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 ELECTRIC AND
HYBRID ELECTRIC
VEHICLES
James Halderman

Curt Ward
Content Management: Tara Warrens
Content Production: Isha Sachdeva
Product Management: Derril Trakalo
Rights and Permissions: Jenell Forschler

Please contact https://support.pearson.com/getsupport/s/ with any queries on this content

Cover Image by Herr Loeffler/Shutterstock; fanjianhua/Shutterstock

Copyright © 2023 by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates, 221 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. All Rights Reserved.
Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Halderman, James D.

Title: Electric and hybrid electric vehicles / James D. Halderman.
Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Pearson Education, Inc., [2023] | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021056834 (print) | LCCN 2021056835 (ebook) | ISBN 9780137532124 (paperback) |
ISBN 0137532121 (paperback) | ISBN 9780137532193 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Electric vehicles—Maintenance and repair—Textbooks. | Hybrid electric vehicles—Maintenance and
repair—Textbooks.
Classification: LCC TL220 .H345 2023 (print) | LCC TL220 (ebook) | DDC 629.22/93—dc23/eng/20220105
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021056834
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021056835

ScoutAutomatedPrintCode

ISBN 10: 0-13-753212-1

ISBN 13: 978-0-13-753212-4
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This page intentionally left blank
 PREFACE
Introducing an innovative first edition in electric and hybrid ■■ Chapter 9 (Low-Voltage Batteries and Stop-Start Micro
electric vehicles! Designed to meet the needs of a third or Hybrids) includes useful information for the technician
fourth semester course in electrical systems, Electric and when dealing with currently available electric and hybrid
Hybrid Electric Vehicles is also designed for a special topic electric vehicles.
or certificate course in electric and hybrid electric vehicles ■■ Chapter 10 (High-Voltage Batteries) includes the types
or for an introductory course in connected and autonomous and designs of high-voltage batteries used in both
vehicles. It features all of the advanced technology of on- electric and hybrid electric vehicles.
board diagnosis and up-to-date electrified vehicles technol- ■■ Chapter 11 (EV and HEV Motors, Converters, and
ogy, plus the same organization, flow, and features of the
Inverters) introduces the reader to the electronics
renowned Professional Technician series by Pearson!
involved in the electrified vehicle propulsion system.
Chapters 12 (EV and PHEV Charging) and 13 (Electric
DEPTH OF CONTENT AND FORMAT
■■
Scope: Based
Vehicle Charging Equipment) include all the details that
on input and suggestions from automotive instructors, this title
are needed to know about levels 1, 2, and 3 charging.
is aligned with ASE standards and includes comprehensive
coverage as follows: ■■ Chapters 14 (Regenerative Brakes), 15 (Electric Power
Steering), 16 (EV and HEV HVAC System), 17 (EV and HEV
■■ The first four chapters are designed to introduce
Transmissions), and 18 (EV and HEV Driver Assist Systems)
electric and hybrid electric vehicles including safety
each round out the details that service technicians need to
(chapter 1), introduction (chapter 2) and background
know to understand and service electric and hybrid electric
information on the importance of the need for electrified
vehicles.
vehicles (chapter 3), and hybrid ICE information
(chapter 4). ■■ Chapter 19 (Fuel Cells and Advanced Technologies)
covers advanced systems that are currently on the
■■ Chapter 5 (Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Preventative
market and likely to be expanded in the future.
Maintenance) covers the routine maintenance required to
be performed on electric and hybrid electric vehicles. ■■ Chapter 20 (First Responder Procedures) includes
important procedures for identifying and mitigating
■■ Chapters 6 (Digital Storage Oscilloscope Testing) covers
potentially dangerous situations when working with
the uses of digital storage oscilloscopes (DSOs) with the
electric and hybrid electric vehicles.
emphasis on detailed analysis to locate the root cause of
a customer concern. ■■ The appendix provides a Sample ASE-type L3
Certification Test.
■■ Chapter 7 (Energy and Power) includes the terms and
definitions used throughout the rest of the text regarding Organization: The content includes the basics needed by all
energy and power including electrical units of measure service technicians and covers the following organization for
commonly used when discussing electric and hybrid most systems:
electric vehicles.
■■ Purpose and function of the system
■■ Chapter 8 (Advanced AC and DC Electricity) is designed
to prepare the reader for the circuits and testing of
■■ Parts involved and operational description
electric and hybrid electric vehicles. ■■ Diagnosis and service

v
 HALLMARK IN-TEXT FEATURES
The following highlights the unique core features that set the
Professional Technician Series book apart from other automo- TECH TIP
tive textbooks.
Test Motor Before Replacing the Inverter
Before replacing a failed inverter, test the electric motor
1 for any defects. It is relatively common for shorted

HYBRID AND ELECTRIC electric motor windings to cause a failure of the inverter.
The new inverter is likely to fail upon installation
VEHICLE SAFETY if the electric motor failure is not resolved first.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter, the reader should Acoustic vehicle alerting
system (AVAS) 10
High voltage (HV) 2 TECH TIPS feature real-world advice and “tricks of the
be able to: International
• Explain the need for caution around the high-
voltage system.
American National
Standards Institute
Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) 7
trade” from ASE-certified master technicians.
(ANSI) 4 Occupational Safety and
• Describe the differences between a CAT I, CAT American Society for Health Administration
II, CAT III, and CAT IV multimeter. Testing and Materials (OSHA) 4
• Explain the difference between yellow/blue and (ASTM) 4 System main relays

•
orange high-voltage cables.
List the types of personal protective equipment.
Category three (CAT III) 7
Digital multimeter
(SMRs) 3
PHOTO SEQUENCE
(DMM) 7
• Describe the process for testing rubber gloves
before use.
• Explain the purpose of the safety interlock
system.
• Describe the process for depowering the high-
voltage system.

1 A Mustang Mach E electric SUV is showing 66 miles

(27%) of charge remaining. 2 Using a smartphone app, Plug Share in this case, the
driver located a Level 3 charging station.

OBJECTIVES AND KEY TERMS appear at the beginning 3 After using a credit card to gain access, the driver removed
the SAE CCS charge plug from the charging station.
4 The charge post on the Mustang Mach E is located on
the left front fender.

of each chapter to help students and instructors focus on the

most important material in each chapter. The chapter objectives
are based on specific ASE tasks.

5 6
During charging, the Mach E lights a series of lights around The charging station also shows the state-of-change
the charge receptible to let the driver know the level of on the display. Most experts recommend only charg-
charge. When all lights are on, the vehicle has been fully ing to 80% unless traveling when the extra range is
charged. required to help protect the HV battery.

EV AND PHEV CHARGING 175

STEP-BY-STEP PHOTO SEQUENCES show in detail

the steps involved in performing a specific task or service
procedure.

vi HAL L MARk I N- T ExT FEA TUR ES

 Case Study

The Case of the Vibrating Tesla ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

An owner of a Tesla Model Y visited a tire shop com-

How Do You Reboot the Digital Display?
plaining of a vibration in the steering wheel at high-
For most electric vehicles, pull the first responder
way speeds. A local tire shop balanced both front
loop under the hood, then disconnect the negative
tires. The right front only needed a quarter ounce
battery terminal by the fuse box. Wait 5 minutes,
whereas the left front required over four ounces to
reconnect the battery terminal and then the first
balance. After leaving the shop, the owner imme-
responder loop.
diately noticed that the vibration was much worse.
On the Tesla Model 3, hold down both scroll
The owner returned to the shop and this time the tire
wheels on the steering wheel until the display
was removed from the rim. It became apparent that
reboots. Press and hold both scroll wheels on either
the vibration issue was caused by the foam inside
the tire. This foam that generally played the role of
the main/central screen will reboot. A soft reboot
reducing noise had separated and was loose inside
is performed by holding in both scroll wheels until
the tire. The shop removed the foam and did not try
the touchscreen turns off. A hard reboot is alleg-
to reinstall it. The wheel was balanced, which solved
edly doing the same thing, but pressing and holding
the vibration concern. The driver did not notice any
the brake pedal until the Tesla logo appears on the
increase in noise. ● 2-6.
touchscreen. Another variation of a “reboot” is to
Summary:
power off the car from the touchscreen and leave it
• Complaint—A Tesla owner complained of a vibra-
off for a few minutes (you have to stay in the car).
tion in the steering wheel at highway speeds.
On a Mustang Mach E, to reboot the SYNC 4
• Cause—The acoustical foam inside a tire that is
system, push Volume Down button and Forward seek
supposed to reduce noise had separated from the
button. Hold them both down at the same time until
inner liner of the left front tire.
the screen reboots.
• Correction—The foam was removed from the tire
and the tire/wheel assembly was balanced which
corrected the vibration concern.

CASE STUDIES present students with actual automotive FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS are based on the
scenarios and shows how these common (and sometimes author’s own experience and provide answers to many of the
uncommon) problems were diagnosed and repaired. Uses the most common questions asked by students and beginning
Three Cs approach (Complaint, Cause, Correction). service technicians.

NOTE: These numbers originally referred to the metric

CAUTION: Check the instructions for the scope being
dimensions of the graticule in centimeters. Therefore,
used before attempting to scope household AC circuits.
an 8 × 10 display would be 8 centimeters (80 millime-
Some scopes are not designed to measure high-voltage
ters or 3.14 inches) high and 10 centimeters (100 mil-
AC circuits.
limeters or 3.90 inches) wide.

NOTES provide students with additional technical CAUTIONS alert students about potential damage to
information to give them a greater understanding of a specific personal property that can occur during a specific task or
task or procedure. service procedure.

H AL L MAR k IN - TE x T FEA T U RES vii

 AFFORDABLE PURCHASE OPTIONS FOR STUDENTS
WARNING
Print: This first edition is available as an affordable, rent-to-own
option.
To avoid an electrical shock, any capacitor should
eBooks: This text is also available in multiple eBook formats.
be treated as if it were charged until it is proven to
These are a great choice for busy students that are looking to
be discharged.
save money. As an alternative to renting/purchasing the printed
textbook, students can purchase an electronic version of the
same content. Pearson eText is an easy-to-use digital text-
WARNINGS alert students to the potential dangers of book. It lets students customize how they study and learn with
personal injury during a specific task or service procedure. enhanced search and the ability to create flashcards, highlight,
add notes, and listen to the audio version all in one place. The
mobile app lets students learn wherever life takes them, offline
or online. Additionally, the Pearson eText features approximately
20 minutes of simulated, instructive animations providing stu-
dents with an enhanced visual reference for essential auto-
motive concepts and skills. For more information on Pearson
eText, visit www.pearson.com/learner.

SUPPLEMENTS
All Pearson Automotive Series textbooks are accompanied by a
full set of instructor and student supplements.
■■ Instructor’s Resource Manual
■■ PowerPoint Presentation
■■ TestGen Computerized Testbank
■■ ASE Correlated Task Sheets (Download Only by
instructors) for Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles
■■ Instructor Resources can be downloaded at www.
pearsonhighered.com/irc. If you don’t already have a
username and password for access, you can request
access at www.pearsonhighered.com/irc. Within 48 hours
THE SUMMARY, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND CHAPTER of registering, you will receive a confirming email including
QUIZ at the end of each chapter help students review the an instructor access code. Once you have received your
material presented in the chapter and test themselves to see code, locate your text in the online catalog and click on
how much they have learned. the Instructor Resources button on the left side of the
catalog product page. Select a supplement and a login
page will appear. Once you have logged in, you can
access instructor material for all Pearson textbooks.

Student Supplements (for purchase):

ASE Correlated Task Sheets for Electric and Hybrid Electric
Vehicles, ISBN: 9780137532155

viii S UPPL EMEN TS

 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many people and organizations have cooperated in providing easy-to-read style that has made other books from the same
the reference material and technical information used in this authors so popular.
text. The authors wish to express their sincere thanks to the ■■ Jim Anderson—Greenville High School
following persons for their special contributions:
■■ Rankin E. Barnes—Guilford Technical Community College
Carl Borsani—Graphic Home Design & Marketing, LLC
■■ kevin Murphy—Stark State College of Technology
Stephen Ellis—Honda Motor Company, Ltd.
Ford Motor Company
■■ Teresa L. Noto, M.S.—Farmingdale State College
Tom Freels—Sinclair Community College ■■ Paul Pate—College of Southern Nevada
General Motors Corporation ■■ Fritz Peacock—Indiana Vocational Technical College
Tim Jones—Honda Training Center ■■ Dennis Peter—NAIT (Canada)
Chris karr—Ford Motor Company
■■ Eric Pruden—Pennsylvania College of Technology
Andy knevel—Toyota Motor Corporation
Lloyd koppes—Toyota Motor Corporation ■■ Jeff Rehkopf—Florida State College
Toyota Motor Sales—USA, Inc. ■■ kenneth Redick—Hudson Valley Community College
Dick krieger—Michigan Institute of Technology ■■ Matt Roda—Mott Community College
Jeff Rehkopf
■■ Mitchell Walker—St. Louis Community College at Forest
Dan Avery
Park
Dr. John kershaw
Steve Cartwright—Federal Mogul Training Center
Chuck Taylor—Sinclair Community College SPECIAL THANKS Special thanks to instructional designer
Tom Birch Alexis I. Skriloff James.
David Norman—San Jacinto College The authors wish to thank Mike Mills and Adam Fullam;
Joe Palazzolo—GkN Driveline The Lexus of Dayton dealership; and Chuck Taylor of Sinclair
Glen Plants Community College in Dayton, Ohio, who helped with many
of the photos. A special thanks to Ron Morris, Jeff Rehkopf,
TECHNICAL AND CONTENT REVIEWERS The follow- and Tom Birch for their detailed and thorough reviews of the
ing people reviewed the manuscript before production and manuscript before publication. Most of all, we wish to thank
checked it for technical accuracy and clarity of presentation. Michelle Halderman for her assistance in all phases of manu-
Their suggestions and recommendations were included in script preparation.
the final draft of the manuscript. Their input helped make this —Jim Halderman
textbook clear and technically accurate while maintaining the —Curt Ward

AC kN O WLED GM EN T S ix
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
JIM HALDERMAN brings a world of experience, know-
ledge, and talent to his work. His automotive service experience
includes working as a flat-rate technician, a business owner,
and a professor of automotive technology at a leading U.S.
community college.
He has a Bachelor of Science degree from Ohio Northern
University and a master’s degree from Miami University
in Oxford, Ohio. Jim also holds a U.S. patent for an elec-
tronic transmission control device. He is an ASE certified
Master Automotive Technician and is also Advanced Engine
Performance (L1) ASE certified. Jim is the author of many auto-
motive textbooks, all published by Pearson Education. Jim has
presented numerous technical seminars to national audiences,
including the California Automotive Teachers (CAT) and the
Illinois College Automotive Instructor Association (ICAIA). He is
also a member and presenter at the North American Council of
Automotive Teachers (NACAT). Jim was also named Regional
Teacher of the Year by General Motors Corporation and a mem-
ber of the advisory committee for the department of technology
at Ohio Northern University. Jim and his wife, Michelle, live in
Dayton, Ohio. They have two children. You can reach Jim at:
jim@jameshalderman.com

CURT WARD Prior to his years at Chrysler, Curt has worked as a technician,
shop foreman, and service manager in the retail sector of the automotive industry
for 13 years. During this time, he became a Chrysler Master Technician. Curt has
an Associates of Applied Science in Automotive Service Technology from Southern
Illinois University. He has a Bachelor of Fine Arts in Organizational Communications
from North Central College. He earned his master’s degree in Adult Education at the
University of Phoenix.
Curt is an ASE Master Automotive Technician. He has presented technical
seminars at numerous conferences around the country. He has presented for the
Illinois College Automotive Instructor Association (ICAIA), the California Automotive
Teachers (CAT), and the North American Council of Automotive Teachers (NACAT).
Curt is an active member in the ICAIA and the NACAT. He has served as the secre-
tary and president of the NACAT organization and was the conference host for the
2015 NACAT Conference. In 2015, Curt was named the NACAT MVP award win-
ner for his outstanding contribution to the NACAT organization. Curt and his wife
Tammy have five children and five grandchildren. Together they enjoy traveling and
exploring historical sites. In his spare time, Curt enjoys modeling 3-rail O-gauge
railroads. You can reach Curt at: curt@curtward.net

x ABOUT THE AUTHO RS

BRIEF CONTENTS
chapter 1 Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Safety 1

chapter 2 Introduction to Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles 14

chapter 3 Health and Environmental Concerns 27

chapter 4 Hybrid Engine Systems 36

chapter 5 Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Preventative Maintenance 56

chapter 6 Digital Storage Oscilloscope Testing 65

chapter 7 Energy and Power 78

chapter 8 Advanced AC and DC Electricity 89

chapter 9 Low-Voltage Batteries and Stop-Start Micro Hybrids 102

chapter 10 High-Voltage Batteries 119

chapter 11 EV and HEV Motors, Converters, and Inverters 141

chapter 12 EV and PHEV Charging 163

chapter 13 Electric Vehicle Charging Equipment 178

chapter 14 Regenerative Brakes 188

chapter 15 Electric Power Steering 199

chapter 16 EV and HEV HVAC System 207

chapter 17 EV and HEV Transmissions 228

chapter 18 EV and HEV Driver Assist Systems 250

chapter 19 Fuel Cells and Advanced Technologies 268

chapter 20 First Responder Procedures 282

appendix Sample Hybrid/Electric Vehicle Specialist (L3) ASE-Type

Certification Test 291

Glossary 295

Index 303

B RIE F C ON T EN T S xi
 CONTENTS
chapter 1 chapter 3
HYBRID AND ELECTRIC VEHICLE HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL
SAFETY 1 CONCERNS 27
■■ Learning Objectives 1 ■■ Learning Objectives 27
■■ key Terms 1 ■■ key Terms 27
■■ High-Voltage Safety 2 ■■ Need for Electric Vehicles (EV) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles
■■ Electric Shock Potential 3 (HEV) 28
■■ Electric Vehicles in the Service Area 3 ■■ Ozone 30
■■ Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 4 ■■ Ultraviolet Radiation absorption 31
■■ High-Voltage Tools and Equipment 7 ■■ Health Effects of Air Pollution 32
■■ Safety Interlock System 8 ■■ Acid Rain 32
■■ Depowering the High-Voltage System 9 ■■ Carbon Footprint 33
■■ Hoisting a Hybrid or Electric Vehicle 9 S ummary 35
■■ Moving a Hybrid or Electric Vehicle Around the Shop 10 r eview Q ueStionS 35
S ummary 10 C hapter Q uiz 35
■■ High-Voltage Glove Photo Sequence 11
r eview Q ueStionS 13
C hapter Q uiz 13 chapter 4
HYBRID ENGINE SYSTEMS 36
Learning Objectives 36
chapter 2 ■■

■■ key Terms 36
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC AND ■■ Hybrid Internal Combustion Engines (ICE) 37
HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES 14 ■■ Engine Fundamentals 37
■■ Atkinson Cycle 38
■■ Learning Objectives 14
■■ Hybrid Engine Design Features 40
■■ key Terms 14
■■ Variable Valve Timing 42
■■ Hybrid Electric Vehicles 15
■■
Diagnosis of Variable Valve Timing Systems 45
■■ Electric Vehicle 15
■■ HEV ICE Cooling System 46
■■ History 15
■■ Cooling System Testing 47
■■ Efficiencies of Electric Motors and ICEs 16
■■ Coolant Heat Storage System 49
■■ Driving a Hybrid or Electric Vehicle 16
■■ Hybrid Engine Run Mode 50
■■ Levels of Hybrid Vehicles 20
■■ Hybrid Engine Testing 52
■■ Classifications of Hybrid Vehicle Powertrain 20
■■ One-, Two-, and Three-Motor Hybrid System 22 S ummary 54
■■ Advantages and Disadvantages of an r eview Q ueStionS 54
Electric Vehicle 23 C hapter Q uiz 55

S ummary 25
r eview Q ueStionS 25
C hapter Q uiz 26

xii CONTENTS
chapter 5 S ummary 87
r eview Q ueStionS 87
HYBRID AND ELECTRIC C hapter Q uiz 87
VEHICLE PREVENTATIVE
MAINTENANCE 56 chapter 8
Learning Objectives 56
ADVANCED AC AND DC
■■

■■ key Terms 56
■■ Routine Service Procedures 57 ELECTRICITY 89
S ummary 63
■■ Learning Objectives 89

r eview Q ueStionS 63
■■ key Terms 89

C hapter Q uiz 64
■■ DC Electricity 90
■■ AC Electricity 91
■■ Power Output (Watts) 92

chapter 6 ■■ Capacitors 92
■■ Magnetic Force 94
DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE ■■ Motor Control 94
TESTING 65 ■■ EV and HEV Electrical Measurements 96
■■ EV and HEV Module Communications 97
■■
Learning Objectives 65
■■ Module Reprogramming 98
■■ key Terms 65
■■ Types of Oscilloscopes 66 S ummary 100
■■ Scope Setup and Adjustment 67 r eview Q ueStionS 101
■■ DC and AC Coupling 68 C hapter Q uiz 101
■■ Pulse Trains 68
■■ Number of Channels 70
■■ Triggers 70 chapter 9
■■ Using a Scope 71
LOW-VOLTAGE BATTERIES
Using DSO Accessories 71
AND STOP-START MICRO
■■

■■ Waveform Analysis 72
■■ Scope Setup Photo Sequence 74 HYBRIDS 102
S ummary 76
■■ Learning Objectives 102
r eview Q ueStionS 76
■■ key Terms 102
C hapter Q uiz 76
■■ Introduction to the 12-Volt Battery 103
■■ How a Battery Works 103
■■ Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries 104
chapter 7 ■■ 12-Volt Battery Ratings 105
Battery Service Safety Precautions 105
ENERGY AND POWER 78
■■

■■ 12-Volt Battery Voltage Test 106

■■ Learning Objectives 78 ■■ 12-Volt Battery Load Testing 107
■■ key Terms 78 ■■ 12-Volt Battery Conductance Testing 108
■■ Energy 79 ■■ 12-Volt Battery Charging 108
■■ Torque, Work, and Power 80 ■■ The 36-48-Volt Battery 109
■■ Electrical Power 81 ■■ Stop-Start Defined 110
■■ Solar Electric Generation 82 ■■ Stop-Start Systems 110
■■ Wind Energy Generation 83 ■■ Micro Hybrids 112
■■ Hydroelectric Generation 85 ■■ Diagnosis 114
■■ Geothermal Energy 85 ■■ Mild Hybrids 115

CON T EN T S xiii
S ummary 117 S ummary 162
r eview Q ueStionS 118 r eview Q ueStionS 162
C hapter Q uiz 118 C hapter Q uiz 162

chapter 12
chapter 10
HIGH-VOLTAGE EV AND PHEV CHARGING 163
Learning Objectives 163
BATTERIES 119
■■

■■ key Terms 163

■■ Learning Objectives 119 ■■ Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles 164
■■ key Terms 119 ■■ Electric Vehicles 166
■■ Hybrid and Electric Vehicle High-Voltage Batteries 120 ■■ Level 1 Charging 167
■■ Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries 120 ■■ Level 2 Charging 168
■■ Lithium-Ion High-Voltage Batteries 123 ■■ Level 3 Charging 169
■■ Designs of Lithium-Ion Cells 124 ■■ Owning and Charging an EV 172
■■ Types of Lithium-Ion Batteries 125 ■■ Photo Sequence 175
■■ HEV/EV Electronics Cooling 126
S ummary 176
■■ High-Voltage Battery Cooling and Heating 128
r eview Q ueStionS 176
■■ Battery Capacity vs Vehicle Range 129
C hapter Q uiz 176
■■ High-Voltage Battery Control Components 130
■■ Battery Management System (BMS) 131
■■ Electrical Distribution System (EDS) 131 chapter 13
HEV High-Voltage Battery Monitor 133
ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING
■■

■■ Lithium-Ion Battery Repair 134

■■ Alternative Out-of-Vehicle HV Battery Service 134 EQUIPMENT 178
■■ Battery Degradation and Balancing 136 ■■ Learning Objectives 178
■■ Photo Sequence HEV-HV Battery Inspection and Testing 137 ■■ key Terms 178
S ummary 139
■■ Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment 179
r eview Q ueStionS 139
■■ Wireless Charging 184
C hapter Q uiz 139
■■ Installing a Home Charging Station Photo Sequence 186

S ummary 187
r eview Q ueStionS 187
chapter 11 C hapter Q uiz 187

EV AND HEV MOTORS, CONVERTERS,

AND INVERTERS 141 chapter 14
■■ Learning Objectives 141 REGENERATIVE BRAKES 188
■■ key Terms 141 ■■ Learning Objective 188
■■ Electromagnetism 142 ■■ key Terms 188
■■ Electromagnetic Induction 143 ■■ Regenerative Braking in Vehicles 189
■■ Electric Motors 144 ■■ Types of Regenerative Brake Systems 191
■■ Brushless Motors 146 ■■ One-Pedal Driving 194
■■ Electric Motor Control 148 ■■ Deceleration Rates 195
■■ Capacitors in Converters 151 ■■ Servicing Regenerative Brakes 195
■■ Converters and Inverters 153
■■ Electronic System Cooling System 156 S ummary 197
■■ Motor–Converter–Inverter Diagnostics 157 r eview Q ueStionS 197
■■ Photo Sequence—Inverter/Converter Replacement 159 C hapter Q uiz 198

xiv CONTENTS
chapter 15 S ummary 248
r eview Q ueStionS 248
ELECTRIC POWER STEERING 199 C hapter Q uiz 248
■■ Learning Objectives 199
■■ key Terms 199
■■ Electric Power Steering 200 chapter 18
■■ Parts and Operation 201
Electric Power Steering Diagnosis 204
EV AND HEV DRIVER ASSIST
SYSTEMS 250
■■

S ummary 205
■■ Learning Objectives 250
r eview Q ueStionS 206
■■ key Terms 250
C hapter Q uiz 206
■■ Advanced Driver Assist Systems 251
■■ Human–Machine Interface (HMI) 251
chapter 16 ■■ Blind Spot Monitor 252
Parking-Assist Systems 253
EV AND HEV HVAC
■■

■■ Lane Departure Warning 254

SYSTEM 207 ■■ Lane keep Assist 255
■■ Learning Objectives 207
■■ Adaptive Cruise Control 255
■■ key Terms 207
■■ Rear Cross-Traffic Warning (RCTW) 257
■■ HEV ICE Cooling System 208
■■ Automatic Emergency Braking 258
■■ HEV Cabin Heating Systems 209
■■ Pre-Collision System 258
■■ Coolant Heat Storage System 212
■■ Cameras 259
■■ PTC Heaters 213
■■ Lidar Systems 260
■■ HEV Cabin Cooling 213
■■ Driver Assist Diagnosis 261
■■ HEV A/C Components 215
■■ Camera and Radar Sensor Calibration 261
■■ EV Heating 220
■■ Autonomous Vehicle Operation 263
■■ Heat Pump 222
■■ Levels of Automation 263
■■ Artificial Intelligence (AI) 265
S ummary 226 ■■ Dedicated Short-Range Communication (DSRC) 265
r eview Q ueStionS 226
C hapter Q uiz 226 S ummary 266
r eview Q ueStionS 266
C hapter Q uiz 267
chapter 17
EV AND HEV chapter 19
TRANSMISSIONS 228 FUEL CELLS AND ADVANCED
Learning Objectives 228
TECHNOLOGIES 268
■■

■■ key Terms 228

■■ Transmissions and Transaxles 229 ■■ Learning Objectives 268
■■ Principles Involved 230 ■■ key Terms 268
■■ HEV Transmissions 230 ■■ Fuel-Cell Technology 269
■■ GM Parallel Hybrid Truck (PHT) 231 ■■ Refueling with Hydrogen 272
■■ GM Two-Mode Hybrid Transmission 232 ■■ Direct Methanol Fuel Cells 272
■■ Ford/Lincoln 10R80 MHT 234 ■■ Fuel-Cell Vehicle Systems 273
■■ Toyota/Lexus Power-Split System 236 ■■ Fuel-Cell Hybrid Vehicles 275
■■ Toyota Hybrid eCVT Transmission 243 ■■ Hydrogen Storage 275
■■ Hybrid Electric Rear Axle 244 ■■ Ultracapacitors 277
■■ Hybrid Transmission Diagnosis 244 ■■ Fuel-Cell Vehicle Transaxles 277
■■ Electric Vehicle Transmissions 245 ■■ HCCI 279

CON T EN T S xv
S ummary 280 ■■ Emergency Response 287
r eview Q ueStionS 280 ■■ Fire 288
C hapter Q uiz 281 ■■ Hazmat Issues 288
■■ Submerged Vehicles 289

S ummary 289
chapter 20
r eview Q ueStionS 290
FIRST RESPONDER C hapter Q uiz 290
PROCEDURES 282 appendix
■■ Learning Objectives 282 SAMPLE HYBRID/ELECTRIC VEHICLE SPECIALIST (L3)
■■ key Terms 282 ASE-TYPE CERTIFICATION TEST 291
■■ EV and HEV First Responder Procedures 283
■■ EV and HEV Items to Check 284 GLOSSARY 295
■■ First Responder Safety 285
■■ Electric Shock Potential 287 INDEX 303

xvi CONTENTS
Chapter 1
HYBRID AND ELECTRIC
VEHICLE SAFETY
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter, the reader should Acoustic vehicle alerting High voltage (HV) 2
be able to: system (AVAS) 10 International
• Explain the need for caution around the high- American National Electrotechnical
Standards Institute Commission (IEC) 7
voltage system.
(ANSI) 4 Occupational Safety and
• Describe the differences between a CAT I, CAT American Society for Health Administration
II, CAT III, and CAT IV multimeter. Testing and Materials (OSHA) 4
• Explain the difference between yellow/blue and (ASTM) 4 System main relays
orange high-voltage cables. Category three (CAT III) 7 (SMRs) 3

• List the types of personal protective equipment. Digital multimeter

(DMM) 7
• Describe the process for testing rubber gloves
before use.
• Explain the purpose of the safety interlock
system.
• Describe the process for depowering the high-
voltage system.

1
 ■■ Technicians who rely on cardiac pacemakers should
HIGH-VOLTAGE SAFETY not service or repair electric or hybrid electric vehicles
because of strong magnetic fields.
NEED FOR CAUTION Electrical systems have been used on ■■ Technicians who rely on implanted cardiac pacemakers
vehicles for more than a century. Technicians have been repairing or implanted cardioverter defibrillators should check with
vehicle electrical systems without fear of serious injury or electro- the manufacturer of the device before being in or around
cution. However, when working with electric or hybrid electric vehi- a charging vehicle.
cles, this is no longer true. It is now possible to be seriously injured
or electrocuted (killed) if proper safety procedures are not followed.
Electric and hybrid electric vehicles use high-voltage (HV)
IDENTIFYING HIGH-VOLTAGE CIRCUITS HV components
are identified with warning labels. HV cables are identified by
circuits that if touched with an unprotected hand could cause
color of the plastic conduit and are indicated by the following
serious burns or even death.
colors:

PRECAUTIONS FOR ELECTRONIC MEDICAL ■■ Blue or yellow—Up to 60 volts (not a shock hazard, but
DEVICES an arc will be maintained if a circuit is opened). ●■ SEE
FIGURE 1-1a and 1-1b.
■■ Electronic medical devices include cardiac pacemakers
and cardioverter defibrillators.

? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

How Much Current Is Too Much?

Low voltage, such as the 12–14 volts used in conventional
vehicles, does not represent a shock hazard and it is safe
to handle. The only concern would be a possible burn
could occur if a 12-volt wire were to touch ground causing
the wiring to overheat. Voltages between 14 and 60 volts
do not present a shock hazard, but an arc can occur if a
connector carrying current is opened. High voltage, over
60 volts, does create a shock hazard and all precautions
must be adhered to prevent personal injury. Typical
current and how it affects the body are given as follows: FIGURE 1-1a When the belt starter alternator assembly is
installed, the three blue cables run between the inverter assembly
• 1 milliamp—May be noticeable as a slight tingle. and the alternator.
• 2–5 milliamps—May be noticeable as a light shock
forcing the technician to let go.
• 6–25 milliamps—Noticed by pain and the technician
cannot let go of the wires or component.
• 26–150 milliamps—Severe pain and possibly fatal.
• 1,000 milliamps—One ampere across the heart
can stop the heart (fatal).
Also, always wear HV gloves for protection
whenever working on or near a potential HV circuit or
component. To help prevent an electric current from
flowing through the body, always place one hand in
a pocket and use only one hand when measuring a
potential HV circuit or disconnecting a potential HV
circuit.
FIGURE 1-1b The yellow cable is part of the electric power
steering system on a Toyota/Lexus vehicle.

2 C HA p TER 1
 ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN THE
SERVICE AREA
For a safe working environment:

■■ Be sure the work area is clean and dry.

■■ Care should be taken that HV warnings and safety cones
are posted.
■■ Additional precautions, such as a roof cone or warning
tape, are also recommended.

They are used to establish a safety zone around the vehi-

cles so that other technicians will know that a possible shock
hazard may be present. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-3.

FIGURE 1-2 The orange cables connect to the high

power distribution module (HpDM) on the Chevrolet Bolt.

■■ Orange—Above 60 volts. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-2.

FIGURE 1-3 A clearly defined safety zone needs to be established
Follow all precautions when working on or near HV wiring
in the area where a hybrid or electric vehicle is being repaired.
or components.

TECH TIP
ELECTRIC SHOCK POTENTIAL
Silence Is NOT Golden

LOCATIONS WHERE SHOCK CAN OCCUR Accidental Never assume the vehicle is shut off just because the
and unprotected contact with any electrically charged (“hot” engine is off. When working with a hybrid electric
or “live”) HV component can cause serious injury or death. vehicle, always look for the READY indicator status
However, receiving an electric shock from a hybrid vehicle is on the dash display. The vehicle is shut off when the
highly unlikely because of the following: READY indicator is off.
The vehicle may be powered by:
1. Contact with the battery module or other components
inside the battery box can occur only if the box is dam- 1. The electric motor only.
aged and the contents are exposed, or the box is opened 2. The gasoline engine only.
without following proper precautions. 3. A combination of both the electric motor and
2. Contact with the electric motor can occur only after one or the gasoline engine.
more components are removed. The vehicle computer determines the mode in which the
3. The HV cables can be easily identified by their distinctive vehicle operates to improve fuel economy and reduce
orange color, and contact with them can be avoided. emissions. The driver cannot manually select the mode.
4. The system main relays (SMRs) or contactors disconnect ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-4.
power from the cables the moment the ignition is turned off.

H YBRI D AN D E L E C T RI C V E H IC L E S A F ET Y 3
FIGURE 1-4 The Ford Escape Hybrid instrument panel
showing the vehicle in park and the tachometer on “EV”
instead of 0 RpM. This means the gasoline engine could start
at any time depending on the state of charge of the HV battery
and other factors.

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE FIGURE 1-5 Safety glasses or a full-face shield similar to the items
EQUIPMENT (PPE) depicted must be worn when testing for the presence of high voltage.

the gloves carefully before each use. High voltage and current
EYE PROTECTION Eye protection should be worn when test-
(amperes) in combination are fatal.
ing for high voltage, which is considered by many experts to be
Before using the rubber gloves, they should be tested for
over 60 volts. Eye protection should include the following features:
leaks using the following procedure:
1. plastic frames (Avoid metal frames as these are conduc-
1. Roll the glove up from the open end until the lower portion
tive and could cause a shock hazard.)
of the glove begins to balloon from the resulting air pressure.
2. Side shields Make sure to “lean” into the sealed glove to raise the internal
3. Meet the standard ANSI Z87.1

NOTE: Some vehicle manufacturers specify that

full-face shields be worn instead of safety glasses
when working with HV circuits or components.
●■ SEE FIGURE 1-5.

HIGH-VOLTAGE GLOVES Before working on the HV system

of a hybrid electric vehicle, ensure that HV lineman’s gloves
are available. Be sure that the gloves are rated at least 1,000
volts and class “0” by ANSI/ASTM. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-6. The
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is a private,
nonprofit organization that administers and coordinates the U.S.
voluntary standardization and conformity assessment system.
ANSI International, originally known as the American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM), was formed over a cen-
tury ago to address the need for component testing in industry.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
requirements specify that the HV gloves get inspected every
six months by a qualified glove inspection laboratory. Do not
use gloves on which the expiration date has expired. Inspect FIGURE 1-6 The gloves should be clearly marked indicating
that they are class “0” and rated for 1,000 volts.

4 C HA p TER 1
 WARNING

Do not use shop air to test HV gloves. The high air

pressure will damage the gloves and lead to a lack
of personal protection against high voltage.

FIGURE 1-7 The glove is rolled up on the open end to check

for air pressure and any air leakage.

air pressure. If the glove leaks any air, discard the gloves.
●■ SEE FIGURE 1-7.
2. An approved electric glove inflator can also be used to
test the gloves before use. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-8.
3. The gloves should not be used if they show any signs of
wear and tear.

LEATHER PROTECTORS Use an outer leather glove to

FIGURE 1-9 Clean leather gloves must be used to protect
protect the HV rubber gloves. Be sure the rubber lineman’s glove
the HV rubber gloves.
extends at least 50 mm beyond the leather protector. The leather

gloves should be clean and free of any material that might puncture
the lineman’s glove or conduct electricity. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-9.

SHOP UNIFORM Some manufacturers recommend arc flash

clothing or long sleeve, 100% cotton clothing that is tucked into the
gloves when working on HV components. Remove all jewelry, rings,
watches, and bracelets before working on the vehicle.

INSULATED SHOES OR BOOTS Some manufactures rec-

ommend the use of insulated boots or shoes to protect against
exposure to high voltage. These are particularly useful in areas
where water, oil, and other substances cannot be wiped off the
floor. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-10.

INSULATED RUBBER MATS AND BLANKETS

FIGURE 1-8 An electric glove inflator similar to this may be Insulated rubber mats are placed on the floor when there is an
used for testing. exposure to high voltage. Insulated blankets are placed over

H YBRI D AN D E L E C T RI C V E H IC L E S A F ET Y 5
FIGURE 1- 10 The sole of this shoe is designed to prevent
the transfer of electrical current.

FIGURE 1- 12 Make sure a proper fire extinguisher is

available in the work area.
FIGURE 1- 11 Some work locations require the use of
insulated rubber mats in the work area. ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

Is the Radiation from a Hybrid Dangerous?

the battery or other HV components after removal and during No. While there is a changing magnetic field surrounding any
disassembly. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-11. wire carrying an electrical current, the amount of
electromagnetic radiation is very low. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-13.
FIRE EXTINGUISHERS Use ONLY a Class C fire extinguisher
rated for electrical fires. An ABC rated fire extinguisher may be
used if a Class C is not available. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-12.

OTHER PERSONAL PROTECTION EQUIPMENT Some

manufactures recommend that a 10-foot insulated fiberglass
pole be available outside the safety zone to be used to pull
a technician away from the vehicle in the unlikely event of an
accident where the technician is shocked or electrocuted.
Other manufacturers require a second set of safety equipment
be available.

FIGURE 1-13 The radiation emitted from a hybrid electric

vehicle is very low and is being measured in units of milligauss.

6 CHApTER 1
 HIGH-VOLTAGE TOOLS
AND EQUIPMENT
CAT III RATED DIGITAL MULTIMETER Hybrid
and electric vehicles are equipped with electrical sys-
tems whose voltages can exceed 600 volts DC. A cate-
gory three (CAT III) certified digital multimeter (DMM)
is required for making measurements on these high-
voltage systems.
The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
has several categories of voltage standards for meter and
meter leads. These categories are ratings for over voltage
protection and are rated CAT I, CAT II, CAT III, and CAT IV. FIGURE 1- 14 Use only a meter that is CAT III rated when
The higher the category (CAT) rating of the meter, the greater making electrical measurements on an electric or hybrid
electric vehicle.
the level of protection to the technician when measuring
high-energy voltage. Under each category, there are various
voltage ratings.

■■ CAT I—Typically a CAT I meter is used for low-voltage

(LV) measurements, such as voltage measurements
at wall outlets in the home. Meters with a CAT I
rating are usually rated at 300–800 volts. CAT I is for
relatively low-energy levels. While the voltage level is
high enough for use when working on a hybrid electric
vehicle, the protective energy level is lower than what FIGURE 1-15 The meter leads should also be CAT III rated
when checking voltages on an electric or hybrid electric vehicle.
is needed.

■■ CAT II—A CAT II meter is a higher-rated meter that would the current. If a clamp-on meter also has meter leads
be typically used for checking voltages at the circuit- for voltage measurements, that part of the meter will be
breaker panel in the home. Meters with a CAT II rating rated as CAT III.
are usually rated at 300–600 volts. CAT II-rated meters
have similar voltage ratings as the other CAT ratings,
MEGOHMMETER (INSULATION TESTER) A
but the energy level of protection is higher with a CAT II
megohmmeteror insulation tester is used to check for continu-
compared to a CAT I.
ity between the HV cables and the vehicle chassis. It contains
■■ CAT III— CAT III is the minimum-rated meter that an internal DC-DC converter that allows for the continuity test to
should be used for hybrid and electric vehicles. occur at a much higher voltage than a conventional ohmmeter.
Meters with a CAT III rating are usually rated at ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-16.
600–1,000 volts and the highest energy level which
is needed to protect the servie technician. ●■ SEE INSULATED HAND TOOLS Although they are not required
FIGURES 1- 14 and 1- 15 . by all manufacturers, insulated tools such as a ratchets,
extensions, sockets, pliers, and screwdrivers provide
■■ CAT IV—CAT IV meters are for clamp-on meters only. A an additional margin of safety to the service technician
clamp-on meter is used to measure current (amperes) in when working around HV components and systems.
a circuit by placing the clamp around the wire carrying ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-17.

H YBRI D AN D E L E C T RI C V E H IC L E S A F ET Y 7
FIGURE 1-16 The Fluke 1587 is an example of an
insulation tester that is able to test the HV circuit insulation
to 1,000 volts. The resistance between the HV circuit and
ground should be higher than one million ohms
(1.0–22.2 MΩ).

FIGURE 1-18 The manual disconnect on this Ford battery

contains a fuse and safety interlock.

■■ On a hybrid vehicle, if the engine is running, it will

detect a fault and set a diagnostic trouble code (DTC).
It also opens the power relays, turning off the “ready”
light.
■■ If the hybrid vehicle is moving, it will allow it to continue
until a stop, and will disable the internal combustion
engine (ICE).
FIGURE 1-17 Insulated tools, such as this socket set, ■■ If the hybrid vehicle is not moving, it will disable the ICE
provide an additional margin of safety to the service technician
immediately.
when working around HV components and systems.
■■ The HV system will be depowered on an electric vehicle.

SAFETY INTERLOCK SYSTEM LOCAL INTERLOCK A local interlock is a LV circuit

that uses separate switches and contacts to detect when
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION The HV system uses contac- there has been an open in LV circuits or components that
tors or heavy-duty relays to detect opens in the HV circuits. are associated with the HV system. The local interlock
This is a safety system that keeps the power circuits from can detect the removal of items such as covers, battery
closing with an open HV circuit. The manual safety disconnect disconnects, air-conditioning compressors, or any other
switch protects the HV battery pack and it includes a safety component that is associated with a HV circuit. ●■ SEE
interlock switch that uses two small terminals. With an open FIGURE 1-19. If an open has been detected, the controller
detected, the HV controller does the following to keep the vehi- (ECM) signals the hybrid controller to open the contactors
cle safe. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-18. or power relays and discharge the HV capacitors.

8 C HA p TER 1
 FIGURE 1-20 A lock box is a safe location to keep the
ignition keys of a hybrid or electric vehicle while it is being
worked on.

the vehicle from being powered on. With the key fob out of
the vehicle, attempt to start the vehicle to confirm no other
key fobs are present in the vehicle.

STEP 2 Remove the 12-volt power source to the HV controller

and wait 10 minutes for all capacitors to discharge.
FIGURE 1-19 The small white connector is the local interlock This step could involve:
on the HV connection to the battery. ■■ Removing a fuse or a relay
■■ Disconnecting the negative battery cable from
the auxiliary 12-volt battery
STEP 3 Remove the HV fuse or service plug or switch.

DEPOWERING THE HIGH- STEP 4 Confirm there is no HV power present before begin-
ning the repair.
VOLTAGE SYSTEM
THE NEED TO DEPOWER THE HIGH-VOLTAGE SYSTEM
HOISTING A HYBRID OR
During routine vehicle service work, there is no need to go through ELECTRIC VEHICLE
any procedures needed to depower or shut off the HV circuits.
However, if work is going to be performed on any of the following When hoisting or using a floor jack, refer to the manufacturer’s
components, service information procedures must be followed to service information for proper lift points. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-21.
prevent possible electrical shock and personal injury. Orange cables run under the vehicle just inside the frame rails
on most hybrid and electric vehicles. The battery for many
■■ The HV battery pack
electric vehicles is underneath the vehicle and can be easily
■■ Any of the electronic controllers that use orange cables,
damaged by a hoist. In addition to the electrical circuits, many
such as the inverter and converters
electric vehicles use coolant or refrigerant to maintain the
■■ The air-conditioning compressor, if electrically driven, and temperature of the battery. Caution should be used to avoid
has orange cables attached damaging these lines. Some Honda hybrid vehicles use an
To safely depower the vehicle, always follow the instruc- aluminum pipe painted orange that includes three HV cables
tions found in service information for the exact vehicle being for the starter/generator and also three more cables for the HV
serviced. The steps usually include the following: air-conditioning compressor. If any damage occurs to any HV
cables, the malfunction indicator; Lamp (MIL) will light up and
STEP 1 Turn the ignition off and remove the key (if equipped)
a no-start will result if the powertrain control module (pCM)
from the ignition and store it in a lock box to prevent
senses a fault. The cables are not repairable and are expen-
accidental starting. ●■ SEE FIGURE 1-20.
sive. The cables can be identified by an orange outer casing,
CAUTION: If a push-button start is used, remove the key but in some cases, the orange casing is not exposed until a
fob at least 15 feet (5 meters) from the vehicle to prevent black plastic underbelly shield is removed first.

H YBRI D AN D E L E C T RI C V E H IC L E S A F ET Y 9
 ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

What Is That Sound?

Electric vehicles and most hybrid electric vehicles
emit a sound through a speaker in the front at low
speeds to warn pedestrians that a moving vehicle
is nearby. This system is called acoustic vehicle
alerting system (AVAS). It creates the sound
whenever the vehicle is traveling at low speed. The
U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
(NHTSA) requires the device to emit warning sounds
when travelling at speeds less than 19 MpH (30 km/h)
with compliance by September, 2020. While
FIGURE 1-21 The HV wiring on this Honda hybrid is colored easily heard from outside the vehicle, it is usually
orange for easy identification. not heard inside the vehicle unless the windows are
down. Some customers ask their service technician
to disable this system, but it is a safety device and
MOVING A HYBRID OR could help prevent personal injury if someone were
ELECTRIC VEHICLE AROUND to step in front or back of a moving vehicle that is
almost silent.
THE SHOP
After a hybrid or electric vehicle has been serviced, it may be nec- possible that a HV arc could occur as the wheels turn and pro-
essary to push the vehicle to another part of the shop or outside duce voltage. Another way to prevent this is to use wheel dollies.
as parts are ordered. Make sure to tape any orange HV cable ends A sign that says “HIGH VOLTAGE—DO NOT TOUCH” could also
that were disconnected during the repair procedure. permanent be added to the roof of the vehicle or across the steering wheel.
magnets are used in all the drive motors and generators and it is Remove the keys from the vehicle and keep in a safe location.

SUMMARY
1. All high-voltage circuits are covered in orange plastic (DMM) is required for making measurements on these
conduit. high-voltage systems.
2. For a safe working environment: 6. Local interlock is a low-voltage circuit that uses sepa-
• Be sure the work area is clean and dry. rate switches and contacts to detect when there has
• Care should be taken that high-voltage warnings and been an open in low-voltage circuits or components
safety cones are posted. that are associated with the high-voltage system. The
• Additional precautions, such as a roof cone or warning local interlock can detect the removal of items such as
tape, are also recommended. covers, battery disconnects, air-conditioning compres-
3. Eye protection should include the following features: sors, or any other component that is associated with a
• plastic frames (Avoid metal frames as these are high-voltage circuit.
conductive and could cause a shock hazard.) 7. If work is going to be performed on any of the following com-
• Side shields ponents, service information procedures must be followed to
• Meet the standard ANSI Z87.1 prevent possible electrical shock and personal injury.
4. Before working on the high-voltage system of a hybrid 8. When hoisting or using a floor jack, refer to the manufac-
electric vehicle, ensure that high-voltage lineman’s gloves turer’s service information for proper lift points.
are available. Be sure that the gloves are rated at least 9. Electric vehicles and most hybrid electric vehicles emit
1,000 volts and class “0” by ANSI/ASTM. a sound through a speaker in the front at low speeds
5. Hybrid and electric vehicles are equipped with electri- to warn pedestrians that a moving vehicle is nearby.
cal systems whose voltages can exceed 600 volts DC. This system is called acoustic vehicle alerting system
A category three (CAT III) certified digital multimeter (AVAS).

10 C HA p TER 1
 HIGH-VOLTAGE GLOVE PHOTO SEQUENCE

1 The cuff of the rubber glove should extend at least

½ inch beyond the cuff of the leather protector.
2 To determine the correct glove size, use a soft tape
measure around the palm of the hand. A measurement
of 9 inches would correspond with a glove size of 9.

3 The glove rating and the date of the last test should be
stamped on the glove cuff.
4 Start a visual inspection of the glove fingertips,
making sure that no cuts or other damages are present.

5 The damage on this glove was easily detected with a

simple visual inspection. Note that the rubber glove
material can be damaged by petroleum products,
6 Manually inflate the glove to inspect for pinhole
leaks. Starting at the cuff, roll up the glove and trap
air in the finger end. Listen and carefully watch for
deflation of the glove. If a leak is detected, the glove
detergents, certain hand soaps, and talcum powder. must be discarded.
CONTINUED ➤

H YBRI D AN D E L E C T RI C V E H ICL E S A F ET Y 11
STEP BY STEP

7
Petroleum on the leather protector’s surface will damage
the rubber glove underneath.
8 Glove powder (glove dust) should be used to absorb
moisture and reduce friction.

10
Technicians MUST wear HV gloves whenever

9 Put on the gloves and tighten the straps on the back

of the leather protectors (if equipped).
working around the HV areas of a hybrid or
electric vehicle.

11 12
HV gloves should be placed in a canvas storage bag Make sure the rubber gloves are not folded when
when not in use. Note the ventilation hole at the placed in the canvas bag. Folding increases
bottom of this bag. mechanical stress on the rubber and can lead to
premature failure of the glove material.

12 CHApTER 1
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What actions are needed to disable the high-voltage (HV) 4. What precautions should be taken when hoisting a hybrid
circuit? or electric vehicle?
2. What are the personal safety precautions that service 5. When should the HV system be depowered?
technicians should adhere to when servicing hybrid or
electric vehicles?
3. What are the recommended tools and equipment that
should be used when working on the HV circuits of a
hybrid or electric vehicle?

CHAPTER QUIZ
1. Rubber gloves should be worn whenever working on or 6. When does the HV system NOT need to be depowered?
near the HV circuits or components of a hybrid electric a. Removing the HV battery pack
vehicle. Technician A says that the rubber gloves should b. performing routine service
be rated at 1,000 volts or higher. Technician B says that c. Replacing the HV cables
leather gloves should be worn over the HV rubber gloves. d. Replacing the HV air-conditioning compressor
Which technician is correct? 7. What will occur if the safety interlock system detects an
a. Technician A only open circuit on a hybrid vehicle?
b. Technician B only a. If the engine is running, it will detect a fault and set a
c. Both Technician A and Technician B DTC. It also opens the power relays, turning off the
d. Neither Technician A nor Technician B “ready” light.
2. A CAT III certified DMM should be used whenever measur- b. If the vehicle is moving, it will allow it to continue until
ing HV circuits or components. The CAT III rating relates to a stop, and will disable the ICE.
________. c. If the vehicle is not moving, it will disable the ICE
a. high voltage immediately.
b. high energy d. All of the answers are correct.
c. high electrical resistance 8. What precautions need to be taken to ensure the hybrid or
d. both high energy and high voltage electric vehicle work area is safe?
3. All of the following will shut off the high voltage to compo- a. The area should be clean and dry.
nents and circuits, except ________. b. The work area should be clearly marked.
a. opening the driver’s door c. No special precautions are needed.
b. turning off the ignition d. The area should be clean and dry and clearly marked.
c. disconnecting the auxiliary 12-volt battery 9. What is the purpose of a megohmmeter or insulation
d. removing the main fuse, relay, or HV plug tester?
4. What can occur if a hybrid electric vehicle is pushed in a. Check for continuity between the HV cables and the
the shop? vehicle chassis.
a. The HV battery pack can be damaged. b. Measure the resistance of connections in the LV
b. The tires will be locked unless the ignition is on. system.
c. Damage to the electric control will occur. c. Measure the current flow through the HV cables.
d. High voltage will be generated by the motor/generator d. None of the answers is correct.
as the wheels turn. 10. What should be done if the HV rubber gloves inspection
5. When hoisting a hybrid or electric vehicle, what precau- dates are found to be expired?
tions must the technician follow to ensure personal safety a. Use them anyway if they look ok.
and avoid damage to the vehicle? b. Use them if they pass the air test.
a. Make sure the lift points do not contact HV cables. c. Send the gloves to a qualified inspection laboratory.
b. Do not lift the vehicle by the battery case. d. Throw the gloves away.
c. Ensure the lift points are clear of battery cooling and
refrigeration lines.
d. All of the answers are correct.

H YBRI D AN D E L E C T RI C V E H ICL E S A F ET Y 13
Chapter 2
INTRODUCTION TO
ELECTRIC AND HYBRID
ELECTRIC VEHICLES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter, the reader should Battery electric vehicles Micro hybrid 20
be able to: (BEV) 15 Mild hybrid 20
Electric vehicle (EV) 15 One-pedal driving 18
• Explain the definition of a hybrid and electric
Hybrid electric vehicle Phone as a Key (PAAK) 15
vehicle. (HEV) 15 Plug-in hybrid electric
• Describe the unique characteristics of owning Internal combustion vehicle (PHEV) 15
or driving a hybrid or electric vehicle. engine (ICE) 15 Range anxiety 18
Medium hybrid 20 Strong hybrid 20
• Explain the differences in the levels of hybrid
vehicles.
• Describe the different powertrain configurations
in a hybrid vehicle.
• Explain the differences between one-, two-, and
three-motor systems.

14
 HYBRID ELECTRIC
VEHICLES
DEFINITION OF TERMS A hybrid vehicle is one that uses
two different methods to propel the vehicle. A hybrid electric
vehicle (HEV) uses both an internal combustion engine and an
electric motor to propel the vehicle. Most hybrid vehicles use
a high-voltage battery pack and a combination electric motor
and generator to help or assist a gasoline engine. the internal
combustion engine (ICE) used in a hybrid vehicle can be either FIGURE 2- 1 the official emission sticker lists the vehicle as
gasoline or diesel, although only gasoline-powered engines are electric and producing zero emissions.
currently used in hybrid vehicles. An electric motor is used to
help propel the vehicle, and in some designs, it is capable of
propelling the vehicle alone without having to start the ICE.
A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is an HEV with HISTORY
a larger capacity battery that can be recharged by the ICE or
by plugging it in to an AC power source or charging station. EARLY ELECTRIC VEHICLES Early EVs, also called bat-
A PHEV can drive in electric-only mode for up to 40 miles on tery electric vehicles (BEVs), were first used in the late 1800s,
some vehicles. and it was not until the early 1900s that EVs were practically
possible using rechargeable lead–acid batteries.

?
■■ One of the first was the 1903 Baker Electric Car, produced
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
by the Baker Motor Vehicle Company in Cleveland, Ohio.

What is meant by “Phone as a Key (PAAK)”? ■■ the Detroit Electric Car Company (1907–1939) produced
very practical fully EVs.
Many hybrid electric and electric vehicles, as well as
some regular (ICE) vehicles can be controlled using the old EV mechanical controller was able to switch all six bat-
a smart phone application (app). this control of the teries in various combinations of series and parallel configurations
vehicle, including remote start from the smart phone, to achieve lower voltage for slow speeds and higher voltages for
is referred to as Phone as a Key (PAAK). there are higher speeds. EVs did not have a long range and needed to have
apps for using a smart watch as a key which makes the batteries charged regularly, which meant that EVs could only
it very convenient to start and unlock a vehicle using be used for short distances. In fact, EVs were almost more popu-
just the smart watch. lar than steam–powered vehicles in 1900—while steam-powered
vehicles had 40% of the sales, EVs had 38% of the sales. the
gasoline-powered cars represented only 22% of the vehicles sold.

EARLY HYBRID VEHICLES In 1901, Ferdinand

ELECTRIC VEHICLE Porsche developed the Lohner-Porsche Mixte Hybrid, the first
gasoline-electric hybrid automobile in the world. It was origi-
DEFINITION OF TERMS An electric vehicle (EV), also nally an electric-powered vehicle and then a gasoline engine
referred to as an electric drive vehicle, uses one or more was added to recharge the battery. One of the first hybrid
electric motors to propel the vehicle. Electricity is used as electric cars was produced by the Owen Magnetic Motor
the transportation fuel to power the EV. the electrical energy Car Corporation, manufactured in New York City and then in
is typically stored in an energy storage device, such as a Wilkes-Barre, PA, from 1915 until 1922. It failed because the
battery. the electrical energy is replenished by connecting fuel economy was about the same as a conventional gasoline-
to an electrical source, usually stationary. the Environmental powered vehicle, yet cost more. Another vehicle that used both
Protection Agency (EPA) and the California Air Resources a gasoline engine and an electric motor to power the vehicle
Board (CARB) define an EV as a zero-emission vehicle. was built by Woods Motor Company of Chicago, Illinois, and
●■SEE FIGURE 2-1. was called the “Woods Dual Power” (1915–1918).

I N t RO D U C t I O N t O E L E C t RI C AN D H YBRI D E L E C t RIC VEH IC L ES 15

NOTE: Due to the oil embargo of 1973 and an increased ■■ there is a maximum fuel efficiency point in the speed
demand for alternative energy sources, Congress enacted range for the ICE, and this speed is optimized by many
Public Law 94-413, the Electric and Hybrid Vehicle hybrid vehicle manufacturers by using a transmission that
Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 1976, keeps the engine speed within the most efficient range.
which was designed to promote new technologies. ●■SEE FIGURE 2-2.
the hybrid electric vehicle did not become widely available Electric motors offer ideal characteristics for use in a vehi-
until the release of the toyota Prius in Japan in 1997, followed by cle because of the following factors:
the Honda Insight sold in the United States starting in 1999. In
■■ Constant power over all speed ranges
2001, the first toyota Prius was introduced in the United States.
■■ Constant torque at low speeds needed for acceleration
and hill-climbing capability
EFFICIENCIES OF ELECTRIC ■■ Constant torque below base speed

MOTORS AND ICEs ■■ Constant power above base speed

■■ Only single gear or fixed gear is needed in the electric
Electric motors are more efficient compared to any ICE and motor transmission
have just one moving part compared to hundreds of moving
parts in a typical gasoline-powered or diesel-powered ICE.

An electric motor can have efficiency (including controller)

DRIVING A HYBRID OR
■■

of over 90%, while a gasoline engine has efficiency of

only 35% or less. ELECTRIC VEHICLE
■■ An ICE does not have the overload capability of an elec-
tric motor. that is why the rated power of an ICE is usu- DRIVING A HYBRID VEHICLE Driving a hybrid electric
ally much higher than that required for highway cruising. vehicle (HEV) is the same as driving any other conventional
Operating smoothly at idle speed produces a much lower vehicle. In fact, many drivers and passengers are often not
efficiency than while operating at a higher speed. aware that they are driving or riding in a hybrid electric vehicle.
■■ Maximum torque of an ICE is reached at intermediate Some unique characteristics that the driver may or may not
speed and the torque declines as speed increases further. notice include the following:

TORQUE/POWER COMPARISON
350

300
TORQUE(FT-LBS)/POWER (HP)

250

200

150

100

50

0
8000

10000
1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

9000
0

RPM
EV TORQUE EV HP MAX EV HP MIN ICE HP ICE TORQUE
FIGURE 2-2 the graph shows a comparison of torque and power between an electric vehicle and a vehicle with an ICE.

16 C HAP tER 2
 ■■ After the ICE has achieved normal operating temperature
and other conditions are met, the engine will stop when
the vehicle slows down and stops. this condition may
cause a concern to some drivers who may think that the
engine has stalled and may try to restart it.
■■ the brake pedal may feel different, especially at slow
speeds of about 5 MPH and 15 MPH when slowing to a
stop. It is at about these speeds that the brake system
switches from regenerative braking to actually applying
brake force to the mechanical brakes. A slight surge or
pulsation may be felt at this time. this may or may not be
felt and is often not a concern to drivers.
■■ the power steering works even when the engine stops
because all HEV and PHEV use an electric power steering
system.
■■ Some HEVs and all PHEVs are able to propel the vehicle
using the electric motor alone, resulting in quiet, almost
eerie operation.
■■ If an HEV is being driven aggressively and at a high rate
of acceleration, there is often a feeling that the vehicle is
not going to slow down when the accelerator pedal is first
released. this is caused by two factors:
1. the inertia of the rotor of the electric motor attached
FIGURE 2-3 this Continental tire with acoustical foam on the
to the crankshaft of the ICE results in the engine con- inside is from a tesla Model 3.
tinuing to rotate after the throttle has been closed.
2. the slight delay that occurs when the system switches
the electric motor from powering the vehicle to gen-
erating (regenerative braking). While this delay would
? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

rarely be experienced, it is not at all dangerous. For a How Fast Does the Motor-Generator Turn the
fraction of a second, it gives a feeling that the accel- Engine When Starting?
erator pedal did not react to a closed throttle. the typical starter motor used on a conventional gas-
oline or diesel engine rotates the engine from 100 to
DRIVING AN ELECTRIC VEHICLE Driving an EV is a 300 revolutions per minute (RPM). Because the typi-
very different driving experience than a conventional vehicle. cal engine idles at about 600 to 700 RPM, the starter
Some of the unique characteristics include the following: motor is rotating the engine at a speed slower than it
■■ the startup and shutdown procedures are enough operates. this makes it very noticeable when starting
different than a conventional vehicle that many drivers because the sound is different when cranking com-
need to be retrained on the processes. pared to when the engine actually starts and runs.
However, when the motor-generator of a HEV
■■ the lack of an ICE results in a much quieter ride. In many
rotates the engine to start it, the engine is rotated
cases, the most predominate noise heard is the tires on the
about 1000 RPM, which is about the same speed
various road surfaces. Most electric vehicles come from the
as when it is running. As a result, engine cranking is
factory with tires that have acoustical foam inside of the tire
just barely heard or felt. the engine is either running
to reduce the tire noise by up to 9 db. ●■SEE FIGURE 2-3.
or not running, which is a truly unique sensation to

NOTE: The EV may be silent when in park or neutral. those not familiar with the operation of hybrid electric

When put in drive or reverse, an artificial “running vehicles.

engine” sound is generated at the front of the vehicle

I Nt RO D U C tI O N t O E L E C tRI C AN D H YBRI D E L E C t RIC VEH IC L ES 17

through a speaker behind the front bodywork. Some Plug-in hybrid and electric vehicle owners will save money
vehicles have a second speaker mounted in the rear of at the gasoline pump; however, they will experience a higher
the vehicle. Typically, the sound is present until the vehi- electric bill, depending on the amount of electricity these use. the
cle reaches approximately 20 MPH. ●■■SEE FIGURE 2-4. increase in the cost of the electricity will vary based on the elec-
trical providers’ purchase plan. Some providers offer discounted
■■ the electric motors that propel the vehicle provide
rates when the electricity is consumed during off-peak hours.
exceptional torque and responsiveness.
■■ the regenerative braking systems tend to slow the vehicle ROUTINE MAINTENANCE Most hybrid and electric vehi-
more aggressively than a conventional vehicle. Often cles have a different maintenance schedule than a conventional
the system can be set so that the brake pedal is not vehicle. In the case of an EV, most of these costs are elimi-
used during normal driving except to keep the vehicle nated. A typical EV requires just the following as part of routine
stationary when stopped. this feature is usually called maintenance:
one-pedal driving.
■■ Windshield washer fluid
■■ Seasonal temperature changes, weather, and driving
■■ Windshield wiper blades
style will affect the battery range.
■■ Cabin filter
■■ Careful mapping of charging stations will be required when
traveling a distance beyond the battery range capacity.
■■ tire rotation
■■ Range anxiety is the fear that many potential owners ●■■SEE FIGURE 2-5.
of EV have that the vehicle will have insufficient range In the case of a hybrid vehicle, certain costs may actually
to reach their destination, and therefore could get stuck increase because of materials used because a hybrid vehicle
with a dead vehicle on the road. According to owners of typically uses full-synthetic motor oil which is more expensive
EV, this fear tends to go away after about two weeks of
ownership after seeing that the range, and the charging
can be easily controlled.

FIGURE 2-4 the sound generator on this 2021 VW ID.4 is

located behind the front bumper assembly.

OWNING A HYBRID OR ELECTRIC VEHICLE A hybrid

or electric vehicle will cost and weigh more than a conventional
vehicle. the increased initial purchase price is due to the bat-
teries, electric motor(s), and controllers used plus the additional
components needed to allow operation of the heating and
air-conditioning systems during idle stop periods. the cost is
offset, in part, by improved fuel economy as well as state and FIGURE 2-5 Adding windshield washer fluid to an EV is the
national government energy credits awarded at the time of pur- item that requires most frequent maintenance depending on
chase for some new technology vehicles. driving conditions.

18 C HAP tER 2
than conventional motor oil. Additionally, the owner of a plug-
in vehicle will need to make an investment in a recharging
network for the home. See Chapter 12 for the details about
charging an EV or PHEV.

? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

Can the Nissan Leaf be Taken Through a Car

Wash?
Yes, the Nissan Leaf, and all hybrid and electric
vehicles can be taken through the car wash. All the
high-voltage components, including the battery, that
are outside of the passenger compartment, are sealed
from outside water entry. If there has been no damage (a)

to protective coverings, the components will not be

damaged and there is no chance of electrical shock.

Case Study

The Case of the Vibrating Tesla

An owner of a tesla Model Y visited a tire shop com-
plaining of a vibration in the steering wheel at high-
way speeds. A local tire shop balanced both front
tires. the right front only needed a quarter ounce
whereas the left front required over four ounces to
balance. After leaving the shop, the owner imme-
diately noticed that the vibration was much worse. (b)
the owner returned to the shop and this time the tire
was removed from the rim. It became apparent that FIGURE 2-6 (a) the dismounted tire shows where the foam
had become detached. (b) the foam removed in its entirety.
the vibration issue was caused by the foam inside
the tire. this foam that generally played the role of
reducing noise had separated and was loose inside ? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
the tire. the shop removed the foam and did not try
Why Are EVs and PHEVs Taxed in Some States?
to reinstall it. the wheel was balanced which solved
the vibration concern. the driver did not notice any Recently some states have added fees to the cost
increase in noise. ●■■SEE FIGURE 2-6. of the license plate on hybrid and electric vehicles
Summary: to recover loss fuel taxes. typically, these fees have
• Complaint—A tesla owner complained of a vibra- been in the $100 to $200 range. Depending on the
tion in the steering wheel at highway speeds. number of miles driven per year, these fees may have
• Cause—the acoustical foam inside a tire that is a negative impact on the cost of ownership.
supposed to reduce noise had separated from the
inner liner of the left front tire.
All of these factors must be considered when making an
• Correction—the foam was removed from the tire
informed decision to purchase a hybrid or electric vehicle. It may
and the tire/wheel assembly was balanced which
take many years of operation before the extra cost is offset by
corrected the vibration concern.
cost savings from the improved fuel economy. However, many

I N t RO D U C t I O N tO E L E C t RI C AN D H YBRI D E L E C tRIC VEH IC L ES 19

owners purchase a hybrid or electric vehicle for other reasons MEDIUM HYBRID A medium hybrid uses 144- to 158-volt
besides fuel savings, including a feeling that they are helping batteries that provide for engine stop/start, regenerative braking,
the environment and the love of the high technology involved. and power assist. Like a mild hybrid, a typical medium hybrid is
not capable of propelling the vehicle from a stop using battery
power alone. Examples of a medium-hybrid vehicle include the
Honda Insight, Civic, and Accord. the fuel economy savings are
LEVELS OF HYBRID VEHICLES about 20% to 25% for medium-hybrid systems.

MICRO HYBRID A micro hybrid will incorporate idle stop, but FULL HYBRID A strong hybrid, also called a full hybrid,

is not capable of propelling the vehicle without starting the ICE. A uses idle stop, regenerative braking, and is able to propel the

micro-hybrid system has the advantage of costing less, but saves vehicle using the electric motor(s) alone. Each vehicle manufac-

less fuel compared to a full hybrid vehicle. the micro hybrid usually turer has made its decision on which hybrid type to implement

uses a second 12-volt battery and a heavy-duty starter motor and based on its assessment of the market niche for a particular

flywheel to restart the ICE when accelerating from a stop. model. Examples of a full or strong hybrid include the General
Motors Silverado/Sierra (two-mode hybrid), Ford Escape SUV,

MILD HYBRID A mild hybrid will incorporate idle stop and toyota Highlander, Lexus RX400h, Lexus GS450h, toyota

regenerative braking, but is not capable of using the electric Prius, and toyota Camry. the fuel economy savings are about

motor to propel the vehicle on its own without help from the 30% to 50% for full-hybrid systems.

ICE. A mild-hybrid system has the advantage of costing less,

but saves less fuel compared to a full hybrid vehicle and usually
uses a 42-volt electrical motor and battery package (36-volt CLASSIFICATIONS OF HYBRID
batteries, 42-volt charging). An example of this type of hybrid
is the 2004–2007 General Motors Silverado pickup truck and
VEHICLE POWERTRAIN
the 2007 Saturn VUE. the fuel savings for a mild type of hybrid
SERIES HYBRID POWERTRAIN In a series-hybrid design,
design is about 8% to 15%.
sole propulsion is by a battery-powered electric motor, but the
electric energy for the batteries comes from another onboard
energy source, such as an ICE. In this design, the engine turns
? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION
a generator and the generator can either charge the batteries or
power an electric motor that drives the transmission. the ICE
Is a Diesel-Hybrid Electric Vehicle Possible?
never powers the vehicle directly. ●■SEE FIGURES 2-7 AND 2-8.
Yes, using a diesel engine instead of a gasoline
engine in a HEV is possible. While the increased
HV BATTERY
efficiency of a diesel engine would increase fuel
economy, the extra cost of the diesel engine is the
major reason this combination is not currently in INVERTER
ENGINE
production. (ICE)

? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION MOTOR

What Is an Assist Hybrid?

GENERATOR
DRIVE
An assist hybrid-electric vehicle is a term used to
WHEELS
describe a vehicle where the electric motor is not able
to start moving the vehicle on electric power alone. REDUCTION GEAR
this type of hybrid would include micro hybrids
(12 volt), all mild hybrids (36 to 42 volts), as well as the DRIVE POWER ELECTRIC POWER

medium hybrids that use 144- to 158-volt systems.

FIGURE 2-7 A drawing of the power flow in a typical
series-hybrid vehicle.

20 CHAP tER 2
 HV BATTERY

DRIVE
WHEELS
DC

DC

MOTOR MECHANICAL
ENGINE (ICE) GENERATOR RECTIFIER MOTOR
CONTROLLER TRANSMISSION

ELECTRIC CURRENT TRANSMISSION OF TORQUE

FIGURE 2-8 this diagram shows the components included in a typical series-hybrid design. the solid line arrow indicates the
transmission of the torque to the drive wheels. the dotted line arrows indicate the flow of the electrical current.

the engine is operated only to keep the batteries charged.

HV BATTERY
therefore, the vehicle could be moving with or without the ICE
running. Series-hybrid vehicles also use regeneration braking
to help keep the batteries charged. the Chevrolet Volt is an
INVERTER
example of a series-hybrid design. the engine is designed to ENGINE
(ICE)
just keep the batteries charged, and, therefore, is designed to
operate at its most efficient speed and load.
An advantage of a series-hybrid design is that no trans-
MOTOR/
mission, clutch, or torque converter is needed. GENERATOR
A disadvantage of a series-hybrid design is the added
weight of the ICE to what is basically an EV. the engine is actu- TRANSMISSION
DRIVE
ally a heavy on-board battery charger. Also, the electric motor WHEELS
and battery capacity have to be large enough to power the
vehicle under all operating conditions, including climbing hills. REDUCTION GEAR
All power needed for heating and cooling must also come
from the batteries, so using the air conditioning in hot weather DRIVE POWER ELECTRIC POWER

and the heater in cold weather reduces the range that the vehi- FIGURE 2-9 the power flow in a typical parallel-hybrid vehicle.
cle can travel on battery power alone.

PARALLEL HYBRID POWERTRAIN In a parallel- NOTE: A parallel-hybrid design could include additional
hybrid design, multiple propulsion sources can be combined, batteries to allow for plug-in capability, which could
or one of the energy sources alone can drive the vehicle. In extend the distance the vehicle can travel using battery
this design, the battery and engine are both connected to the power alone.
transmission. One disadvantage of a parallel-hybrid design is that
the vehicle using a parallel-hybrid design can be powered complex software is needed to seamlessly blend electric and
by the ICE alone, by the electric motor alone (full hybrids only), ICE power. Another concern about the parallel-hybrid design
or by a combination of engine and electric motor propulsion. In is that it has to be engineered to provide proper heating and
most cases, the electric motor is used to assist the ICE. ●■SEE air-conditioning system operation when the ICE stops at idle.
FIGURES 2-9 AND 2-10.
One of the advantages of using a parallel-hybrid design is SERIES-PARALLEL HYBRID POWERTRAIN the toyota
that by using an electric motor or motors to assist the ICE, the and Ford hybrids are classified as series-parallel hybrids
engine itself can be smaller than would normally be needed. because they can operate using electric motor power alone or

I N t RO D U C t I O N tO E L E C t RI C AN D H YBRI D E L E C tRIC VEH IC L ES 21

 DRIVE
WHEELS

ENGINE (ICE)

MECHANICAL MECHANICAL FINAL DRIVE AND

COUPLING TRANSMISSION DIFFERENTIAL

MOTOR

MOTOR
CONTROLLER HV BATTERY

TRANSMISSION OF TORQUE ELECTRICAL CURRENT

FIGURE 2-10 Diagram showing the components involved in a typical parallel-hybrid vehicle. the solid line arrows indicate the
transmission of torque to the drive wheels, and the dotted line arrows indicate the flow of electrical current.

with the assist of the ICE. Series-parallel hybrids combine the and other conditions. This can be confusing to some who
functions of both a series and a parallel design. the ICE may be are driving a HEV for the first time and sense that the
operating even though the vehicle is stopped if the electronic engine did not start when they tried to start the engine.
controller has detected that the batteries need to be charged.
●■SEE FIGURE 2-11.

NOTE: The ICE may or may not start when the driver starts
the vehicle, depending on the temperature of the engine
ONE-, TWO-, AND THREE-
MOTOR HYBRID SYSTEM
HV BATTERY ONE-MOTOR HYBRID SYSTEMS HEV that use one
GENERATOR electric motor include VW, Nissan, Honda, and General Motors.
In these units, an electric motor is attached to the ICE (engine)
INVERTER
ENGINE crankshaft which is used to perform two functions:
(ICE)
1. Start the ICE engine
2. Act as a generator to charge the high-voltage batteries

MOTOR Hybrids that use one motor are often called mild hybrids,
and usually are not able to power the vehicle using electric
POWER SPLIT power alone. ●■SEE FIGURE 2-12.
DEVICE
DRIVE
WHEELS TWO-MOTOR HYBRID SYSTEMS HEVs that use two
REDUCTION GEAR motors are the most commonly used hybrids by toyota, Ford,
and General Motors in their full-size two-mode trucks. Each

DRIVE POWER ELECTRIC POWER electric motor serves two purposes:

FIGURE 2-11 A series-parallel hybrid design allows

■■ the motor/generator attached to the engine, usually
the vehicle to operate in electric motor mode only or in labeled M/G1 or M/G A, is used to start the gasoline
combination with the ICE. engine and to charge the high-voltage batteries.

22 CHAP tER 2
 ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF
AN ELECTRIC VEHICLE
ADVANTAGES there are many advantages of an EV
compared to a vehicle powered by an ICE, which include the
following:
■■ Initial torque—Electric vehicles have high torque at the
starting from a stop and can provide a rapid acceleration
experience to the driver. ●■SEE FIGURE 2-14.
■■ Better handling and stability—the high-voltage battery
FIGURE 2-12 the exploded view of this Honda IMA motor in an EV, being the heaviest electric component, is placed
assembly is an example of a one-motor hybrid system. very low, on the body floor resulting in a very low center
of mass. this gives the vehicle more stability, resulting in
better handling for the vehicle.
■■ the motor/generator that is connected to the drive
■■ Maximum traction—Electric motors are independently
wheels, usually labeled M/G2 or M/G B, is used to propel
controlled, thereby providing precise control on each
the vehicle and to recharge the high-voltage battery
wheel for maximum traction in all wheel drive EVs.
during deceleration (regenerative braking).
■■ More efficient than gasoline vehicles—An EV is
two-motor HEVs are full (strong) hybrids and are capable more efficient than a gasoline vehicle in converting
of propelling the vehicle using electric motor power alone for stored energy into energy of motion. the efficiency of
short distances. ●■SEE FIGURE 2-13. an electric motor is around 85% to 90%, whereas that
of an ICE-powered vehicle is 35% to 40%.
THREE-MOTOR HYBRID SYSTEMS three-motor HEVs
■■ Less cost of operation—Cost of operation of an EV is
are usually two-motor hybrids that use an additional electric motor
less when compared to gasoline vehicle because the cost
to propel the rear wheels for all-wheel-drive capability. HEVs that
of electricity is less when compared to fossil fuels, as well
use three electric motors include the toyota Highlander and Lexus
as the high efficiency of the electric motor.
RX400h/450h SUVs.

TYPICAL ELECTRIC MOTOR TORQUE & POWER CURVES

450 160
400 140
350 120
TORQUE (NM)

300

POWER (NM)
100
250
80
200
60
150
100 40

50 20

0 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
RPM
FIGURE 2-13 the cutaway of a second-generation Prius
TORQUE POWER
transmission (P112) shows two electric motors (MG1 and
MG2). the vehicle can drive a short distance using just the FIGURE 2-14 the graph shows how high the initial torque is
electric motors. in an electric motor and how quickly it generates power.

I N tRO D U C t I O N t O E L E C t RI C AN D H YBRI D E L E Ct RIC VEH IC L ES 23

 ■■ Less maintenance—Fewer moving parts are included in needs to be installed or upgraded to provide a 220–240-
EVs so the maintenance required is reduced. there is no volt outlet near the vehicle to allow overnight charging.
need for oil changes and the brakes may last the life of ■■ High initial cost—Because the cost of the high-voltage
the vehicle because of the regenerative braking technol- batteries is high, the cost of an EV is higher than an ICE
ogy. Only some items require periodical maintenance, vehicle of the same type and size.
which include tire rotation, changing the cabin filter, add-
ing windshield washer fluid, and replacing the windshield
TIPS FOR RANGE INCREASE
wiper blades. ■■ Accelerate slowly.
■■ EVs are quiet and ecofriendly—EVs are very quiet and do ■■ Avoid high-speed driving because as the speed
not make any sound while operating. So EVs will be more increases, the aerodynamic drag is increased by the
suitable for big cities where noise pollution is a concern. square of the speed.
Also due to zero emission, it is considered ecofriendly. ■■ Avoid using the air-conditioning unless absolutely
■■ Charge from your house—Most of the EVs can be needed.
charged from the household itself. ■■ Check tire pressure. the door placard pressure offers the
best compromise in terms of tire rolling resistance, brak-
DISADVANTAGES there are several disadvantages of an ing distance, comfort, lateral dynamics, and wear.
EV compared to an ICE vehicle including:
■■ Pre condition the vehicle. As long as the vehicle is
■■ Limited range—While range is increasing due to attached to the charging station, it makes sense to pre
improved battery designs, range is still a concern for condition the interior and to specify the departure time
many people. Early EVs had a range of up to 80 miles, in winter, because the battery is only fully charged at the
but newer models are now reaching a range of 240 to time of departure and is already at operating temperature.
300 miles or more. ■■ Reduce weight by removing unnecessary additional
■■ Electrical needs at home—Most EVs are charged at weight and roof structures, such as bike racks unless
home and this usually means that the electric service being used.

? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

Can an Electric Vehicle Be Towed? ground, many experts recommend the following
Yes, with some precautions to prevent damage to precautions:
the vehicle. Most vehicle manufacturers recom- • Disconnect the 12-volt battery to prevent the
mended towing any vehicle with all four wheels off possibility of the electric parking brake being
the ground. ●■SEE FIGURE 2-15. the manual for a applied.
Chevrolet Bolt includes the following steps: • Listen carefully to ensure that the car does not
• Place the front wheels on a dolly. automatically apply the EPB between the time
• Place the shift lever in P (Park). that the car is turned off and the time that the
battery is disconnected.
• Secure the vehicle to the dolly.
• Make sure to keep the driver’s door open until
However, under “Electric Parking Brake” the
after the battery is disconnected, otherwise the
owner’s manual says that the electric parking brake
car may automatically lock the doors requiring
(EPB) may automatically apply in some situations
the use of the physical key to unlock the door.
when the vehicle is not moving to check the cor-
rect operation of the EPB system. Some Bolt own- • Always make sure to test that the wheels are roll-
ers have reported that the EPB has engaged while ing freely before departure.
being towed with the rear wheels on the ground, Obviously, all the aforementioned precautions
which ruined the rear tires. If any front wheel drive are not necessary if the vehicle is towed with all four
vehicle is being towed with the rear wheels on the wheels off the ground.

24 CHAP tER 2
 Dinghy Towing Dolly Towing

To tow the vehicle from the frond with the

rear wheels on the ground.

FIGURE 2-15 How a front-wheel-drive EV should be towed as per the vehicle manufacture’s instructions.

SUMMARY
1. A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) uses both an internal com- is due to the batteries, electric motor(s), and controllers
bustion engine (ICE) and an electric motor to propel the used plus the additional components needed to allow
vehicle. Most hybrid vehicles use a high-voltage battery operation of the heating and air-conditioning systems dur-
pack and a combination electric motor and generator to ing idle stop periods.
help or assist a gasoline engine. 5. In a parallel-hybrid design, multiple propulsion sources
2. An electric vehicle (EV), also referred to as an electric drive can be combined, or one of the energy sources alone can
vehicle, uses one or more electric motors to propel the drive the vehicle. In this design, the battery and engine are
vehicle. Electricity is used as the transportation fuel to both connected to the transmission.
power the EV. the electrical energy is typically stored in an 6. Each electric motor serves two purposes:
energy storage device, such as a battery. • the motor/generator attached to the engine, usually
3. the EV may be silent when in park or neutral. When put labeled M/G1 or M/G A, is used to start the gasoline
in drive or reverse, an artificial “running engine” sound is engine and to charge the high-voltage batteries.
generated at the front of the vehicle through a speaker • the motor/generator that is connected to the drive
behind the front bodywork. Some vehicles have a second wheels, usually labeled M/G2 or M/G B, is used to
speaker mounted in the rear of the vehicle. typically, the propel the vehicle and to recharge the high-voltage
sound is present until the vehicle reaches approximately battery during deceleration (regenerative braking).
20 MPH. 7. there are many advantages of an electric vehicle com-
4. A hybrid or electric vehicle will cost and weigh more than a pared to a vehicle powered by an internal combustion
conventional vehicle. the increased initial purchase price engine.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a series- 4. What is the purpose of the third motor in a three-motor
hybrid design? hybrid system?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of micro, 5. What are the items that will affect the range of an electric
mild, medium, and full hybrids? vehicle?
3. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of
owning an electric vehicle (EV)?

I N tRO D U C t I O N t O E L E C t RI C AN D H YBRI D E L E Ct RIC VEH IC L ES 25

 CHAPTER QUIZ
1. What is the difference between a mild hybrid and a full c. Cabin filter replacement
hybrid? d. Windshield washer fluid
a. A mild hybrid will propel the vehicle in electric mode. 6. Range anxiety is_______.
b. A full hybrid will propel the vehicle in electric mode. a. the fear of running out of electrical battery charge and
c. there are no differences between mild and full hybrid being left stranded
vehicles. b. the fear of having to recharge on the way to work if
d. None of the answers are correct. the distance is greater than 5 miles
2. What is the difference between a hybrid electric vehicle c. normal anxiety when first owning an EV
(HEV) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV)? d. Both a and c
a. Both an HEV and PHEV have to be plugged in. 7. What is the typical battery configuration in a micro hybrid?
b. Only the PHEV needs to be plugged in to achieve a. A 12-volt battery and a 144-volt battery
maximum range. b. two 12-volt batteries
c. A PHEV does not use an ICE. c. A 12-volt battery and a 42-volt battery
d. An HEV uses a high-voltage battery that has a higher d. A 12-volt battery and a 300-volt battery
capacity than a PHEV.
8. A medium hybrid uses________.
3. One-pedal driving means ________. a. a 12-volt battery and a 144-volt battery
a. the vehicle only has one pedal b. two 12-volt batteries
b. the vehicle has the ability to slow and often stop using c. a 12-volt battery and a 42-volt battery
just the accelerator pedal d. a 12-volt battery and a 300-volt battery
c. the vehicle does not use regenerative brakes but just
9. A full hybrid uses________.
friction brakes
a. a 12-volt battery and a 144-volt battery
d. the vehicle uses the accelerator pedal to accelerate
b. two 12-volt batteries
and the parking brake level to slow and stop
c. a 12-volt battery and a 42-volt battery
4. An electric vehicle (EV) is also called a ________. d. a 12-volt battery and a 300-volt battery
a. self-driving vehicle
10. What is NOt an advantage of an EV?
b. battery electric vehicle (BEV)
a. Higher cost
c. hybrid electric vehicle (HEV)
b. Lack of required oil changes and other services that
d. plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV)
an ICE requires
5. Most hybrid and electric vehicles have a different mainte- c. More economical to operate on a cost per mile basis
nance schedule than a conventional vehicle. What is not d. All of the above.
commonly performed on an EV?
a. tire rotation
b. Coolant flush

26 CHAP tER 2
Chapter 3
HEALTH
AND ENVIRONMENTAL
CONCERNS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TERMS

After studying this chapter, the reader will be Carbohydrates 28 Sequestration 34

able to: Carbon (C) 28 Smog 29
• Identify carbon-based fuels. Carbon footprint 33 Stratosphere 31
• Explain how ozone affects our environment. Greenhouse gases Ultraviolet (UV)
(GHG) 29 radiation 31
• Describe how organic materials decompose
Irradiance 31 Volatile organic
into carbon-based fuels. compounds (VOC) 30
Ozone 30
• Explain the difference between carbon-based Ozone-depleting
and non-carbon-based energy sources. substances (ODS) 30
• List alternatives to carbon-based fuels.
• List the factors that will be needed to reduce
the carbon footprint.

27
 the source of carbon-based fuels is limited to the remains
NEED FOR ELECTRIC of dead plants and animals and is therefore not a limitless
resource. ●■ SEE FIGURE 3–1.
VEHICLES (EV) AND HYBRID
ELECTRIC VEHICLES (HEV) CARBOHYDRATES all life-forms are able to collect,
store, and use energy from their environment. In carbon-
REDUCTION OF FOSSIL FUELS Electric vehicles do not based biology, the basic energy storage compounds are in
consume fossil fuels directly, but instead are powered from the carbohydrates, where the carbon atoms are linked by single
energy stored in on-board batteries. Hybrid electric vehicles bonds into a chain. For example, carbon dioxide (CO2) plus
are vehicles that have two sources of propulsion, either with water (H2O), when combined with chlorophyll in the plant and
an electric motor supplied energy from the high-voltage battery sunlight, produces glucose and oxygen (O2). a carbohydrate
or an internal combustion engine. While an HEV still uses fossil is oxidized (combined with O2) to release energy (and waste
fuels, they normally are able to achieve superior fuel economy products of H2O and CO2). the carbon atoms are attached
compared to a similar vehicle that uses just fossil fuels for pro- to hydrogen atoms to form hydrocarbons (abbreviated HC).
pulsion. the energy needed to create the electricity to charge there are literally thousands of hydrocarbons, and they differ
the batteries can be from burning fossil fuels, such as coal or not only by the number of carbon atoms, but also by the way
natural gas, or renewable solar and wind, as well as nuclear. they are attached to each other. the various bonds by which
the molecule is constructed results in a change in the physi-
CARBON-BASED FUELS throughout history, most of cal characteristics of the hydrocarbon. Molecules that have
the energy used in the world has been generated by burning a high number of carbon atoms release more energy when
organic fuel that contains carbon (C). an economy that uses burned, which translates into more power from the fuel and
only carbon-based fuels is often referred to as a carbon-based from the engine. Gasoline is composed of hundreds of dif-
society. Carbon is formed from materials that were once alive ferent hydrocarbons that are blended together to create the
on the earth, including: specified volatility and other physical characteristic for use in
an engine. SEE CHART 3–1.
■■ plants that die and eventually are turned into coal, oil,
and natural gas.
CHEMISTRY OF CARBON-BASED EMISSIONS When
■■ animal life of all types that also dies and decays to form carbon-based fuels are burned, the carbon and the hydrogen
carbon-fuels. from the fuel combine with the 21% oxygen and the 88%

CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)

IN AIR COMBUSTION OF FOSSIL FUELS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS FOR VEHICLES, ELECTRICITY AND HEAT
BURNING OF FORESTS,
FUEL WOOD AND CARBON STORED
ORGANIC DEBRIS IN PLANT TISSUE TERRESTRIAL FOOD CHAINS

RESPIRATION
CARBON STORED
IN ANIMAL TISSUE

DECOMPOSERS

WASTES, DEAD ORGANISMS TIME COAL

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
(AQUATIC FOOD CHAINS)

OIL AND GAS

TIME
FORMATION OF
ORGANIC SEDIMENTS FOSSIL FUELS

TIME FORMATION OF
LIMESTONE AND
CALCAREOUS DOLOMITE
SEDIMENTS

FIGURE 3-1 Carbon-based fuels are limited to the remains of dead plants and animals and their fossil remains create the
carbon-based fuels used today.

28 CHapt E r 3
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