_ VD. PRATIBHA KULKARNI VD. S. M. VAIDYA ~ CHAUKHAMBHA ORIENTALIA e a 1QOO Z6 Pro Dec 27, 2024, 15:17== esti tte na pr inant Koshtha is and vata are ee ences No eee e) ‘Mrudu and expulsion of excretory not predominant same results are Paper = I (Part » B) PHysioLocy HomEosTAsis 1 + Definition + Mechanisms of Maintenance of Homeostasis. + Resting Membrane Potential and Action Potential. | + Acid-base balance, Water and Electrolyte balance. + Study of basic Components of Food. two words homeo means same and stasis means maintain, «0 homeostasis means 9 muna the same Le. maintaining of normal envionment ofthe body. Extra cellular lad is termed as intemal body environment. It helps in siving nutrients to cell through its spread and because of which cells ofthe body sustains. I willbe presenti the body fui, bood, lymphatics and vascular scheme uid if gets deviate from normalcy then leds for manifestation Of senses, So ultimate im oul be kept on maintain normalcy ofthis entity (ECF Internal body envirbnment), about maintenance of normalcy. It gives answer even ‘ow to revert back if any variations sets in this equilibrium ({.. when physiology ‘changes in to pathology),in ad ris fundamental 2572 nowledse diagnosis and for application of sutab Tram the normalcy and reasons behing helps the physician fo no peknwe of wan wil get directions in ado the meseage when 1 deviates from normalcy, Os tran fever since 5-8 days, then body stars 1 eval So, body is provided with selfdetecton ddtectors and effectors respectively, the treatment ven ones own body For example, when person ding sour and unctuous correcting factors and canbe Known 35 wre Qype the maintenance of eq feral systems are involved in Several sy ved in the siatus of € ‘We can understand mechanism inva examples. 1. Body empeature has tobe mainained regularly and constantly af norma) range. Any deviation ini afcs the tissues and cells, Many other systems such as Respiratory, Digestive, Nervous ete systems helps in maintaining tin normal state 2 Forthenormalfunctions metabolism and growthof tissues, energy isrequited for the cells in the form of nutrients This process of digestion and the Supply ‘of nutrients are evident because of digestive and circulatory systems. 3, Along with nutrients cells ae also in need of appropriate amount of oxyse” for the survival an for formation of tissues. Inthe same way waste product such as carbon dioxide and other forms of bodily wastes as a sequel of production of tissues are to be excreted out, Respiratory system removes «carbon dioxide as part of respiratory process, The other wastes which #7 produced will get excreted with he help of kidney, skin et. Re RE cee TTT A a very useful role, Sensory syst brain and further the change is broug! the motor system of the body Hormones produced rom varius glans have spf le over the tly mctions. Increased or decreased production of such hormone’s wills {imbalance the body functions by aflctng tissues and cells Process of Homeostasis works with the help of four kind of essential 1, Sensors are the devices which lemify the change going on in the body 2. Thus, message will be sent to brain or center 3. Specific change is informed to the effecter organ from the brain or center. 4, According to the change informed by the center s implemented in theeffecter organ to accomplish the purpose.SE! ) (Hector) proces isto maintain normal status. f any kindof jogether and will cor enhancing the change is seen inthe sctvtes or by obstructing o decreasing the Functions. If tec factions, the espetv change i observed by the effecter and the same s informed to the brain or center. Required changes are informed to the effectors organ and ater th changes senin the organ or effectors. This i the method how homeostasis works, Two types ofchanges are observed here either the functions secretions wil increase or they decrease. The changes are also of two types based upon inereae or decease ofthe secretions or functions. They are as below i. Mechanism of Positive feedback Ji, Mechanism of Negative fedback aoe both the types of feedbacks are explained oe Yea TE ‘mechanism is responsible clotting of blood, ae Figure 12: Positive Feedback Mechanismgall i} ALF, io F 6 re drops below 70 de house to 70 degrees Fabreneit it shuts off ature negative fedack mechanism. When blood sugar rises, recep! sense a change, In tum the contol centre (pancreas) secretes inst blood effectively lowering blood sugar levels. Once blood sugar lev homeostasis, the pancreas stops releasing insulin. a reais: b. Another examples Thyronin secretion, Thyroid stimulating hormone W! is secretion 2 aera stimulates eid gland to secrete thyrox jenerates its energy required for self repair. hormone, In case if thyroxin level increases pituitary gland sends a ‘+ Itregulates its own atmosphere. trick to yi gland to hit shyroxn secretion and maint + Retell tented foreign bes normaly. Incase of ls production of thyroxin it sends positive feedback thyroid gland to secrete more thyroxin and again the normalcy oman Like this in case of thyroid gland and thyroxin secretion both ree cieainae. of at Positive feed backs are observed, Likewise in the regulation of wate also both types of feedbacks can be seen, "essential structural and functional unit of the living organism, uilding block of life. They are highly specialized in various organs specific functions, Properties of a Cell: Cells require oxygen and nutrition for their survival. Excretes wastes such as on dioxide and other unwanted things. *+ Calls divides to form two cells, s0 is responsible for self- production. TISSUES. ime type of functions are called as tissues, Depending four types. hese are contractile elements, again can be classified into {ree as a) skeletal muscle, b) smooth muscle and cardiac muscle.sr type of fonetions are called 88 OFS. fy gy pesof tissues. Again, organs are of two types, 1 organs, are compact organs. 2, Compact organs Ex Lungs, lives, meron SYSTEMS ade up of group of organs performing same type f form specific functions of our body 1 digestion and_ metabolism. gases. systems work together to lead a healthy life in our body. ‘STRUCTURE OF THE CELL, ellis made up of3 main structures namely 1. Cell membrane; the outer covering ofthe cell 2. Cytoplasn inner structure presenti the cell 3. Nucleus; innermost part, which is surrounded by cytoplasm Because of the semi for easy exchange of some The cell membrane measures 75 nm in ¢ Cell Membrane ‘membrane is a lipid layer, which is continuous over the entire cell surface, Ths lipid layer is composed of phospholipid and cholesterolve are of two eypes integral PrOteiNS ANd perp, eee Ee ae the thickest layers The Function of these layer, protector pat Carbohydrates oF Carbohydrates are mainly P swith proteins, Some integral molecules are glyeolipds ofthe cell Membrane setve barre allowing some molecules to cross, excluding others, ates the passage of substances in and out of the cell and hence , to form CO, and 0, which are also reabsorbed. Thus, the distally reabsorbed Hi jonsarenewly generated and not the same as those that were filtered, Decreases it effective circulating volume (euch as occur with diuretic therapy) increase HCO3- reabsorption while increases in parathyroid hormone in response to an acid load decrease HCO, reabsorption, Also, increased PCO, leads to increased. ‘HCO, reabsorption, while chloride depletion leads to increased sodium the proximal tubule I) depletion (1 due to volume (Na!) reabsorption and HCO,, generation by Acidisactively excreted into the proximal and distal tubules where . smbines “ib arinary buters—primarily freely filtered phosphate (HPO ), creatinine, a RELL lated; K* depletion causes increased H secretion and hence metabolic alkalosis. ‘Types of Acid-Base ‘There are two abnorm 1. Acidosis: The blood has too much acid (or too little base), resulting, in a decrease in blood pH. 2, Alkalosis: The blood has too much base (or too little acid), resulting in an inerease in blood pH. Acidosis and alkalosis are not diseases but rather are the result of a wide variety of disorders, The presence of acidosis or alkalosis provides an important that a serious probl ‘Types of Acidosis and Alkalosis ‘Acidosis and alkalosis are categorized depending on their primary cause as 1. Metabolic 2. Respiratory Metabolic acidosis and metabolic alkalosis are caused by an imbalance in the production of acids or bases and their excretion by the kidneys, Respiratory acidosis and respiratory alkalosis are caused primarily by changes in carbon dioxide exhalation due to lung or breathing disorders. Water and Electrolyte Balance Anelectrolyteis a substance that produces an electrically conducting solution when polar solvent, such as water. The dissolved electrolyte separates into cations and anions, which disperse uniformly through the solvent. Electrically,redrawn tothe ications in opposite di alt are examples of. ropes and phosphate icine clecroyte replacement is needed when a pate vache, and as 2 response to strenuous athletic ac Electrolyte pase gee are caoot pe es Par ela hcl Sr ee ap crecten ty a eee ee are ence eee Ee a ee ed ence water playsa vital role (0 In Homeostasis: Body cells live in the watery medium called internal atmosphere. Internal setting contains substances such as glucose, amino acid, lipids, vitamins, ions, oxygen, etc. which are needed for development and working of the cell. Water not only forms the chief component of internal atmosphere but also have an important role in homeostasis. (@)_In Metabolic Reactions: Water inside the cells makes the medium for different metabolic responses, which are needed for development and normal activities of the cells, Parts of Body Fluids ~Circulation of Body Fluids Factors which determine spe ass and body far pen ntl Water weight ofa human being include se ' fat percentage, Infants, with their low bone mass and low Re ee) Fluid Compartments, “There are two main fluid compartments water accupies in the body. About two- The remaining one-third of body water is outside cells, fluid compartment (ECE). The ECF is the body's internal environment and the cells ‘external environment, Composition of Body Fluids Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes: Nonelectrolytes have bonds (usually covalent prevent them from disassociating in a ‘charged species are created when nonelect Most nonelectrolytes are organic molecules for example — lipids, glucose, urea, creatinine, ncontrast electrolytes are chemical compounds that do disassociate into ions in water, Since ions are charged particles, they can conduct an electrical current thatis why they are called electrolytes for the most part, electrolytes include organic salts, some proteins, and both organic and inorganic acids and bases. Electrolytes have much greater osmotic power than nonelectrolytes because Iyte molecule disassociates least two ions. For instance, a sodium chloride (NaCl) cont rvice as many solute particles as glucose, and a molecule of magnesium chloride (MgCl. contributes three times as many,in 2002 and 2008 could not find ‘smolali yytocause uid shifts, ing organisms in Which thy ough osmoregulation to beet ons of ly ‘The core principle of fluid bal lost from the body must equal the amount of ‘man. homeostasis, the output through respiration, ‘must equal the input through isthe state of normal body fiuig volume, and intracellular fluid inces, Water is necessary forall fhout food but only for afew and behav fuids are kept within that the amount of water I tion def perspratonsurinat ‘eating, drinking and parentral ‘yolume, including blood volume, interstitial lume hypovolemia and hypervolemia are Iie on Fath. Humans can survive for 4 106 weeks days without water Profuse sweating can increase the need for el electrolyte imbalance produces headache and fatigue ans sometimes even death ifsevere. For example, water intoxication the process of consuming too much water too quickly, can be fatal Deficits tobody water result in volume contraction and dehydration. Diarrhea ‘sa threat toboth body water volume and electrolyte levels, which is why diseases that cause diarchea are great threats to fluid balance. Water Consumption ‘The amount of water varies with the individual, as it depends on the condition of thesubject the amount of physical exercise, and on the environmental temperatuz? and humidity, The common misconception that everyone should drink two liters (6Sounces, orabouteight8-0z glasses) ‘of water per day is not supported by scientific ‘search, Various reviews of all the scientific literature on the topic performed Rees any solid scientific evidence that recommended ‘of water per day. For example, people in hotter climates will king. Bot eA WA \ ather than a specific, ‘a normal person should urinate 4 through normal mn, perspiration and urination. Food of protein, fat and carbohydrates sans that 2 to 3 I/day of water for Effects of Illness When a person hemorrhage. An. the kidneys wil Oral Rehydration Therapy 1. If fluid loss is greater than fluid gain (for example ifthe has diarrhea), the patient is said to be in negative fluid bal fluid is often given intravenously to compensate for the lo 2. On the other hand, a positive fluid bal fluid toss) might suggest a problem w snere fluid gain is greater than either the renal or cardiovascular blood pressure is low that is hypotension, the filtration rate in the kidneys sen, causing less fluid reabsorption and thus less urine output. An accurate measure of fluid balance is therefore an important diagnostic tool, and allows for prompt intervention to correct the imbalance. Routes of Fluid Loss and Gain Fluic can leave the body in many ways. ‘water, ingested food and drink and to a ‘id can enter the body as preformed ser extent as metabolic water which 714308qt as a bye is produced a6 2 BY detiydraion syubest= oe nthe luidslost throughnos ssa significant proportic ‘and desert animals, but provides only , resting state np om ingested foods 1000 m 1/day and from aerobic respiration 3p +r normal physiological function that rn esential nutrient i a nutrient required fo aie pe eyntesized by the body, and thus must be obtained from a dietary eine Apart from water, which is universally required for the maintenance of Tomeosiasis essential nutrients are indispensable for the metabolic Processes of calle, a well asthe proper physiological functions of tissues and organs. In the ‘ase of humans, there are nine amino acids, two fatty acids, thirteen vitamins and fifteen minerals that are considered essential nutrients. In addition, there are several molecules that are considered condi essential nutrients since they are indispensable in certain developmental and pathological states. Itisanuirient that the body cannot synthesize on its own or not to an adlequat® ‘amount and mast be provided by the diet. These nutrients are necessary forthe body to function propery. The sx essential nutrients include + Carbohydrates + Protein + Fat + Vitamins + Minerals and + Water, — Ce ae ws, starchy vegetables a hich reduces the risk of nd glucose levels. Carbohydrates canbe grouped i tes are sugars whereas com fiber. Carbohydrate provides about 4 keal (keal = Calories) per gram (except for fiber) and is the energy that is used fi fuel muscles and the brain. Sol , legumes, nuts, seeds, brown rice, and oat, barley and rice ;3 blood cholesterol and helps to nuts) doesn't provide any Like cons lores, It helps to alleviate digestive disorders ion or diverticulitis and may help prevent colon cancer. Most calories (55-60%) should come from carbohydrates, Sources of carbohydrates include grain products such as breads, cereals, pasta, and rice as well as fruits and vegetables. We get the majority of our carbohydrate from starches originate in cereal Ik and some vegetables except from cane sugar. They are changed into glucose by the function of our fe system and absorbed. Glucose is passed about the body in blood and is utilized by our tissues as basis of power. vegetables and legumes, sugars originate in fruits Ina man weighing 70 kg requires 2500 kcal/ day ,64%4 of calories that is 1600 calories must come from carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are the food stuffs available easily. However, they create fermentation indigestive system, Among the poorer sections of Indians over 80% of the calorie wants are fulfilled by the carbohydrates rotein is the major structural component of cells and is responsible amino acids, which are building blocks of protein. Nine ofthe 20 aminoacids, known as essential amino acids, must be provided in the diet as they cannotand eggs and venetale sources and seeds, Proteins of aceptable val Because they ae prefers power which cannot be served by any other nu ‘must be there in the diet in enough amoun, ‘used for extra particular purposes apart from . Proteins are Needed for 1, Reconstruction oft tissues, due to wear al tear phenomenon 2. Fusion of enzymes allenzymes ae protein in nature) 5, Fusion of protein hormones (Eg, insulin, parathormone, ADH etc) 4. Formation of rest milk 5. Production of new tissues during growth and pregnancy 6, Regulation of concentration of plasma proteins. Apa from these reasons protein helps for production of generation of excess heat due to its specific dynamic action (SDA). Thus, people in cold ‘envionment wish to take adalitional poten in their diet, ‘Quantity of Protein Required: A normal healthy person (actult) requires ‘Igm/kg/day of food protein or 10% of total calorie intake, a eae ans of animal proteins are Meat -20°%, Fish -20% esas 2% Legumes-20%, Rie 10% WH in protein ee Eee are the most common cause of obesity for sedentary people ‘Uses of Fats in the Diet 1, Fat gives good taste to the food. 2. Tat avoids rapid emptying of stomach and thus the requirement frequent cating, 3. Itis the base of essential fatty acids andi fat soluble vitamins like A,D.E.K. 4. Fat stores are built up to provide energy. il isnecessary for the synthesis of collagen, which provides structure to blood vessels, bone and ligaments, Rich sources include citrus strawberries and peppers, Folate, found in foods, helps to prevent who plan to become pregnant ing a folic acid supplement, the to their diet, Vitamin D helps to maintain,n a ™ ta source of energy (a0 ane ther than asa supplement because thet througha varied dita of taking oo high a dose tity thus they are inces in food. They have ‘metabolic reactions as factors and co enzymes, Vitamins and min called micronutrients widespread involvere ‘The majority of the vitamins cannot be produced in the body in adequate quantities. Therefore, must be used inthe diet. CCassification of Vitamins; 1. Fatsoluble vitamins A, D, E, K smins B complex and Vitamin C Sodium helps to maintain fluid volume outside the cells and helps fo function normally. Potassium maintains fuid volume inside and outside the cells and prevents the exces ris of blood pressure with increased, sovium intake. Rich sources include bananas, potatoes and tomatoes. Calcium helps to maintain and build strong bones and teeth, Include three servings of calciumerich foods pet day including. mi ‘yogurt, Minerals are components of foods that are involved in many body functions. For example, calcium and magnesium are important for bone structure, and iron is needed for red blood cells to transport oxygen. Like vitamins, minralsare nota source of energy and are best obtained through & varied dit rather than supplements. 1. Theseare \ These are also desired in minate quantities but extra from vitamins, They also achieve important functions in the body. More than 20 minerals are ‘Row considered essential nutrients, Ce aE Ia ing. waste products from ie foods such as soup and watermel daily water requirement. Adults shou! is per kilogram body weight or 2 to 3 liters Water is a nt for good health. Most of our body weight (60-70%) is made up of water. Water helps to control our body temperature, carries nutrients and waste products from our cells, and is needed for our cells to Ivis recommended that adults drink 8 glasses of fluid daily (or more in hot weather or during, activity). This fluid does not have to be water alone. Itcan also be obtained from juice, milk, soup, and foods high in water such as fruits and vegetables, Caffeine-containing beverages (coffee, tea, cola) don’t count because caffeine is a diuretic, making us lose water. A ‘great plus for water in comparison to the other fluids is that it hydrates our body without extra calories Dietary Fibers and Roughage: It can be defined as the parts of food, which are sted by any enzymes, thus they increase the bulk of feces and mass Isis that is defecation is favored. Dietary fiber is the natural packing, of plant food. Major classes of dictary fibers are cellulose, hemicelluloses, ppectins and gums all are polysaccharides. Recommended intake -15-20 gm/day.