Course Outline :

TIME FRAME
Weeks Course Content/Subject Matter
1 Introduction
2 Applications of Motor Learning Related to Professions
3 - Motor Control Defined
- Motor Control Time Frame
- Motor Learning Defined
- Motor Learning Time Frame
4 Motor Development
5 Stages of Motor Control Learning
7-8 Theories and Concepts of Motor Control (reporting)
8-9 Principles, and Concepts of Motor Learning (reporting)
 10 Midterm Examination

Relationships of Motor Movement to Motor

11
Development
12 Four Steps in Learning
Factors Affecting Learning of Learning Motor
Skills
13-14 Motor control and skills acquisition in exercise
15-16 Motor control and skills acquisition in dance
17-18 Motor control and skills acquisition in sports
19 Final Examination
Lesson 1: Introduction
Motor abilities and skills are acquired during the
process of motor development through motor control and
motor learning. Once a basic pattern of movement is
established, it can be varied to suit the purpose of the task or
the environmental situation in which the task is to take place.
Early motor development displays a fairly predictable
sequence of skill acquisition through childhood.

However, the ways in which these motor abilities are

used for function are highly variable. Individuals rarely
perform the movement exactly the same way every time.
This variability must be part of any model used to explain
how posture and movement are controlled.
 Any movement system must be able to adapt to the
changing demands of the individual mover and
environment in which the movement takes place. The
individual mover must be able to learn from prior movement
experiences. Different theories of motor control emphasize
different developmental aspects of posture and movement.
Development of postural control and balance is embedded
in the development of motor control.

Understanding the relationship among motor control,

motor learning, and motor development provides a valuable
framework for understanding and acquiring life skills.
 Motor development is a product as well as a
process. The products of motor development are the
milestones of the developmental sequence and the
kinesiologic components of movement such as head
and trunk control necessary for these motor abilities.
The process of motor development is the way in
which those abilities emerge. The process and the
product are affected by many factors such as time
(age), maturation (genes), adaptation (physical
constraints), and learning.
Motor development is the result of the interaction of the
innate or built-in species blueprint for posture and
movement and the person’s experiences with moving
afforded by the environment. Sensory input is needed for
the mover to learn about moving and the results of
moving. Motor development is the combination of the
nature of the mover and the nurture of the environment.
Part of the genetic blueprint for movement is the means to
control posture and movement. Motor development,
motor control, and motor learning contribute to an
ongoing process of change throughout the life span of
every person who moves.
Lesson 2: Applications of Motor Learning to
Related Professions and Why it is Important?
Motor learning is a subject with broad
implications from which people teaching in many
fields can benefit, ranging from the elementary school
athletes to the Olympic level, from recreational sports
to the military, from non-competitive to combat
institutions, from individual to team sports, etc. The
emphasis in teaching can be quite varied and is
based on the purpose of the motor learning, the
particular motor skills required, and the needs of the
learners.
For example, at the elementary school level youngsters
are taught basic motor skills such as kicking, throwing,
jumping, running, catching, or climbing and these
learned skills can then be transferred to various sports-
related movements in the future. At the Olympic level,
the purpose of motor learning is to achieve peak
performance in competition. The following sections
illustrate certain professions in which motor learning is
an essential component.
 Likewise, an understanding of particular motor skills in
relation to fitness benefits enables exercise science
practitioners to design training programs that are enjoyable
and help clients achieve their personal training goals.
Participants in certain sports, such as football, soccer, ice
hockey, boxing, martial arts, gymnastics, etc., are vulnerable to
injuries. Using their knowledge of the structure of various motor
skills, sports scientists can effectively advise these athletes on
ways to avoid injury. In so many practical settings, exercise
programs have direct correlations with the particular sports skill
training chosen. Therefore, it would be very advantageous for
exercise science specialists to know the motor learning
principles for their teaching or consultation activities.
 In the coaching arena, one of the major
responsibilities of coaches is to enhance athletes’
technical skills since their performance is mainly
determined by these skills, along with their physical ability
and psychological well-being. Athletes’ technical abilities
play a crucial role in whether they win or lose in
competitions. Not only should a coach teach proper
technical skills, he/she should also be continuously
developing creative new training methods to give the
athletes an extra advantage in competition. This is
because today’s superior technical routines could be out
of date in a few years.
 History has repeatedly shown that the human limits of
performance of motor skills are constantly being surpassed. For
example, today’s gymnastic routines could have been perceived to
be impossible to execute in the past. Likewise, the 10 seconds of 100-
meter race records have been repeatedly broken in the recent
Olympic Games. Due to the efforts of sports scientists and coaches,
the level of technical training is now so far ahead that motor skills
which once seemed impossible to learn have now become
attainable. These accomplishments can, in part, be attributed to
the advancement of our knowledge in the area of motor learning
and its relationship to human movement potentials. Motor skill
learning in the coaching arena has always been one of the most
important factors of training for achieving peak performance in
competition.
 When injuries occur, physical therapists assist patients to
recover through the appropriate rehabilitation processes. By
assessing whether patients are capable of performing certain
movements or motor skills, they are able to determine the
most effective treatment methods. Sports injuries are
sometimes unavoidable; millions of athletes from amateurs to
professionals are injured while participating in sports activities.
For many athletes, a speedy recovery from an injury is crucial
for regaining their physical condition, maintaining skill routines,
regaining self-confidence, and achieving peak performance.
 Hence physical therapists’ knowledge of motor
learning plays a vital role in enabling them to properly
evaluate the degree of injury, design rehabilitation strategies,
and assess the recovery progress. Based on their evaluation,
they can provide accurate recommendations as to whether
an athlete is capable of resuming certain technical training
after an injury. When physical therapists understand the
structures of the various motor skills and potential volatile
factors related to the injury, they can develop effective
treatment strategies to aid their patients’ recovery and
provide them with valuable advice on how to avoid injuries in
the future with the correct movements.

 Motor learning principles can be also used widely in
military settings because soldiers must engage in combat with
the enemy, either with bare bands or weapons, under severe
or critical conditions; many times, any slight delay in their
actions in battle could cost them their lives. Thus, soldiers’
efficient, forceful, and timely reaction to the enemy’s attacks
and their swift fighting abilities play a significant role not only in
winning battles but also in saving their lives. Military, special
forces and ground soldiers, as well as police officers, are
required to learn various motor skills to carry out their job
responsibilities. With knowledge of motor learning principles, the
professionals who train them can purposefully develop
appropriate training regimes to fit the needs of their job
requirements.
 Ballet and other forms of dance involve artistic, beautiful, and
swift kinematic movements that usually take years to perfect. In fact,
many dancing movements are very difficult to learn and master.
Dance instructors should learn human anatomy and motor learning
concepts in order to understand the relationship between a dancer’s
anatomical capability and the performance of these movements. By
using scientific principles, dancers can speed up their learning
progress, especially for difficult and challenging movements that
require perfect coordination among different dancers, split-second
timing of the jumps and turns, and excellent body kinematics of the
movements. Since dancing movements are considered to be
process-oriented motor skills, dancers are unable to observe their
own movements during practice or performance so they must rely on
their instructors’ accurate feedback to find out how well they are
progressing. Without this external feedback, learning cannot occur.
 Consequently, if the instructor cannot grasp the key
structures of certain motor skill routines, learning progress
will be significantly compromised. Dancing instructors
should understand more clearly the critical components of
dancing routines and properly teach the skill transitions
accordingly. In fact, dancing is great exercise for
youngsters and adults; many people truly enjoy dancing for
pleasure, competition, or exercise.
 In addition to the aforementioned professionals, many
amateur athletes regularly engage in different recreational
sports or other physical activities in their spare time and they
also would like to learn motor skills to enhance their
enjoyment or for self-improvement and competition. Besides
that, many of these amateur athletes serve as club coaches
teaching sports skills to children, training them to improve
their skills, and running competitions. In fact, there are
thousands of sports clubs or sport organizations around the
world providing opportunities for people of all ages (from the
very young to older adults) to actively participate in sports
activities.
 Having the necessary motor learning
knowledge would be very beneficial for these
athletes and coaches. The range of professions
that involve motor skill related activities is much
broader than we could possibly cover here.
Lesson 3: Motor control Defined
 Motor control is the study of postures and movements and the
mechanisms that underlie them (Rose & Christina, 2006). Also,
motor control can be defined as the study of how an
individual can execute designated motor skills through the
neuromuscular control process in response to external
environmental demands (Haywood & Getchell, 2009; Latash
& Lestienne, 2006).
 Specifically, motor control deals with issues such as
information processing, attention and interferences, the
mechanism of muscular coordination, sensory contributions to
motor performance, and production of movements through
neuromuscular systems. Motor control allows the nervous
system to direct what muscles should be used, in what order,
and how quickly, to solve a movement problem.
Example:
 The infant’s first movement problem relates to
overcoming the effect of gravity. A second but
related problem is how to move a larger head as
compared with a smaller body to establish head
control. Later, movement problems are related to
controlling the interaction between stability and
mobility of the head, trunk, and limbs. Control of task-
specific movements such as stringing beads or riding a
tricycle depends on cognitive and perceptual abilities.
The task to be carried out by the person within the
environment dictates the type of movement solution
that is going to be needed.
 Because the motor abilities of a person change over time,
the motor solutions to a given motor problem may also
change. The motivation of the individual to move may
also change over time and may affect the intricacy of the
movement solution. An infant encountering a set of stairs
sees a toy on the top stair. The infant creeps up the stairs
but then has to figure out how to get down: cry for help,
bump down on the buttocks, creep down backward, or
even attempt creeping down forward.
 A toddler faced with the same dilemma may walk up the
same set of stairs one step at a time holding onto a railing,
and descend in a sitting fashion holding the toy, or may
be able to hold the toy with one hand and the railing with
the other and descend the same way as walking up the
stairs. The child will walk up and down without holding on,
and an even older child may run up those same stairs.
Motor Control Time Frame
 Motor control happens not in the space of days or weeks, as is
seen in motor development, but in fractions of seconds. Figure 3-2
illustrates a comparison of time frames associated with motor
control, motor learning, and motor development. Motor control
occurs because of physiologic processes that happen at cellular,
tissue, and organ levels. Physiologic processes have to happen
quickly to produce timely and efficient movement. What good
does it do if you extend an outstretched arm after having fallen
down? Extending your arm in a protective response has to be
quick enough to be useful, that is, to break the fall. Individuals with
nervous system disease may exhibit the correct movement pattern,
but they have impaired timing, producing the movement too
slowly to be functional, or they have impaired sequencing of
muscle activation, producing a muscle contraction at the wrong
time. Both of these problems, impaired timing and impaired
sequencing, are examples of deficits in motor control.
Motor Learning Defined

 Motor learning is defined as the process that

brings about a permanent change in motor
performance as a result of practice or
experience (Schmidt and Lee, 1999). It is a the
process of acquiring a skill by which the learner,
through practice and assimilation, refines and
makes automatic the desired movement.
 An internal neurologic process that results
in the ability to produce a new motor task.

 The process by which a person learns the

skills that make up the developmental
sequence and learns how to execute and
control movement, automatically and
voluntarily.
Motor Learning Time Frame
 Motor learning takes place within a time frame that is
somewhere between the two extremes of the milliseconds
seen in motor control and the months needed for motor
development (see Fig. 3-2). How long it takes to learn a motor
task depends on several factors: the difficulty of the task; the
amount of practice and feedback received; and the
motivation to learn the task. We have all experienced trying to
learn something that was uninteresting and not useful as
opposed to learning to play a game. Infants are interested in
learning to move and work hard to learn to move. They have
an innate interest in moving and a need to move that
occupies their first year of life.
Lesson 4: Motor Development
Motor development
Motor development refers to the development of a
child’s bones, muscles and ability to move around and
manipulate his or her environment. Motor development can
be divided into two sections: gross motor development and
fine motor development. Motor development also involves
the child’s vestibular and proprioceptive systems. Both of
these are part of the child’s sensory system.
• Gross motor development involves the
development of the large muscles in the
child’s body. These muscles allow us to sit,
stand, walk and run, among other
activities.

• Fine motor development involves the

small muscles of the body, especially in
the hand.
 Motor development also involves how
well children’s muscles work. This is referred to
as muscle tone. Children need a balanced
muscle tone in order to develop their muscles
and use them with ease when standing,
sitting, rolling, walking, running, swimming and
all other postures and actions.
 Thevestibular system is located in the inner
ear and allows the body to maintain balance.

 Theproprioceptive system involves the inner

ear, the muscles, joints and tendons. It allows
the body to understand where it’s located.
Maintaining balance and posture and having
coordinated movements are only possible if
the proprioceptive system is functioning well.
 The typical development of a child’s motor
skills usually follows a predictable order or
sequence.

Development occurs from the inner body to

the outer body. This means that children usually
develop or gain control over their arms before
they develop or gain control over their fingers.

Development also starts from top to bottom.

Children need to control their head first, then they
will gain control over their legs and feet.
Jimmy and Johnny Motor Control Learning and Development (Video)
Lesson 5: Stages of Motor Development (Video)
Lesson 5: Four Stages of Motor Development

Development of motor control can be described

by the relationship of mobility and stability of body
postures (Sullivan et al., 1982) and by the acquisition of
automatic postural responses (Cech and Martin, 2002).
Initial random movements (mobility) are followed by
maintenance of a posture (stability), movement within a
posture (controlled mobility), and finally, movement from
one posture to another posture (skill).
 With acquisition of each new posture comes the
development of control within that posture. For example,
weight shifting in prone precedes rolling prone to supine;
weight shifting on hands and knees precedes creeping; and
cruising, or sideways weight shifting in standing, precedes
walking. The actual motor accomplishments of
rolling, reaching, creeping, cruising, and walking are skills in
which mobility is combined with stability and the distal parts
of the body, that is, the extremities, are free to move.
 The infant develops motor and postural
control in the following order:

• Mobility
• stability
• controlled mobility
• skill
* Mobility

*Stability

*Controlled
mobility

*Skill
NEWBORN

• Turns head easily from side to side.

When lying on back, moves head one
way and then another.
• Comforts self by bringing hands to face
to suck on fingers or fist.
• Keeps hands mostly closed and fisted.
• Blinks at bright lights.
1 MONTH

• Raises head slightly off floor when lying

on stomach.
• Holds head up momentarily when
supported.
• Keeps hands in closed fists.
• Comforts self by sucking on fist or fingers.
 2 MONTHS
• Holds head up and begins to push up with
arms when lying on stomach.
• Makes smoother movements with arms and
legs.
• Moves both arms and both legs equally well.
• Brings hands to mouth.
o Holds objects with hand (reflexive)
o Smiles and coos Smiles and coos
3 MONTHS

• Lifts head and chest when lying on

stomach.
• Moves arms and legs easily and
vigorously.
• Shows improved head control.
o Turns head to sounds
o Eye muscles develop for focusing
4 MONTHS
• Holds head steady without support.
• Grabs and shakes toys, brings hands to mouth.
• Pushes down on legs when feet are placed
on a hard surface.
• Pushes up to elbows when lying on stomach.
• Rocks from side to side and may roll over from
tummy to back.
6 MONTHS
• Rolls over in both directions.
• Begins to sit with a little help.
• Supports weight on both legs when standing,
and might bounce.
• Rocks back and forth on hands and knees,
may crawl backward before moving forward.
o May sit supported
o Understands own name
o Can grasp an object that is handed to her
9 MONTHS
• Gets in and out of sitting position, and sits
well without support.
• Creeps or crawls.
• Pulls to stand and stands, holding on.
• Begins to take steps while holding on to
furniture (cruising).
o Mimics sounds Waves “bye-bye”
o Understands “no”
o May understand and respond to some words
May pull self up to stand
o Says “mama”, “dada”
12 MONTHS
• Pulls to stand and walks holding on to
furniture, walks unsteadily.
• Gets into sitting position without help.
• Begins to stand alone.
• Begins to take steps alone.
o Points with finger
o Focuses on distant objects
o Says a few real words
 18 MONTHS

• Walks alone, and begins to run and walk up

steps.
• Walks backward pulling toy.
• Feeds self with spoon and drinks with cup.
• Helps dress and undress self.
2 YEARS
• Kicks a ball forward.
• Throws a ball overhand.
• Walks up and down stairs holding on.
• Stands on tiptoes.
• Begins to run.
• Climbs on and off furniture without help.
• Puts simple puzzles together.
 3 YEARS

• Climbs and runs well.

• Walks up and down stairs, with one foot
on each step.
• Jumps with both feet, and may hop on
one foot.
• Pedals tricycle or three-wheel bike.
 4 YEARS

• Catches a bounced ball most of the time.

• Hops and stands on one foot for a few
seconds.
• Pours beverages, cuts with supervision
and mashes own food.
5 YEARS

• Hops and may be able to skip.

• Does somersaults.
• Uses a fork and spoon, and sometimes a
table knife.
• Stands on one foot for at least 10 seconds.
• Uses the toilet independently.
• Swings and climbs.
Lesson 6: Stages of Motor Control
 Stage One. Stage one is mobility, when
movement is initiated. The infant exhibits
random movements within an available range
of motion for the first three months of
development. Movements during this stage are
erratic. They lack purpose and are often reflex
based.
 Random limb movements are made when
the infant’s head and trunk are supported in the
supine position. Mobility is present before stability.
In adults, mobility refers to the availability of range
of motion to assume a posture and the presence
of sufficient motor unit activity to initiate a
movement.
 Stage Two. Stage two is stability, the ability to
maintain a steady position in a weight-bearing,
antigravity posture. It is also called static postural
control. Developmentally, stability is further divided
into tonic holding and co-contraction. Tonic holding
occurs at the end of the shortened range of
movement and usually involves isometric
movements of antigravity postural extensors (Stengel
et al., 1984).
 Tonic holding is most evident when the child maintains
the pivot prone position (prone extension), as seen in Figure 3-6.
Postural holding of the head begins asymmetrically in prone, is
followed by holding the head in midline, and progresses to
holding the head up past 90 degrees from the support surface.
In the supine position, the head is turned to one side or the
other; then it is held in midline; and finally, it is held in midline
with a chin tuck while the infant is being pulled to sit at four
months (Fig. 3-7).
 Co-contraction is the simultaneous static contraction of
antagonistic muscles around a joint to provide stability in a midline
position or in weight bearing. Various groups of muscles, especially
those used for postural fixation, allow the developing infant to hold
such postures as prone extension, prone on elbows and hands, all
fours, and semi-squat.

Co-contraction patterns are shown in Figure 3-6. Once the

initial relationship between mobility and stability is established in
prone and later in all fours and standing, a change occurs to allow
mobility to be superimposed on the already established stability.
Ø Stage Three. Controlled mobility is mobility
superimposed on previously developed postural
stability by weight shifting within a posture.
Proximal mobility is combined with distal stability.
This controlled mobility is the third stage of motor
control and occurs when the limbs are weight
bearing and the body moves, such as in weight
shifting on all fours or in standing.
 The trunk performs controlled mobility when it is
parallel to the support surface or when the line of gravity
is perpendicular to the trunk. In prone and all fours
positions, the limbs and the trunk are performing
controlled mobility when shifting weight. The infant’s first
attempts at weight shifts in prone happen accidentally
with little control. As the infant tries to reproduce the
movement and practices various movement
combinations, the movement becomes more controlled.
 Another example of controlled mobility is
demonstrated by an infant in a prone on elbows
position who sees a toy. If the infant attempts to reach
for the toy with both hands, which is typical before
reaching with one hand, the infant is likely to fall on her
face. If the infant perseveres and learns to shift weight
onto one elbow, the chance of obtaining the toy is
better.
 Weight bearing, weight shifting, and co-
contraction of muscles around the shoulder are
crucial to the development of shoulder girdle
stability. Proximal shoulder stability supports upper-
extremity function for skilled distal manipulation. If
this stability is not present, distal performance may
be impaired. Controlled mobility is also referred to
as dynamic postural control.
 Stage Four. Skill is the most mature type of
movement and is usually mastered after
controlled mobility within a posture. For
example, after weight shifting within a
posture such as in a hands-and-knees
position, the infant frees the opposite arm
and leg to creep reciprocally.
 Creeping is a skilled movement. Other
skill patterns are also depicted in Figure 3-6. Skill
patterns of movement occur when mobility is
superimposed on stability in non–weight bearing;
proximal segments stabilize while distal segments
are free for movement. The trunk does skilled
work when it is upright or parallel to the force of
gravity.
 In standing, only the lower extremities are using
controlled mobility when weight shifting occurs. If the swing
leg moves, it performs skilled work while the stance limb
performs controlled mobility. When an infant creeps or walks,
the limbs that are in motion are using skill, and those in
contact with the support surface are using controlled
mobility. Creeping and walking are considered skilled
movements. Skilled movements involve manipulation and
exploration of the environment.
Lesson 7: Principles of Child Motor
Development
 12 Principles of Child Development

General principles taken from a review of

the early childhood literature should be
considered when making decisions about
children:
Principle 1: Interrelatedness

 Development in one domain influences and is

influenced by development in other domains

Example: Language skills impact social

relationships
Example: Crawling increases development
due to increased ability to explore
Principle 2: Orderly Sequence

 Development occurs in a relatively orderly

sequence, with later abilities, skills, and
knowledge building on those already acquired

Example: crawl, pull to stand, steps,

walking
Principle 3: Varying Rates

 Development proceeds at varying rates from child

to child as well as unevenly within different areas of
each child’s functioning

Own pattern and timing of growth

Unique personality, temperament and learning
style
Varied experiences and family background
Principle 4: Long Term Effects

 Early experiences have both cumulative and delayed

effects on individual children’s development; optimal
periods exist for certain types of development and
learning

Example: Responding to infants cries

Example: Early literacy experiences
Example: First 3 years optimal for verbal language
Principle 5: Increasing Complexity

 Development proceeds in predictable directions

toward greater complexity, organization, and
internalization

Example: Self talk before abstract thinking

Example: Using real items in play before
being able to substitute a pretend or other
object for that item
Principle 6: Social and Cultural Influence

 Development and learning occur in and are influenced

by multiple social and cultural contexts
Learning is additive
We need to help connect what children already
know with what we want them to know
Example: Children who knows how to throw and
catch a basketball develops new skill when
provided them continuing opportunities to learn
new concepts like shooting and dribbling skills.
Principle 7: Active Learners

 Children are active learners

Example: Learning addition through play

with toys and games
Example: Learning spatial concepts
through play with toys rather than
worksheets
Principle 8: Biological and Environmental

 Development and learning result from interaction of

biological maturation and the environment

Example: The language that children are

exposed to is the one that they will learn even
though they are born with capacity to learn any
language
Example: A child with typical physical abilities but
not exposed to bikes will not learn to ride a bike
Principle 9: Play

 Play is an important vehicle for children’s development,

as well as a reflection of their development

Organizing the play environment with themes and

props can enhance language development

Providingmany motor toys will give you

opportunities to observe children's motor
development
Principle 10: Practice and Challenge

 Development advances when children have

opportunities to practice newly acquired skills as well
as when they experience a challenge just beyond
the level of their present mastery

Allowing a child to put on own coat with needed

assistance
Leaving recently mastered puzzles in the
classroom
Principle 11: Learning Modes

 Children
demonstrate different modes of knowing
and learning and different ways of representing
what they know

Example: After a walk around the

neighborhood one child may come back and
draw a picture, another act out what they
saw and another talk about it
Principle 12: Needs Met

 Children develop and learn best in the context of a

community where they are safe and valued, their physical
needs are met, and they feel psychologically secure.

Example: If children are well fed they will be able to

concentrate on learning activities.
Example: If children are living in sports inclined family
and environment, they will be interacting positively
with peers and family through playing sports.
 Skills Acquisition Development

Early childhood Fundamental Skills Acquisition

Milestone Movement Stage in Dance and Sports
Ø Creeping Ø Walking Ø Flexibility
Ø Crawling Ø Running Ø Agility
Ø Rolling Ø Hopping Ø Strength
Ø balancing Ø Leaping Ø Power
Ø Walking Ø Skipping Ø Reaction time
Ø kicking Ø Sliding Ø Cardio respiratory endurance
Ø Throwing Ø galloping Ø Balance and
Ø catching Ø Coordination
LESSON 8: PARTS AND FUNCTIONS
OF THE BRAIN (VIDEO)
q BRAIN STEM
Ø Midbrain
Ø Pons
Ø Medulla oblongata
q CEREBELLUM
q THALAMUS
Ø Hypothalamus
Ø Posterior pituitary
q CEREBRUM
Ø Corpus collosum
Ø Basal ganglia
Ø Cerebral cortex
Ø Frontal lobe
Ø Parietal lobe
Ø Motor cortex & Somatosensory cortex
Ø Occipital lobe
Ø Temporal lobe
 The Brain and its Functions

Brainstem Cerebellum Thalamus

Ø Medulla Oblongata - to sort information - it's sorts information
Ø Pons going up and Ø Hypothalamus – for
down homeostasis,
Ø Midbrain – for
breathing - for coordination maintaining body
temperature.
- keeps circulation - motor control
going Ø posterior pituitary -
- and also motor
important in sending off
digestion, and memory.
- hormones
- swallowing - keeps your water
balance the same
oxytocin.
 CEREBRUM
- For integration and making sense of all that data that comes in
Ø corpus callosum - connection of nerves in between the two hemispheres
- left side of our brain is for mathematical, reasoning and logic
- right side is for facial recognition
 basal ganglia - this is complex interaction of inhibition and excitatory response between
these neurons and basically it controls a lot of our motor control
Ø cerebral cortex - make up about 80% of the brain
 Frontal Lobe - mostly executive function
- the boss of your brain
- emotional control.
 Parietal Lobe - basically sensation, it's you dealing with and reacting to your environment
 somatosensory cortex - sensory information is coming into the brain
 Motor cortex - information coming in sensory information and then we have motor output
coming out
 Occipital Lobe - the function of that is vision
 Temporal lobe - important in language, it's important in hearing,
- important in memory
LESSON 9: HOW MOTOR MOVEMENT WORKS
INSIDE OUR BRAIN
The CEREBRAL CORTEX and How
MOTOR MOVEMENT WORKS
Lesson 10: The Central Nervous System and its
functions to motor movement (Video)
 The Nervous system and its function

- Central Nervous System (CNS) - Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

- Brain and the - Spinal Cord - Somatic System
cerebrum, cervical - Autonomic Nervous System
cerebellum, thoracic - Sympathetic nervous system
diencephalon, lumbar - Parasympathetic nervous system
midbrain, pons, afferent and
medulla oblongata efferent spinal nerves
 FUNCTIONS

 Nervous System - purpose is to coordinate all of the activities of the body. It

enables the body to respond and adapt to changes that occur both inside and
outside the body.
 Frontal lobe - is primarily responsible for reasoning.
 Parietal - is primarily responsible for integrating sensory information.
 Temporal - is primarily responsible for processing auditory information from the
ears.
 Occipital - is primarily responsible for processing visual information from the eyes.
 cerebellum, this is the section located in the back of the head below the
cerebrum and above the first cervical of the neck. it is responsible for muscle
coordination balance posture and muscle tone.
Ø Thalamus - Behaves much like a relay station indirect sensory
impulses to the cerebrum.
Ø Hypothalamus - Controls and regulates autonomous nervous system,
functions such as temperature, appetite, water balance, sleep, and
blood vessel constriction in dilation.
The hypothalamus also plays a role in the emotions such as
anger, fear pleasure, pain and defection.
Ø Midbrain section - is located below the cerebrum at the top of the
brainstem, it is responsible for certain eye and auditory reflexes.
Ø Pons - is located below the midbrain and in the brain stem, it is
responsible for certain reflex actions such as chewing tasting and
saliva production.
Ø Medulla oblongata - it's the lowest part of the brainstem and it
connects with a spinal cord and is responsible for regulating heart
and blood vessel function, digestion respiration, swallowing,
coughing, sneezing and blood pressure. It's also known as the
center for respiration.
Ø Afferent spinal - Nerves are responsible for carrying information from
the body to the brain.
Ø Efferent spinal - nerves are responsible for carrying information from
the brain to the body.
Ø Peripheral nervous system - regulates the functions of the central
nervous system which lie outside its major components such as the
brain and the spinal cord.
Ø Somatic nervous system - is responsible for carrying motor and
sensory information both to and from the central nervous system. This
system is made up of nerves that connect to the skin sensory organs
and all skeletal muscles.
The somatic system is also responsible for nearly all voluntary
muscle movements, as well as for processing sensory information that
arrives via external stimuli including hearing touch and sight.
Ø Afferent sensory neurons and the efferent motor neurons - The
structures that allow this communication to happen between the nerves
throughout the body in the central nervous system.
Ø Afferent simply means conducting inward and
Ø Efferent means conducting outward.

Ø Sympathetic nervous system is vital to our survival. Have

you ever heard of the fight-or-flight response to danger? the
sympathetic nervous system revs up the body when confronted
with imminent danger to either defend yourself or to escape the
threat.
Ø Parasympathetic nervous system is the counterbalance to
the sympathetic response to danger, whether real or imagined
once the threat is gone the parasympathetic brings all the
systems of the body back to normal.
Lesson 11: The Nervous System and its functions
to motor movement (Video)

 COMMUNICATION OF THE NUERONS (BASIC BUILDING BLOCKS OF THE CNS)

Lesson 12: The spinal chord and its functions to
motor movement (Video)
Lesson 13: The Peripheral Nervous System
and its functions to motor movement (Video)
Lesson 14: The Muscular System and its
functions to motor movement (Video)
Lesson 10: History, Theories and Models of
Motor Learning and Control (Video)
 Motor learning takes place when complex
processes in the brain occur in response to practice
or experience of a certain skill resulting in changes
in the central nervous system that allow for
production of been defined as a “set of internal
processes associated with practice or experience
leading to relatively permanent changes in the
capability for skilled behavior.” In other words,
motor learning is learning of a new motor skill.
 Motor control on the other hand, is the process by which
humans and animals use their brain cognition to activate and
coordinate the muscles and limbs involved in the performance of a
motor skill fundamentally. It is the integration of sensory
information both about the world and the current state of the body
to determine the appropriate set of muscle forces and joint
activations to generate some desired movement or action. This
process requires cooperative interaction between the central
nervous system and the musculoskeletal system and is, thus a
problem of information processing coordination mechanics physics
and cognition.
 Motor learning and motor control learning is the study of the
acquisition of motor skills. This means it is the study of how we teach
our bodies to do things, motor control is the study of how the nervous
system controls movement. These two subjects are closely intertwined
as motor learning or skills are increased. The subjects motor control
becomes more precise. Claudus Galen first delved into motor control
with the hydraulic model around sometime between 129 and 199 C II.
He called the hydraulic fluids animal spirits in the mid-1600s. Rene
discard it and proposed a second hydraulic model which was accepted
until the late 1700s. When the bioelectricity model was introduced
around 1780, Luigi Galvani demonstrated that electric currents actually
made the muscles contract cerebral localization the first empirical effort
that cerebral localization was made by Franz Joseph Gall.
 Gall noted that the differences between unusual talents and
striking differences in facial or groove or cranial appearance all
believed there was a link between the level of ability in the size of
the area of that of the cerebrum. Marie Jean Pierre Flourens shot
down Gall’s theory by discovering that motor control was controlled
by the medulla oblongata and the cerebellum. Gustave Fish and
Edward Hit Zig made the next breakthrough by demonstrating that if
you electrically stimulate one side of the cortex it resulted in
movements in the opposite side of the body theoretical
developments and motor learning early studies on motor learning
focused on performance and not on the factors of learning and
retaining the skill.
 During the 1920s and 30s, researchers in the psychology field
began to focus more on the learning in the teaching of skills. A 1927
TL Thorndike published the law of effect which stated responses
that were rewarded will be repeated whereas responses that are
punished will be extinguished during world war two. The military
put a push on motor skill in order to find the best pilots. 1943 CL
hull published the general learning theory which had a great impact
on understanding motor learning. Holes theory was later proved
incorrect in the 1960s the discipline of motor learning really started
to come into focus.
 Areas of study related to motor control or motor
coordination, motor learning, signal processing and perceptual
control theory since our motor feedback equals response to
stimuli equals the process of becoming aware of a sensory
stimuli and using that information to influence an action occurs
in stages and reaction time of simple tasks can be used to reveal
information about these stages. Reaction time refers to the
period of time between when the stimulus is presented and the
end of the response.
 Movement time is the time it takes to complete the
movement. Some of the first reaction time experiments were
carried out by Franciscus Donders who used the difference in
response times to a simple reaction task and a choice reaction
task to determine the length of time needed to process the
stimuli and choose the correct response while his approach is
ultimately flawed. It gave rise to the idea that reaction time was
made up of a stimulus identification followed by a response
selection and then the correct movement was carried out.
 Further research has provided evidence that these stages to exist
but that the response selection period of any reaction time increases is
the number of available choices grows a relationship known as Hicks
Lul equals closed loop control equals most movements that are carried
out during day to day activity are formed sign to a continual process of
accessing sensory information and using it to more accurately continue
motion type of motor control called feedback control as it relies on
sensory feedback to control movements.
 Feedback control is a situated form of motor control
relying on sensory information about performance and
specific sensory input from the environment, in which the
movement is carried out this sensory input while process
does not necessarily cause conscious awareness of the
action.
 Closed loop control is a feedback based
mechanism of motor control where any act on the
environment creates some sort of change that will
affect future performance through feedback. Closed-
loop motor control is best suited to continuously
controlled actions but does not work quickly enough
for ballistic actions.
 Closed loop control is a feedback based mechanism of motor
control where any act on the environment creates some sort of
change that will affect future performance through feedback. Closed-
loop motor control is best suited to continuously controlled actions
but does not work quickly enough for ballistic actions.

Ballistic actions are actions that continue to the end without

thinking about it even when they no longer are appropriate because
feedback control relies on sensory information, it is as slow as sensory
processing these movements are subject to a speed accuracy trade-
off because sensory processing is being used to control a movement.
 The faster the movement is carried out, the less accurate it will
become equals open-loop control equals saw movements however occur
too quickly to integrate sensory information and instead, must rely on feed
food control. Open-loop control is a feed-forward form of motor control
and is used to control rapid ballistic movements that end before any
sensory information can be processed.
In order to best study this type of control, most focuses on the de
Ferran tation studies often involving cats or monkeys whose sensory nerves
have been disconnected from their spinal cords monkeys who lost all
sensory information from their arms resumed normal behavior after
recovering from the de Ferran tation procedure. Most skills were relearned
but fine motor control became very difficult.
 Coordination a core motor control issue is coordinating the
various components of highly complex composed of many motor system
to act in unison to produce movement. The motor system is interacting
parts at many different organizational levels. Peripheral neurons
receive input from the central nervous system and innervate the
muscles in turn muscles generate forces which actuate joints getting the
pieces to work together as a challenging problem for the motor system
and how this problem is resolved is an active area of study in motor
control research equals reflexes equals in some cases the coordination
of motor components is hardwired consisting of fixed neuromuscular
pathways that are called reflexes.
 Reflexes are typically characterized as automatic and fixed motor
responses and they occur on a much faster time scale than what is
possible for reactions that depend on perceptual processing. Reflexes
play a fundamental role in stabilizing the motor system providing almost
immediate compensation for small perturbations and maintaining fixed
execution patterns. Some reflex loops are routed solely through the
spinal cord without receiving input from the brain and thus do not
require attention or conscious control. Others involve lower brain areas
and can be influenced by prior instructions or intentions but they remain
independent of perceptual processing and online control.
 The simplest reflexes the monosynaptic reflex or short loop reflex
such as the monosynaptic stretch response in this example here afferent
neurons are activated by muscle spindles when they deform due to the
stretching of the muscle in the spinal cord. These afferent neurons
synapse directly onto alpha motor neurons that the contraction of the
same muscle, thus any stretching of a muscle automatically signals a
reflexive contraction of that muscle without any central control as the
name and the description implies monosynaptic reflexes depend on a
single synaptic connection between an afferent sensory neuron and
efferent motor neuron.
 In general the actions of monosynaptic reflexes are fixed and cannot be
controlled or influenced by intention or instruction. However, there is some
evidence to suggest that the gain or magnitude of these reflexes can be adjusted by
context and experience polysynaptic reflexes or long loop reflexes and reflex arcs
which involve more than a single synaptic connection in the spinal cord. These loops
may include cortical regions of the brain as well and are thus slower than their mana
synaptic counterparts due to the greater travel time. However actions controlled by
polysynaptic reflex loops are still faster than actions which require perceptual
processing while the actions of short loop reflexes are fixed. Polysynaptic reflexes
can often be regulated by instruction or prior experience.
A common example of a long loop reflex is the asymmetrical tonic neck reflex
observed in infants equal synergies equals a motor synergy is a neural organization
of a multi element system that organizes sharing of a task among a set of elemental
variables and ensures Co variation among elemental variables with the purpose to
stabilize performance variables.
Models:
 During the cognitive stage, the student
learns a new skill, or relearns an existing
one. He will need to practice the task
frequently, with outside supervision and
guidance; it is important to make mistakes
and know how to correct them in this
process.
 During the associative stage, the student
is able to perform the task in a situation with
specific environmental restrictions. He will
make fewer errors during the activity and
complete it more easily. Students will begin
to understand how the different components
of a skill are interrelated.
 During the autonomous phase, he is
able to move in a variety of settings and
maintain control throughout the task. The
true proof of learning is the ability to retain
a skill and apply it in different settings
through automation, since practical
situations in real life are generally random.
Other models:

Ø Bernstein’s 3-stage model

Ø Gentile’s 2-stage model

 Bernstein’s 3-stage model

Bernstein’s model emphasizes quantifying degrees of

freedom, that is, the number of independent movements
needed to complete an action, as a central component of
learning a new motor skill. This learning model includes 3 stages.
During the initial stage, the individual will simplify his or her
movements by reducing the degrees of freedom. In the
advanced stage, the individual will gain a few degrees of
freedom, which will permit movement in more of the
articulations involved in the task. Lastly, the subject in the
expert stage possesses all the degrees of freedom necessary in
order to carry out the task in an effective and coordinated
manner.
 Gentile’s 2-stage model

The first stage of Gen-tile’s model includes

understanding the purpose of the task, developing
movement strategies appropriate for completing the task,
and interpreting environmental information that is relevant
to organizing movement. In the second stage (fixation or
diversification), the subject aims to redefine movement,
which includes both developing the capacity to adapt
movement to changes in task and in set-ting, and being
able to perform the task consistently and efficiently.
MOTOR CONTROL
AUTHOR DATE PREMISE
THEORIES
Reflex Theory Sherrington 1906  Movement is
controlled by
stimulus-
response.
 Reflexes are
basis for
movement -
Reflexes are
combined into
actions that
create behavior.
Hierarchical Adams 1971  Cortical centers control
Theories movement in a top-
down manner
throughout the nervous
system.
 Closed-loop Mode:
Sensory feedback is
needed and used to
control the movement.
 Voluntary movementts
initiated by “Will”
(higher
levels). Reflexive
movements dominate
only after CNS damage.
Motor Program Schmidt 1976  Adaptive, flexible
Theory motor programs
(MPs) and
generalized motor
programs (GMPs)
exist to control
actions that have
common
characteristics.
 Higher-level Motor
Programs - Store
rules for generating
movements.
Dynamical Systems  Movement emerges to control
Bernstein 1967
Theory degrees of freedom.
Turvey 1977  Patterns of movements self-
organize within the
Kelso & Tuller 1984 characteristics of environmental
conditions and the existing body
Thelen 1987
systems of the individual.
 Functional synergies are
developed naturally through
practice and experience and
help solve the problem of
coordinating multiple muscles
and joint movements at once.
 De-emphasize commands from
CNS in controlling movement
and emphasize physical
explanations for movement.
 The dynamic action theory attempts to find
mathematical descriptions of such self-organizing systems
in which behavior is non-linear, meaning that when one of
the parameters changes and reaches a critical value, the
entire system transforms into a completely new
configuration of behavior. By using these mathematical
formulas, it will be possible to predict the ways in which a
given system will act in different situations. The dynamic
action theory minimizes the importance of the idea that the
CNS sends commands to control movement, and it
searches for physical explanations that may also contribute
to the characteristics of movement.
Ecological Theories Gibson & Pick 2000  The person, the task,
and the environment
interact to in uence
motor behavior and
learning. The
interaction of the
person with any
given environment
provides perceptual
information used to
control movement.
 The motivation to
solve problems to
accomplish a desired
movement task goal
facilitates learning.
 In the 1960s, Gibson explored the way in which
our motor systems allow us to interact more effectively
with our surroundings in order to develop goal-oriented
behavior. He focused on how we detect information in
our setting that is relevant to our actions, and how we
then use this information to determine our movements.
The individual actively explores his or her environment,
and the environment promotes the performance of
activities that are environmentally appropriate.
Systems Model Shumway-Cook 2007  Multiple body
Theory systems overlap to
activate synergies for
the production of
movements that are
organized around
functional goals.
 Considers interaction
of the person with the
environment.
 Goal-directed
Behavior - Task
Orientated
 The same central command may give rise to very
different movements due to interactions between external
forces and variations in the initial conditions; also, the same
movements maybe elicited by different commands. The
theory attempts to explain how initial conditions affect the
characteristics of movement. Systems theory predicts real
behavior much more accurately than the preceding theories
since it considers not only what the nervous system
contributes to motion, but also the contributions of different
systems together with the forces of gravity and inertia.
MOTOR LEARNING
AUTHOR DATE PREMISE
THEORY
Adams Closed Loop Adams 1971  Closed Loop - Sensory feedback is
Theory used for the ongoing production of
skilled movement
 Slow movements
 Relies on sensory feedback
(Sherrington)
 Blocked Practice
 Errors = Bad! Needs to be accurate!
 Memory Trace - Initiation of movement
 Perceptual Trace - Built up over a
period of practice & is the reference of
correctness.
 Improvements = Increased capability of
performer to use the reference in
closed loop
Schmidt's Schema Schmidt 1975  Open Loop
Theory  Schema - Abstract memory
representation for events →
RULE
 Generalized Motor Program
- Rules that allow for the
generation of novel
movements
 Rapid, ballistic movements
= recall memory withmotor
programs and parameters to
carry out movement without
peripheral feedback
 Variability of Practice →
Improve Motor Learning
Ecological Theory Newell 1991  Based on Systems &
Ecological Motor Control
Theories
 Motor Learning = Increases
coordination between
perception and action thru task
& environmental constraints.
 Perceptual-motor workspace -
Identifies movements and
perceptual cues most relevant
to performance of task
 Optimal task-relevant mapping
of perception & action → NO
Rules!
Lesson 13: Principles of Motor Learning
(Video)
Principle of Interest

Ø It is the student's attitude toward learning a skill determines for the

most part the amount and kind of learning that takes place.

Principle of Practice

Ø Practicing the motor skill correctly is essential for learning to take

place.
Principle of Distributed Practice
Ø In general short periods of intense practice will result in more
learning than longer, massed practice sessions.

Principle of Skill Specificity

Ø A student's ability to perform one motor skill effectively is

independent of his/her ability to perform other motor skills.
Principle of Whole-Part Learning.

Ø The complexity of the skill to be learned and the leaner's ability

determine whether it is more efficient to teach the whole skill or
break the skill into component parts.

Principle of Transfer

Ø The more identical two tasks are the greater the possibility that
positive transfer will occur. Practice conditions should match the
conditions in which the motor skill is going to be used.
Principle of Skill Improvement
Ø The development of motor skills progresses along a continuum from least
mature to most mature. The rate of progression and the amount of
progress within an individual depends upon the interaction of nature and
nurture.

Principle of Feedback

Ø Internal and external sources of information about motor performance is

essential for learning to take place.

Principle of Variable Practice.

Ø Block practice aids in performance while variable practice aids in
learning. Variable practice causes an increase in attention.