Macronutrients

Macronutrient Types / Subtypes Description Functions Deficiency Toxicity

- Energy source (4 kcal/g) - Weight gain
- Simple: Monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, - Fatigue, muscle
- Spare protein for tissue - Increased fat storage
galactose), Disaccharides (sucrose, lactose) Organic compounds made of carbon, breakdown
repair - Risk of insulin
Carbohydrates - Complex: Oligosaccharides, Polysaccharides hydrogen, oxygen. Primary energy - Ketosis (in low carb)
- Brain and RBC fuel resistance, diabetes
(starch, glycogen, fiber)- Fiber: Soluble (pectin), source. Fiber is non-digestible. - Constipation (low fiber)
- Fiber aids digestion and - GI distress (fiber
Insoluble (cellulose) - Hypoglycemia
cholesterol reduction overload)
- Long-term energy
storage
- Atherosclerosis
- Simple lipids: Triglycerides - Absorption of fat-
- Essential fatty acid - Obesity
- Compound lipids: Phospholipids (e.g., lecithin), soluble vitamins (A, D, E,
deficiency (eczema, poor - Hyperlipidemia
Glycolipids, Lipoproteins (HDL, LDL, VLDL) Organic, hydrophobic molecules. Most K)
wound healing) - Increased LDL, risk of
Lipids (Fats) - Derived lipids: Cholesterol, fat-soluble energy-dense macronutrient (9 kcal/g). - Insulation and
- Fat-soluble vitamin CVD
vitamins- Fatty acids: Saturated, Involved in structure and signaling. protection
deficiency - Liver dysfunction
Monounsaturated, Polyunsaturated (omega-3, - Hormone synthesis
- Neurological issues (excess lipid
omega-6), Trans fats (steroids)
accumulation)
- Cell membrane
structure
- Tissue growth and
- Kwashiorkor (edema,
- Complete proteins: Contain all essential AAs repair - Kidney burden (in
fatty liver)
(animal sources, soy) - Enzyme and hormone renal disease)
Polymers of amino acids. Contain - Marasmus (muscle
- Incomplete proteins: Lacking one or more synthesis - Dehydration
Proteins nitrogen. Body's building blocks. wasting)
essential AAs (plant sources) - Immune defense - Hypercalciuria
Provide 4 kcal/g. - Poor growth, immune
- Derived proteins: Enzymes, hormones, (antibodies) - Increased
suppression
structural proteins - Fluid balance, pH nitrogenous waste
- Hair and nail thinning
regulation
- Solvent and transport
- Dehydration (headache,
medium - Hyponatremia (water
Inorganic, essential nutrient. No fatigue, confusion)
- None (but classified as either intracellular or - Regulates temperature intoxication)
Water calories. Makes up majority of body - Electrolyte imbalance
extracellular based on location) - Lubricates joints, organs - Cerebral edema-
mass. - Decreased blood
- Supports cellular Seizures, coma
volume and pressure
processes
 - Promotes bowel
movement
- Gas, bloating
- Slows glucose - Constipation
- Soluble: Pectin, beta-glucan Non-digestible carbs from plants. - Nutrient
Dietary Fiber absorption - Increased cholesterol
- Insoluble: Cellulose, lignin Provides bulk to stool. malabsorption (iron,
- Binds bile acids, lowers - Risk of diverticulosis
zinc, calcium)
cholesterol
- Promotes satiety
- Liver disease (fatty
- Energy (non-essential)
- Not applicable as a liver, cirrhosis)
- Vasodilation (moderate)
Alcohol Not essential; provides 7 kcal/g. nutrient - Addiction-
Ethanol - Potential
(optional) Metabolized mainly in the liver. - Deficiency in B vitamins Malnutrition
cardioprotective effects
with chronic use - Fetal alcohol
(red wine, debated)
syndrome

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin Function Deficiency Toxicity Sources

Essential for visual pigment

(rhodopsin) formation (night
vision) Acute: headache, nausea, vomiting,
regulates gene expression for cell Night blindness, xerophthalmia (dry eyes), dizziness Liver, fish oils, eggs, dairy;
Vitamin A (Retinol, Retinal,
differentiation keratomalacia, increased infection risk, Chronic: hepatotoxicity, intracranial Provitamin A carotenoids: carrots,
Retinoic acid)
impaired growth and fertility hypertension, teratogenicity (birth sweet potatoes, spinach, kale
immune function
defects)
reproduction

epithelial integrity

Regulates calcium and phosphate Rickets (children): bone deformities,

Vitamin D (Calciferol: D2 - homeostasis by promoting growth retardation; Hypercalcemia causing nausea, Sunlight (UVB-induced skin
ergocalciferol, D3 - intestinal absorption vomiting, polyuria, nephrocalcinosis, synthesis), fortified milk, fatty fish
cholecalciferol) Osteomalacia (adults): bone pain, muscle kidney stones (salmon, mackerel), egg yolks
bone mineralization weakness
 immune modulation

Major lipid-soluble antioxidant

protecting cell membranes from High doses may increase bleeding Vegetable oils (sunflower,
Vitamin E (Tocopherols, Rare - hemolytic anemia in premature
lipid peroxidation risk by antagonizing vitamin K safflower), nuts, seeds, green leafy
Tocotrienols) infants, neuropathy
function vegetables
immune support

Cofactor for γ-glutamyl

carboxylase enzyme
Bleeding diathesis (easy bruising, Green leafy vegetables (spinach,
Vitamin K (Phylloquinone activates clotting factors II, VII, IX, Rare - excessive doses may cause
hemorrhage), hemorrhagic disease of the kale), broccoli, synthesized by gut
K1, Menaquinones K2) X and proteins C & S jaundice in neonates
newborn bacteria
important for bone matrix
proteins

Water-Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin Function Deficiency Toxicity Sources

Cofactor for enzymes in carbohydrate metabolism Beriberi (dry: peripheral neuropathy; wet:
Vitamin B1 pyruvate dehydrogenase, α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, cardiac failure, edema) Rare- high doses can cause Whole grains, pork, legumes,
(Thiamine) transketolase Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome (confusion, headache, irritability nuts, seeds

nerve conduction ophthalmoplegia)

Vitamin B2 Precursor for FAD and FMN coenzymes Cheilitis (lip inflammation), glossitis, No established toxicity; excess Milk, eggs, meat, green leafy
(Riboflavin) involved in redox reactions in energy metabolism seborrheic dermatitis, photophobia excreted in urine vegetables, fortified cereals

Precursor of NAD⁺/NADP⁺ Pellagra: dermatitis (photosensitive), Flushing, pruritus,

Vitamin B3 diarrhea, dementia Meat, poultry, fish, nuts,
important for redox reactions, energy production, DNA hepatotoxicity, hyperuricemia
(Niacin) legumes, fortified cereals
repair glossitis (high doses)
 Active form pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) is coenzyme in Sensory neuropathy, ataxia
Vitamin B6 Peripheral neuropathy, cheilitis, glossitis, Meat, bananas, potatoes,
amino acid metabolism (transamination, decarboxylation), with very high doses (>200
(Pyridoxine) irritability, seizures fortified cereals
neurotransmitter synthesis mg/day)

Vitamin B9 Cofactor for one-carbon transfers; critical for DNA synthesis Megaloblastic anemia, glossitis, neural Masks B12 deficiency, Leafy greens, legumes,
(Folate) and repair, red blood cell formation tube defects in fetus potentially delaying diagnosis fortified grains, liver

Cofactor for methionine synthase (DNA synthesis) and Pernicious anemia, megaloblastic anemia,
Vitamin B12 methylmalonyl-CoA mutase (fatty acid metabolism) Animal products: meat, dairy,
peripheral neuropathy, cognitive No known toxicity
(Cobalamin) eggs, fish
maintains myelin sheath impairment

Antioxidant; cofactor in collagen synthesis (prolyl and lysyl Citrus fruits, tomatoes,
Vitamin C hydroxylase) Scurvy: bleeding gums, poor wound GI upset, kidney stones with
potatoes, strawberries, green
(Ascorbic acid) healing, anemia, petechiae megadoses (>2g/day)
enhances iron absorption; immune support vegetables

Minerals

Mineral Function Deficiency Toxicity Sources

Bone and teeth structure; muscle contraction

Hypercalcemia: kidney stones,
Osteopenia, osteoporosis, tetany, muscle Dairy products, leafy greens, fortified
Calcium (Ca) nerve transmission calcification of soft tissues,
cramps foods, fish with bones
arrhythmias
blood clotting

Bone and teeth mineralization

Phosphorus Hyperphosphatemia: calcification of Meat, dairy, nuts, legumes, whole
ATP and nucleic acid structure Rare; muscle weakness, bone pain
(P) soft tissues grains
acid-base balance

Cofactor for >300 enzymes

Magnesium Muscle weakness, tremors, seizures, Diarrhea, nausea, cardiac arrest Green leafy vegetables, nuts, whole
ATP stabilization
(Mg) arrhythmias (extreme) grains, legumes
muscle and nerve function
 Fluid balance
Hyponatremia: headache, confusion, Hypernatremia: dehydration, Table salt, processed foods, meat,
Sodium (Na) nerve impulse transmission
seizures hypertension dairy
muscle contraction

Maintains cellular membrane potential

Hypokalemia: muscle weakness, Hyperkalemia: cardiac arrhythmias, Fruits (bananas, oranges),
Potassium (K) nerve transmission
arrhythmias, paralysis muscle paralysis vegetables, legumes, meat
muscle contraction

Acid-base balance

Chloride (Cl) gastric acid (HCl) formation Rare; metabolic alkalosis, hypochloremia Hyperchloremia: acidosis, dehydration Table salt, processed foods

fluid balance

Oxygen transport (hemoglobin, myoglobin)

Anemia (microcytic hypochromic), fatigue, Hemochromatosis: liver damage, Red meat, poultry, fish, legumes,
Iron (Fe) electron transport chain
pallor diabetes, bronze skin fortified cereals, spinach
DNA synthesis

Enzyme cofactor

immune function Growth retardation, impaired immunity, Nausea, vomiting, immune

Zinc (Zn) Meat, shellfish, legumes, nuts, dairy
wound healing alopecia, delayed wound healing suppression (high doses)

DNA synthesis

Electron transport (cytochrome c oxidase)

Anemia, neutropenia, bone abnormalities Wilson’s disease: liver and Shellfish, nuts, seeds, whole grains,
Copper (Cu) connective tissue formation
(rare) neurological damage organ meats
iron metabolism

Antioxidant (glutathione peroxidase) Keshan disease (cardiomyopathy), muscle Selenosis: hair loss, nail brittleness,
Selenium (Se) Brazil nuts, seafood, meat, cereals
thyroid hormone metabolism pain garlic breath odor

Iodine (I) Thyroid hormone synthesis (T3, T4) Goiter, hypothyroidism, cretinism in infants Thyrotoxicosis, thyroiditis (high doses) Iodized salt, seafood, dairy
 Dental enamel formation and resistance to
Fluoride (F) Dental caries Dental and skeletal fluorosis (excess) Fluoridated water, tea, seafood
caries

Cofactor for enzymes in metabolism

Manganese Neurological symptoms (high Whole grains, nuts, leafy vegetables,
bone formation Rare; poor growth, skeletal abnormalities
(Mn) exposure) tea
antioxidant defense

Amino Acids

Amino Acid Type Essentiality Description Functions

Glycine Aliphatic Non-essential Simplest amino acid, non-chiral Collagen synthesis, inhibitory neurotransmitter, detoxification

Alanine Aliphatic Non-essential Small, non-polar Energy source, glucose-alanine cycle, nitrogen transport

Valine Aliphatic Essential Branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) Muscle growth, repair, energy production

Stimulates protein synthesis (mTOR), energy production, blood sugar

Leucine Aliphatic Essential BCAA, hydrophobic
regulation

Isoleucine Aliphatic Essential BCAA, hydrophobic Muscle metabolism, hemoglobin synthesis, blood sugar regulation

Proline Aliphatic Non-essential Cyclic structure, imino acid Collagen stability, wound healing

Phenylalanine Aromatic Essential Aromatic ring, hydrophobic Precursor to tyrosine and catecholamines

Tyrosine Aromatic Conditionally Essential Derived from phenylalanine Precursor to thyroid hormones, melanin, neurotransmitters

Tryptophan Aromatic Essential Largest amino acid, indole ring Precursor to serotonin, melatonin, niacin

Serine Alcohol Non-essential Polar, contains hydroxyl group Precursor for phospholipids, purines, pyrimidines

Threonine Alcohol Essential Polar, hydroxyl group Protein synthesis, immune function, precursor for glycine and serine

Histidine Basic Essential Positively charged at physiological pH Precursor of histamine, hemoglobin component, growth
 Collagen cross-linking, hormone and enzyme synthesis, calcium
Lysine Basic Essential Positively charged, hydrophilic
absorption

Arginine Basic Conditionally Essential Positively charged, basic Precursor for nitric oxide, urea cycle, immune function

Methionine Thiol (Sulfur) Essential Contains sulfur, methyl group donor Methyl donor (SAM), antioxidant precursor, initiates protein synthesis

Cysteine Thiol (Sulfur) Conditionally Essential Contains sulfur, can form disulfide bonds Antioxidant (glutathione), protein structure stabilization

Aspartate Acidic Non-essential Negatively charged, acidic Neurotransmitter, urea cycle intermediate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter, energy metabolism, ammonia

Glutamate Acidic Non-essential Negatively charged, acidic
detoxification

Asparagine Amide Non-essential Polar, amide group Protein synthesis, nitrogen transport

Glutamine Amide Conditionally Essential Polar, amide group Nitrogen donor, immune support, precursor for nucleotide synthesis