pakistan Context: .............................................................................................................................. 18
Overgrazing by Livestock: ............................................................................................................... 18
Pakistan Context: .............................................................................................................................. 18
Natural Disasters and Climate Change: ............................................................................................ 18
Weak Forest Governance and Policies: ............................................................................................ 18

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7.Possible solutions:................................................................................................................................. 18
7.1 Environmental solutions: ................................................................................................................... 18
7.2 Economic and Market-Based Solutions ............................................................................................. 19
8. References: ........................................................................................................................................... 20

COMPLEX ENGINEERING PROBLEM 2

 Title

"Enviornmental Prolem-
Deforestation."

COMPLEX ENGINEERING PROBLEM 3

 Dedication
Dedicated to the dreamers who dared, the believers who supported,

and the tireless workers who brought vision to life. This project

stands as a testament to collective passion and unwavering

commitment. With gratitude for each contributor, may this

endeavor inspire future journeys and celebrate the beauty of shared

achievement.

COMPLEX ENGINEERING PROBLEM 4

 Acknowledgment
I am deeply grateful to Dr. Sadia Ismail for his invaluable guidance and

unwavering support throughout our journey in tackling a complex engineering

problem. Dr. Sadia’s expertise, dedication, and encouragement have been

pivotal in shaping the direction and quality of this report. I would like to

express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Sadia Ismail for his unwavering

commitment to promoting academic excellence and for serving as an

outstanding mentor in the field of complex engineering. This report is a

testament to his dedication to fostering the next generation of engineers.

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Abstract:
Deforestation is one of the most critical environmental issues facing the modern world, with far-reaching
implications for climate regulation, biodiversity preservation, and sustainable development. This report
explores the scope, causes, and consequences of deforestation at both global and national levels, with a
particular focus on Pakistan and the urban region of Lahore. Over the past 50 years, large-scale forest
loss driven by agriculture, infrastructure development, illegal logging, and population pressure has
degraded ecosystems and intensified natural disasters. Global hotspots such as the Amazon, Congo
Basin, and Southeast Asia are examined alongside case studies from northern Pakistan to contextualize
the crisis. The report evaluates Pakistan’s reforestation efforts, such as the Billion Tree Tsunami, and
outlines viable ecological and policy-based solutions including afforestation, community-based forest
management, agroforestry, and governance reforms. The findings emphasize the urgency of collective
action, sustainable resource use, and environmental education to curb deforestation and ensure
ecological resilience for future generations.

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1.Problem Statement:
Deforestation, the large-scale removal of forest cover for agriculture, urban expansion, infrastructure,
and logging, has become a critical environmental threat globally and in Pakistan. Despite the ecological
importance of forests in regulating climate, conserving biodiversity, and supporting human livelihoods,
forested areas are declining at an alarming rate. Pakistan, where forest cover is already below the
international standard, is experiencing severe deforestation due to weak environmental governance,
population pressure, and unsustainable land use. Urban centers like Lahore face significant tree canopy
loss, contributing to rising temperatures and poor air quality. This escalating forest degradation poses
serious risks to climate stability, water resources, and ecological balance, demanding immediate,
comprehensive intervention at local, national, and global levels.

Figure 1. Deforestation. Source:SGK-Planet

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2. Introduction:
Deforestation, which includes the irreversible loss and removal of forests for non-forest uses like
agriculture, infrastructure development, urban growth, and lumber exploitation, is a serious and urgent
environmental problem. Because they control the temperature, preserve biodiversity, safeguard soil, and
provide for the livelihoods of millions of people, forests are essential to preserving ecological
equilibrium. However, the rate of forest depletion worldwide is alarming due to factors like growing
human activity, economic pressures, and lax implementation of environmental regulations. Particularly
in ecologically delicate areas like the northern mountain regions and quickly urbanizing towns like
Lahore, nations like Pakistan are seeing a sharp decline in their forests. Wide-ranging effects of
deforestation include increased susceptibility to natural catastrophes including floods and landslides,
loss of wildlife habitat, water scarcity, and climate change. We first outlined the problem's scope and
examined regional and worldwide patterns in deforestation over the previous 50 years in order to fully
address this environmental challenge. As part of our research methodology, we examined data from
peer-reviewed academic publications on deforestation in Pakistan as well as data from globally
renowned sources including the FAO and UNEP. We then looked at case studies from other global
hotspots for deforestation, like Indonesia, the Amazon, and the Congo Basin, to learn about the common
causes and effects of forest loss. We then looked into the particular circumstances in Pakistan, evaluating
the reasons, trends, and effects of deforestation at the local and national levels, with a focus on Lahore.

Figure 2. Deforestation. Source: Wikipedia

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3. Background Information:
Over the past 50 years, deforestation has emerged as one of the most serious threats to environmental
sustainability. The term refers to the large-scale removal of forest cover, primarily for agricultural
expansion, logging, infrastructure development, and urbanization. Global forest coverage has seen a
substantial decline since the 1970s. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), global
forest area decreased from 4.128 billion hectares in 1990 to 4.06 billion hectares in 2020, which equates
to a net loss of 10 million hectares per year. However, when considering deforestation trends over the
last five decades (1970–2020), the numbers become even more alarming, especially in tropical regions.
Tropical forests in Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Southeast Asia have experienced the highest
deforestation rates due to industrial-scale agriculture, especially for soy and palm oil. The Amazon
Rainforest alone has lost nearly 17% of its forest cover since 1970, mainly due to cattle ranching and
logging (Laurance et al., 2002). Similarly, Indonesia has witnessed rapid loss of rainforest to support
palm oil production, with an estimated deforestation rate of 1.3 million hectares per year between 1990
and 2015 (Margono et al., 2014). These patterns demonstrate that deforestation is a worldwide crisis
driven by both local and global economic factors.
In the context of Pakistan, forests cover only about 4.8% of the total land area, which is far below the
recommended international standard of 25%. According to the Pakistan Forest Institute, the country has
lost significant forest areas due to illegal logging, urban encroachment, infrastructure projects, and the
dependence on wood as a fuel source, especially in rural areas. Between 1990 and 2020, Pakistan lost
approximately 1.3 million hectares of tree cover (Global Forest Watch, 2021). The northern areas of
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK), Gilgit-Baltistan, and Azad Jammu & Kashmir have been particularly
affected due to high population pressure and lack of effective forest management.
In urban regions like Lahore, deforestation is mostly linked to urban sprawl and infrastructure
development. The construction of large-scale transportation projects such as the Lahore Metro, Ring
Road, and housing societies like DHA and Bahria Town have led to the clearing of green belts and
mature tree stands. According to a WWF Pakistan report (2021), Lahore has lost over 70% of its tree
canopy in the past 20 years, contributing to severe air pollution and increasing urban temperatures
commonly known as the urban heat island effect.
Over the years, several national initiatives have attempted to address deforestation in Pakistan. One of
the most notable efforts is the Billion Tree Tsunami Project, launched in 2014 by the Government of
KPK, which was later expanded to the Ten Billion Tree Tsunami Project (TBTTP) at the national level.
These programs aim to restore degraded forest lands, increase forest cover, and engage communities in
conservation practices. While they have shown promise, issues related to project monitoring, tree

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survival rates, and long-term maintenance remain. The background of deforestation reflects a global
pattern of forest decline due to economic development, population growth, and weak environmental
governance. In the case of Pakistan, deforestation poses unique challenges due to its geographic,
economic, and social conditions. The data from the past 50 years clearly indicates a need for urgent and
sustained action to combat this environmental crisis.

Figure 3.Figure 2Global Tree Cover Loss (2001-2023) Source:World Resource Institute

3.1 Land Use Distribution by Category:(Pie Chart)

The pie chart illustrates the distribution of various land use categories, highlighting the proportion of
each type within the surveyed region. The majority of the land is covered by Grassland (30%) and
Bog/Heath (28%), collectively making up over half of the total land area. These categories are followed
by Built Land Rural (13%), which represents rural infrastructure and settlements, and Windfarms (9%),
indicating a notable investment in renewable energy infrastructure.
Other significant land uses include Roads (7%), Green Space (5%), and Quarry (4%), which contribute
to transportation, urban landscaping, and resource extraction respectively. Smaller proportions are
occupied by Other (2%), Built Land Urban (1.3%), Peat (0.6%), and Cropland (0.24%), suggesting
limited urbanization and agricultural activity in this region. This distribution reflects a predominantly
natural and semi-natural environment, with substantial ecological assets such as grasslands and

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heathlands, and limited urban pressure. The presence of windfarms also suggests a shift towards
sustainable land use and clean energy initiatives.

Figure 4. Land Use Piechart. Source: UK Environmental Land Use Report, 2020

3.2 Annual Deforestation, 2015:

Annual Deforestation, 2015" visually represents the average annual deforestation (in hectares) across
different countries around the world. The intensity of red shades indicates the extent of forest area lost
each year, with darker reds showing higher levels of deforestation. Countries like Brazil and India stand
out with the darkest red, indicating deforestation rates exceeding 1 million hectares annually. Other
countries in South America, Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and parts of South Asia also show
significant forest loss. In contrast, many countries in Europe, Central Asia, and Oceania have lighter
shades or no data available, indicating either low deforestation or lack of reported figures.

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 Figure 5. Annual Defroestation 2015. Source:UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Forest Resources Assessment.
Published on OurWorldInData.org/deforestation, CC BY.

4. Worldwide Issue:
4.1 Deforestation in Brazil:
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the world lost over 420 million hectares of
forest between 1990 and 2020. The rate of forest loss, though slightly declining in recent years due to
reforestation efforts in some regions, still remains critically high, particularly in the tropics. The Amazon
rainforest in South America, often referred to as the “lungs of the Earth,” is losing forest at a rapid pace,
mostly due to cattle ranching, soy farming, and illegal logging. Brazil alone accounted for more than
60% of global forest loss between 2000 and 2020. Deforestation here not only releases massive amounts
of carbon dioxide but also threatens indigenous communities and countless plant and animal species.
In Central Africa, the Congo Basin rainforest the second-largest tropical forest in the world—is being
heavily degraded due to logging, charcoal production, and agricultural expansion. Similarly, Indonesia
and Malaysia are facing serious deforestation challenges driven by the palm oil industry, resulting in
habitat destruction for endangered species like orangutans, tigers, and rhinoceroses. From 2000 to 2012,
Indonesia lost over 6 million hectares of primary forest, making it one of the fastest forest-clearing
countries globally.
Deforestation is also a concern in temperate and boreal forests. While countries like Russia, Canada, and
parts of Scandinavia have seen large-scale logging, they also practice commercial afforestation to some

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extent. However, concerns remain about the ecological impacts of monoculture plantations and loss of
biodiversity. In contrast, countries like India, China, and Vietnam have invested significantly in
reforestation and afforestation programs, which have contributed to an overall increase in forest area,
though often through artificial plantations rather than restoration of natural forests.
The consequences of global deforestation are profound and far-reaching. It contributes nearly 10–15%
of global greenhouse gas emissions, accelerates climate change, leads to soil erosion and desertification,
disrupts water cycles, and causes the extinction of countless species. Forests serve as carbon sinks, and
their removal significantly reduces the Earth's ability to absorb atmospheric CO₂. Moreover, the loss of
forest cover makes regions more prone to natural disasters such as floods, landslides, and droughts,
which especially affect vulnerable developing nations.

Figure 7. Annual Deforestation Rates in Brazil (2001-2021) Source: Researchgate

Figure 6.Annual Deforestation Rates in Brazil Source: Statista

4.1Amazon Rainforest (South America) – A Global Case of Severe Deforestation:

The Amazon Rainforest, spanning over 5.5 million square kilometers across nine countries—primarily
Brazil, but also Peru, Colombia, and others—is the largest tropical rainforest in the world. It plays a

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critical role in regulating the global climate, hosting about 10% of the world's known biodiversity, and
storing vast amounts of carbon in its biomass and soils.
Over the last few decades, the Amazon has become a global hotspot for deforestation, largely driven by
human activities such as:
Cattle Ranching: This is the primary driver of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon, accounting for up
to 80% of deforested areas. Forests are cleared to create pastures for beef production, much of which is
exported (Fearnside, 2005).
Soybean Farming: The expansion of industrial-scale soy cultivation, particularly in Brazil and Bolivia,
has led to forest clearing. Much of this soy is used to feed livestock in Europe and China (Morton et al.,
2006).
Logging: Legal and illegal logging operations extract valuable timber such as mahogany and cedar, often
leaving roads behind that open further access for settlers and land grabbers (Asner et al., 2005).
Infrastructure Development: Roads like the BR-163 and hydroelectric projects fragment the forest and
accelerate human encroachment (Laurance et al., 2001).
Environmental Impact
Loss of Biodiversity: The Amazon is home to more than 16,000 tree species and thousands of unique
animals and insects. Habitat fragmentation and forest clearing have caused population declines and
extinction risks for many endemic species.
Carbon Emissions: Deforestation releases massive amounts of stored carbon into the atmosphere,
making the Amazon a net emitter of carbon in some years rather than a carbon sink (Lovejoy & Nobre,
2018).
Climate Disruption: The rainforest regulates rainfall patterns in South America and beyond.
Deforestation disrupts regional climates and could trigger feedback loops leading to "Amazon dieback",
a tipping point where the rainforest transitions into savanna.

Figure 8. 1Amazon Rainforest Source: Earth. Org

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5. Deforestation in Pakistain:
5.1 Case Study: Deforestation in Swat District:
Swat District, once renowned for its dense forests and rich biodiversity, has experienced substantial
deforestation over recent decades. The primary drivers of this forest loss include:
Agricultural Expansion: Local communities have cleared forested areas to create agricultural lands,
aiming to meet the demands of a growing population.
Fuelwood Collection: Residents heavily rely on wood for cooking and heating, leading to extensive tree
felling.
Timber Extraction: Both legal and illegal logging activities have contributed to significant forest
depletion.
Grazing Practices: Overgrazing by livestock has hindered natural forest regeneration, exacerbating
degradation.
Institutional Challenges: Weak enforcement of forest conservation policies and lack of community
awareness have further accelerated deforestation.

5.1.1 Consequences of deforestation in Swat:

The consequences of deforestation in Swat are profound, including increased soil erosion, loss of
biodiversity, altered hydrological cycles, and heightened vulnerability to natural disasters like floods
and landslides. For instance, the disappearance of the Charchur waterfall in Talang Kota, lower Swat, in
September 2016, has been attributed to extensive deforestation in the area.
Addressing deforestation in Swat requires a multifaceted approach:
 Community Engagement: Educating local populations about sustainable forest use and involving
them in conservation efforts.
 Alternative Energy Solutions: Promoting the use of alternative fuels to reduce dependence on
fuelwood.
 Policy Enforcement: Strengthening the implementation of forest protection laws to curb illegal
logging.
 Afforestation Initiatives: Implementing reforestation projects to restore degraded forest lands.
 By integrating these strategies, it is possible to mitigate the adverse effects of deforestation and
promote sustainable environmental practices in regions like Swat.

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5.2 Deforestation in Punjab, Pakistan:
According to the Pakistan Forest Institute (PFI, 2020), Punjab's forest cover is less than 4% of its total
area, far below the recommended international standard of 20–25%. Major forest types in Punjab include
riverine forests, irrigated plantations, and scrub forests — all of which are under serious threat.

5.2.1 Major Causes of Deforestation in Punjab

Urban Expansion
Cities like Lahore, Rawalpindi, and Faisalabad are expanding rapidly. This has led to the conversion of
green belts, parks, and forests into housing schemes and commercial zones. (Khan & Qureshi, 2018)
Illegal Logging & Encroachments
Local communities and timber mafias are often involved in unauthorized tree cutting for firewood,
furniture, or land grabbing. Forest Department records indicate frequent encroachments in areas like
Changa Manga and Sundar Industrial Estate.
Agricultural Pressure
In southern Punjab, fertile land demand for crops such as wheat, sugarcane, and cotton has driven people
to clear nearby tree stands and forest plantations.
Poor Forest Management & Policy Implementation
Weak enforcement of forest protection laws, limited budgets, and insufficient human resources make it
hard to protect forested zones.

5.2.2 Case Study: Changa Manga Forest

 Changa Manga, once the largest man-made forest in the world, has seen substantial degradation
over the years.
 Original size: ~12,500 acres
 Present coverage: ~70% lost due to encroachments, illegal logging, and government land
allotments. (WWF-Pakistan, 2021)
 Despite afforestation projects, the forest has been under pressure due to construction of roads,
tourism infrastructure, and unauthorized settlements.

5.2.3 Environmental Impacts in Punjab

Increased air pollution – particularly in Lahore, due to reduced green cover and rising industrial
emissions.
 Heat islands – urban areas become significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas.
 Decline in biodiversity – affecting migratory bird patterns and native flora.

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6. Causes of deforestation:
Agricultural Expansion:
The conversion of forest land into agricultural fields is the leading cause of deforestation globally. With
rising populations and increasing food demand, vast areas of forest are cleared to grow crops or raise
livestock. In countries like Brazil, large tracts of the Amazon rainforest are burned each year for cattle
ranching and soybean farming. In Southeast Asia, palm oil plantations are a major contributor to forest
loss.
Pakistan Context:
In rural Pakistan, forested areas are often cleared for cultivation to support subsistence farming,
particularly in northern regions such as KP and Gilgit-Baltistan.
Logging and Timber Extraction
Logging and Timber Extraction Commercial logging for wood, fuel, and construction materials is
another significant cause. Both legal and illegal logging operations remove valuable tree species,
disturbing forest ecosystems and making them vulnerable to further degradation.
Pakistan Context:
Illegal logging in the forests of Swat, Dir, and Azad Kashmir has contributed to widespread
deforestation. Timber mafias often operate without regard for sustainable harvesting practices
Infrastructure Development:
As countries develop, forests are frequently cleared to build roads, highways, dams, housing colonies,
and industrial zones. Urban sprawl has a significant impact on green spaces, especially near expanding
cities.
Pakistan Context:
Urbanization in cities like Islamabad, Lahore, and Karachi has led to rapid deforestation of nearby
forested areas such as the Margalla Hills and Changa Manga forest.
Mining Activities
Mining for minerals, coal, oil, and other natural resources often involves clear-cutting forests. The
construction of access roads and the storage of mining waste also contribute to long-term land
degradation.
Global Examples:
In the Amazon, gold and bauxite mining are key drivers of deforestation. In Indonesia, open-pit coal
mining destroys large tracts of tropical forest.

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Fuelwood Collection:
In many developing nations, wood is the primary source of energy for cooking and heating. Continuous
cutting of trees for firewood, especially in areas where alternative fuels are scarce, leads to significant
deforestation.
Pakistan Context:
In many rural and mountainous areas of Pakistan, people depend heavily on firewood, especially during
harsh winters.
Overgrazing by Livestock:
Overgrazing by cattle, goats, and sheep prevents forest regeneration. Trampling and constant grazing
damage young saplings and remove the vegetation cover, eventually turning forest land into barren land.
Pakistan Context:
Nomadic and semi-nomadic communities in Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa often graze
livestock in forested areas, contributing to degradation.
Natural Disasters and Climate Change:
Natural Disasters and Climate Change Natural causes such as wildfires, floods, and droughts also
contribute to forest loss. Climate change, in particular, increases the frequency and intensity of these
disasters, weakening forest ecosystems and making them more prone to destruction.
Weak Forest Governance and Policies:
Weak Forest Governance and Policies Poor enforcement of environmental laws, corruption, lack of
political will, and inadequate forest management contribute significantly to deforestation. In many cases,
government-approved land-use changes override ecological concerns. Pakistan Context: Despite some
forest protection laws, enforcement remains weak. Many government-sanctioned land-use conversions
have caused irreversible damage to ecosystem

7.Possible solutions:
7.1 Environmental solutions:
Afforestation and Reforestation:
The two main ecological strategies for halting deforestation are reforestation and afforestation.
Reforestation is the process of growing trees where forests have been cut down, usually for logging or
agriculture. This lessens atmospheric carbon dioxide, stops soil erosion, and restores biodiversity.
Afforestation, on the other hand, is the process of establishing new wooded areas in areas that were
previously devoid of trees. Both approaches can help mitigate the effects of climate change, support

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wildlife habitats, and greatly enhance the health of nearby ecosystems. Large-scale reforestation
initiatives have been carried out in nations like China and India, with quantifiable success.
Agroforestry:
The process of incorporating trees and shrubs into crop and animal farming systems is known as
agroforestry. By using trees as natural buffers, agroforestry, as opposed to typical monoculture farming,
helps preserve soil health, lessen erosion, and enhance water retention. In agroforestry systems, trees
offer protection, shade, and other items like timber, fruits, or nuts, which help farmers, make more
money. It also boosts biodiversity and aids in the storage of carbon. This method provides a sustainable
balance between food production and forest conservation, which is especially advantageous in tropical
and subtropical areas.
Forest protection zones:
Legally designating portions of natural forest as off-limits to commercial operations like mining,
logging, and farming is known as a "forest protection zone." Government agencies or conservation
groups frequently turn these areas into national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, or biosphere reserves. These
protected areas sustain vital ecosystem services like clean water, air purification, and climate regulation
while also preserving biodiversity and endangered species by limiting human intrusion. Furthermore,
these places frequently act as essential carbon sinks, which are critical in the worldwide fight against
climate change.
7.2 Economic and Market-Based Solutions
Sustainable Forestry Certifications
These are tools used to promote responsible forest management in the timber and paper industries.
Certifications such as those provided by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) ensure that products
come from forests managed in environmentally sound, socially beneficial, and economically viable
ways. Certified companies must follow strict guidelines, including selective logging, biodiversity
conservation, and respect for Indigenous rights. Consumers, in turn, can influence the market by
choosing certified products, helping to reduce the demand for unsustainable and illegally harvested
wood.
Eco-Friendly Alternative:
It play a critical role in reducing the economic pressures that lead to deforestation. Many products
driving forest loss—like palm oil, soy, and hardwood—can be substituted with more sustainable options.
For instance, bamboo grows much faster than traditional hardwood trees and requires fewer resources.
Similarly, plant-based or lab-grown alternatives to palm oil are being developed to reduce the need for

COMPLEX ENGINEERING PROBLEM 19

forest clearance. Promoting recycled materials and biodegradable packaging also lowers reliance on
virgin forest resources, helping protect existing forest ecosystems.
Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES):
It is a conservation approach that compensates individuals or communities for maintaining or improving
environmental services provided by forests. One of the most well-known mechanisms is the REDD+
program, which stands for “Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation.” It
provides financial incentives to developing countries to preserve forests rather than clear them for short-
term economic gain. PES schemes recognize that forests provide critical services—like storing carbon,
purifying water, and regulating climate—and that those who protect them should be rewarded.

8. References:
1. FAO. (2020). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020.
2. Geist, H. J., & Lambin, E. F. (2002). "Proximate and underlying causes of deforestation."
BioScience, 52(2), 143-150.
3. Laurance, W. F., et al. (2002). "Predictors of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon." Journal
of Biogeography, 29(5-6), 737–748.
4. Margono, B. A., et al. (2014). "Primary forest cover loss in Indonesia over 2000–2012." Nature
Climate Change, 4, 730–735.
5. Global Forest Watch. (2021). Pakistan Tree Cover Loss Data (2001–2020).
6. Ali, J., & Benjaminsen, T. A. (2004). "Fuelwood, timber and deforestation in northern
Pakistan." Geoforum, 35(6), 907–918.
7. WWF Pakistan. (2021). Urban Tree Cover Assessment – Lahore.
8. Khan, M. A. (2020). Environmental Management in Pakistan.
9. Rehman, A., et al. (2018). "Urban Expansion and Its Impact on the Environment in Lahore."
Pakistan Journal of Urban Studies.
10. Shahbaz, B., et al. (2006). "Community-based forest management in northern Pakistan: A
review." Forest Policy and Economics, 8(4), 361–372.
11. Abbas, S., Khan, A. N., & Hussain, M. (2021). Assessment of reforestation programs in Pakistan:
A case study of the Billion Tree Tsunami Project. Environmental Science and Pollution Research,
28(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14212-w
12. Ahmad, N., & Nizami, S. M. (2015). Forest resource assessment in Pakistan: Status and
challenges. Pakistan Journal of Forestry, 65(2), 34–45.

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 13. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). (2018). Global Forest Resources Assessment:
Pakistan Country Report. FAO. http://www.fao.org/3/CA1791EN/ca1791en.pdf
14. Government of Pakistan. (2020). Ten Billion Tree Tsunami Programme: Annual Progress Report
2019–2020. Ministry of Climate Change. https://www.mocc.gov.pk/
15. Iqbal, M. F., & Khan, A. (2019). Forest cover change and its impact on rural livelihoods in
northern Pakistan. Journal of Mountain Science, 16(6), 1357–1370.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-018-5193-z
16. Khan, M. A., & Naqvi, S. A. A. (2018). Agroforestry in Pakistan: Status, challenges, and
opportunities. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Research, 31(4), 326–332.
https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjar/2018/31.4.326.332
17. Qamar, M. F., & Ali, A. (2020). Community-based forest management in Pakistan: Success
stories and future prospects. Pakistan Journal of Environmental Management, 1(1), 45–56.
18. UNDP Pakistan. (2020). Forest Governance and Deforestation Challenges in Pakistan
19. Khan, N., & Qureshi, R. (2018). Urban Sprawl and Forest Degradation in Punjab: A GIS
Perspective. Pakistan Journal of Forestry.
20. WWF-Pakistan. (2021). Forests of Pakistan – Threats and Opportunities.
21. Pakistan Forest Institute (PFI). (2020). Forest Statistics of Pakistan.
22. Fearnside, P.M. (2005). Deforestation in Brazilian Amazonia: History, rates, and consequences.
Conservation Biology, 19(3), 680–688.
23. Morton, D.C., DeFries, R.S., Shimabukuro, Y.E., Anderson, L.O., Arai, E., del Bon Espirito-
Santo, F., ... & Morisette, J. (2006). Cropland expansion changes deforestation dynamics in the
southern Brazilian Amazon. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(39), 14637–
14641.
24. Asner, G.P., Knapp, D.E., Broadbent, E.N., Oliveira, P.J.C., Keller, M., & Silva, J.N. (2005).
Selective logging in the Brazilian Amazon. Science, 310(5747), 480–482.

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