U.S.

Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

The Outer Banks of

North Carolina
Professional Paper 1177-B
Prepared in cooperation with the National Park Service

sr.iP.nr.P- fnr :a ~h:anninn llllnrld

Cover: Pea Island
The Outer Banks of North Carolina
By Robert Dolan and Harry Lins

Prepared in cooperation with the National Park Service

'I ,

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1177-B

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
BRUCE BABBITT, Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Charles G. Groat, Director

First printing 1986

Second printing 1991
Third printing 1993
Fourth printing 2000

Reston, Virginia 2000

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publications Data

Dolan, Robert.
The Outer Banks of North Carolina.
(U.S. Geological Survey professional paper ; 1177-B)
"Prepared in cooperation with the Nationa Park Service."
Bibliography: p. 43
Supt. of Docs. no.: I 19.16: 1177B1
1. Coast changes-North Carolina-Outer Banks. 2. Shore
protection-North Carolina-Outer Banks. 3. Land use-
North Carolina-Outer Banks. I. Lins, Harry F. II. United
States. National Park Service. III. Title. IV. Series: U.S. Geo-
logical Survey. Professional paper; 1177-B.

GB459.4.D64 1985 333.91 '716'09756--dc21 85-600098

For sale by U.S. Geological Survey, Information Services,

Box 25286, Federal Center,
Denver, CO 80225
 FOREWORD
In keeping with its commitment to demonstrate and promote the application of
earth-science information to sound environmental planning and decisionmaking, the
U.S. Geological Survey is offering this report, Professional Paper 1177-B, which
analyzes the processes and hazards associated with coastal barrier islands. This is the
second of several publications that follow the style begun with Professional Paper
950, Nature to be Commanded. The first report in this series, Geological Analysis of
Fenwick Island, Maryland, A Middle Atlantic Coast Barrier Island, dealt with a
highly urbanized barrier island.
It is important to realize that the hazards associated with natural processes and
urban development are found all along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. This publication
focuses on the North Carolina Barrier islands. These islands were selected because
they are representative of many developed mid-Atlantic coast barrier islands and
provide, therefore, a generally applicable example.
We believe that this book, and those that follow, will have a significant and

-e
positive effect on coastal planning. The documentation of the rates of change of
natural processes and recent land use provides planners and developers with key

L
information for guiding future development of those areas of least hazard and for
evaluating alternative hazard~

Dallas L. Peck
Director

III
 CONTENTS
Foreword......................................................................................... III

Introduction ..................... ........................................................ ....... 1

Acknowledgment............................................................................ 3

Barrier Island Dynamics................................................................. 3

Dominant Processes.................................................................. 3
Storms and Waves..................................................................... 4
Tides.......................................................................................... 6

Barrier Island Landforms ...... .................. .......................... ............. 7

Inlets......................................................................................... 7
Overwash Deposits ........................ .......................................... . 10
Sand Dunes............................................................................... 10

Geological History of the Outer Banks ........ ................ .............. .... 12

Shoreline Configuration............................................................ 18

History and Development............................................................... 20

Recent Trends in Land Use ..................... ............. .......................... 25

Shoreline Processes: Erosion and Overwash.................................. 29

Shoreline Erosion and the Lost Colony.................................... 31

Shoreline Engineering ... ............. .. ................ ................ .............. ... 33

Seawalls .............. ............... ................ .............. ............ .... ......... 33
Jetties and Groins...................................................................... 33
Beach Nourishment.................................................................. 34
Inlet Stabilization...................................................................... 34
Economics of Stabilization....................................................... 34

Man's Impact on the Outer Banks.................................................. 36

Hazards and Land Use.................................................................... 43

Summary and Conclusions ................ ............ ................ ............ ..... 44

Selected References........................................................................ 46

v
 THE OUTER BANKS OF
NORTH CAROLINA
By Robert Dolan and Harry Lins

INTRODUCTION landscapes used by man. Storms are the primary cause

of changes in these landscapes. During the storms,
The Outer Banks of North Carolina are some of private landholdings often are destroyed, and
the best examples of the nearly 300 barrier islands that communication and transportation facilities are
rim the Atlantic and Gulf coasts (fig. 1). These low, disrupted. Loss of life also is not uncommon. In spite
sandy islands are among the most dynamic natural of these obvious problems, with few exceptions,

o ., ~ Popham Beach
•oo Biddeford Pool

Cape Cod

Barnegat Island
NUMBER
OF ISLANDS ,' Long Beach
STATE TOTAL ACREAGE
Atlantic City
Alabama 5 28,200 Rehoboth
Connecticut 14 2,362 Fenwick Island
Delaware 2 10,100
Florida 80 467,710
Georgia 15 165,600
Louisiana 18 41 ,120
Maine 9 2,640 • Bodie Island
Maryland 2 14,300 ) Hatteras Island
Massachusetts 27 37,600 {/o Ocracoke Island
Mississippi 5 9,500 'iP
Core Banks
New Hampshire 2 1,100 Bogue Banks
New Jersey 10 48,000 Ashe Island
New York 15 30 ,310 Debidue Island
North Carolina 23 146,400 •• Bull Island
•• ' Kiawah Island
Rhode Island 6 3,660 ' St. Phillips Island
South Carolina 35 144,150
Texas 16 383,500
Virginia 11 68,900
18 STATES 295 1,605,152

Flagler Island

Horn Island \ cape Canaveral

;? Galveston
Dauphin Island Anclote Keys
Island Grand Isle
Tembalier Island Perdido Key ~
Santa Rosa Island Caladesi Island
Isle Dernieres
Captiva Island Jupiter Island

Sanibell Island

Figure 1. Along the coastline between Cape Cod, Massachusetts, and Padre Island, Texas. The widths of the 295 barrier islands
have been exaggerated on this map. (Source: R. Dolan.)
1
 2 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA

development has proceeded as if barrier islands are

stable or on the assumption that at least they can be
engineered to remain stable.
The dynamic nature of the beaches and dunes
always has been part of the aesthetic and recreational
appeal of the Outer Banks. Unfortunately, develop-
ment has taken place more rapidly than our under-
standing of barrier island dynamics. Processes
CAPE HENRY affecting the islands span time scales from hours to
'\!."'\) decades and longer and include variations in the beach
during a single 12-hour tidal cycle, periodic storm
surges, shoreline recession in response to long-term
changes in sea level, changes in storm tracks, and
islandwide modifications associated with man's activi-
ties.
The Outer Banks (fig. 2), particularly the ocean
side, have always been hazardous places for man.
Early inhabitants recognized this and settled the more
stable parts of the islands well inland from the ocean.
Over the last several decades, this pattern of land use
has reversed. Much construction has taken place
dangerously close to the shoreline because of a desire
Hatteras Island
to be near the water's edge, even though this location
clearly introduces serious risks to life and property
(fig. 3).

Figure 2. The Outer Banks of North Carolina.

Figure 3. Damage caused by the Ash Wednesday storm of March
7, 1962. This storm caused more than $500 million in damages
between Long Island and Cape Lookout. Most of the damage
occurred on the barrier islands, as seen in this view of Fire Island
photographed shortly after the storm subsided.
(Source: United Press International.)
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT 3

All barrier islands are the product of a gradually northeasters are just as great, and, considering the high
rising sea level, a surplus of sand supplied to the coast, population density on some of the islands, the
and waves large enough and winds strong enough to potential for a disaster is even greater.
move the sand (fig. 4 ). The relation of these factors is
a continuously changing one. Understanding the natural dynamics of barrier
islands is the key to recognizing and estimating both
the short-term and the long-term hazards of living on
Beach sand supply
them. This report summarizes how the barrier islands
were created, how they have changed, and why they
will continue to change in spite of efforts to halt the
natural processes. The Outer Banks of North Carolina
Shape of Rise in sea
barrier level due to are used as an example in this report, but the principles
island melting
glaciers outlined are applicable to other barrier islands on the
Atlantic and Gulf coasts.

Size of waves

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Figure 4. Simple relation among processes, sand supply,
and barrier island form . We wish to acknowledge the assistance of
The islands are unstable because the constant Deborah Cairns in conducting the literature research
movement of sand by waves and currents affects the necessary for the preparation of this report.
along-the-coast shape of the islands, and the rising sea
level causes their migration landward (Dolan and
others, 1977). Even though unstable, barrier islands
are environmentally valuable. The estuaries and
sounds behind barrier islands are among the richest
and most productive ecosystems known. Nurseries,
shelter, and food are provided for many species of
fish, shellfish, and wildlife (Livingston, 1976).
Several barrier islands have been preserved in
their undeveloped state because of their environmental
importance. Nine of the most scenic and natural
islands or island groups have been set aside by the
National Park Service as national seashores, and
others are preserved as national wildlife refuges. Most
coastal States have placed at least one barrier island
under such Federal protection.
Although some of the Atlantic and Gulf coast
barrier islands were settled during the colonial period
and some were used as sources of building materials
or coastal defense sites, changing economic and social
conditions following World War II made the islands
more desirable sites for development. Time has not
changed the natural problems and hazards associated
with developing barrier islands, however. It is just as
unsafe to build a house on shifting sand today as it was
a century ago. The dangers from hurricanes and severe
4 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA

BARRIER ISLAND DYNAMICS

The Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains are

relatively flat and slope gently seaward to a generally
wide submarine Continental Shelf. The shore zone, or
interface between the land and sea portions of the
coastal plain, consists of a series of barrier islands 2 to
20 miles offshore. Most are low islands 1 to 3 miles
wide and 10 to 20 miles long. The highest topographic
features are sand dunes usually 10 to 20 feet above sea
level. In a few areas, such as Jockey Ridge near Nags
Head, North Carolina, unvegetated dunes reach a
maximum height of 120 feet.

Dominant Processes

The physical interface between land and sea is a Figure 5. Primary features of an unaltered barrier island in
zone in constant motion. On sandy coasts, each cross section. (Source: R. Dolan.)

variation in sea level alters the interface. Beach sands

are transported offshore, onshore, and in the direction
Storms and Waves
of prevailing longshore currents. In this way, sandy
coasts constantly adjust in response to different tide,
Hurricanes and winter extratropical storms, or
wave, and current conditions. Periodic phases of
"northeasters," of the midlatitudes have been the
erosion and deposition are superimposed on a longer
principal agents of geomorphic change on the mid-
term trend of a rising sea level (Hicks, 1972; Hicks
Atlantic barrier islands since their formation.
and Crosby, 1975). This long-term rise submerges the
Landscape change occurs with the movement of
beach, causes shoreline recession, and forces the
sand by strong wind and wave activity. Hurricanes
barrier islands landward.
generate high storm surges in contrast to extratropical
In cross section, the barrier islands of the Outer storms that produce small to modest surges.
Banks are an assemblage of sedimentary layers, each Since 1900, the Atlantic and Gulf coast
made up of particles of different sizes that indicate barrier islands have been crossed by more than
their source and the processes responsible for their 100 hurricanes. About one-half of these storms have
movement (fig. 5). These deposits consist primarily of been classified by the National Oceanic and
medium quartz sand and a small percentage of heavy Atmospheric Administration as major storms having
minerals, gravels, and shell fragments. Beach material winds greater than 90 miles per hour and storm surges
is carried and deposited, layer upon layer, by one of of more than 9 feet (Hebert and Taylor, 1979a, b). The
two dominant processes-storm overwash or transport two most damaging hurricanes of this century killed
by currents flowing through inlets. Bedded within the more than 6,000 people in Galveston, Texas, in 1900
layers of beach material are units of well-sorted finer (Hughes, 1979) and almost 2,000 people in Florida in
sands and silts transported by wind. The configuration 1928. The three costliest hurricanes in terms of
of the island, in cross section and plan view, is an property losses were Frederic in September 1979,
integration of the along-the-coast transport of sand. which caused an estimated $700 million in damage
The processes that formed the islands remain active along the Gulf coast near Mobile, Alabama; Agnes in
today. 1972, which caused $2 billion in damage; and Camille
 BARRIER ISLAND DYNAMICS 5

in 1969, which destroyed $1.4 billion worth of can produce a water-level rise of up to 30 feet. This
property. Camille was also one of the most intense rise may result in overwashing of the foredune and
hurricanes since 1900, registering the maximum value flooding of the back side of the barrier island (Hosier
of 5 on the Saffir Simpson scale, with wind speeds and Cleary, 1977).
over 150 miles per hour and a storm surge that drove Statistics on storm occurrence and waves along
the Outer Banks are presented in figure 6. The plot of
water more than 25 feet above sea level (Hebert and
storm return interval shows, for example, that a storm
Taylor, 1979a, b).
producing a wave height of 26 feet off Cape Hatteras
Only four major hurricanes have affected the can be expected to occur during a 125-year period.
U.S. coasts since 1969. Three of these struck relatively
sparsely populated areas on the Gulf coast: Celia in
southern Texas in 1970, Carmen in Louisiana in 1974,
and Eloise in northwest Florida in 1975. Hurricane Expected return interval
in years of storms producing
Frederic, a class 3 hurricane on the Saffir Simpson CIJ
a: given deep·water wave
<(
scale, struck a densely populated area of the Gulf coast w heights at Cape Hatteras
>- 100
in 1979. ~
_j
The last major hurricane to hit the Atlantic coast <(
>
a:
was Donna in 1960. As a result of this disparity in the w
1-
frequency and distribution of major hurricanes, fewer z
than 20 percent of the residents of the Atlantic and z
a: 10
::J
Gulf coast barrier islands have ever experienced the 1-
w
impact of such a storm (Frank, 1979). a:

Between 1886 and 1970, 15 hurricanes having

winds in excess of 75 miles per hour were reported
1 ~-L--~~--~--L--L--~_J--~
along the Outer Banks, an average of about one every 4.9 7.9 11.2 14.1 17.1 20.0 23.0 25 .9 28 .9 32 .1
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
7.5 years (Dunn and Miller, 1960). Hurricanes occur 7.9 11 .2 14.1 17.1 20.0 23.0 25.9 28.9 32.1 35.1
most commonly in early September, but the season DEEP-WATER WAVE HEIGHT, IN FEET
extends from June through November.
Although hurricanes cause extensive damage Figure 6. Expected return interval in years of storms
producing given wave heights offshore of Cape Hatteras.
and loss of life, winter extratropical storms, or
(Source: B. Hayden.)
"northeasters," cause most of the coastal damage
along the Outer Banks. Unlike hurricanes, which form The average number of northeast storms per
over the warm tropical waters of the Caribbean and month that produce deep-water waves at least 5 feet
North Atlantic, extratropical storms develop in the high, based on 32 years of wave data, is shown in
midlatitudes along weather fronts that separate cold, figure 7. It is evident from this graph that the stormiest
dry polar air from warm, moist tropical air. Each year months are from December to March.
between 30 and 40 such storms generate significant 3.0
surges and waves of at least 5 feet (Bosserman and -
Dolan, 1968; Hayden, 1975). The Lincoln's Birthday ,---
-

northeaster of February 12-13, 1973, for example, ,---

caused severe erosion on beaches from Long Island,
New York, to Miami, Florida. The great Ash
Wednesday storm of March 7, 1962, produced waves ;--- r---
more than 30 feet high, damaging millions of dollars -_ r---
of property along the mid-Atlantic coast (Cooperman -
and Rosendal, 1962; Podufaly, 1962; Stewart, 1962;
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1962; Bretschneider, 0
-]
July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June
1964). Although the normal wave height for the Outer MONTHS
Banks averages from 2 to 3 feet, the cumulative effect Figure 7. Monthly distribution of storms producing deep-
of high tide, spring tide, storm surge, and storm waves water waves in excess of 5 feet in height. (Source: B. Hayden.)
6 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA

Hampton Roads, Virginia

A 0 E
• A
LUNAR DATA

MOON IN APOGEE

0 LAST QUARTER

E MOON ON EQUATOR

NEAP TIDE SPRING TIDE • NEW MOON

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
DAY

Figure 8. Representative tide curve f or Hampton Roads, Virginia, of the mid-Atlantic coast. The tide type is semidiurnal with the
principal variations f ollowing the changes in the Moon 's phase. Tide range fo r the Outer Banks is 2 to 4 f eet.

Tides \ ectonic

The water level of the sea is constantly River

discharge
changing. Gradual variations in water level occur
through tides (fig. 8), storm waves, and storm surge
and through long-term sea-level fluctuations (fig. 9).
The astronomical tides along the Outer Banks are
semidiumal (12 hours and 25 minutes apart) with an
average range of 3.5 feet. The highest, or spring, tides
occur twice each month when the Earth, Moon, and
Sun are alined, increasing the tidal range approxi-
mately 20 percent. Tidal action alone has little effect 4 ltnosphelic
Pressu1e
on sediment transport. When storm surge and high
EXPLANATION
waves are superimposed, however, the daily elevation
and depression of the water level becomes a more DAILY
important agent in sediment transport (fig. 10). YEARLY
MILLENNIA

Storm
waves
+
Dai ly
t
-'
w
>
Figure 10. Cumulative effects of coastal processes on water
level.

tide w
+
-'
a:
As a result of the Moon's elliptical orbit, a
Spring/
w minimal lunar perigee occurs once during each lunar
r-
<(
neap tide
+
~ cycle. When this happens, higher tides, called perigean
~
Storm
z spring tides, are generated. A recent National Oceano-
su rge 0
+ f=
<(
graphic and Atmospheric Administration report
Sea-level
ri se
::::>
r- (Wood, 1976) shows a strong coincidence of
0
::::>
-'
catastrophic storms and perigean spring tides. One
u..
hundred of the most severe coastal storms between
Resu ltant
wate r level
Maximum

TIME
1 1635 and 1976 occurred at the time of the perigean
spring tides. The Ash Wednesday storm of 1962 is an
example of a severe storm that occurred during a
Figure 9. Sea-level variations occur over a wide range of time perigean spring tide.
intervals.
 BARRIER ISLAND LANDFORMS 7

BARRIER ISLAND LANDFORMS Inlets

Continuous changes in sea level, wave action, Inlets are formed when storm surge and high
storm surge, and sediment supply lead to rapid waves drive water across the islands to the sounds
changes in barrier island landforms. These processes (fig. 12). As the seawater moves across the island,
vary over an infinite variety of individual actions. The usually into areas of progressively lower topography,
following principal classes of sand movement, channels form and may erode to the depths that permit
however, are responsible for most changes occurring a reverse flow (sound to sea) during ebb tide. Most
on barrier islands (fig. 11). such inlets are temporary features of elevated water
1. Movement along the shore zone: Waves levels that last a few days.
approaching the coast at an angle set up The formation of inlets has important geologic
sediment-transporting processes along the coast and ecologic implications (Godfrey, 1970). Great
called longshore currents. The direction and quantities of saline water and sediment are moved
strength of these currents depend on wave height through the inlets from the ocean side of the islands to
and wave direction. Over the course of a year, the sounds (Moslow and Heron, 1979). The water
there is usually a net flow of water and sediment, contains nutrients and organisms, and the sediment
such as littoral drift, in one direction. Along the forms shoals that provide new substrates for marsh
Outer Banks, this direction is southward toward grasses. Soon after the inlets close, the shoals are
Cape Hatteras and Cape Lookout (Pierce, 1969). incorporated into the island substrate. Inlet formation
2. Movement across the shore zone: During periods and closure are, therefore, the fundamental sediment-
of very high waves and tides, water levels along transfer processes during which material moves from
the barrier islands may rise so high that the the ocean side to the sound side of the barrier islands
beach may be overwashed by water and (fig. 13). The deposits that fill inlets are believed to
sediment traveling across the island (Pierce, comprise a relatively large percentage of barrier island
1970; Schwat1z, 1975). Beach sediment also is sediments, perhaps as much as 20 to 25 percent. This
transported offshore by surf-zone processes and amount depends upon the number and duration of inlet
is deposited by longshore currents at other openings. In a study along North Carolina's Core
sections of the coast. Inlets also provide a Banks, Moslow and Heron (1978) calculated that 14 to
means for movement of sediment from the 16 percent of the Holocene sediments consists of inlet
beach zone to the sounds. fill material.
3. Movement by wind action: Fine sand from the The geological and cultural histories of the
beach face, sand flats, and dunes can be Outer Banks are tied to the history of inlets along
transported across and along the islands by the barrier islands (Dunbar, 1958). Up to 30 inlets
strong winds. have opened and closed since the first settlers arrived
almost 400 years ago (fig. 14). During the past
125 years, however, three inlets have remained open
FOUR METHO DS OF SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
as dominant waterways along the coast: Ocracoke,
Hatteras, and Oregon. The latter two inlets were
formed during the same storm in 1846 (Fisher, 1962).

Littoral drift Overwash

Inlet
formation

Figure 11. The primary methods of sediment transport on

Atlantic coast beaches and barrier islands.
 8 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA

Figure 12. Features of inlet sedimentation. New lands are

created as tidal deltas become vegetated. A, Floodtide delta
in upper right of photgraph, ebb tide delta in lower left. B,
Diagram of inlet features. C, Inlet features following inlet
closure. (Source: J. Fisher.)

8 c
LAGOON LAGOON

Flood tidal delta

~ Distributary
Flood tidal
Flood tidal
delta channel 7 delta shoal

Inlet/"

- Direction
of drift

Ebb tidal delta

OCEAN OCEAN

PRESENT-DAY INLET FEATURES RELICT INLET FEATURES

Figure 13. The pattern of clearly evident oceanic overwash and

inlet sedimentation on the bay side of Pea Island.
(Source: R. Dolan.)
 BARRIER ISLAND LANDFORMS 9

INLET NAMES
Old Currituck
2 New Currituck
3 Musketo
4 Trinity Harbor
5 Caffey's
6 Roanoke
7 Gunt
8 Oregon
9 New
10 Loggerhead
11 Chickinacommock
12 Chacandepeco
13 Hatteras
14 Wells
15 Old Hatteras
16 Ocracoke
17 Whalebone
18 Swash
19 Sand Island
20 Drum
21 Cedar
22 South Core 1
23 Old Drum
24 South Core 2
25 Barden
26 Beaufort
27 Bogue Banks 2
28 Cheeseman
29 Bogue Banks 1
30 Bogue

.. EXPLANATION
Minimum possible time inlet

\\ CJ
0
could have been open
Maximum possible time inlet
could have been open
Information not available

Note: Time lines do not indicate

position of coast at that
particular time

0 10 20 30 40 50 MILES

Figure 14. The distribution of historic inlets along the Outer Banks. (So urce: J. Fisher.)
10 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CA ROLINA

Overwash Deposits The high beach foredunes, also called barrier

dunes, are primarily a product of man's efforts to
Beaches constantly change in response to stabil ize the sand movement along the Outer Banks
different wave and tide conditions. When waves are (Dolan, Geofrey, and Odum, 1973). If sand fences are
high, the active beach zone expands both landward placed just inland from the beach face, the flow of air
and seaward, but it contracts when waves are low. carrying sand is disrupted, and the sand accumulates
During hurricanes and other severe storms, the beach as a ridge or dune at the base of the fence. If vegetation
undergoes major adjustments to dissipate the (fig. 17) and fertilizer are introduced, as they were
increased wave energy. If the waves and surge are along the Outer Banks in the 1960's, it is possible to
very high, the runup can extend into zones normally build, or encourage nature to build, a very large,
associated with wind-blown deposits. This penetration parallel dune. Such dunes began to appear on the
of water and sediment is called overwash (fig. 15), and Outer Banks after 1930, when public works programs
the resultant deposits are known as overwash fans. started large-scale sand stabilization projects.

Sand Dunes

All mid-Atlantic coast barrier islands have

dunes of various sizes landward of the beach. Most
dune sand is transported across the beach face or
backshore and is deposited within the overwash flats
and vegetated zones. Depending on the grain size,
wind speeds of 15 to 20 miles per hour are necessary
to initiate sand movement. In areas with wide, active
beaches and strong prevailing winds, large dunes may
form.
The oldest and largest dunes on the Outer Banks
were formed 3,000 to 4,000 years ago (Fisher, 1962).
As the islands were forming , alternating periods of
erosion and accretion resulted in the development of
parallel dune ridges with depressions, or swales,
between them. This process can be seen today near the
mouths of coastal rivers that carry heavy sediment
loads. The best examples on the Outer Banks of large,
stable dune ridges are found at Buxton, Colington
Island, and Nags Head Woods. These dunes are
covered with maritime forests of pine and oak and are
the most stable landscapes along the Outer Banks.
When the parallel dunes are breached or the vegetation
cover is destroyed, the dunes become a major source
of sand for redistribution by the wind. In some places,
this source of sand has resulted in new dune fields of
significantly different configurations. Jockey Ridge,
the highest dune on the Atlantic coast, is an example
(fig. 16).
Figure 15. Pattern of overwash and storm-surge penetration near
Cape Hatteras. (Source: R. Dolan.)
 BARRIER ISLAND LANDFORMS 11

Figure 16. Jockey Ridge near Nags Head, the highest dune field along the Outer Banks. (Source: R. Dolan.)

Figure 17. Stabilization of the wide, active sand zone that existed before the 1930's by grass planting (shown) and sand fencing.
(Source: R. Dolan.)
12 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA

GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF which generally occur on the back side of barrier

islands, are now being found on open ocean beaches
THE OUTER BANKS
(fig. 18), indicating distinct landward movement
(Kraft and others, 1973; Field and others, 1979; Dillon
The processes responsible for the formation of
and Oldale, 1978). In addition, overall island recession
barrier islands have been debated by earth scientists
can be measured from historical maps (fig. 19) and
for many years (Shepard, 1962; Hoyt, 1967; Swift,
aerial photographs (Shepard and Wanless, 1971;
1968, 1975; Hoyt and Henry, 1967, 1971; Otvos,
Hayden, Dolan, and Ross, 1979). As indicated earlier,
1970; Pierce and Colquhoun, 1970; Schwartz, 1971,
1973). The formation of the Outer Banks is believed to change on sedimentary coasts is a function of three
have resulted from a combination of spit growth and factors: The amount and attributes of sediment within
beach emergence. Accordingly, sediment, deposited as a coastal segment, the magnitude of natural processes,
deltas within Pleistocene coastal river systems, was and the stability of sea level. These factors also are
reworked by wave action and transported along the related directly to the geological origin of barrier
shore. As time passed, the complex elongated islands.
landscape of the Outer Banks evolved. It generally is accepted that sea level has
Several stratigraphic studies have indicated that oscillated several times during the past one-half
most mid-Atlantic barrier islands are migrating million years (Donn, Farrand, and Ewing, 1962;
landward (Kraft, 1971; Kraft and others, 1976; Fisher Emiliani, 1970). During the warmer interglacial
and Simpson, 1979; Moslow and Heron, 1979). Peat periods, continental ice melted causing the shorelines
deposits and tree stumps, remnants of forest stands to advance inland across the Continental Shelf. During

Figure 18. As the barrier islands migrate landward, freshwater peat deposits are uncovered. (Source: R. Dolan.)
 GEOLOGICAL IDSTORY OF THE OUTER BANKS 13

I Cape Hatteras shoreline

I
18721
I
: 1 /1a52

.·
)1962
I
I I
·.. I
Lighthouse U.S. Naval station
• •
c 1917
L---
-- ......
...................
......
---------- 1872
~ ---------------------~
...... _ _ _
------
1852 ------------

0 5,000 FEET

Figure 19. Evidence of shoreline recession is readily available from comparison of old maps and charts. (Source: U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers.)

the cooler glacial periods, when water was withdrawn Cape Hatteras, Southern Shores, Colington, Nags
from the seas and stored as glacial ice, the shorelines Head Woods, Avon, Frisco, and Ocracoke, where
moved seaward (fig. 20). sequences of beach ridges developed (fig. 23). In this
When the last period of glaciation, the way, long chains of Holocene barrier islands evolved.
Wisconsin, ended between 14,000 and 18,000 years
ago, sea level was approximately 300 feet lower than it
is today, and the shoreline of the North Carolina coast
was 50 to 75 miles seaward (fig. 20) of its present
position (Emery, 1968). With the change from glacial
to interglacial conditions, which marked the transition
from Pleistocene to Holocene, the sea level began
rising, initiating what is known as the Holocene
marine transgression (fig. 21).
As sea level rose and the shoreline moved
across the Continental Shelf, large masses of sand in
the form of beach deposits were moved with the
migrating shore zone (Duane and others, 1972; Field
and Duane, 1976; Emery, 1968). In addition,
sediment, deposited as deltas within the coastal river
systems, was reworked by wave action and moved
along the shore (fig. 22). When the rate of sea-level
rise slowed about 4,000 years ago, waves, currents,
and winds reworked the sand to form the beaches and
barrier islands that stretch from New England to
Texas. As long as the inshore system contained
surplus sediment, the beaches continued to build
seaward. At that time, some parts of the Outer Banks
may have been wider, perhaps as wide as a mile or Figure 20. Atlantic coast shoreline 15,000 years ago when sea
more. In narrow areas, inlets breached the islands and level was much lower than today. (Source: American Scientist.)
later filled in to reform them. Long spits connected the
wider, more stable sections, such as the land areas near
14 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA

Migrating barrier
Lagoon island

.~___,__ 12-=~~ ­
~
Barner moves I
as sea lev landward
e nses

(1) 15,000 years ago, sea level was 250 (2) Sea level rose and broke through the (3) Island has arrived at its present position
feet or more below its present level dune ridge , flooding low area in back in response to the continued rise in sea
- and 50 miles seaward of its pre- of dune to form lagoon or sound. The level. The island will continue to move
sent position . Beach ridges (dunes) former line of dunes is now isolated as landward as long as sea level rises and
were formed along the shelf by an island. a low slope exists behind the island.
waves and wind.

Figure 21. Evolution of the barrier islands. (Source: J. Hoyt.)

Present

Figure 22. Model for evolution of North Carolina barrier islands. (Source: S. Riggs.)
 GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE OUTER BANKS 15

A
tuw MSL
lL
z
_j
w
>
w
....J
<{
w
(f)
z
<{
w
:2
5:
0
....J
w
[]J
I 90
1-
[J_
w
0
120L__L_~~~-L-L-~-~-L-_L-~_....J-~

12 10 8 6 4 2 0
THOUSANDS OF YEARS BEFORE PRESENT
RADIOCARBON DATING
EXPLANATION
SEA-LEVEL CURVES

FAIRBRIDGE (1961)
MILLIMAN AND EMERY (1968)
CURRAY (1960, 1965)
JELGERSMA (1966, Fig. 6, Curve Ill)
B COLEMAN AND SMITH (1964)
KRAFT (1976)
MEAN CURVE FOR ALL DATA

Figure 24. Late Holocene sea-level curve based on radiocarbon dates.

(Source: Maslow and Heron, 1978.)

As stated previously, overwash and inlet

formation are the most important processes in
Cape Point
landward movement of the Outer Banks. During
ATLANTIC OCEAN
severe storms, the beach zone of seaward dunes is
overtopped by high water and waves (fig. 26). As this
Figure 23. A, Distribution of high barrier dune ridges of early
Holocene age, and 8 , the complex pattern of dune ridges at Cape sediment-laden mass of water spills across the beach
Hatteras. (Source: J. Fisher.) and flows toward the bays and sounds on the inland
margin of the islands, a layer of sediment is removed
from the beach and added to the island's interior. This
A detailed plot of Holocene sea-level change
process transforms the shape and position of the island
reveals a clear pattern (fig. 24)-a long-term trend of
but conserves much of the sediment mass.
sea-level rise. Although this trend may continue for
only a short geological time (possibly only a few
thousand years), it may continue long enough to
have significant effects on coastal development and
habitation of the Outer Banks. The estimated effects
on North Carolina's shoreline of a continuation of the
current rate of sea-level rise for the next 1,000 years is
shown on the map in figure 25.
16 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA

-- CURRITUCK SOUND

AREAS TO BE FLOODED

Projected future
locations of islands

Cape Hatteras

PROJECTED NORTH CAROLINA COASTAL ZONE 2980 AD

Figure 25. Land-water relation along the North Carolina coast for the year 2980, based on the assumption that
past trends in sea-level rise will continue for the next 1,000 years. (Source: S. Riggs.)

Figure 26. Pattern of overwash and storm-surge penetration at

Nags Head during the March 7, 1962, storm. (Source: R. Dolan.)
 GEOLOGICAL IDSTORY OF THE OUTER BANKS 17

During storms, sand also moves inland through of the barrier in large, fan-shaped shoals (Pierce,
inlets into the interior bays and lagoons. This type of 1969). Sand also is carried out during ebb tide, and a
movement is common along the east coast, particu- similar delta may be created in the ocean (fig. 28). The
larly south of Cape Cod. Temporary inlets are formed bayside inlet shoals are exposed at low tide and
during storms when the islands are overwashed and eventually become new substrates for highly produc-
breached, creating openings to the lagoons and bays tive salt marshes (Godfrey, 1970, 1976). Shoals below
behind the beaches (fig. 27). Most of these inlets low tide support underwater grass beds. Although
overwash fans crossing the islands also create fringes
eventually close, unless a major river discharges
of marsh substrate (fig. 29), the inlet deposits create
behind them. Although the inlet is open, however,
the most extensive marshes that project into the
sand is moved through it and is deposited on the inside
sounds and bays (fig. 13) behind the barrier islands
(Hayden and Dolan, 1979).

Figure 27. Temporary inlet formed near Cape Hatteras during the
March 7, 1962, storm. It was filled in soon after it formed.
(Source: R. Dolan.)

ft'igure 29. Fringe of salt marsh on the sound side of Core Banks.
(Source: P. Godfrey.)

Although overwash and inlet formation are

dominant processes of change, Godfrey, Leatherman,
and Zaremba (1979) and Fisher (1968) have pointed
out that regional differences are significant. In the
Northeast, for example, overwash occurs less
frequently, and large dunes and cliffs have been
formed by sediment eroded from glacial deposits.
Along the Outer Banks, where tide ranges are lower
and the sediment supply smaller, overwash is more
common.

Figure 28. Pattern of sedimentation at Oregon Inlet.

(Source: R. Dolan.)
 18 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA

Shoreline Configuration that is, where the long axis of the island runs
northeast-southwest. Erosion is Jess at smaller and
Even a cursory inspection of photographs of the larger angles. This difference in erosion rates results in
Atlantic coast obtained from aircraft or spacecraft a series of crescent-shaped landforms. At places, the
reveals large crescent-shaped configurations (fig. 30). shoreline is concave and, at others, convex, forming
Some of these crescentic patterns are the result of what are sometimes called false capes.
variations in the rates of shoreline change. Along the Along the Atlantic coast, the largest crescentic
Virginia barrier islands, for example, the rate of landforms are the broad arcs of the North Carolina
shoreline erosion varies systematically with the coast that span distances of approximately 60 miles.
configuration of the shoreline (Dolan, Hayden, and Smaller crescentic forms occur within these large arcs,
Jones, 1979). Erosion rates are greatest where the including beach cusps (30-100 feet), giant beach
orientation of the shoreline is near 28° east of north; cusps (330-650 feet) , and some larger forms (a mile or
more long) (Dolan, Hayden, and Vincent, 1974).
Inshore bars and troughs also may assume crescentic
and rhythmic configurations in response to sea states,
tides, and sea level (Sonu, 1973). Smaller forms
appear, disappear, and may migrate along the
shoreline, but large ones establish the spatial distribu-
tion of shore!ine erosion and storm overwash (fig. 31)
(Dolan, 1971).
The pattern of storm-surge deposits, or
overwash fans , along the Outer Banks after the Ash
Wednesday storm of 1962 is shown in figure 32.
Although overwash occurred all along the Outer
Banks, the distance the sand penetrated inland varies
markedly from place to place. A similar pattern is
evident on most barrier islands. Analysis of the
overwash pattern and the 40-year averages of
shoreline positions suggests that, along the coast,
periodicities exist for the long-term average shoreline
erosion and the penetration of storm surge during a
single storm. These patterns indicate the places where
erosion and storm damage occur (fig. 32). The natural
configuration of sedimentary coastlines, as determined
by shore-zone processes, is periodic and crescentic
rather than straight. The larger wave lengths (more
than 8-10 miles) are less apparent because their
curvature is smaller; thus, their relative amplitude is
lower. In analyzing long sections of the coast, their
absolute amplitude is greater than the smaller
crescentic features. However, the larger crescentic
forms are difficult to recognize during a stroll along
the beach. They are most visible in photographs taken
from high altitudes.

Figure 30. Large crescentic landforms. Smaller features also are

evident in these two space photographs. A, Cape Hatteras.
B, Cape Lookout. (Source: National Aeronautics and Space
Administration.)
 GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE OUTER BANKS 19

Figure 31 . Small crescentic landforms along the Outer Banks. (Source: R. Dolan.)
 20 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA

Figure 33. Serious losses of property near Cape Hatteras caused

by shoreline recession and storm tides. (Source: R. Dolan.)

Figure 32. Pattern of storm-surge penetration along Hatteras

Island, 1962. (Source: U.S. Army.)

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT

In the 1950's, some homes on the Outer Banks
were constructed on concrete slabs. Some are still The North Carolina barrier islands were discov-
there today, having weathered hundreds of storms, ered by European explorers in the 16th century, but
including the great Ash Wednesday northeaster, but they were not permanently settled until the mid-17th
other houses nearby have long since disappeared. Is century. From the beginning, proximity to the ocean
the vulnerability of some places along the coast simply and the mainland has been important to those living on
a matter of chance or is there a pattern to the hazards? the Outer Banks. The natural processes that formed
Recent research suggests that even at site-level scales these islands, especially the openings and closings of
(hundreds of feet), shore-zone processes and shore- inlets, have hindered trade and commerce and have
zone landforms assume systematic patterns along and caused major redistributions of the populations for the
across the coast (Dolan and Hayden, 1980). This past 400 years.
conclusion is a departure from the more common In 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh sent two vessels
conception that coastal change and coastal hazards are across the Atlantic to search for suitable sites for
random or happenstance events. settlements in the New World. Within a year, a settle-
If storm hazards along the coast are distributed ment was established on the Outer Banks at the
systematically, then they should be predictable. The northern end of Roanoke Island (fig. 34). This settle-
problem is that detailed historical information for ment was, however, short lived. A supply ship,
establishing past patterns is not always available. returning from England in 1590, found no trace of the
However, sections of sedimentary coasts that have colonists. To this day, the disappearance of the "Lost
experienced storm damage and serious erosion in the Colony" has remained a historical puzzle (Dolan and
past are likely to experience more of the same in the Bosserman, 1972).
future (fig. 33). Thus, a natural "template of change" The first permanent settlement on the Outer
exists that is governed by the coastal configuration. Banks was located in 1663 on present-day Colington
Island (fig. 34), where the English colonists settled
within the dune fields on the sound side of the island.
The dunes provided timber, fuel, freshwater, and
protection from strong winds and storm tides.
Although the most profitable occupation at the time
 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 21

A few wealthy businessmen controlled the land

on the Outer Banks by the 1700's. By the end of the
Revolutionary War, however, many of the largest
holdings were subdivided into small plots, and new
construction began.
Currituck Banks
Shipbuilding and lumber industries were among
the most successful trades in the early 1800's (Stick,
1958). Forests of live oak, pine, and cedar were
depleted rapidly. Livestock grazed on the open dunes.
The new sense of nationalism brought on by indepen-
dence not only created a desire to acquire title to the
land, but it also gave "bankers" (farmers) the impetus
to improve transportation routes and construct
The Outer Banks lighthouses to make ocean travel safer.
in the Shipping lanes off the North Carolina coast
Colonial Period always have been among the most treacherous in the
world. The northward-flowing Gulf Stream and south-
bound drift along the Virginia coast make travel in
sailing vessels faster but also force ships to navigate
dangerously close to the shore (Roush, 1968). Before
the construction of lighthouses, hundreds of vessels
were lost during storms when they were driven either
onto the shoals or the coast (fig. 35). The area around
Cape Hatteras known as Diamond Shoals also came to
be known as the "Graveyard of the Atlantic."

'N
\
Figure 34. Location of early settlements on the Outer Banks.
(Source: National Park Service.)

was the sale of oil extracted from whales washed up

on the shore, the extensive unfenced grazing land soon
led to the development of a livestock industry (Stick, Figure 35. One of the more than 1,000 ships that wrecked on the
1958). Outer Banks during the 1800 's. (Source: National Park Service.)

Before 1700, most settlements were located

between Roanoke and Currituck Inlets. As Roanoke The first lighthouse on the Outer Banks was
Inlet began to shoal and eventually close, however, built on an island in Ocracoke Inlet. The original
maritime traffic was routed 75 miles south to foundation of the Cape Hatteras Lighthouse, built in
Ocracoke Inlet. By 1750, hundreds of ships were using 1802, can still be seen (Stick, 1958). The present Cape
Ocracoke Inlet as a trade route. Port Bath, the official Hatteras Lighthouse was completed in 1870. The
port of entry in 1715, became the largest community Ocracoke Lighthouse, built in 1823, is the oldest still
on the Outer Banks. The town of Portsmouth, standing on the Outer Banks. On Bodie Island, three
established as a transshipment point for goods bound lighthouses have been constructed. The last, built in
for the interior of the Carolina colony, grew rapidly. 1872, is still in use today. The Cape Lookout
22 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA

Figure 36. The Cape Lookout lighthouse in the 1930 's. Note the absence of vegetation during this period.
(Source: National Archives.)

Lighthouse, originally built around 1812, was vandal- forming what are today Oregon and Hatteras Inlets
ized during the Civil War, and the present structure (Pilkey, Neil, and Pilkey, 1978). Within 20 years, use
was completed in 1873 (fig. 36). The last Outer Banks of Ocracoke Inlet and the town of Portsmouth
lighthouse was constructed at Corolla in 1875 decreased radically, and Hatteras Inlet surpassed
(Holland, 1968). Ocracoke as the most traveled inlet on the North
Lifesaving stations, built 7 miles apart, appeared Carolina coast.
on the Outer Banks in the late 1800's. Five Coast
Guard stations are still active on the Outer Banks
today: Oregon Inlet, Cape Hatteras, Hatteras Inlet,
Ocracoke, and Cape Lookout.
With the final closing of Roanoke Inlet in 1811,
it became apparent that the same thing could happen to
Ocracoke Inlet. Therefore, in 1830, the first attempt
was made to alter natural processes along the Outer
Banks. A special dredging machine was used in the
inlet to deepen and widen the shipping channel. Sixty
feet long and propelled by steam-driven paddle
wheels, the dredge was equipped with buckets on a
conveyor belt that scooped sand from the channel
bottom (fig. 37). For 7 years, work continued on
Ocracoke's main channel until engineers concluded it ......,._
-· ~

was filling up as fast as it could be dredged (Stick,

1958).
When Currituck Inlet closed in 1828, Ocracoke
Figure 37. Original dra wing of the first dredge (1830 's ) used to
was the only navigable inlet north of Cape Lookout. In maintain the inlets on the Outer Banks. (Source: National
1846, a storm breached the Outer Banks in two places, Archives.)
 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 23

Vacationers were first reported on these barrier

islands as early as 1750 (Stick, 1958). The first indica-
tion that the Outer Banks would someday develop into
a resort area occurred in 1838 when the first hotel,
capable of accommodating 200 guests, was NORTH CAROLINA SEA BA T!!ING
constructed at Nags Head. The hotel and many Nag's Head Hotel.
cottages were built on the sound side because, like the
first colonists, the summer residents were aware of the
potential hazards of erosion and severe storm tides.
Nags Head became known as a favorite "watering T
a
HIS exllenain e~~ta.bliahment, rece~tly imp~~v·
ed, will bo opened fur the roceptton o( Vuut-
nrs, ~uperiutended by the Junior Pa-rtner, A .. J.
place" where wealthy mainland North Carolinians BAn:Mu , on tho bt day of' July The l!otP.llut-
could escape the heat and fevers of malaria so rampant uat<.Xl in view of the Ocean , J•resellta amagmficent
prd!pect The great bencuts resulting frvm Sea
at that time (Stick, 1958). ~nthiug and the - brPf'te, are hecoming more
Three significant changes occurred on the Outer known and appreciated daily. 1\o place can ·l>e
mote bea.lthy or poeee81!1 a fi.ner climate than Nag's
Banks at the end of the Civil War. The first, resulting Head. The Bathing is Wll!lllii'JliUI'ed in the l.!nited
from the opening of Oregon and Hatteras Inlets in States. We have enga.ged a good Band of Music,
our Ball Room i1 very epacious and will bo open·
1846, was the steady withdrawal of shipping traffic cd every evening. Active and efficient aMil!tnnta
havo been en~ged, and no u ertiou.s will be spur·
away from Ocracoke Inlet. By 1867, the town of ed to render 1t in &11 r~~ta an agreeable and
Portsmouth was on a rapid decline. The population of int.erestin~ resort. A Rtul Rood will be comple-
t<.Xl oorly m July from the Hotel t() the Ocean.
that settlement had dwindled to 18 people in 1955, that ve1'8ons preferring a ride to walking may be
and, at present, no permanent residents live there, accornmode.ted.
The 'tca.mer Sehults will make a trip every
although numerous buildings remain intact. Further Saturday from Fra.nklin Depot, Va ., to l'\ags' !lead,
north, however, summer residents were returning to commencing July 12th, immediately after the e.r·
rim) Qf the Curs from Norfolk, and returning lrfl\'C
Nags Head. The second change, then, was a new hotel :'\ags· Il ea•1 ::>unde.y evening, at 5 o'clock. Pn.II-
built to replace the original Nags Head Hotel (figs. 38, Mge fr,,m F'rankl in ~3, Hiddick'w Wharf, Winton,
&c. , ~.2 50, Edenton to NA.gfl' Head S2. Meal"
39), which had been burned to keep Union forces from extm. Th-e &hults will make &e"\'eral Escut!l.ious
to 1\ags' Hood through the ee&WJn, _due notice of
using it as a base of operations. And third, some which will be given . The l'aoket scb r &.rah
summer residents began building cottages on the l'ort.:r, C.nl>t· Walker, will ruake two tr ips from
Ed~: nton. (N. C ,) to Nag·a H~>ad each week
ocean side of the island (Pilkey, Neil, and Pilkey, through the senf!On, leaving Edenton Tuesday and
1978). FridRy, at 8 o'clock, A M. The Packet IlCht A
Riddick. Capt. Dunbar, will make three triptt each
By the Great Depression, little industry existed week through tho 16UOn . from Eliznl~th Cit"
( ~. C.,) to Nag' s Head, leaviug !<:Iizabeth City
on the Outer Banks. Nothing had been done over the immediately after tho arrh·al of th e Stage Conch
years to improve the strain of cattle, and shipping fr<om !'i<•rfolk, Vo.. Pueago on eMh Paebt $1.
meals cx tr~ . Boord per day nt the Hotel !1 50.
traffic had been reduced to small, private boats. By the w<.-ek at tho rate of $1 25 . By the two
Improved navigation aids decreased the number of wc<!KS at the rate of f.l. By th e month at the
rate of 75 cenUI per day. Children and Servant~
shipwrecks (Stick 1958). Construction of bridges and l111lf price. The patronage vf the public i~ YerJ
paved roads in the 1920's and 1930's, however, signif- re~pectfully svlicited.
RIDDICK & BATE~L\:'1 .
icantly increased the number of summer visitors. June 11. lil51 2>8 - ~m.
Unlike their early predecessors, those that could afford
it preferred to buy land on the ocean side. The location Figure 38. Advertisement for Nags Head Hotel in
of the first paved road near the shoreline had much to 1851. (Source: State Archives of North Carolina.)
do with this pattern of land development. Because land
values were low and household utilities minimal, little
concern was given to building houses close to the
beach. During periods of severe erosion, residents
could move their cottages back to safer positions
(Outlaw, 1956).
24 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA

Figure 39. Nags Head Hotel in 1898. (Source: National Park Service.)

In 1933, after one of the most severe hurricanes livestock was prohibited from Currituck to Hatteras
on record, steps were taken to stabilize the moving Inlet. Two years later, the National Park Service
sands. It was not uncommon for storm overwash to proposed that the Cape Hatteras National Seashore be
sweep across some parts of the island from ocean to established (Roush, 1968).
sound (fig. 40). The National Park Service, in collabo- Although not completed until 1953, the new
ration with the Civilian Conservation Corps, proposed National Seashore (30,000 acres) included most of the
a massive sand-fixation program (Croft, 1934). Outer Banks between Nags Head and Ocracoke Inlet
Between 1933 and 1940, 600 miles of sand fence (fig. 41), excluding the villages of Rodanthe, Waves,
were constructed on 115 miles of beach. To further Salvo, Avon, Buxton, Frisco, Hatteras, and Ocracoke.
stabilize the dunes, 142 million square feet of grass Two factors contributed to the establishment of the
and 2.5 million seedlings, trees, and shrubs were first National Seashore. Unquestionably, this was one
planted (Dunbar, 1958). In 1935, free-ranging of of the world's best examples of a barrier island

Figure 40. Overwash at Cape Hatteras, 1962. (Source: R. Dolan.)

 RECENT TRENDS IN LAND USE 25

environment, rich in quality and diversity. Second, Ownership of the land by the National Park
erosion was becoming a serious problem, and concern Service halted construction south of Nags Head
that the islands would soon disappear was growing. except, of course, in the exempted villages. Headquar-
Even though the shoreline advanced to within tered at Manteo, the Park Service also holds jurisdic-
150 feet of the historic Cape Hatteras Lighthouse and tion over the Wright Brothers National Memorial at
coastal development was continuing at a rapid pace, Kill Devil Hills and over the Fort Raleigh National
much disagreement occurred about having the Outer Historical Site on Roanoke Island (fig. 41).
Banks under Federal control. It was not until Andrew Cape Lookout National Seashore was
Mellon donated over $600,000 for the project, and the authorized in 1966 before Core and Shackleford
State of North Carolina matched his gift that the park Banks underwent any major development. Even
became a reality (Stick, 1958). though not officially transferred to the National Park
Service until 1976, this authorization prevented many
problems that occurred north of Cape Hatteras. The
boundaries of the park extend 58 miles from Ocracoke
Inlet to Beaufort Inlet and include Portsmouth Island,
Core Banks, and Shackleford Banks (24,500 acres). At
the present time, Cape Lookout National Seashore has
no roads or bridges and remains, for the most part, in
its natural state.

WRIGHT BROTHERS
NATIONAL MEMORIAL RECENT TRENDS IN LAND USE
!::;) FORT RALEIGH NATIONAL
~ HISTORIC SITE
Many Atlantic and Gulf coast barrier islands
PEA ISLAND NATIONAL
WILDLIFE REFUGE
have been developed and highly modified in the last
two decades. Freshwater supplies are commonly
overtaxed, and waste products have changed the
ecological balance of adjacent coastal wetlands. Often
CAPE
the changes on barrier islands during storms are
HATTERAS
catastrophic, in that homes and commercial facilities
NATIONAL
built close to the shoreline are destroyed. The Ash
SEASHORE
Wednesday storm of 1962 serves as an example of an
extreme event along the mid-Atlantic coast. Damage
to property amounted to more than $500 million (1962
dollars), and 32lives were lost (Podufaly, 1962).
Unfortunately, this devastation was soon forgotten,
and rapid shore-zone development has continued.
Much of the development shown in figure 42
has taken place since the 1962 storm. The actual
overwash zone of that storm was about 350 feet
wide in this area. After the storm, for example,
869 buildings remained within 1,200 acres of the
overwash zone in Nags Head. Today there are
1,304 buildings in the same hazardous area (Dolan,
Hayden, and Lins, 1980), an increase of 34 percent.
Each year, erosion and storm surge take a toll on the
Figure 41. The distribution offederally owned and managed land buildings along the Outer Banks (fig. 43).
along the Outer Banks.
26 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA

Figure 42. Pattern of development at Nags Head. A, 1958. B, 1979. (Source: National Park Service.)
 RECENT TRENDS IN LAND USE 27

period of landscape response, and assessments of the

stability and vulnerability of each land use and land
cover category.
Recent trends in development on the Atlantic
and Gulf coast barrier islands have been analyzed by
the U.S. Geological Survey (Lins, 1980). Of the nearly
300 islands surveyed, roughly 70 are developed or
urbanized; these areas include Atlantic City, New
Jersey, Ocean City, Maryland, Virginia Beach,
Virginia, Wrightsville Beach, North Carolina, Hilton
Head, South Carolina, Jekyll Island, Georgia, Miami
Beach, Florida, and Galveston Island, Texas. About
80 others have been purchased for or included within
State and local recreation areas or preserves. The
Federal Government has acquired 15 of the largest
barrier islands for wildlife refuges and national
Figure 43. Property damage during a 1972 storm at Killy Hawk. seashores. The remaining 135 islands are privately
(Source: R. Dolan. ) owned and largely undeveloped (Clark and Turner,
1976).
Using categories based on the U.S. Geological The U.S. Geological Survey 's study analyzed
Survey's nationwide land use and land cover mapping changes in land use and land cover on Atlantic and
program, figure 44 shows a cross section of the Gulf coast barrier islands for the period from 1945 to
location of typical land use types found on barrier 197 5. Land used for urban development has increased
islands (Anderson and others, 1976). Table 1 gives the by 140,000 acres, or 153 percent, during this 30-year
natural processes responsible for change, the normal period. Urban land accounted for only 5.5 percent of

Table 1. Dominant coastal processes associated with land use and land cover types (Source: U.S. Geological Survey.)

U.S. Geological Survey Vulnerabilitf

Code Processes and periods Events causing alterations
land classification of response
10 Urban Epi sodic ; sto rm surge Construction; storm damage Moderate
21 Grass and pasture lands Surface runoff; slow trends Low
31 Vegetated sand flats Eolian; overwash; daily ; ex treme events Storm deposition of sand ; denudation Moderate
35 Vegetated dune systems Eolian; wave erosion (frontal) ; daily ; Storm erosion of dune mass; denudation Low
extreme event
43 Forests Surface runoff; slow trends Denudation Low
53 Reservoirs Siltation; slow trends Siltation High
54 Estuaries and bays Tidal currents; daily now patterns Pollution ; alteration of flow patterns Moderate
55 Freshwater ponds Rainfall runoff; daily intrusion Siltation; saltwater Moderate
61 Marshes Biological; tidal overwash; slow trends; Overwash; deposition of sand, High
extreme events; daily manmade; landfill restriction of water
flux
62 Mudfl ats Tidal; daily revegetation surge; daily Current erosion ; sea-level trend Moderate
(seasonally); extreme events
731 Dunes: unvegetated Eolian ; dai ly Vegetation
732 Sand flats : unvegetated Eolian overwash ; daily revegetation Overwash deposition
750 Soil banks Tidal ; surface runoff; daily Revegetation ; erosion
Vulnerability
Hi gh, natural changes occur frequently representing ri sk for development
Moderate, danger from flood or surge
Low, natural change low
28 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA

the totall.7 million acres in 1945, but, in 1975, it residential and commercial development, the
accounted for nearly 14 percent. Most development dominant land cover type on barrier islands in
occurred in wetland areas (80,000 acres) and, to a 1975 was wetlands. Barren land occupied another
lesser extent, in forests (16,000 acres) and on barren 250,000 acres, or roughly 15 percent, and maritime
lands (sand flats and overwash fans, 7,000 acres). forests covered 150,000 acres, or about 9 percent. It is
Four categories-wetland, urban or built-up noteworthy that the area of urban land equaled that of
land, barren land (sand flats and overwash fans), and barren land. Furthermore, the 14-percent urban area
maritime forests-account for 90 percent of the total represents a very large relative percentage-only
barrier island area. Despite the rapid expansion of 3 percent of the total land area in the United States is
urban (Hart, 1975).

I
I
I
I

Storm surge
Tides and waves ~ '"''""' ••w•

Figure 44. Cross-sectional view of developed and undeveloped barrier islands, depicting general locations of land-use
and land-cover types in relation to dominant shoreline processes. (Source: R. Dolan.)
 SHORELINE PROCESSES: EROSION AND OVERWASH 29

SHORELINE PROCESSES:
EROSION AND OVERWASH
The North Carolina barrier islands are, to the
geologist, temporary features of the coastal environ-
ment. Since the last ice age, the level of the sea has
been rising, causing a steady landward migration of
the barrier islands (Kraft, 1971). This migration,
which continues today, is forced incrementally by the
passage of storms that drive sand along and across the
islands . A characteristic island configuration is a broad
beach, a dune field, overwash terraces, and a fringing
marsh on the sound side of the island.
An early settlement of the sound side of the
islands (fig. 45) was due to an awareness of the
Figure 46. Sand fencing in 1936 to build barrier dunes along
hazards associated with erosion and storm overwash. Hatteras Island. (Source: National Park Service.)
During the 1930's, programs designed to control
overwash processes focused on sand stabilization
(Dolan, Godfrey, and Odum, 1973). Sand fences were and roadbeds and utility lines were constructed along
erected on the broad beaches (fig. 46), trapping the length of the islands.
wind-blown sand and forming an unbroken chain of The Outer Banks have changed from a system
barrier dunes. Once these dunes were established, they dominated by natural processes to a stabilized system.
were further stabilized with vegetation and were fertil- The development cautiousness of earlier decades has
ized periodically to ensure rapid and dense growth. diminished concurrently. As a result of the continuing
Consequently, all but the most severe storm rise in sea level and of the restriction of waves and
overwashes were contained seaward of the barrier storm surge to the beach, however, the resultant
dunes, and the dunes provided a margin of protection. prevailing erosion of the beach has been rapid. With
As a result, land use patterns changed dramatically. the narrowing of the beach, progressively smaller
Villages spread rapidly seaward to the barrier dunes, storm-generated waves and surges have eroded the
barrier dunes (fig. 47). It was inevitable that a serious
problem would occur because the processes of erosion
and overwash have continued forcing the shoreline
landward, whereas the line of man's development,
once it was established in the 1930's, has remained
constant.
As indicated earlier, coastal erosion and deposi-
tion are functions of three interrelated factors : the
amount and kind of sediment within a coastal area, the
power of the erosional forces, and the stability of sea
level. The shoreline recedes when the forces of erosion
exceed the amount of sediment supplied to the system.
The greater the deficiency of sand or the higher the
wave force, the more rapid the rate of erosion. Any
one of these three factors can vary through time and
change the balance. It should be stressed that beach
erosion is a natural process and becomes a serious
problem, or hazard, only when man's structures are in
Figure 45. Village of Frisco (near Cape Hatteras) in 1936.
the path of shoreline recession. As shown by maps and
(Source: National Park Service.) aerial photographs, the shoreline of the Outer Banks
30 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA

Figure 47. The last remains of the large barrier dunes on Pea Island. Shoreline recession is eroding the dunes.
(Source: R. Dolan.)

has been moving toward the mainland at the rate of 3 The common-scale mapping system is used to
to 5 feet per year for more than 100 years (Hayden, produce and analyze data on shoreline and overwash
Dolan, and Ross, 1979). penetration changes and rates of change at 330-foot
Despite the well-known, long-term trend of intervals along the Outer Banks of North Carolina.
barrier island migration, the effects of periodic storms These data span more than 15 years for 1 00 percent of
(fig. 48), and repeated warnings from the National the study area, more than 25 years for 91 percent of the
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the Depart- area, and more than 30 years for 53 percent (Dolan,
ment of the Interior, and the U.S. Army Corps of Hayden, and Heywood, 1978).
Engineers, many coastal zone planners and developers
seem to have presumed that the beaches and barrier
islands are stable or that they can be engineered to
remain stable. This attitude is due to the lack of
detailed information available to the planners, land
developers, and the general public and to the difficulty
and expense of collecting accurate data on shoreline
changes and storm overwash.
Analysis of historical changes in a shoreline and
overwash zone requires repeated sampling in space
and time. Although this information can be obtained
from ground surveys, maps, and charts, our research
leads us to believe that repetitive aerial photography is
the only reliable source for cost-effective, high-resolu-
tion, regional scale analysis of shoreline dynamics
along the Outer Banks. (See also Knowles,
Langfelder, and McDonald, 1973; Langfelder,
Stafford, and Amein, 1968.) Consequently, a Figure 48. Pattern of storm-surge penetration for the
common-scale mapping system has been used, March 7, 1962, storm at Nags Head. (Source: R. Dolan.)
developed by Dolan, Hayden, and Heywood ( 1978) to
provide a uniform data base for both intrabarrier and
interbarrier island comparisons.
 SHORELINE PROCESSES: EROSION AND OVERWASH 31

The common-scale data base is used primarily spared for the relief of the colony. When White finally
to predict future positions of the shoreline and the returned in the summer of 1590, he found the colonists
landward limits of overwash damage zones on the had disappeared but had left behind the remains of a
assumption that recent history is the key to the future. crude fortlike settlement and, carved on a tree or post,
The data required for these calculations are the mean the word "Croatoan." The fate of the Lost Colony
rates of change of the shoreline and overwash line and remains a mystery to this day (Harrington, 1962).
the standard deviations of both rates.
Although the location of a fort (Fort Raleigh),
The landward limit of the shoreline at some time which was built before the return of John White, has
in the future can be predicted on a probabilistic basis been verified and well documented, neither research
using the rate-of-change data and standard deviations. through old records nor archaeological fieldwork has
At a 50-percent probability level, the change in the established the actual location of the settlement. Early
position is a product of the rate of shoreline change records reveal that the site was almost certainly near
times the defined interval of time. Shoreline positions
at other probability levels also may be calculated by
using appropriate fractions of the standard deviation of
the rate of change. Details of these calculations are
given by Dolan, Hayden, and Heywood (1978). A
similar procedure is given for probabilistic estimates
of the change in the position of the landward limit of
overwash penetration at defined times in the future.
These projections assume that the trends of the past 30
to 40 years will continue essentially unaltered.
Using this approach, the hazards of erosion Fort Raleigh

and the danger of destructive overwash for several

barrier islands have been examined; for example,
barring anthropogenic activities or alterations, the
probability is 1 in 2 that the shoreline of Nags Head
will be 300 feet landward of its current position by the
year 2010. Using a probability of 1 in 7, the estimate
increases to 580 feet. The landward limit of overwash
penetration for the same period is estimated at 265 and
550 feet, using the 1-in-2 and 1-in-7 probability levels,
respectively. Clearly, overwash damage increases
proportionally with the magnitude of shoreline
recession or erosion. One hazard is, therefore, a
function of the other-a problem for anyone trying to
predict the risks of living on a barrier island.
PAMLICO SOUND 0 0° ~= o
,{1
Shoreline Erosion and the Lost Colony

Sir Walter Raleigh's first English colony in t

N
America was established in 1585 on the Outer Banks
on the northern end of Roanoke Island, North Carolina I
(fig. 49). The "Cittie of Ralegh in Virginia" was,
however, left to its own resources in 1587 when John APPROXIMATE SCALE
White, the colony's governor, returned to England for 0 1 2 3 4 5 MI LES

supplies. Because England was on the verge of war

with Spain at this time, suitable ships could not be Figure 49. Location of Roanoke Island and Fort Raleigh.
32 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA

the fort and close to the shore of Roanoke Island. Recent trends in shoreline change were
Archaeologists believe that it would be reasonable to determined for the period 1950 to 1970. Several
accept any evidence found in a strip approximately characteristic changes, shown in figure SOB, include
one-quarter of a mile wide along the northern shore of the following: (1) The northern shoreline west of the
Roanoke Island (Harrington, 1962). One of the fort, where groins were installed to curtail erosion,
problems that archaeologists generally have ignored, accreted about 30 feet, (2) the area east of the fort, not
however, is that the shoreline of northern Roanoke protected by groins, receded about 80 feet, or approxi-
Island has not remained stable during the almost 400- mately 4 feet per year, (3) the northwestern shore,
year period since the settlement was established. from U.S . 64 to Northwest Point, showed the most
Roanoke Island is part of the Parnlico Terrace erosion for the 20-year period-a loss of roughly
(Pleistocene), and, at one time, it may have been an 150 feet or about 7.5 feet per year.
interfl.uve (situated between two rivers). The southern Land areas facing large fetches (open water), as
end of the island lies only slightly above sea level, and well as facing directions of strong winds (northwest
the northern end has a well-developed, 8- to 10-foot for coastal North Carolina), have higher erosion rates.
bluff with a Pleistocene soil horizon and postglacial Northern Roanoke Island is alined with large fetches
dune sands resting on the terrace surface. Separating to the north from approximately 270° to 90° and, thus,
the Pleistocene layer from the postglacial is a thin the northern part of the island is subject to destructive
layer of charcoal, the remnant of a forest fire that storm waves and surges from northeasters (fig. 49).
swept the northern end of the island at some unknown
earlier date.
Maps and charts dating from the mid-1800's 1585 --
A
and those prepared by the U.S. Army Corps of 1851 -- -- -

\
1903 .. .. ... ... . .
Engineers and the Coast and Geodetic Survey were 1970 ---
used to establish historic trends of shoreline change of
Roanoke Island. Aerial photographs, dated 1943,
1963, and 1970, coupled with field measurements over
the past decade, were used to determine more recent
trends. Although charts and maps of Roanoke Island
date from the 1500's, the earliest ones were too small
in scale or not sufficiently accurate to be of use.
For the northern part of Roanoke Island, all
areas showed varying amounts of shoreline erosion for
the 119-year period, 1851 to 1970. The 1851, 1903,
and 1970 shorelines and our estimated 1585 shoreline 8
are shown in figure 50A. The only interruption of the
natural erosional patterns occurred when a break-water
and groin field were built along the northeast shore in
the 1950's.
Several striking shoreline changes also are
shown in figure 50A. Etheridge Point, for example,
completely disappeared during the last century.
Measurements taken from these figures show that
Roanoke Island lost 928 feet between 1851 and 1970.
Of this amount, 770 feet of shoreline eroded between
1851 and 1903. The remaining 158 feet has been lost
since 1903. Between 1903 and 1950, the tip of the spit
Figure SO. Area near Fort Raleigh. A, Historical shorelines for
on the northeastern end of Roanoke Island migrated the northern end of Roanoke Island. B, Erosion for selected
2,500 feet southeast, a rate of over 50 feet per year. locations. The actual rates since 1851 are given in feet; the
The spit does not appear on the 1851 map and, thus, smaller numbers show losses from 1950 to 1970.
was formed sometime after that date. (Source: R. Dolan.)
 SHORELINE ENGINEERING 33

This situation constitutes a double vulnerability not shoreline on one side of the groin artificially accretes
found elsewhere along the Outer Banks and explains while the shore on the other side erodes. Furthermore,
the high degree of erosion on northern Roanoke when roads, parking lots, and campgrounds are
Island. constructed, sediment processes are altered, and
If the trend in the erosion rate for northern freshwater runoff, plant communities, and animal
Roanoke Island over the last 120 years reflects the habitats are changed.
general trend since the "Cittie of Ralegh" was As previously discussed, barrier islands recede
established almost 400 years ago, it is not surprising when the amount of erosion exceeds the amount of
that evidence of the settlement site has not been sediment supplied to the beach energy system. The
discovered (fig. 50A). Projected over the nearly 400- greater the deficiency of sediment or the higher the
year period, the present coast from Northwest Point to wave forces, the more rapid the rate of erosion. Along
U.S. 64 probably has receded more than 2,000 feet. the mid-Atlantic coast, wave energy ranges from
The northeast shoreline (excluding Etheridge Point) modest to high, sediment budget is primarily on the
from U.S. 64 to the Airport Road has receded an deficit side, and sea level continues to rise relative to
average of approximately 1,300 feet (fig. SOB). Thus the shoreline. Unfortunately, all these factors
shoreline recession along the entire length of northern contribute to erosion.
Roanoke Island in the postsettlement period would Shoreline protection schemes can be
have been over one-quarter of a mile in the very area summarized under three categories designed to inhibit
that archaeologists believe was most likely the settle- direct attack by waves, such as seawalls, bulkheads,
ment location. Whether the erosion of the shoreline and revetments, inhibit currents that transport sand,
over the first 276 years after settlement equaled that of such as jetties and groins, and artificially nourish
the last 120 years is, of course, speculative, but no beaches (U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research
evidence exists to suggest a significant change in the Center, 1973).
physical processes during this period. Similar rates of
erosion have been established for most of the shoreline
between Cape Lookout and Cape Henry (Dolan and Seawalls
others, 1979).
The mystery of the Lost Colony remains Seawalls are expensive and only suitable when
unsolved, and perhaps no one will ever discover the all other means of protection are impractical. In
meaning of "Croatoan." An explanation for the principle, the seawall is designed to absorb and reflect
inability of archaeologists to locate the settlement can, wave energy and to elevate the problem area above the
however, be offered. If the shoreline has receded high water line. Unfortunately, seawalls, bulkheads,
continuously over the last four centuries, as evidence and revetments do not prevent the loss of sand in front
indicates, the settlement site may now be in Roanoke of the structures. In fact, seawalls commonly
Sound, and many artifacts may be lost in the waters accelerate the loss of sand as the wall deflects the
adjacent to the present shoreline. wave forces downward onto the beach deposits.

Jetties and Groins

SHORELINE ENGINEERING
Jetties and groins are obstructions placed in the
Interfering with the littoral transport of sediment path of longshore currents to trap littoral drift (fig. 51).
to provide a more stable landscape on barrier islands These structures work only if ( 1) the littoral drift
profoundly affects geological and ecological sediment is of significant volume, (2) the material is at
processes. If man artificially creates dunes that inhibit least sand sized, and (3) the land down the beach from
overwash and collect windblown sand, for example, the groin is considered to be expendable. The reason
then he alters overwash channels and vegetation for the last is that groins and jetties trap sand, and the
communities and interferes with the landward sand gained at one place must be lost at another.
migration of the islands. If groins and jetties are Nourishment often is needed to fill or refill the groin
constructed to inhibit the longshore currents, the or jetty compartments as sand is lost.
34 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA

Perhaps the greatest disadvantage of artificial

nourishment is that great quantities of sand of suitable
quality (type and size) are not readily available. In the
past, sand was dredged from sounds and bays immedi-
ately inland from the beach or transported from inland
sources. Because of the recent concern about estuarine
ecology, however, and because materials dredged
from sounds and bays are generally too fine to be
effective in beach nourishment, estuarine and bay
sources have become Jess desirable and are no longer
readily available. The only future source of large
quantities of sand for nourishment of the Outer Banks
appears to be offshore areas, such as Diamond Shoals
and coastal inlets.

Inlet Stabilization

Since its formation in 1846, Oregon Inlet has

migrated south because of accretion on its north bank
(Bodie Island) and erosion on the south bank (Pea
Island). The rate of movement has averaged 100 feet
per year for 140 years (Dolan and Glassen, 1972). This
process of accretion and erosion has caused many
problems for the engineers attempting to maintain
navigational channels through the inlet. The U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers has found it necessary to
dredge the channel every year.
Modifications of the inlet have been proposed
by the Corps of Engineers to stabilize the banks, to
increase the depth of the navigational channel, and to
Figure 51. Cape Hatteras. A, Groins trap sand that normally provide convenient access to a newly developed
moves along the shoreline, 1971, and B, Beach nourishment, seafood processing industry at Wanchese on nearby
1974. (Source: R. Dolan.) Roanoke Island. The plan calls for construction of two
rock jetties, each 1.5 miles long, on either side of the
Beach Nourishment inlet (fig. 52). The estimated cost for the project is
about $80 million (1980 dollars). The project would
For more than a century, coastal structures require several years to complete. Although wide
(jetties, groins, and seawalls) have been built in the public support exists locally for the jetty project,
inshore zone to trap sand and to protect beaches. In environmental scientists and the National Park Service
general, these structures collectively have aggravated have serious reservations about its potential adverse
problems rather than solved them. The disadvantages environmental impact.
span a wide range of physical problems. On the other
hand, artificial beach nourishment (fig. 51B) has long
been considered the most desirable method of protec- Economics of Stabilization
tion because (l) placement of sand on a beach does
not alter the suitability of the system for recreation, Any form of beach restoration, including artifi-
(2) nourishment cannot adversely affect areas beyond cial nourishment, is expensive. The cost per cubic yard
the problem area, and (3) if the design fails, the effects of sand depends on the source of the material and the
of the "structure" are soon dissipated. method and distance of its transport. This cost can
 SHORELINE ENGINEERING 35

0 5,000 FEET

Figure 52. Oregon Inlet. A, The inlet, and B, The plan to j etty it. (Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.)

range from about $3.00 per cubic yard for sand 150,000 feet) with 150 feet of erosion and 2 cubic
pumped by dredge over a short distance to as much as yards equals about 45 million cubic yards of sand.
$9.00 per cubic yard for truck-hauled sand (1980 Even this amount would be inadequate to reestablish
dollars). the 1950 shoreline. Additional material also would be
The magnitude of the economic problem associ- required yearly to maintain the beach in a stable
ated with erosion along the Outer Banks can be visual- position.
ized by comparing the erosion rates and sand The nourishment method of the future will
requirements to reach an equilibrium. The average involve the inexpensive transfer of large quantities of
shoreline loss for the period from 1950 to 1979 was sand from offshore sources directly into the inshore
about 150 feet (Dolan, Hayden, and Felder, 1979). bar-trough system, which is adjacent to the beach
Using a rule-of-thumb estimate that 2 cubic yards of (fig. 53). This method will eliminate the costly step of
sand are lost for every 1 foot of erosion per 1 foot of placing the material directly on the beach. Sand added
beach, the 30 miles of developed shoreline (over to a beach is redeposited within the bar-trough system
 36 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA

the Outer Banks at about $20,000, with an additional

$1,000 to $2,000 per year required to maintain
stability. Investments this large obviously restrict
beach erosion control projects to areas where erosion
has implications of national significance (Dolan and
others, 1973).

MAN'S IMPACT ON THE

OUTER BANKS
No accurate records have survived that describe
the conditions along the North Carolina Outer Banks
when European explorers arrived. The earliest known
observations date from the late 18th century. By this
time, the islands had been settled for at least 100 years,
and large numbers of cattle, sheep, horses, and hogs
had been introduced (Dunbar, 1958). For these
reasons, some uncertainty exists about the extent of
vegetation on the islands before the arrival of the
English settlers (Cobb, 1903). Cobb suggested that the
banks originally were covered by extensive vegetation
and that heavy grazing and wood cutting by the early
settlers partially denuded the barrier islands of their
grasses and trees and created a desolate, unnatural
condition.
Men and domesticated animals undoubtedly
have affected the vegetation of the Outer Banks
(Godfrey, 1972b). The observations of several investi-
gators indicate, however, that vegetation on the islands
always has been sparse. The regular occurrence of
Figure 53. The concept of transferring sand from offshore shoals overwash and flood tides precludes the establishment
to the inshore zone near Cape Hatteras. (Source: R. Dolan.)
of permanent forests, except at a few high dune areas,
such as Buxton.
One way to visualize the original condition of
within a short period of time anyway. This method of
the Outer Banks is to examine a typical barrier island
sand transfer requires a new concept in hopper-dredge
such as present-day Core Banks (Brown, 1959). The
design, and one now is being developed by the Corps
typical cross section of a natural barrier island, in
of Engineers. The equipment is capable of working in
contrast to one that has been stabilized, presented in
shallow water (12 feet or less).
figure 54, shows several characteristic features. Storm
Over the past two decades, tens of millions of waves and tides have carried sand and shells from the
dollars from private and public funds have been beach face to form a broad berm that slopes gently
. invested in attempts to stabilize and protect property toward the interior of the island (Godfrey, 1972c). The
on the beach along the mid-Atlantic coast. The width of this zone ranges from 325 to 650 feet
methods available to "correct" erosion problems are depending on the magnitude and frequency of storms.
limited. The best method, beach nourishment, clearly This wide, bare berm serves as a buffer zone in which
has serious economic drawbacks. In 1972, the Corps the wave energy of a moderate storm can be
of Engineers completed a study that estimated the cost dissipated. Small dunes form on the berm between
of restoring the average 50-foot beachfront lot along storms (fig. 55).
 MAN'S IMPACT ON THE OUTER BANKS 37

A
NATURAL BARRIER ISLAND

\._

,_1 'y-

..y
v

B
STABILIZED BARRIER ISLAND

rf19rsn
911
\._ ~o"''
,_1 'y-
'y- --1'
..y -.{
v

Figure 54. Idealized profiles of A, natural versus B, stabilized barrier islands. (Source: R. Dolan.)

Behind the wide berm is a zone of low, irregular maritime forests can be found on Shackleford Banks,
dunes broken by overwash fans (fig. 56). Storm tides scattered on Core Banks, and in the Cape Hatteras
carry sand into the interior of the island through the region, including Ocracoke Village, Buxton, Avon,
depressions between dunes. The dunes form as sand and Nags Head. These forests probably were never
accumulates around cordgrass (Spartina patens) and continuous along the barrier islands.
sea oats (Uniola paniculata). Both grasses grow The broad salt marshes that border the sound
upward as the dunes increase in height (Godfrey, side of Core Banks form two basic patterns. The first
1972a). Sea oats are better dune builders, but is typically a band of marsh grass, 100 to 160 feet
cordgrass is more common on Core Banks. Sea oats wide, that parallels the dune and grassland zones
grow vigorously when the plants receive fresh sand between the spring high tide mark and normal low
and salt spray, their main source of nutrients
tide. Smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora)
(Woodhouse, Seneca, and Cooper, 1968).
dominates the lower zone. This band of marsh
Behind the dunes at Core Banks, storms of the develops on overwash terraces within reach of the
last 20 years have left a series of flat overwash terraces tides. The most luxurious stands of marsh grass are
(Godfrey, 1970). The highest terraces are the areas
now where overwash deposits fill part of the sound.
which have been overwashed most frequently. The
distribution of plants found on these flats depends on The second salt marsh pattern is on the complex
the elevation of each terrace above sea level. of small islands immediately behind the main barrier
In the past, spit fonnation, beach progradation, island. There grasses develop on old tidal deltas left by
and inlet closure have left a series of relic dune former inlets (Fisher, 1962). Sometimes overwash fills
systems scattered along the Outer Banks. Where these in the sound, joining the marsh islands to the main
dunes are far enough back from the sea to be protected barrier island. The islands have the same plant zones
from salt spray, they have been stabilized by maritime as the fringing marshes, except that black needlerush
woodlands dominated by pine and oak forests (Juncus roemerianus) may replace the cordgrasses in
(Oosting and Billings, 1942; Oosting, 1945). Typical areas not regularly flooded by tides.
38 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA

Figure 55. The history of shoreline stabilization at Coquina

Beach on Bodie Island. A, The shore zone in 1955 before the
National Park Service stabilized the active sand zone. B, The
large comfort station soon after its completion in 1959. C, The
same structure just before it was destroyed by storm surge in
1976. (Source: National Park Service.)

Figure 56. Overwashfans north of Cape Hatteras, 1972. (Source: National Park Service.)

,
 MAN'S IMPACT ON THE OUTER BANKS 39

The frequency of severe storms along coastal around Cape Hatteras (fig. 58). A comparison of a
North Carolina and their accompanying overwash cross section of Hatteras Island, representing the
precluded a permanent road network until the 1930's. altered condition, shows how stabilization has
At that time, it was decided to construct a protective changed the beach, dune, and marsh morphology and
dune system between the proposed road and the beach. established new plant communities (fig. 54B).
Beginning in 1936, the Civilian Conservation Corps
and the Work Projects Administration, under the CAPE HENRY
direction of the National Park Service, erected almost
3.3 million feet of sand fencing to create a continuous
barrier dune along the Outer Banks (fig. 57)-
including Hatteras, Pea, and Bodie Islands (Stratton
and Hollowell , 1940).

Kitty Hawk
Bodie Island
Nags Head

Hatteras
Island

CAPE
HATIERAS

Figure 57. Sand f encing on Ocracoke Island. (Source: National

Park Service.)

Most construction took place in the zone

comprising the original low beach dunes and a strip
100 to 300 feet wide behind the foredune (fig. 54A).
The sand that collected around the fencing was
stabilized further with approximately 2.4 million trees
and shrubs and enough grass to protect 3,254 acres. Figure 58. The location of stabilized parts of the North Carolina
The National Park Service resumed the effort in dune Outer Banks.
construction in the late 1950's, and an almost contin-
uous mass of vegetation from south Nags Head to the Viewed from the air, the most striking differ-
southern tip of Ocracoke Island has resulted. The most ence between the natural and altered barrier islands,
successful vegetation is American beach grass other than the artificial barrier dune system, is a
(Ammophila breviligulata) and, to a lesser extent, sea marked difference in beach widths (fig. 59). The
oats (Woodhouse and Hanes, 1966). unaltered islands have beaches 400 to 650 feet wide,
Thirty years of artificial dune stabilization has averaging about 500 feet. On many stretches of the
altered greatly the ecology and geology of the area Hatteras Island beach, which was altered 30 years
ago, the shore zone has receded to a width of 100 feet
40 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA

or less. Ocracoke Island, which was altered 10 to altering the normal vegetation sequence. As shown in
15 years ago, has intermediate-width beaches ranging figure 54, the dune and berm profiles of the two types
from 160 to 325 feet and averaging 250 feet. of beach differ strikingly.
The stabilized dune line, as high as 30 feet in
places, stops overwash and salt spray and enables
plants, which usually grow farther away from the
natural beach, to survive on its back slope. Among the
plants progressing seaward because of dune stabiliza-
tion are shrub communities that can form impenetrable
thickets 10 to 15 feet high. Thi s rapid expansion of
shrubs can be seen best on Bodie Island (figs. 60, 61).
Before the dunes were stabilized, a few shrubs grew in
the drifting sand around Bodie Island Lighthouse near
Oregon Inlet. By 1979, this same area was covered
with a dense growth of shrubs, as was the entire center
of the island. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and
the National Park Service have attempted to check the
spread of shrubs with controlled fire s (Dolan, 1972).

Figure 60. Pattern of shrub growth on Bodie Island. This area was
mostly unvegetated sand flats before 1930. (Source: R. Dolan.)

Figure 59. The difference in beach widths can be seen from

these two photographs. A, Hatteras Island (stabilized), and
B, Core Banks (unstabilized). (Source: R. Dolan.)

Few plants can tolerate the extreme conditions

near a beach subject to high wave action. The effect of
salt spray and occasional flooding on dune vegetation
have been well documented (Boyce, 1954). One major
difference between natural and stabilized barrier Figure 61. Shrub growth along Highway 12 on Bodie Island.
(So urce: R. Dolan.)
islands is the role played by the manmade dune in
 MAN'S IMPACT ON THE OUTER BANKS 41

The shrubs and other out-of-place species are much of the land behind the stabilized dunes is
not well adapted to flooding, burial from overwash, or submerged periodically. Hurricane winds from the
salt spray. When the dunes are breached during a southeast force elevated waters from the ocean into the
storm, these plants are killed. It is unknown how sounds. When the storm moves off the coast, the
rapidly this vegetation will recover. On a natural winds shift to the northwest, and water piles up from
barrier island, however, the indigenous plants that the soundside. Wherever large barrier dunes are
grow close to the sea can renew themselves within one present, a hurricane causes severe beach erosion on the
growing season after an overwash. ocean side and floods on the sound side.
Interference with the overwash processes and
Further compounding the problem has been the
inlet dynamics cannot help but decrease the produc-
false impression of safety and stability created by the
tivity of the sounds. In the past, new marsh areas have
barrier dune. Numerous structures- including motels,
grown up on sand deposited in the sounds through
restaurants, beach cottages, park facilities, and the
temporary inlets, and marsh grasses have invaded the
U.S. Naval Station at Cape Hatteras-have been built
overwash sediment carried across the islands. Marshes
immediately behind the barrier dunes with the belief
can grow vertically by organic accumulation, but they
that the dunes would provide permanent protection
cannot expand into the sound once the supply of
from encroachment by the sea. Instead, the beach has
overwash sand, the basis for gradual lateral growth,
narrowed steadily, and the barrier dunes subsequently
has been cut off. Instead, the marshes tend to have
have eroded away, leaving these structures with little
scarped and eroding edges. In fact, all the land behind
protection against extreme storms (fig. 62).
the artificial dune accumulates organic matter very
slowly, so that the land becomes lower with respect to The opening and closing of inlets and oceanic
the rising sea level once overwash deposition is overwash create serious problems in maintaining a
stopped. permanent highway down the center of the Outer
Another problem associated with dune stabiliza- Banks. In the past, the highways have been cleared
tion in the Outer Banks is flooding that occurs when when they were covered with sand deposited by
northeast storms pile the water of Parnlico Sound overwash and have been rerouted several times when
against the barrier islands. In the past, these surge erosion destroyed or threatened the dunes. Bridges
waters simply flowed between the dunes and into the have been abandoned, and roads have been built where
ocean. Now the water cannot drain off readily, and inlets have closed (fig. 63).

Figure 62. House on Bodie Island which was later moved back from the shoreline in 1980 with funds provided by the Federal
Flood Insurance Program. (Source: R. Dolan.)
42 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA

Figure 63. New inlet on Pea Island. The inlet was cut through the
island in the 1930 's but was sealed by natural processes before the
bridge was used. (Source: R. Dolan.)

Although the present stabilized system is

Figure 64. Sandbag seawall which was constructed at the base
undependable, endangered, and expensive to maintain, of the Cape Hatteras lighthouse. This structure was destroyed by
alternatives are even more expensive and somewhat wave action soon afier it was completed. (Source: R. Dolan.)
questionable in terms of application and economics.
Shackleford Banks is undeveloped. No highways,
Attempts have been made to maintain the beaches by
utilities, or permanent settlements are there to protect.
constructing groins or by dredging sediments and
pumping them onto the beach. The cost of groin fields As early as 1938, National Park Service
commonly runs into millions of dollars. Beach geologists asserted that the low, open nature of the
nourishment may cost $2 million to $5 million a mile, Outer Banks was due to natural processes at work, not
and, in most cases, they are only temporary measures. to deforestation. Between 1970 and 1973, Dolan and
Another suggested measure is a reinforced dune Godfrey presented their findings to the National Park
system at critical sites by forming seawalls of sand Service contending that barrier islands were intrinsi-
bags (fig. 64) and filling the center with loose sand. cally unstable and that their natural response to stress
Construction of structures such as this ignores the was change, by either accretion or erosion (Dolan,
basic fact that once the beach is gone, nothing will Godfrey, and Odum, 1973). They advocated the
stop heavy surf for long. A better solution, and clearly termination of large-scale dune stabilization programs
the more desirable from ecological and geological and held that such programs led to major modifica-
standpoints, would be to construct an elevated tions of the system and result in severe adjustments in
highway on the sound side of the islands . This solution geological and ecological processes (Dolan, 1973).
would allow natural processes to proceed with little The National Park Service eventually adopted
resulting damage, although the cost may be prohibi- the philosophy of letting nature take its course (Behn
tive. and Clark, 1979). Too much money had been
Cape Hatteras has been urbanized to the point expended over the years with too few positive results.
where the present highway must be maintained Upon completion of a beach nourishment project at
(National Park Service, 1978). As the beach system Buxton in 1973, the Park Service outlined the new
continues to narrow, however, new instances of dune stabilization policy
overwash, erosion of the artificial batTier dunes, and
"Following damaging storms, the dunes [will]
inlet formation can be forecast. Many structures that not be artificially rebuilt, but in extensive barren areas
have been built near the beach will be lost, and the a revegetation program [will] be initiated. Inlets which
highway will require relocation in several places opened during storms [will] be permitted to migrate
within a few years. The situation on Cape Lookout and close naturally. This alternative envisions that at
however is entirely different. The area from some time in the future it may be impractical to
Portsmouth Island to Cape Lookout and west along maintain a continuous road through the seashore."
 HAZARDS AND LAND USE 43

The problem of beach erosion along the Outer rate of change (periodic fluctuation). The sum of these
Banks is rooted not so much in the patterns of land use two measures is one of the best indications of hazards
introduced by the early settlers as much as in the rapid and vulnerability or stability of the shoreline. The
development which has occurred over the past four graphs in figure 65 are designed to provide rapid
decades. During this period, the Outer Banks have visual assessment of shoreline stability along the
been transformed from an area of open space and Outer Banks (Dolan, Hayden, and Heywood, 1978a).
isolated fishing villages into a crowded resort area that Perhaps more important than the absolute magnitude
has a summer population of close to 100,000 people of erosion is the capacity to compare relative
per day. The result has been a rapid alteration of the magnitudes of erosion from point to point and area to
natural environment. area. The means and standard deviations of shoreline
rates of change for areas along the Outer Banks are
given in table 2. As the graphs and table show, rates of
change are highly variable quantities in space and
HAZARDS AND LAND USE time.
The following table lists the long-term average
Two important issues to consider in barrier
rates (M) and the standard deviation (SD) of shoreline
island management are the hazards associated with
change in meters per year for the Outer Banks barrier
erosion and with storm surge. Because of the
islands. A negative sign indicates recession, and a
continuing relative rise in sea level and the frequent
positive sign, accretion. Ni indicates the number of
impact of storm waves and surges, barrier islands are
transacts for each island. [Source: R. Dolan.]
moving toward the mainland. The rate of movement
for the Outer Banks over the last four decades has
Table 2. Shoreline rate of change statistics
averaged between 3 to 5 feet per year. There is nothing
to indicate that the natural processes that have been
Island M SD
forcing barrier islands toward the mainland for many
Shackleford: Ni = 123 -0.97 2.74
decades will soon change. On the basis of data on 20
to 40 years of shoreline change along the islands, if Core Banks: Ni = 392 -0.22 2.02
historical trends continue, a forecast of what the Outer Portsmouth: Ni = 220 -0.96 0.80
Banks may look like in another 25 years can be made Ocracoke: Ni = 239 +0.59 3.11
(Dolan, Hayden, and Heywood, 1978b). This forecast South Hatteras: Ni = 175 +0.37 1.33
is based on the assumption that man will make no North Hatteras: Ni = 600 -1.94 1.96
major alterations in the present system.
The complexity of barrier island dynamics
precludes simple rule-of-thumb guidelines for land use Beach protection and restoration are expensive
management. Charts and maps that show the degree of measures that are generally beyond the means of the
vulnerability to extreme storms, the probable results of individual property owner. The best solution to beach
a rise in sea level, and the best possible forecasts of erosion and flooding, therefore, is to plan carefully
future conditions on the Outer Banks are presently before building or buying beachfront property. Some
among the most needed information tools. To be basic factors to consider are the erosional history of
effective in a land use management program, these the property and recent trends of shoreline change for
data would have to be updated continuously through the area; the magnitude of wave forces, storm surges,
systematic monitoring that includes repetitive aerial and storm frequencies; and the characteristics of the
photography and fieldwork. Only through this method specific site in question, such as beach slope, beach
can nature's long-term dynamic trends be identified width, dunes, and general topography.
and the appropriate management decisions be An understanding of the relations among beach
implemented. width, beach slope, and potential storm surge is
Changes in the shoreline at any point (landward needed so that buildings can be constructed with a
or seaward) can be measured by the mean rate of knowledge of the probability of wave damage within a
change (long-term trend) and standard deviation of given number of years. For a building far inland, for
44 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA

-30-20-10 0 10 20 30 0 50 100 150 0 2,500 5 ,000

MEAN RATE OF STANDARD MEAN DISTANCE OF STORM
SHORELINE CHANGE, IN DEVIATION, PENETRATION, IN FEET (SP)
FEET PER YEAR (SL) IN FEET (SL)

Figure 65. Data strips which permit rapid visual assessment of horizontal erosion along the Outer Banks.

example, storm damage may be of little concern. With SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
each unit of distance one moves the building toward
the beach, however, the probability of damage, within This report has presented an overview of the
a given time period, increases (fig. 66). If the building geological history of the Outer Banks of North
is designed for a life expectancy of 15 years, it is poor Carolina-how the islands formed, how they have
planning to place it in a zone that has a high changed, and why they will continue to change in the
probability of storm-surge damage within 5 years. future. It has included an assessment of man's activi-
Design adjustments are possible that can change the ties which have occurred on the Outer Banks since the
probability; for example, a building fortified with a time of the first English settlements. The purpose has
seawall and elevated on pilings above the storm-surge been to describe the natural processes and to point out
level could be constructed in an otherwise undesirable that some of these processes result in environmental
location within a storm-surge zone. hazards. Data also have been presented on rates of
shoreline change and storm overwash that can be used
Few standardized guidelines or generalized to estimate future positions of these dynamic
rules of thumb are available for planning and components of the barrier island system.
managing land use on barrier islands and, likewise, for
Natural processes provide many clear indica-
developing beach property. Every coastal site is
tions of areas that are especially hazardous to develop.
different. Many costly failures have resulted when a Data on erosion and overwash penetration rates,
workable solution for one beach was tried on another. coupled with land use information, can provide a basis
Therefore, planning and developing each site should for guiding future development away from the more
be treated as a unique problem having unique hazardous areas and into locations of greater relative
appropriate planning and design solutions (Pilkey, safety. Similarly, such data can be used effectively to
Neal, and Pilkey, 1978). evaluate various hazard mitigation techniques and to
 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 45

~ .. .:!"~·
. '\ - . ,.

Figure 66. Potential property losses along the Atlantic Coast (over $100 million) if another March 7, 1962, storm were to occur.
(Source: A. Brown.)

choose those which offer the most protection with the Inhabitants of barrier islands continually face
fewest negative impacts. the need to assess environmental processes and the
The natural configuration of barrier island associated potential for hazardous conditions. Such
coastlines, as determined by coastal processes, is not a assessments are exceedingly complex. The probability
straight line but is rather sinuously curved and bulged. of error is great because of the high temporal and
Some homes on the Outer Banks, constructed in the spatial variance inherent within and among such
1950's, are still here today, having weathered factors as sea-level rise, storm frequency, shoreline
hundreds of storms, including the destructive 1962 erosion, and increasing residential density. Clearly, the
Ash Wednesday northeaster. Other houses nearby hazard potential of a given location to individual
have disappeared. The vulnerability of some places storms needs to be gaged. However, precise predic-
along the coast is not simply a matter of chance. There
tions of when or where storms will occur is not
are patterns to the hazards. Research suggests that
possible. This does not mean that general assessments
even for individual sites along the barrier islands,
of along-the-coast variations in hazard probabilities
natural processes result in shoreline forms that are
systematic or recurring (Dolan and Hayden, 1980). are limited. Research indicates that the occurrence and
impact of coastal storms differ more in intensity than
If hazard zones along the barrier islands are in geography. It is possible that one of the most
distributed systematically, then they should be predict-
important elements in future hazard research and
able. The problem is that detailed historical informa-
assessment is a concept which has so far been
tion for establishing past patterns is not always
available. Evidence suggests, however, that sections of explored principally on an intuitive level; that is, that
sedimentary coasts which have experienced storm storms provide the energy for coastal change and that
damage and serious erosion in the past are likely to geomorphological characteristics determine how that
experience more of the same in the future. We believe energy is distributed. The quantification of this
a natural "template of change" exists that is governed concept may offer significant possibilities for progress
by the coastal configuration. in the study of coastal hazards.
46 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA

SELECTED REFERENCES - - -1973, Barrier islands, natural and controlled, in

Coates, D.R., ed., Coastal geomorphology:
Anderson, J.R., Hardy, E.E., Roach, J.T., and Witmer, R.E., Binghamton, State University of New York, New
1976, A land use and land cover classification system York, p. 263-278.
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Survey, Professional Paper 964, 28 p. the lost colony: Association American Geographers,
Behn, R.D., and Clark, M.A., 1979, The termination of Annals, v. 62, no. 3, p. 424-426.
beach erosion control at Cape Hatteras: Public Policy, Dolan, R., and Glassen, R., 1972, Oregon Inlet, North
v.27,no. l,p.99- 127. Carolina, a history of coastal change: Southeastern
Bosserman, K., and Dolan, R., 1968, The frequency and Geography, v. 13, no. I , p. 41-53.
magnitude of extratropical storms along the Outer Dolan, R., Godfrey, P.J., and Odum, W.E., 1973, Man's
Banks of North Carolina: National Park Service impact on the barrier islands of North Carolina:
Technical Reprint 68-4, 54 p. American Scientist, v. 61 , p. 152-162.
Dolan, R., and Hayden, B., 1980, Templates of change,
Boyce, S.G., 1954, The salt spray community: Ecological
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Bretschneider, C.L., 1964, The Ash Wednesday East Coast
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storm, March 5-8, 1962, Proceedings of 9th Confer-
American Scientist, v. 68, no. 1, p. 16-25.
ence Coastal Engineering, American Society of Civil
Dolan, R., Hayden, B., and Felder, W., 1979, Shoreline
Engineers, New York: p. 167-659.
periodicities and edge waves: Journal of Geology,
Brown, C. A., 1959, Vegetation of the Outer Banks of North
v. 87, p. 175-185.
Carolina: Baton Rouge, Louisiana, Louisiana Coastal
Dolan, R., Hayden, B., Fisher, J., and Godfrey, P.J., 1973, A
Studies Series No.4, Louisiana State University Press,
strategy for management of marine and lake systems
179 p.
within the National Park Service: U.S. Department of
Clark, J.R., and Turner, R., 1976, Barrier islands, a threat-
Interior, National Park Service, National Science
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Newsletter, no. 8, p. 1-11.
Dolan, R. , Hayden, B., and Heywood, J., 1978a, A new
Cobb, C., 1903, Recent changes in the North Carolina coast photogrammetric method for determining shoreline
with special reference to Hatteras Island: Science, erosion: Coastal Engineering, v. 2, p. 21-39.
v. 17, no. 423,227 p. - --1978b, Analysis of coastal erosion and storm surge
- - -1908, The North Carolina coast, its perils and how hazards: Coastal Engineering, v. 2, p. 41-53.
they may be lessened: Proceedings, First Annual Dolan, R., Hayden, B., Heywood, J., and Vincent, L. , 1977,
Convention, Atlantic Deeper Waterways Associations, Shoreline forms and shoreline dynamics: Science,
p. 159-164. v. 197, p. 49-51.
Cooperman, A.l., and Rosendal, H.E., 1962, Great Atlantic Dolan, R. , Hayden, B., and Jones, C., 1979, Barrier island
Coast storm: Mariners Weather Log, U.S. Department configuration: Science, v. 204, no. 4391 , p. 401-403.
of Commerce, Weather Bureau, v. 6, no. 3, p. 79-85. Dolan, R., Hayden, B., Rea, C., and Heywood, J., 1979,
Croft, L.P., 1934, Study for a national seaside, including Shoreline erosion rates along the middle Atlantic coast
Kill Devil Hills, Hatteras, Cape Lookout, Fort Macon of the United States: Geology, v. 7, p. 602- 606.
area: Branch of Planning, National Park Service. Dolan, R., Hayden, B., and Vincent, L., 1974, Crescentic
Curray, J.R., 1960, Sediments and history of Holocene coastal landforms: Zeitschrift ftir Geomorphologie,
transgression, continental shelf, northwest Gulf of v. 18, no. 1, p. 1-12.
Mexico, in Shepard F.P., ed., Recent sediments, Dolan, R., and Vincent, L., 1972, Analysis of shoreline
northwest Gulf of Mexico: Tulsa, Oklahoma, change at Cape Hatteras, North Carolina: Modem
American Association Petroleum Geologists, p. 221- Geology, v. 3, p. 143-149.
226. Donn, W.L., Farrand, W.R., and Ewing, M., 1962,
Dillon, W.P. , and Oldale, R.N., 1978, Late Quaternary sea- Pleistocene ice volumes and sea-level lowering:
level curve: Geology, v. 6, p. 56- 60. Journal of Geology, v. 70, p. 206-214.
Dolan, R., 1971, Coastal landforms, crescentic and Duane, D.B., Field, M.E., Meisburger, E.P., and others,
rhythmic: Geological Society American Bulletin, 1972, Linear shoals on the Atlantic inner continental
v. 82, p. 177- 180. shelf, Long Island to Florida, in Swift, D.J.P. and
- --1972, Barrier dune systems along the Outer Banks others, eds., Shelf sediment transport, process and
of North Carolina, a reappraisal: Science, v. 176, p. pattern: Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, Dowden,
286- 288. Hutchinson, and Ross, p. 447-498.
 SELECTED REFERENCES 47

Dunbar, G.S., 1958, Historical geography of the North ---1972c, The role of overwash and inlet dynamics in
Carolina Outer Banks: Baton Rouge, Louisiana, the formation of salt marshes on North Carolina barrier
Louisiana State University Press, 234 p. islands: Minneapolis, Minnesota, Twenty-third
Dunn, G.E., and Miller, B.I., 1960, Atlantic hurricanes: American Institute of Biological Sciences Manage-
Baton Rouge, Louisiana, Louisiana State University ment, August 30, 1972, 10 p.
Press, 326 p. ---1976, Barrier beaches of the East Coast: Oceanus,
Emery, K.O., 1968, Relict sediments on continental shelves v. 19,no.5,p.27--40.
of the world: American Association of Petroleum Godfrey, P.J., Leatherman, S.P., and Zaremba, R., 1979, A
Geologists Bulletin, v. 52, p. 445--464. geobotanical approach to classification of barrier beach
Emiliani, C., 1970, Pleistocene paleotemperatures: Science, systems, in Leatherman, S.P., ed., Barrier islands: New
v. 168, p. 822-825. York, Academic Press, p. 99-126.
Everts, H., Battley, J.P. Jr., and Gibson, P.N., 1983, Harrington, J.C., 1962, Search for the City of Raleigh:
Shoreline movements, Report 1 Cape Henry, Virginia, U.S. Department of Interior, National Park Service,
to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, p. 1849-1980. 63 p.
Field, M.E., and Duane, D.B., 1976, Post-Pleistocene Hart, J.F., 1975, The look of the land: Englewood Cliffs,
history of the United States inner continental shelf, New Jersey, Prentice Hall, 224 p.
significance to origin of barrier islands: Geological Hayden, B., 1975, Storm wave climates at Cape Hatteras,
Society of America Bulletin, v. 87, p. 691-702. North Carolina, recent secular variations: Science,
Field, M.E., Meisburger, E.P., Stanley, E.A., and Williams, ~ 190,p.981-983.
S.J., 1979, Upper Quaternary peat deposits on the Hayden, B., and Dolan, R., 1979, Barrier islands, lagoons,
Atlantic inner shelf of the United States: Geological and marshes: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 49,
Society of America Bulletin, v. 90, p. 618-628. no.4,p. 1061-1072.
Fisher, J.J., 1962, Geomorphic expression of former inlets
Hayden, B., Dolan, R., and Ross, P., 1979, Barrier island
along the Outer Banks of North Carolina: Chapel Hill,
migration: Proceedings, Ninth Coastal Geomorpholog-
North Carolina, University of North Carolina, MS
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Thesis, 102 p.
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---1968, Origin of barrier island chain shorelines,
---1980, Barrier island migration, in Coates, D.R. and
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Fisher, J.J., and Simpson, E.J., 1979, Washover and tidal Sydne~p.343-384.
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Hebert, P.J. and Taylor, G., 1979, Everything you always
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v.32,no.2,p.61-67.
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---1979, Everything you always wanted to know
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about hurricanes, Part II: Weatherwise, v. 32, no. 3,
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and Coastal Storms, Orlando, Florida, May 29; p. 100-107.
National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administra- Hicks, S.D., 1972, On the classification and trends of long-
tion, Washington, D.C., p. 18-20. period sea-level series: Shore and Beach, v. 40, no. 1,
Godfrey, P.J., 1970, Oceanic overwash and its ecological p. 20-23.
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U.S. Department of Interior, National Park Service sea-level series for the United States: U.S. Department
Reprint, Office of Chief Scientists, 37 p. of Commerce, National Oceanographic and
---1972a, Ecological approach to dune management in Atmospheric Administration Technical Memorandum
the natural recreation areas of the U.S. East Coast: of National Ocean Survey, no. 15, 6 p.
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Society Biometeorologists Congress, September 5, National Seashore: U.S. Department of Interior,
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man: Washington, D.C., American Association for the patterns of washover on a barrier island in southeastern
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48 THE OUTER BANKS OF NORTH CAROLINA

Hoyt, J.H., 1967, Barrier island formation: Geological Moslow, T.F., and Heron, S.D., Jr., 1978, Relict inlets,
Society of America Bulletin, v. 78, p. 1125-1136. preservation and occurrence in the Holocene statig-
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Society of America Bulletin, v. 78, p. 77-78. ---1979, Quaternary evolution of Core Banks, North
---1971, Origin of capes and shoals along the Carolina: Cape Lookout to New Drum Inlet, in
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Society of America Bulletin, v. 82, p. 59-66. Academic Press, p. 211-236.
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