Introduction to Holy Scripture

Chapter One
Introduction
1.1. What is the Bible?
The word ―Bible‖ comes from the Greek ta biblia, where originally it is a plural noun
meaning ―the Books.‖ When this word was taken over into Latin, it became singular, the
Bible. As a book, it is the work of God and His Spirit. But each group or collection of books
contained therein was written by inspired human beings. For all the reasons why the Bible
has commanded and still commands the interest of many across cultures, generations and
ages, the primary fact remains that it is for Jews, Christians, and to a lesser extent Moslems, a
collection of God‘s revelation, containing as it were God‘s self-communication to the world
he created.

The Bible is a record of God‘s revelations and His relationship with human beings. In it, God
reveals Himself through His actions in nature and in history. The Bible is one of the oldest
books. Its oldest sections were written about 1500 years before Jesus was born. Its newest
sections were written about 1900 years ago.

The Bible is one of the most widely translated and available books in the world, with billions
of copies in print. But what is the Bible? The question arises because of considerable variety
in the contents and arrangement in Bibles of different Christian traditions. However, almost
all denominations/sects accept the two main parts: an ―Old Testament‖ and a ―New
Testament.‖ The Old Testament has four sections: the Pentateuch, Histories, Poetical and
Wisdom; and the Prophets. The New Testament has twenty-seven books.

Hebrew Bible is divided into three subsections:

Torah(law), Prophets (Nevi‘im), and Writings (Ketuvim) with depending on counting

between twenty-four or thirty-nine books. The Christian ―Old Testament‖ ends with Malachi,
but the Hebrew Bible concludes with 2 Chronicles. How did the Bible come to have different
authorized canons? And why do texts of different faith communities not agree? To answer
this question fully requires a range of disciplines, including history, philology, archaeology,
and comparative religion.
1.2. Writing Place of the Bible

The Holy Land, at times variously named Canaan, Israel, the Levant or Palestine, has
changed hands many times and has often been the center of conflict. The archaeology of
Palestine is complex, in that it reflects all eras of the region‘s long history.

Although the Israelites appear to have invaded Canaan around 1400 B.C., they left almost no
archaeological footprint until about 1200 B.C. During Iron I (usually dated c. 1200–1000
B.C.) the nation of Israel began to take shape. Examples of what appears to be Israelite
material culture, such as the ―four-room house‖ and ―collar-rim‖ pottery, appear in the
archaeology of this time. Hundreds of villages in central Canaan dated to this period may be
regarded as Israelite. The Philistines first appeared in Canaan at this time as a part of the
migration of the ―Sea Peoples,‖ and examples of their material culture (such as a distinctive
bi chrome pottery that is comparable to a type of Mycenaean Greek pottery) began to appear.

Inasmuch as the Biblical record indicates that Israel was in the land and contending with
various other enemies long before the Philistines became a threat, the argument that the
Philistines and Israelites emerged in Canaan at about the same time is erroneous. Indeed, the
presence of ―Israel‖ on the Merneptah Stele (c.1210 B.C.) strongly suggests that Israel was
well established in the land prior to 1200 B.C., the beginning of the Iron I Age.

1.3. Writers of the Bible

a. Old Testament
Considering its nature it is possible to reflect the point that both God and humans are truly the
authors of the Bible, because its authors are inspired by the Holy Spirit. God revealed to the
forefathers, such as Noah, Abraham, Isaac, and etc. Through His revelation God commanded
the fathers to obey to the commands; for example, God revealed to Abraham commended
him to leave his birth place and go to the land where God would show him (Genesis, 12: 1-2).
This revelation again came down to Moses the judge and the prophet, and he included it in
the Torah. Moses was not only the writer of the revelation came to Abraham but also he was
the one whom God told him how the universe was created.

With our present knowledge we cannot name all the inspired writers of the Bible. Some of
them may never be known, for ancient authors seldom signed their books. According to
tradition, however, certain books are ascribed by to well-known Bible people. Modern
scholars constantly study the books for evidences of their authorship.

Most inspired authors of the Old Testament books are Israelites/Jewish who were
unconditionally given authorship gifts/grace; example, while Jeremiah was at child stage, the
word of God came to him. He was not willing to convey the prophetic message from God to
the Israelites. Jeremiah vehemently resisted the divine command not to be obeyed by telling a
pretext that he was yet a child. However, God forced him saying: before I formed you in the
womb I knew you, before you were born I set you apart; I appointed you as a prophet to the
nation (Jeremiah, 1:5). Like Jeremiah, Samuel was called at his child stage to prophesy on
Israelites and he was ministering God under Eli (Samuel, 3:11-15).

b. The New Testament

The Twenty-Seven New Testament books were written by about eleven inspired authors. The
four gospels were written by Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, whereas the fourteen epistles
by St. Paul. The other epistles were also written by James, Peter, John and Jude. Acts of
Apostles and Revelation were authorised by Luke and John respectively. According the
western point of view, the Epistle to Hebrews was not the writing of St. Paul; it is believed
that it was written by unknown writer and was reserved in the name of St. Paul. However, the
scholars of the EOTC strongly believe that this epistle was written by St. Paul himself.

1.4. The Writing Date of the Bible

a. Old Testament Books

The Old Testament books (Genesis) were begun to be written in 1446 BC and completed in
430 BC. According to the Jewish Canon, the 39 Old Testament books were written during a
period of a thousand years (1,016). The Book of Malachi was the last one written in the 5th
century BC.

b. New Testament Books

The New Testament books (Mark) were begun to be written in 5o AD and completed in 96
AD. According to the Canon of St. Athanasius, the 27 New Testament books were completed
in AD. 96. The Book of John‘s Revelation was the last one written at the end of the 1st
century AD.
According to the western context, the Gospel of Mark was written earlier than Matthew. The
Biblical arrangement and the tradition of the EOTC, the Gospel of Matthew was written
earlier than Mark‘s.

1.5. Biblical Languages

There are two original languages the Bible: Hebrew and Greek. The Old Testament was
written in Hebrew except for four chapters Ezra, six Chapters Daniel and Jeremiah
10.10.These were written in Aramaic. The entire New Testament was written in Greek, the
language commonly spoken and written throughout the Roman Empire in the first and second
centuries AD. Aramaic is a Semitic language related to Hebrew somewhat as Italian is related
to Spanish. Aramaic had become the everyday language of Palestine by the time of Jesus,
who undoubtedly preached in Aramaic. His sayings and teachings were probably first
recorded in this language, for a few traces Aramaic remain in the gospel (Mk. 5:41;15:34).
Though Aramaic documents were doubtless used by the gospel writers, they recorded the
story of Jesus‘ life in Greek.

The Bible is an eastern book and was written by eastern people. ―The prophecy came not in
old time by the will of man: but holy men of God spoke as they were moved by the Holy
Ghost‖ (2 Peter 1:21). These ―holy men‖ spoke three main languages, which are Hebrew,
Aramaic and Greek.

The oldest language is probably Aramaic. It was not called that then, but many Aramaic
speaking people today say that Aramaic as a language goes all the way back to Adam and
Eve. They call it ―the Mesopotamian language.‖ The first mention of Aram, the youngest son
of Shem, is in Genesis 10:22. The language that Aram spoke was transmitted down to
Abraham.

Abraham left his home in Mesopotamia and travelled with his brother Nahor to Haran in
Syria. The son of Nahor was also called Aram (Genesis 22:21). This land area in Syria
became known as the land of the Aramaens, or Aram. Later, Abraham left Haran and crossed
the Euphrates River and travelled to Canaan. His descendants were called Hebrews, a term
derived from the Aramaic word abar, meaning ―to cross over.‖ Gradually, a unique dialect
and script was developed called Hebrew. The Old Testament scriptures were written and
compiled in this language. Throughout the centuries from Moses‘ time on, Hebrew was used
as the Biblical language and was preserved very carefully by the scribes.
By the time of the New Testament in the first century, Aramaic was the commercial and
business language throughout the Near East and Greek and Latin were also spoken by the
people in the Roman Empire. Hebrew continued to be the language preserved in the Old
Testament scriptures. The Gospels were most certainly written in Aramaic and most likely
Paul‘s epistles were also. But as the gospel reached out in the first century from Jerusalem
into Antioch of Syria and then on into Achaia and Macedonia, which were Greek-speaking
areas, the scriptures were almost immediately translated into Greek. This is also why there
are additions of Greek loan words in the Aramaic (words of Greek origin spelled in Aramaic
letters) and also Aramaic loan words in the early Koine (Biblical) Greek.

In the fourth century, there was a split between the eastern and western churches. Basically,
the eastern churches continued to use the Aramaic version of the New Testament called the
Peshitta (which means ―simple‖ or ―straight‖) and the western churches used the Greek
versions. The two languages of scriptures grew up together and each has valuable things to
contribute to Biblical study.

This is a very brief overview of the development of the three languages, but as you can see,
because of this history, it is important that we study all three if we want to understand the
Bible. Aramaic and Hebrew are very closely related and because of that, there is a strong tie
between the Old and New Testaments. Greek is the language through which we eventually
got the King James Version and it is the language which has been and still is the most studied
by scholars and Biblical students.

1.6. The History of Bible Translation

In the third century BC a king called Ptolemy the 2nd decided it would be a good idea to get
the Hebrew Bible translated into Greek for ‗the Jewish community resident outside their own
land in the North African commercial and intellectual Hellenistic metropolis of Alexandria.‘
He, as the story goes, appointed seventy translators who were told to sit in separate booths
and work alone, and at the end of the process all seventy miraculously produced identical
translations of the Hebrew Bible. What a way to check for accuracy! This translation became
known as the Septuagint, and is one of the most reliable texts of the Old Testament we have,
along with the Masoretic Text (10th century AD), and the Dead Sea Scrolls (1st century BC).
Sometimes the Dead Sea Scrolls line up with the Septuagint rather than the Masoretic text,
showing that in places the Septuagint might possibly represent an earlier and more reliable
Hebrew reading than the Masoretic text, despite the latter‘s understandable authority in the
Judeo-Christian world.

The main reason to be thankful for this translation is that it is the main text alluded to by the
writers of the New Testament. By then Greek had established itself as the language of
education in the Mediterranean region, despite Roman military dominance, and the use of
Aramaic by Jews in the home and on the street, and the use of Hebrew in the synagogues.
Why do I say ‗alluded to‘ not ‗quoted‘? Because the New Testament writers, like Winnie the
Pooh, often ‗used‘ the Septuagint to mean what they wanted it to, not what it originally
communicated in the Hebrew. They felt they had a divine calling to write, and in doing so
were writing not just ordinary words, but Scripture. For instance, ‗... it is very common for
NT writers to apply an OT passage that refers to YHWH (commonly rendered ―LORD‖ in
English Bibles) to Jesus. This arises from the theological conviction that it is entirely
appropriate to do so since, granted Jesus‘ identity, what is predicated of God can be
predicated no less of him.‘ The world had changed after both the resurrection of Jesus from
the 8 dead, and destruction of the temple, and they had a message to share.
 Chapter Two
The Structure of Old Testament Bible

2.1.1. Structure of OT
The Bible is a (biblos) a single book. It has two Testaments, better called covenants or
agreements between God and His people. Those two parts of the Bible are inseparably
related: The New Testament is in the Old concealed, and the Old in the New revealed. These
sections form a meaningful and purposeful whole, as they convey the progressive unfolding
of the theme of the Bible in the person of Christ.

a. The Law (Pentateuch)

They are five in number. These are Geneses, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy.

b. History

They are twelve books in number. These are Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Samuel first and second,
Kings first and second, Chronicles first and second, Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther.

c. Poetry

They are five in numbers. These are Job, Psalm, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and Songs of Songs.

d. Prophets
I. Major Prophets

They are divided into two: major and minor prophets. Major Prophets are four in number.
These are Isaiah, Jeremiah with his Lamentation, Ezekiel and Daniel.

II. Minor Prophets

They are twelve in number. These are Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum,
Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi.
2.2. New Testament
2.2.1. Structure of New Testament
I. The Gospels
They are four in number. They are Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.

II. History
The Act of Apostles‘ book is a single one that tells about the history of the early church.

III. Epistles
a. The Epistles of St. Paul
They are fourteen in number. These are Romans, Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians,
Philippians, and Colossians, Thessalonians first and second, Timothy first and second, Titus
and Philemon.

b. General Epistles

They are seven in number. These are James, Peter first and second, John first, second and
third and Jude.

VI. Prophecy

The book of the prophecy is a single one that tells about the future events which will happen
to the world,

2.3. Apocrypha

Up to the Reformation the Bible in common use was the Latin version originally made by
Jerome, and known as the Vulgate. When, however, Reuchlin reintroduced the study of the
Hebrew language, and Protestants began to read the Hebrew original of the Old Testament,
the discovery was made that the Vulgate contained many more books than the Hebrew Bible.
The name Apocrypha was accordingly given to those books which were found in the Vulgate
but not in the Hebrew Bible. But how did the books get into the Vulgate? If they were not
part of the original Hebrew, whence did Jerome obtain them? The answer to the question is
simple. The Jews in the early centuries of the Christian era had two versions of the Old
Testament, one the original Hebrew, which was used more particularly in Palestine, the other
a Greek translation, called the Septuagint, which was originally made at Alexandria and used
by the Greek-speaking Jews of the Dispersion. The Greek Bible, like the Vulgate, contains
the extra books, known as the Apocrypha (with the exception of IV Ezra), which are not
found in the Hebrew, and it was from the Greek Bible that Jerome introduced them into his
Latin translation. The Apocrypha therefore represents the difference between the contents of
the Hebrew Bible and the Septuagint plus IV Ezra.

We must remember that up to the time of the Reformation (in the 16th century) the
Apocrypha formed an integral part of the Christian Bible. It is true that many of the Christian
Fathers drew a distinction between the Apocrypha and the rest of the Old Testament; but after
the fifth century the distinction was almost universally forgotten, and for a thousand years the
Apocrypha held a well-nigh/nearly unchallenged place in Holy Writ. The Council of Trent
definitely decreed that it was of equal authority with the other books of the Bible, and this
position is still maintained by Roman Catholics today. Even after the Reformation the
Apocrypha still held a high place in the affections of a large number of Protestants, though it
was assigned a subordinate position as compared with that of the other books of Scripture.

2.3.1. Old Testament Apocryphal Books

The Old Testament Apocryphal Books are classified as follows:

I. Historical Works

I Esdras, I. and II, Maccabees.

II. The Didactic/moral Works

The Wisdom of Solomon, the Book of Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)

III. Religious Romances

The Book of Tobit, the Book of Judith

IV. Prophetic or Apocalyptic Works

The Book of Baruch, IV. Ezra (sometimes called II. Esdras)

V. Additions to the Old Testament

The addition to the Book of Esther, the Prayer of Manasseh, the three additions to Daniel, the
Song of the Three Holy Children, The Story of Susanna, The Story of Bel and the Dragon.
Most of these additions might very properly be placed in the class of Religious Romances.
 2.3.2. The Wider Apocrypha

In addition to the Apocrypha proper, there are many other Jewish writings, belonging
practically to the same period, which have never claimed to be regarded as Scripture, though
they were held in high value by large circles of Christians in early times.

The most important books of the wider Apocrypha may be classified as follows:

a. Historical

III and IV Maccabees, the latter, however, as will be explained, though purporting to be
historical, is really a philosophical discourse. ,

b. Poetry

The Psalms of Solomon

c. Apocalyptic Literature

The Book of Enoch, the Book of the Secrets of Enoch, the Apocalypse of Baruch, the
Assumption of Moses, the Book of Jubilees, the Ascension of Isaiah and the Testaments of
the Twelve Patriarchs.

I. The Book of Enoch

The Apocalypse which is known as the Book of Enoch is not a single book, but a library
containing at least five volumes, written by different authors at different periods in the last
two centuries of the pre-Christian era. It is not difficult to see why it was that a whole
literature grew up around the name of Enoch.

II. The Apocalypse of Baruch

The Apocalypse of Baruch is also a comparatively recent discovery. We owe it to an Italian

scholar, named Ceriani, who found a Syriac version of the book in the Milan Library and
published a Latin translation of it in 1866. The Syriac version was translated from the Greek,
which in its turn was derived from a Hebrew original, so that we only know the real
Apocalypse at third hand.

III. The Assumption of Moses

This Apocalypse was also, like Baruch, discovered by Ceriani in the library of Milan in 1861.
It exists only in a single Latin fragment, which is incomplete. The Latin version contains
evidence which proves that it was made from a Greek original, which came itself from a
Hebrew autograph.

IV. The Book of Jubilee

The Book of Jubilees was first published in modern times in the form of a German translation
from the Ethiopic version by Dillmann in 185 1. A Latin version was also discovered by
Ceriani in the Milan Library a little later, and printed for the first time in 1861.

V. The Ascension of Isaiah

This Apocalypse has been preserved in its entirety only in an Ethiopic version, though
fragments are found both in Latin and Greek. It differs from any of the Apocalypses, which
we have hitherto dealt with, in containing a large admixture of Christian elements.

VI. The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs

The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs is one of the most interesting of the documents
which belong to this class of Jewish literature. It consists of twelve small pamphlets, which
purport to contain the last utterances of the twelve sons of Jacob. Each of these men is
represented as calling his children around him on his deathbed and giving them words of
counsel and advice with regard to the conduct of life. In most cases the Patriarch recalls some
of the leading incidents of his own career, and uses them as a text from which he draws
lessons of warning or exhortation for his children. The Testament of Gad may be taken as an
illustration of the method of the writer. Gad tells the story of his own enmity against Joseph.
Joseph, according to the narrative, had carried to his father a tale that his brothers were killing
the best of his flock and making a feast. This angered Gad, and made him often wish to kill
Joseph. His plans, however, were frustrated by the action of Judah, who sold Joseph to the
Ishmaelites.
 2.3.3. Other Apocryphal Literature

There are three other books belonging to the wider Apocrypha which cannot be classed as
Apocalyptic and must therefore be treated separately, III Maccabees, IV Maccabees, and the
Psalms of Solomon.

2.3.4. The Third Book of Maccabees

The title bestowed upon this book is altogether a misnomer/contradiction. There is absolutely
no reference to the Maccabees or the Maccabean age in it at all. How the book got its name is
quite inexplicable. The only point which it has in common with the other books of Maccabees
is that it tells the story of the faithfulness of the Jewish people in a time of persecution. Some
scholars have tried to justify the title by supposing that it was intended originally to be a kind
of introduction to the books which deal with the Maccabean rising, but there seems to be
nothing in the book itself that at all substantiates this theory. The only plausible explanation
is to suppose that the title is due to an accident in transmission, though it is quite impossible,
of course, to discover how the accident happened.

2.3.5. The Fourth Book of Maccabees

The fourth book of Maccabees is quite unlike the other books which bear the same title. It
makes no pretence to give a historical account of the Maccabean age. Its chief interest is in
philosophy and religion; the historical elements (if such they can be called) are entirely
secondary and subordinate, and are only introduced to illustrate and substantiate its
philosophical principles. The book is really a sermon or homily intended to urge its hearers or
readers to a life of fidelity to God and self-control.

2.3.6. The Psalms of Solomon

The Psalms of Solomon occupy the same place in Apocryphal literature as the Psalter does in
the Old Testament, though it is clear, from the scantiness of the allusions to them in early
times, that they never secured a wide circulation, nor won their way into the affection of the
Christian Church. The collection consists of eighteen Psalms of varying length and value.
They are written for the most part in imitation of the Old Testament Psalter, and often
reproduce its language, though it must be admitted that some of them are not devoid of
originality and forcefulness.
 Chapter THREE
The Structure of New Testament Bible

2.3.7. The New Testament Apocrypha

There is a sense in which it can be said that the New Testament does not possess an
Apocrypha. There is no well-defined collection of writings, like the Old Testament
Apocrypha proper, which have been re- cognised at any time as Scripture by the general
consent of the Church. The New Testament Apocryphal writings correspond more nearly to
the wider Apocrypha of the Old Testament, and comprise a number of documents of very
varying value, which claim to have originated from the Apostolic age, and some of which
were held in high esteem by the Christian Church.

The reason why there is no New Testament Apocrypha in the technical sense of the word can
easily be explained. The Old Testament Apocrypha is the result of the existence of two
different Canons of the Old Testament, both of which won for them wide recognition. In the
case of the New Testament this phenomenon does not exist. There have been, of course,
different Canons in different sections of the Church.

The Ethiopic Canon, for instance, contains eight books which are not found in our New
Testament. The Canon of the Greek Church omits the Book of Revelation, and includes some
documents which are not recognised elsewhere. The Syrian Canon omitted four of the
Catholic Epistles and the Apocalypse. The Muratorian Fragment (A.D. 170) did not include
Hebrews, James, or II Peter, but recognised the Apocalypse of Peter. Individual Fathers too,
in the third and fourth centuries, showed their own particular preferences by their acceptance
or rejection of different books. But there never was a time, at least after the third century,
when two rival Canons divided Christendom.

2.3.8. Non-Canonical Books used as Scripture by the Early Church

a. The First Epistle of Clement

That the first Epistle of Clement was used in public worship is clearly proved by two
statements of Eusebius (330) in his Ecclesiastical History. The first statement is found in an
excerpt from a letter of Dionysius of Corinth (160-180) to Soter, Bishop of Rome.
In reply to Soter, Dionysius says: "Today has been the Lord's Day, and we have read your
Epistle. Whenever we read it, we shall have our minds stored with counsel, as we do when
we read the letter which was written to us in former times by Clement "(Book iv). It was not
only in Corinth, however, that this Epistle was used in worship, for in his second statement
(Book iii. 16) Eusebius says: "This "This Epistle we know to have been publicly read for the
common benefit in most of the churches both in former times and in our own day." The
custom of using the Epistle in church seems to have continued for some time after Eusebius,
for at the commencement of the fifth century Jerome tells us that "it was still read publicly in
some places.‖

b. The Teaching of the Apostles

The Didache or Teaching of the Apostles was discovered in 1873 by Bryennius, an

ecclesiastic of the Greek Church, in the Jerusalem Convent at Constantinople, and published
ten years later. We have abundant evidence that the book held a very high place in the regard
of the early Church. Clement of Alexandria quotes it as Scripture. It is mentioned in
Athanasius' list of sacred writings, where it follows immediately after Judith and Tobit. In
Eusebius' classification of the books which claimed recognition in the Canon, it is ranked in
the class of "the rejected."

c. The Epistle of Barnabas

The high importance which was attached to the Epistle of Barnabas in early times is proved
by the following facts: it is found in one of the earliest and most valuable MSS. of the New
Testament—the Sinaitic—where it follows immediately after the Book of Revelation;
Clement of Alexandria (200) frequently quotes it, and ascribes it to the Apostle Barnabas;
Origen (250) describes it as the " Catholic Epistle of Barnabas," and cites it as Scripture.

d. The Shepherd of Hermas

No book outside the New Testament was more popular in the ancient Church than the
Shepherd of Hermas. It is found in the famous Codex Sinaiticus at the close of the New
Testament, and in several other MSS. besides. Irenaeus (180) quotes it as Scripture. Origen
(250) regards it as ―divinely inspired." Eusebius (330), though he refuses to recognise it as
canonical, says that" it was publicly read in churches," and " deemed most necessary for
those who have need of elementary instruction."
 2.3.9. The Apocryphal Gospels

The Apocryphal Gospels, as we have seen, may be divided into three classes: (1) Those
which possibly preserve elements of genuine tradition. (2) Heretical Gospels, i.e. Gospels in
which the narrative has been pur- posely altered to suit the tenets of some heretical sect. (3)
Legendary Gospels, which embroider the account of the beginning and end of Christ's life
with fictitious stories.

I. The Gospel According to the Hebrews

The only Gospel which has any serious claim to be regarded as genuine and reliable is the
Gospel according to the Hebrews. Unfortunately, however, we only possess a few fragments
of it, culled from the writings of various Fathers of the Church. The most important and
interesting of these are:

1. Two references to the Baptism of Jesus

2. An extract containing an account of the visit of the rich young man to Christ, which
proceeds upon the lines of Matt. xix. 16-22, but adds the following words
3. A fragment recording the appearance of Jesus to James after the Resurrection
4. The following post - Resurrection utterance of Jesus
5. A few sayings of Jesus

II. Heretical Gospels

III. The Gospel According St. Peter

The most interesting of all the heretical Gospels is that ascribed to Peter, a large fragment of
which was recently discovered by the French Archaeological Mission, in a tomb at Akmim
(Pentapolis), in Upper Egypt, and published in 1892. The fragment, unfortunately, only
covers the last scenes in the life of Christ. It begins with the trial before Pilate, and ends with
the visit of the women to the empty tomb on Easter morning.

IV. Other Heretical Gospels

The Gospel of the Ebionites, The Gospel according to the Egyptians,

 V. The Newly Discovered Sayings of Jesus

In 1897 a papyrus fragment was discovered, in the mounds of Oxyrhynchus, an Egyptian

town on the edge of the Libyan desert 120 miles south of Cairo, containing seven or eight
―Sayings of Jesus."

VI. The Legendary Gospels

We possess some twenty-two documents — most of them belonging to a late date—which

expand certain parts of the history of Christ's life by the addition of legendary
embellishments. They may be divided into three classes: (a) Those which deal with the
history of Joseph and Mary before the birth of Jesus, {b) Those which deal with the infancy
and boyhood of Jesus, {c) Those which relate to the history of Pilate.

a. The Gospel of the Virgin Birth

b. The Gospel of the Pseudo-Matthew
c. The Gospel of the Nativity of Mary
d. The History of Joseph the Carpenter
e. Assumption of Mary
f. The Gospels of the Boyhood Jesus
g. Gospels Related to Pilate
h. Gospel of Nicodemus

2.3.10. APOCRYPHAL ACTS, EPISTLES, ETC

a. Apocryphal Act
b. The Acts of Paul
c. The Acts of Thomas
d. The Acts of Andrew
e. The Acts of John
f. The Acts of Philip
g. The Acts of Peter and Paul
 2.3.11. Apocryphal Epistles

a. The Correspondence between Jesus and Abgarus

b. The Epistle of Paul to the Laodiceans
c. The Correspondence between Paul and Seneca
d. The Apocalypse of Peter
e. The Apocalypse of Paul

2.3.12. Pseudepigrapha

In addition to the books commonly called Apocrypha there is a wide variety of other ancient
literatures, both Jewish and Christian, to which the name pseudepigrapha is often applied.

Apocrypha, pseudepigrapha sectarian literature from the Qumran Caves, and a wide variety
of other ancient writings provide helpful material for understanding the world of the New
Testament and the early church. While not a par/equivalence with inspired Scripture, such
writings merit examination.
 Chapter FOUR
Canonization
3.1. Canonization of the Bible
Canonization is the process by which the Books of the Bible receive their final approval and
acceptance by the church leaders. How did the Books of the Bible come to be accepted as
part of the canon of the Scripture? How would one recognize an inspired book if he saw it?
What are the characteristics which distinguish a divine declaration from a purely human one?
Several criteria were involved in this recognition process. The people of God had to look for
certain earmarks of divine authority.
3.2. The Principles Discovering the Canonicity
False books and false writings were not scarce. Their ever-present threat made it necessary
for the people of God to carefully review their sacred collection. Sacred writings are two
categories to be examined: books accepted by some believers, but not others; and writings
once accepted but later questioned.
Manuscripts from both categories were examined by church councils to verify whether they
should be part of the Bible.
3.3. Basic Criteria for Canonization
There are five basic criteria. These are Authoritative, Prophetic, Authentic, Dynamic and
Accepted.
a. The Authority of the Bible
Each book in the bible bears the claim of divine authority. Often the explicit ―thus says the
Lord‖ is present. Sometimes the tone and exhortation reveal in divine origin. Always there is
divine pronouncement. In the more didactic (teaching) literature there is divine
pronouncement about what believers should be.
In the historical books the exhortations are more implied and the authoritative
pronouncements are more what God has done in the history of his people. If a book lacked
the authority of God, it was not considered canonical and was rejected from being included in
the Bible.
Let us illustrate this principle of authority as it relates to the canon. The Books of the
prophets were easily recognized by this principle of authority. The repeated ―And the Lord
said unto me,‖ or ―The word of the Lord came to me,‖ is abundant evidence of their claim to
divine authority.
 b. The Prophetic Authority of the Book
Inspired books come only through spirit–moved men known as prophets (2Pet 1: 20, 21). The
word of God is given to His people only through His prophets. Every biblical author had a
prophetic gift or function, even if he was not a prophet by occupation (Heb 1:1). St. Paul
argued in Galatians his teachings and writings should be accepted because he was an apostle,
neither from men nor through man, through Jesus Christ and God the Father (Gal 1:1). His
book (epistle) was to be accepted because it was apostolic-it was from God-appointed
spokesman or prophet.
c. The Authenticity of a Book
Another hallmark of inspiration is authenticity. Any book with factual or doctrinal errors
(judged by previous revelations) could not be inspired of God. God cannot lie; His word must
be true and consistent. In view of this principle, the Bereans accepted Paul‘s teachings and
searched the Scriptures to see whether or not what St. Paul taught them was really in occurred
with God‘s revelation in the Old Testament (Acts 17:11). Simple agreement with previous
revelation would not by itself make a teaching inspired. But contradiction of a previous
revelation would clearly indicate that a teaching was not inspired.
d. The Dynamic Nature of the Book
The fourth test for canonicity was not as evident as some of the others. This was the life-
transforming ability (dynamic) of the writing. ―The word of God is alive and powerful” (Heb
4:12). As a result it can be used “for teaching, for correction and for training in
righteousness‖ (2Tim 3:16,17). The Apostle Paul revealed that the life-transforming ability of
inspired writings was involved in the acceptance of all scripture; 2Tim 3:16,17 indicates this.
St. Paul wrote Timothy, “the Holy scriptures…are able to make you wise unto salvation‖
Elsewhere, Peter speaks of edifying and evangelizing power of the word (1Pet 1: 23; 2: 2).

e. The Acceptance of the Book

Ezra was the first one to canonize the Bible; The final trademark of an authoritative writing is
its recognition by the people of God to whom it was initially given. God‘s word given
through His prophet and with His truth must be recognized by His people. Later generation of
believers sought to verify this fact. For if the book was received, collected and used as God‘s
word by those to whom it was originally given, then its canonicity was established.
Communication and transportation being what it was in ancient times, it sometimes, took
much time and effort on the part of church fathers to determine this recognition. For this
reason the full and final recognition by the whole church of the 66 books of the canon took
many, many centuries.
3.3. The History of Canonization of the Bible
Ezra was the first one to canonize the Holy Bible; he canonized the five Books of Moses.
When they were finished by Moses, they were carefully deposited by the side of the Ark of
the Covenant (Deut. xxxi. 24, 25, 26). "And it came to pass, when Moses had made an end of
writing the words of this Law in a book, until they were finished, that Moses commanded the
Levites which bore the ark of the covenant of the Lord, saying, take this book or the Law, and
put it in the side of the ark of the covenant of the Lord your God, that it may be there for a
witness against you."

All Scriptures are written with the inspiration of the spirit of God or are the breath of God.
They are also described as Holy Books containing the word of God (Fitehanegest article-2).
The Holy Books are breath of God or are written under the inspiration of the Spirit of God.
St. Paul sates in 2Timothy 3:16 ―all Scriptures are God-breathed and is useful for teaching,
rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness.” Saint Cyril of Alexandria also wrote that
“Holy Books are the breaths of God.” (Faith of Fathers 78:67). Hence, all that is written in
the Scriptures is the absolute truth. Nothing can be added or deducted from it. It can neither
be modified nor changed. It was written by Holy men guided by the Spirit of God (2Pet.1:20;
Mat 5:18; Luke 16:17).
It is written that there were times when the Lord either revealed himself, made His voice
heard or acted through the one that he willed and commanded "Write down these Words”
(Exodus 34:27;Deut. 31:19; Isaiah 8:1).
Eighty-one are the Old Testament and New Testament Books which have been accepted
th
as canonical books of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church. The 85 canon of the
Apostolic Constitution read like this: To all you Clergymen and Laymen let the following
books be venerable and sacred.
3.3.1. The Canon of Laodicea (A.D. 363)
Let neither private psalms nor any uncanonica books be read in church, but only the
canonical ones of the New and Old Testament (Canon 59).
After listing the books of the Old Testament, the canon continues saying lists of the New
Testament: four Gospels, according to Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John; the Acts of the
Apostles, seven Catholic Epistles, namely, one of James, two of Peter, three of John, one of
Jude; fourteen Epistles of Paul, one of James, two to the Corinthians, one to the Galatians,
one to the Ephesians, one to the Philippians, one to the Colossians, two to the Thessalonians,
one to the Hebrews, two to Timothy, one to Titus, and one to Philemon (Canon 60).
3.3.2. The Canon of Athanasius (A.D. 367)
Again (after a list of the Old Testament books) it is not tedious to speak of the books of the
New Testament. These are, the four Gospels, according to Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.
After these, the Acts of the Apostles and Epistles called Catholic, of the seven apostles: of
James, One; of Peter, two; of John, three; after these, one of Jude. In addition, there are
fourteen Epistles of Paul the apostle, written in this order: the first, to the Romans; then, two
to the Corinthians; after these, to the Galatians; next, to the Ephesians; then, to the
Philippians; then, to the Colossians; after these, two of the Thessalonians; and that to the
Hebrews; and again, two to Timothy; one to Titus; and lastly, that to Philemon and the
Revelation of John. These are fountains of Salvation that who thirsts may be satisfied with
the living words they contain. In these alone the teaching of godliness is proclaimed: Let no
one add to these; let nothing be taken away from them.
3.3.3. The Canon of Gregory of Nazianzus (A.D. 329-89)
This canon, included among Gregory‘s poems (I, xii. 5 ff.), was ratified by the Trullan Synod
in 692. It is in iambic verse, the lineation of which (but not the rhythm) is preserved, so far
as possible, in the translation. Only the New Testament part is given here. [List to books of
the Old Testament….]. But now count also [the books] of the New mystery; Matthew indeed
wrote for the Hebrews the wonderful works of Christ, and mark for Italy, Luke for Greece,
John, the great preacher, for all, walking in heaven. The Acts of the Holy apostles, the
fourteen Epistles of St. Paul, seven universal Epistles; these are James, one and two of Peter,
three of John and that of Jude‘s single epistle. If there is any besides these, it is not among the
genuine books.
3.3.4. The Canon of the Third Synod of Carthage (A.D. 397)
The first council that accepted the present canon of the books of the New Testament was the
Synod of Hippo in North Africa (A.D. 393); the acts of this council, however, are lost. A
brief summary of the acts was read at and accepted by the Synod of Carthage, A.D. 397.
Besides the canonical Scriptures, nothing shall be read in church under the name of divine
Scriptures (Canon-24). Moreover, the canonical Scriptures are these: (then follows a list of
Old Testament books). The books of the New Testament: the Gospels, four books, the Acts
of the Apostles, one book; the Epistles of Paul, thirteen, of the same to the Hebrews one
Epistle, of Peter, two of John, apostle, three; of James, one: of Jude, one; the Revelation of
John. On the anniversaries of martyrs, their acts shall also be read.
3.4. Other Church Fathers, Scholars, and Historians Contributed to the Canonization of
the Holy Scriptures
a. Clement (1st Century C.E.): the third bishop of Rome and author of a letter (1
Clement) written to the church at Corinth about 95 C.E.
b. Ignatius (35-107 C.E.): Bishop of Antioch in Syria and author of letters to several
churches; Ephesians, Magnasians, Trallians, Romans, Philadelphians, Smyrneans. He also
wrote a letter to Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna,
c. Muratorian Canon: The oldest extant list of New Testament writings, discovered
in the 18th Century by L.A. Muratori in an 8th Century manuscript. The list generally thought
to date from the 2nd Century.
d. Tatian (2nd Century C.E.): A native of Assyria, Tatian was a Christian apologist
and author of the Diatessaron, a history of the life of Christ compiled from the four gospels
and used in the Syriac church until the 5th Century C.E.):
e. Irenaeus (Ca. 130-200 C.E.): Bishop of Lyon, Gaul (France). Around AD 185,
Irenaeus claimed that there were exactly four Gospels, no more and no less, as a
touchstone/criterion of orthodoxy. He argued that it was illogical to reject Acts of the
Apostles but accept the Gospel of Luke, as both were from the same author. In Against
Heresies, he ridiculed those who think they are wiser than the Apostles because they were
still under Jewish influence. This was crucial to refuting Marcion‘s anti-Judaizing, as Acts
gibes/jeers honour to James, Peter, John and Paul alike. At the time, Jewish Christians tended
to honour James (a prominent Christian in Jerusalem described in the New Testament as an
apostle and pillar, and by Eusebius and other church historians as the first Bishop of
Jerusalem) but not Paul, while Pauline Christianity tended to honor Paul more than James.
f. Eusebius of Caesarea (CA. 260-340 C.E.): His Ecclesiastical History, a
multivolume history of the church down to ca. 300, was published ca. 325 C.E.
g. Constantine (CA. 274-337 C.E.): Roman emperor whose policy was to unite the
Christian church to the secular State by the closest possible ties. His laws and letters are a
chief primary source for the relations of Christianity and the State from 313 onwards.
h. Council of Nicaea (325 C.E.): The first ecumenical council of the Christian church
called by Emperor Constantine who feared that disputes within the church would cause
disorder in the empire. The Nicene Creed was formulated with its canons.
3.5. The Importance of the Canon for the Bible
So long as the living voice of prophets and apostles was to be heard, there was no pressing
need of a canon of Scripture. Under the inspiration of God they knew what was inspired, and
what was not. But as soon as these men were dead—and with them inspiration to these
particular people ceased—it became necessary that their writings be gathered together to
know what their messages to the churches were, and to preserve those writings from
corruption.
Another reason why a canon was necessary was to preclude/prevent the possibility of
additions to the number of inspired works. Already numerous writings were extant
purporting to be inspired. Hence the question arose, Which of these are really inspired? What
is the extent of inspired literature?
Still another and potent reason for the formation of the canon lay in the fact that the Emperor
Diocletian issued in A.D. 302 an edict that all the sacred books should be destroyed by fire.
Hence the question arose as to which books rightly deserved the name of inspired and sacred.
3.6. OLD Testament Canon.
The formation of the Old Testament canon was gradual, and was composed of the writings
which spread over many centuries. The approximate time line for the formation of the OT
canon is 1600-1400 years. Moses commanded that the books of the law be placed in the ark
(Deuteronomy 31:9, 26, Cf. 2 Kings 22:8 Joshua 24:26; 2 Samuel 10:25.)
Then were gathered and placed in the temple the historical and prophetical books from
Joshua to David‘s time. On the construction of the temple Solomon deposited in it the earlier
books (2Kings 22:3, Isaiah 34:16), and enriched the collection with inspired writings from his
own pen, and also some prophetic writings. So we find Daniel (9:2 R.V.) referring to ―the
books,‖ Isaiah to ―The book of the Lord‖ (29:18, 34: 16).
After Solomon‘s day a succession of prophets arose, Jonah, Amos, Isaiah, Hosea, Joel,
Micah, Nahum, Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Obadiah, and Habakkuk. These all flourished before
the destruction of the temple, and enlarged the collection of existing sacred books by valuable
additions.
After the Babylonian capture, when the temple was rebuilt and worship re-established, then
doubtless were added the writings of Haggai and Zechariah. About fifty years after the
temple was rebuilt Ezra made a collection of the sacred writings (Neh. 8:2,3,14). To this
collection were added the writings of Nehemiah, Malachi, and Ezra. It is a fact of history that
Nehemiah gathered the ―Acts of the kings and the Prophets, and those of David,‖ when
founding a library for the second temple, 432 B.C. (See 2 Maccabees 2:13).
The canon of the Old Testament in the form we now have it, was the work of Ezra and the
Great Synagogue. This fact is borne witness to in the most ancient Jewish writings. The
Great Synagogue was composed of Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. There
is no doubt but that such a collection of books existed in the time of our Lord and the apostles
(Luke 24:27, 44).
3.7. The New Testament Canon
The persecution of Diocletian (302 A.D.) brought to the front the question of the sacred
literature of the church. The persecutors demanded that the Scriptures should be given up.
This Christians refused to do. Hence the question became urgent-what books are apostolic?
The answer lies in our New Testament. There were at that time many false and spurious
gospels and epistles. Careful, prayerful, and deliberate examination, however, proved which
were genuine and which were false. The genuine were received by the church as the inspired
writings of the apostles and others whose names the books bear. Thus arose the New
Testament canon.
There is much evidence to indicate that the Canon of the Old Testament was fixed by about
the year 400 B.C. largely as a result of the work of Ezra and Nehemiah and a council of Jews
known as the Great Synagogue, which met after the return from the Babylonian captivity.
Long before that time, however, many of the books we now have in the Old Testament had
been agreed upon as inspired. In the case of the New Testament, the fixing of the Canon was
done mainly at the council at Carthage in 387 A.D., although the evidence points to the
selection of the books as early as about the year 100A.D.
3.8. The Biblical Canon of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahdo Church
One Church which occupies a unique position in this regard is the Ethiopian Orthodox
Tewahdo Church. Currently, it is the only Church whose Bible is comprised of 81 Books in
total, 46 in the Old Testament, and 35 in the New Testament. It is also the biggest Bible,
according to the number of books: Protestant Bibles usually contain 66 books, Roman
Catholic Bibles 73, and Eastern Orthodox Bibles have around 76 books, sometimes more,
sometimes less, depending on their belonging to the Greek Orthodox, Slavonic Orthodox, or
Georgian Orthodox Church.
And although the Ethiopian Orthodox Church belongs to the group of Oriental Orthodox
Churches which are in communion with each other, there is no common consensus among
them as to which books make up the Biblical canon; for example, the Coptic Orthodox
Church has the same canon as Western Protestant Churches, with the addition of the two
Epistles of Clement in the New Testament (a total of 68 books).
3.8.1. The Bible in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahdo Church
As mentioned above, the Bible of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church consists of 81 books, 46 in
the Old Testament, and 35 in the new.4 With this, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church has the
most extensive collection of Biblical books considered to be canonical of all the major
Christian denominations.5 The number of books as well as the exact titles are laid down in
the Feteha Negest (Law of the Kings), a book of law used in Christian Ethiopia since at least
the 16th century, based on an Arabic manuscript written by a Christian Egyptian in 1238,
which lists the books of the Bible. In Section 2, it states the number is to be 81; the actual
titles of the books are mentioned in the text as well as in ―Reading and Explanation of the
Feteha Negest‖ (a kind of commentary).
It should not come as a surprise that most of the ―additional‖ books (those not accepted by all
or most other Churches) are books that either have been considered canonical Scripture by
one or more of the other Churches at some point, and/or are summarized as Apocrypha or
Pseudepigrapha by them today, meaning that they constitute the books about which there
always has been a certain amount of discussion as to whether they actually should be
considered as canonical or not. However, some of the books that we find in the Ethiopian
Biblical canon do not fulfil these criteria, either, but are completely unique to that particular
Church.
Yet another curious thing is that, although the number of books in the Ethiopian Orthodox
Bible is always 81, this number is most commonly reached in two different ways (although
other ways did and do exist).
Furthermore, there is currently no distinction at all between the book that are referred to as
proto-canonical and deuteron-canonical. Whereas the Ethiopian Orthodox Church understand
and uses these terms when referring to the respective books in, for example, the Catholic or
Eastern Orthodox Church, or in the ancient writing, like the Festal Letter of St. Athanasius
(see below), it does not differentiate in its own Bible between proto and deutero-canon. All
books accepted into the Bible are considered equally inspired, equally the Word of God, and
equally instructive.
A. Books of the Old Testament
In the official rendering, the number of the Old Testament books in the Ethiopian Orthodox
Church is 46, divided into four sections. Those books include:
I. Books of Law (the 5 Books of Moses)
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy.
 II. Books of History
Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1st and 2nd Samuel, 1st and 2nd Kings, 1st and 2nd Chronicles (2nd
Chronicles includes the Prayer of Manasseh), Ezra and Nehemiah, Ezra Sutuel and 2nd Ezra,
Tobit, Judith, Esther, 1st Meqabeyan
2nd and 3rd Meqabeyan, Joseph Ben Guriyon, Jubilees and Enoch.
III. Books of Psalms (Songs) and Wisdom
Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Reproof (―Tsegats‖ in Ge‘ez), Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Wisdom
(of Solomon) and Sirach.
IV. Books of Prophecy
Isaiah, Jeremiah (including Lamentations, the Remainder of Jeremiah, and Baruch), Ezekiel,
Daniel (including Susannah, the Prayer of the Three Children, and Bel and the Dragon),
Hosea, Amos, Micah, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah o Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai,
Zechariah and Malachi.
As mentioned above, this is the official rendering. In the actual Bible which is currently on
the market, the arrangement is somewhat different: 1st and 2nd Samuel have been printed as
individual books in it, similarly 1st and 2nd Kings, 1st and 2nd Chronicles, and 2nd and 3rd
Meqabeyan. Also, Ezra and Nehemiah have been separated, as have Ezra Sutuel and 2nd
Ezra. All the writings of Jeremiah, which are one book in the official rendering, have been
separated in the actual printing: Jeremiah, Baruch, Lamentations, and the Remainder of
Jeremiah; there is also a book titled ―the Remainder of Baruch‖. The book of Joseph Ben
Guriyon has been eliminated. In the actual print version, therefore, the number of Old
Testament books is 54. The order also varies; in the print version it is: Genesis, Exodus,
Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1st and 2nd Samuel, 1st and 2nd
Kings, 1st and 2nd Chronicles, Jubilees, Enoch, Ezra, Nehemiah, Ezra Sutuel, 2nd Ezra,
Tobit, Judith, Esther, 1st Meqabeyan, 2nd Meqabeyan, 3rd Meqabeyan, Job, Psalms,
Proverbs, Reproof, Wisdom, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Sirach, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Baruch,
Lamentations, Remainder of Jeremiah, Remainder of Baruch, Ezekiel, Daniel, Hosea, Amos,
Micah, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and
Malachi.
B. Books of the New Testament
As for the New Testament, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church receives the following books into
its canon (in that order).
 I.Gospels
Gospel of Matthew, Gospel of Mark, Gospel of Luke and Gospel of John.
II.History
Acts (of the Apostles)
III. Epistles of Paul
Romans, 1st Corinthians, 2nd Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1st
Thessalonians, 2nd Thessalonians, 1st Timothy, 2nd Timothy, Tito, Philemon and Hebrews.
IV. Other Epistles
1st Peter, 2 Peter, 1 John, 2nd John, 3rd John, James (called ―Yaqob‖ in Ge‘ez) and ude.
nd st

V. Prophecy
Revelation of John

VI. Books of Church Order

1. The Order of Zion,
2. Commandments (Te‘ezaz),
3. Abtils,
4. ―Gitzew‖,
5.1st Book of Covenant,
6.2nd Book of Covenant,
7. Clement and
8. Didascalia.
Except for the books of Church Order, the canon agrees mostly with that received by other
Churches. As we see, in this official rendering, the number of books is 35, making a total of
81 with the 46 books of the Old Testament. In the actual printing, however, the 8 books of
Church Order are not printed (as they are generally not widely available), so that in the
printed version, the number of New Testament books is 27, making again a total of 81 with
the actual 54 books of the Old Testament. How the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahdo Church
came to accept those 81 books, and which ancient canons played in a role in that decision will
be the topic of the next few sections.
 3.8.2. The Comparison of Symbolical Canons with the Canons of the Church
Fathers
85 Apostolic Council of Council(s) of St.Athanasius St.Gregory Amphilochius of
Canons Laodicea Carthage Nazianzen Iconium
Genesis Genesis Genesis Genesis Genesis Genesis
Exodus Exodus Exodus Exodus Exodus Exodus
Leviticus Leviticus Leviticus Leviticus Leviticus Leviticus
Numbers Numbers Numbers Numbers Numbers Numbers
Deuteronomy Deuteronomy Deuteronomy Deuteronomy Deuteronomy Deuteronomy
Joshua Joshua Joshua Joshua Joshua Joshua
Judges Judges Judges Judges Judges Judges
Ruth Ruth Ruth Ruth Ruth Ruth
1st Kings 1st Kings 1st Kings 1st Kings 1st Kings 1st Kings
2nd Kings 2nd Kings 2nd Kings 2nd Kings 2nd Kings 2nd Kings
3rd Kings 3rd Kings 3rd Kings 3rd Kings 3rd Kings 3rd Kings
4th Kings 4th Kings 4th Kings 4th Kings 4th Kings 4th Kings
1st Chron. 1st Chron. 1st Chron. 1st Chron. 1st Chron. 1st Chron.
2nd Chron. 2ndChron. 2nd Chron. 2nd Chron. 2nd Chron. 2nd Chron.
1st Ezra 1st Ezra 1st Ezra 1st Ezra 1st Ezra 1st Ezra
2nd Ezra 2nd Ezra 2nd Ezra 2nd Ezra 2nd Ezra 2nd Ezra
(Nehemiah Nehemiah Nehemiah Nehemiah Nehemiah Nehemiah)
Esther Esther Esther Esther ………… Esther
……… ………… Judith Judith ………… ……
……… Tobit Tobit ……… ………
1st Meqa ……………. 1st Meqa ……… ……… ………
2nd Meqa. …………… 2nd Meqa. ………… ………… ………
3rd Meqa. ……………. ………… ……… ………… ………
Psalms Psalms Psalms Psalms Psalms Psalms
Job Job Job Job Job Job
Proverbs Proverbs Proverbs Proverbs Proverbs Proverbs
Sirach …………… ……… Sirach …………… …………
Hosea Hosea Hosea Hosea Hosea Hosea
Amos Amos Amos Amos Amos Amos
Micah Micah Micah Micah Micah Micah
Joel Joel Joel Joel Joel Joel
Obadiah Obadiah Obadiah Obadiah Obadiah Obadiah
Jonah Jonah Jonah Jonah Jonah Jonah
Nahum Nahum Nahum Nahum Nahum Nahum
Habakkuk Habakkuk Habakkuk Habakkuk Habakkuk Habakkuk
Zephaniah Zephaniah Zephaniah Zephaniah Zephaniah Zephaniah
Haggai Haggai Haggai Haggai Haggai Haggai
Zechariah Zechariah Zechariah Zechariah Zechariah Zechariah
Malachi Malachi Malachi Malachi Malachi Malachi
Isaiah Isaiah Isaiah Isaiah Isaiah Isaiah
Jeremiah Jeremiah Jeremiah Jeremiah Jeremiah Jeremiah
…………… Baruch ……… Baruch ………… …………
…………… Lamentations ……… Lamentations ……… ..........
………… Epistle Jer. ………… Epistle Jer. ………….. …………….
Ezekiel Ezekiel Ezekiel Ezekiel Ezekiel Ezekiel
Daniel Daniel Daniel Daniel Daniel Daniel
42 41 43 45 37 38
The comparison of the New Testament Books shows
85 Apostolic Council of Council(s) St. Athanasius St. Gregory Amphilochius of
Canons Laodicea of Carthage Nazianzen Iconium
Matthew Matthew Matthew Matthew Matthew Matthew
Mark Mark Mark Mark Mark Mark
Luke Luke Luke Luke Luke Luke
John John John John John John
Acts Acts Acts Acts Acts Acts
Romans Romans Romans Romans Romans Romans
1st Corin. 1st Corin. 1st Corin. 1st Corin. 1st Corin. 1st Corin.
2nd Corin. 2nd Corin. 2ndCorin. 2nd Corin. 2nd Corin. 2nd Corin.
Galatians Galatians Galatians Galatians Galatians Galatians
Ephesians Ephesians Ephesians Ephesians Ephesians Ephesians
Colossians Colossians Colossians Colossians Colossians Colossians
1st Thess. 1st Thess. 1st Thess. 1st Thess. 1st Thess. 1st Thess.
2nd Thess. 2nd Thess. 2nd Thess. 2nd Thess. 2nd Thess. 2nd Thess.
1st Timothy 1st Timothy 1st Timothy 1st Timothy 1st Timothy 1st Timothy
2nd Timothy 2nd Timothy 2nd Timothy 2nd Timothy 2nd Timothy 2nd Timothy
Tito Tito Tito Tito Tito Tito
Hebrews Hebrews Hebrews Hebrews Hebrews Hebrews
James James James James James James
1st Peter 1st Peter 1st Peter 1st Peter 1st Peter 1st Peter
2nd Peter 2nd Peter 2nd Peter 2nd Peter 2nd Peter 2nd Peter
1st John 1st John 1st John 1st John 1st John 1st John
2nd John 2nd John 2nd John 2nd John 2nd John 2nd John
3rd John 3rd John 3rd John 3rd John 3rd John 3rd John
……….. …………… Apocalypsi Apocalypsis …………….. Apocalypsis
2nd Epis. Cl. …………. ………… ………… ………… …………
2nd Epis. Cl. …………… …………… ………… ………… …………
1st Clemen …………… …………… …………… …………… ……………
2nd Clement …………… …………… …………… …………… ……………
3nd Clement …………… …………… …………… …………… ……………
4nd Clement …………… …………… …………… …………… ……………
5nd Clement …………… …………… …………… …………… ……………
6nd Clement …………… …………… …………… …………… ……………
7nd Clement …………… …………… …………… …………… ……………
8nd Clement …………… …………… …………… …………… ……………
36 26 27 27 26 27
Total=78 Total=67 Total=70 Total=72 Total=63 Total=65