Khushi Thakran
Shahjahanabad [Mughal Authority Display] Architecture
The imperial capital Shahjahanabad was built by Mughal Emperor Shahjahan (1628-58) between
1639 and 1648 and it spread out over a large area along the banks of river Yamuna in the
southeastern parts of the Delhi triangle. The outspurs of the Aravalli range reaching deep into the
great alluvial plains of north India have their terminal point in the Delhi Ridge which afforded natural
protection to the city from erosion by the river Jamuna. Thus, heights for commanding positions,
rocks for stone-quarries, and the river for water supply were the factors which should have combined
to attract Shah Jahan for the creation of his capital city that virtually overlapped the cities of Sher
Shah and Firuz Shah. Other reasons for selecting Delhi were that it enjoyed a reputation as the
imperial city and served as the capital of the Muslim rulers for about three hundred years. It also
acquired an aura of sanctity as a religious centre. Shah Jahan’s architectural vision played a pivotal
role in shaping the urban form of Shahjahanabad. Demonstrating a strong personal interest in
architecture, he replaced many sandstone structures of Akbar’s reign in Agra with new marble
constructions. According to contemporary historian Muhammad Salih Kamboh, architectural designs
were regularly presented to the emperor during his daily darbar. The decision to establish a new
capital in 1639 was driven both by practical concerns—such as limited expansion due to erosion in
Agra and overcrowding during festivals—and Shah Jahan’s desire to assert a distinct imperial identity.
The selected site, strategically located within the Delhi triangle, ensured stability of the Yamuna's
course. The conception of Shahjahanabad was rooted in Islamic cosmological beliefs, wherein the
city symbolized the sacred junction between heaven and earth, reflecting the emperor’s central role
within the nested hierarchies of city, empire, and cosmos. This worldview was echoed by Hindu
architectural traditions as well which shared the idea of spatial centrality linking the throne, city, and
universe. Hindu architects actively contributed to the construction of the capital, reinforcing its
symbolic and imperial significance. [Stephen P. Blake is a historian known for his study of urban
history, particularly of Mughal Delhi (Shahjahanabad). He proposed a theory that cities like
Shahjahanabad were not just places where rulers lived—they were carefully designed to reflect and
project the ruler’s sovereignty (supreme authority).]
According to Stephen P. Blake shahjahanabad was also the ‘exemplar’ of the sovereign city model.
Blake further explains that from the micro-perspective the sovereign city was an enormously
extended patriarchal household, and the centre of power lay in the imperial palace-fortress. The city
was an extension of the imperial mansion as the layout of the buildings and gardens, and the shops
in the city copied the layout of the buildings within the palace complex. Similarly the organization of
production and exchange in the city, by and large, followed the same system as was prevalent in the
palace-fortress. In respect of social interaction of the inhabitants of the city also the imperial palace
set the model. From the macro perspective the sovereign city was the kingdom in miniature. The
emperor intended that his command of the city in respect of power, obedience, resources, and
influence should be ‘symbolic’ of the influence that he and his subordinates exercised over empire.
Stephen P. Blake’s conception of the sovereign city posits that urban centers such as Shahjahanabad
functioned as extensions of the imperial palace, both spatially and structurally. The city’s
architectural layout, socio-economic organization, and systems of governance mirrored the
hierarchical framework of the palace-fortress. A patron-client relationship structured society,
beginning with the emperor, extending to the nobility, and further to their dependents, thus binding
the city in a network resembling an extended patriarchal household. These relationships were
ritually reaffirmed through daily courtly ceremonies. Whether these characteristics were present in
Shahjahanabad, and the city reflected the power of the Mughal emperor, or how much influence the
ruler exercised on the inhabitants of the city is a subject of discussion amongst the scholars. One may
point it out here that the great cities in Mughal India were not merely princely camps as Max Weber
has visualized on the basis of the account of the French traveller Bernier. Instead they had a logic and
structure of their own. There were certain principles that guided their construction that manifested
the power of the ruler in various ways. The capital stood as a symbol of his power and wealth. The
planning of Shahjahanabad, undoubtedly reflected the power of the ruler as many other cities of
medieval India, but it also had certain distinguishing features denoting an independent urban growth
in many respects. Marxist historians, including Irfan Habib, have critiqued the traditional celebratory
narratives by highlighting the exploitative labor systems that underpinned the construction of
Shahjahanabad. They argue that the city's grandeur was built on the backs of exploited workers and
artisans. Habib also emphasizes the economic strain placed on the empire due to the extravagant
architectural projects undertaken by Shah Jahan. Sunil Kumar and Shama Mitra Chenoy have
focused on the hybrid nature of Shahjahanabad's urban identity. They argue that the city's
architectural and social fabric was a blend of Hindu and Islamic influences, reflecting the syncretic
culture of the Mughal Empire. These historians also highlight the contributions of local artisans and
architects, challenging the narrative that credits only the emperor and his court with the city's
creation.
CITY SPACE OF SHAHJAHANABAD
Shahjahan imposed his own vision on the new capital. Its cityscape centered on the structures of the
ruler and his nobles. In this way it resembled to Isfahan, the capital of the Safavids which was
designed by the Safavid ruler Shah Abbas at the close of the sixteenth century. The area of
Shahjahanabad was much larger than any of the earlier cities of the Sultans of Delhi or any other
rulers on the sub-continent. The construction work on the site commenced under the supervision of
two renowned architects Ustad Ahmad and Ustad Hamid. However Shahjahan kept a close watch on
the entire project including the locations and building plans of the mansions of the grandees of the
empire. After two weeks, when initial spate work was completed, princes and high-ranking nobles
also received plots of land so that work may also start on their mansions. Work on the imperial
structures was carried under the supervision of three subadars – Ghairat Khan, Allah Vardi Khan and
Makramat Khan. When finally completed the city was magnificent and it was regarded as one of the
largest and most populous city in the world. Muhammad Salih is all praise for the city and opines
that neither Constantinople nor Baghdad could compare with Shahjahanabad which lacked none of
the amenities of life.
Town Planning
The Mughal emperors were consummate masters of town planning especially Shahjahan who had a
very highly cultivated aesthetic sense. He planned everything on a large and noble scale. Shahjahan
had planned in 1638 a beautiful bouleward in the Chandni Chowk of Delhi. According to Percy
Brown the design of Shahjahanabad shows influences from both Hindu and Islamic architectural
traditions. One important Hindu influence comes from an ancient architectural guide called the
Manasara which includes a special semi-elliptical (bow-shaped) layout called the karmuka. This
design was traditionally used for building settlements near rivers or seas. Usually, in the karmuka
plan, the most important and sacred spot—the best place in the town—would be reserved for a
temple. But in Shahjahanabad, there was a deliberate change: instead of a temple, the palace-
fortress of the emperor was placed at this prime location, where the two main streets of the city
met. This change symbolically shows the emperor’s supreme power, replacing religious authority
with royal authority at the heart of the city’s layout. At the same time, the city’s plan also reflected
Islamic ideas. People believed a city should represent the connection between humans and the
universe. The city was designed to symbolize this cosmic order, like the human body which contains
all life. As Blake opines the walled city ‘symbolized the cosmos and the eight gates the four cardinal
directions plus the four gates of heaven.’
CITY WALLS AND GATES
The city was fortified on three sides by a strong wall and the fourth on the eastern side – partly by
the Fort and partly by the wall. The northern wall of the city extended just three quarters of a mile
from the Water Bastion in the east to the Mori Bastion in the west. It was encircled by a massive wall
more than 8 metre high and 3.5 metres wide. The total length of the walls exceeded 9 kilometres.
The wall was surmounted by twenty-seven towers and interspersed with a number of big gates and
entryways at regular intervals. The major gateways pointed to the direction of the important places
and regions of the empire, such as Lahori Gate, Kashmiri Gate, Ajmeri Gate, Akbarabadi Gate, etc.
Towards the river, where Rajghat and Nigambodh ghat are located, smaller gates were provided for
the Hindu inhabitants of the city to visit their places of worship and perform ceremonial functions.
Overlooking these gates were chaukis (posts) and quarters for the security personnel. There were
two hillocks within the area enclosed by the citadel. On one of these, known as Bhujalal Pahari was
constructed the Jami’ Masjid. It is about 500 metres south-west of the fortress.
PALACE FORTRESS
The Palace-fortress of Shahjahan, known as Qila-i Mubarak or Lal Qila, is an imposing architectural
complex that took nine years to complete. Described by the French traveler Bernier as "the most
magnificent palace in the East," it surpasses other contemporary forts in scale and grandeur.
Encompassing approximately 124 acres within walls extending about 3 kilometers, the palace-
fortress is nearly a parallelogram and features high walls interspersed with towers topped by
ornamental kiosks. It functioned as both the imperial residence and the administrative and cultural
hub, comprising 32 buildings within a "city within a city." Skilled artisans including stone-cutters,
masons, and carpenters contributed to its construction, achieving such precision that, as noted by
Muhammad Salih, “a sharp nail could not be pushed between the stones.” A large moat, 23 meters
wide and 9 meters deep, surrounded the fort, enhancing its isolation and security. The fortress was
separated from the city by three gardens—Buland Bagh, Gulabi Bagh, and Anguri Bagh—now lost.
The palace-fortress featured four grand gateways, with the Lahori Gate serving as the principal
entrance leading to royal apartments, shops, and pavilions. Notably, the Diwan-i-am pavilion
adorned with marble, precious stones, fine plaster, and ivory polish, exemplifying the exquisite
craftsmanship and luxury of the Mughal court. The interior of Shahjahanabad's fortress was divided
into two sections, with the harem and private apartments to the east of the bazaar. Key marble
structures included the Rang Mahal and the ornate Diwan-i Khas, reserved for select nobles. The
fortress housed thousands, including troops, artisans, and staff, along with workshops, stables,
treasury, and more. Functioning as a self-contained city, its layout mirrored the street design of the
larger city itself.
The Important places and bazaars in the city
The most important road in Shahjahanabad connected the Lahori Gate of the city wall to the Lahori
Gate of the palace-fortress, with a diversion near the Fatehpuri mosque. The Nahr-i Faiz canal ran
along its center, creating a reflective water feature that gave the road its famous name, Chandni
Chowk. Lined with trees and over 1,500 shops, many owned by royal women like Princess Jahan Ara
and Nawab Fatehpuri Begum, the road hosted prominent markets such as Urdu Bazar, Jauhri/Asharfi
Bazar, and Fatehpuri Bazar. Another major road connected the Akbarabadi Gate of the fortress with
the Akbarabadi (Delhi) Gate of the city wall, lined with shops and known as Faiz Bazar (modern-day
Darya Ganj). Additional roads from Kashmiri Gate and Kabuli Gate intersected these routes, with
noble mansions and havelis situated along them, illustrating a well-planned urban commercial and
residential network.
The Palaces and mansion of Nobility
The social hierarchy of Shahjahanabad placed the ruling class immediately below the emperor, with
nobles residences designed to imitate the imperial palace on a smaller scale. These mansions
featured common elements such as naqqar-khanas (drummer’s chambers), armed retainers,
gardens, and harems, but were state-owned properties subject to acquisition. Wealthy merchants
and hakims lived in privately owned multi-storied havelis. The grand palaces of princes and nobles
dominated the cityscape, enclosed by high walls and comprising extensive gardens and apartments.
According to 18th-century accounts, noble mansions included fortified gateways, living quarters, and
extensive facilities such as stables, workshops, treasuries, and servant quarters, often housing
thousands of people. These mansions not only shaped the urban landscape but also significantly
influenced the city’s economy and consumption patterns, reflecting their social and economic
dominance. Feminist historians have explored the gendered dimensions of Shahjahanabad's
urban landscape. They argue that the city's design and social organization reinforced
patriarchal norms by restricting women's access to public spaces. However, they also
highlight the agency of elite Mughal women, who played significant roles in the cultural and
social life of the city through their patronage of art, architecture, and charitable institutions
The Gardens
The urban sprawl of Shahjahanabad extended beyond its walled area into garden-filled suburbs,
reflecting the Islamic and Mughal tradition of garden planning. These gardens, called chahar bagh,
were rectangular and divided by canals, symbolizing paradise. Surrounding the city were notable
gardens and mansions of Mughal nobility, such as Shalimar Bagh and Roshanara Bagh, Kudisa Bagh,
Mubarak Bagh. The city’s layout mirrored the palace-fortress, with a division between the imperial
seat of power and the active urban zone, and its streets and markets replicated the internal
organization of the palace.
Architecture as an Expression of Mughal Sovereignty under Shah Jahan
Different Mughal emperors used different architecture. Shah Jahan architecture is the expression of
the Mughal sovereignty. There is articulation of Mughal sovereign through architecture and Shah
Jahan is not the first one. But Shah Jahan architecture was quite interesting and quite different. As
recorded by Lahori that lot of time was devoted in the court in the discussion of architecture and
even nobles used to share the building architecture plan in front of the emperor. The Shah Jahan
architecture inspired the Indian architecture of 17th century, for example Jaipur. Lots of domes were
constructed in 17th century like of gurudwaras. There was lots of experimentation in Shah Jahan
reign. Before Shah Jahan there are enormous idioms available. According to Ebba Koch, a key scholar
on Mughal architecture, Shah Jahan’s contribution lies in his selective reduction of the vast
architectural vocabulary inherited from earlier traditions into a coherent aesthetic that emphasized
symmetry, proportion, and controlled spatial articulation. The floral aesthetic is very important. Ebba
Koch argues that there was introduction of floral design where ever possible and was to bring
buildings to paradise. The buildings had vegetal floral input in the features of the buildings and the
arches are foliated like a petal of a flower. Floral input in the columns and the buildings were only
pillars and the bulbous. They were usually supported by square base and non-descript capital. The
pillars has a square base with a multiple fasited octagon often shaft very plan and delicate. The other
important shape of arch is rounded one or semi circular. It is also called as chah jahan arch. These
arches were always reserved for imperial spaces in a court or palace. Ebba Koch argues that the
Imperial presence is expressed just through shapes for reality and sovereignty. Ebba Koch notes
that under Shahjahan, Mughal architecture took on a new aesthetic and entered its classical phase.
The architectural ideals of the period were symmetry- and uniformity of shapes, governed by
hierarchical accents. Shahjahanabad, literally the abode of Shah Jahan, was not simply a fortified
palace, but an entire walled city built as the new Mughal capital. There are several different
interpretations regarding why Shah Jahan decided to shift the imperial capital from Agra and built a
new city. Some argue that he decided to establish a new capital not only for the reason that he
wanted to distinguish himself from his predecessors, it was also because due to the scope for the
expansion of the imperial capital Agra became difficult, and on festive occasions it was difficult to
manage the crowd in the palace. Thus, heights for commanding positions, rocks for stone-quarries,
and the river for water supply were the factors which should have combined to attracted Shah Jahan.
It also acquired an aura of sanctity as a religious centre as reflected in the accounts of many
contemporary scholars like Sujan Rai. Catherine Asher says the main Lahori gate was aligned with
the’ Diwan i aam’ and the Emperor’s throne, symbolizing a more relaxed notion of Kingship that the
king was available for his people. Beyond the’ Diwan-i-Aam’ were the ‘Diwan i Khas’ and marble royal
palaces.. From the outside these pavilions and palaces had silver trabeate roofs, gilded bangaldar
roofs, turrets, kiosks, perforated screens and hanging balconies which created a sense of romance.
Divided by foliated arches they were usually single storied and open on all sides and had the
European multifaceted balustrade columns associated with royalty. In 1656 Shahjahan added the
Jama Masjid just outside the palace complex. This mosque placed above loft stairs was the largest in
India. This according to Annemarie Schimmel is symbolic on linking state with religion. To conclude
it can be said that the planning of the city of Shahjahanabad was done in a manner that it symbolizes
the hold of the ruler in many ways According to Nurul Hasan, the imperial palace and the Jama
Masjid were the imperial centre around which the entire city revolved. Catherine Asher has further
put forward the argument that the enthrone emperor faced the heart of his newly established
capital symbolizing his role as a just ruler who like a father was directly in touch with his subject this
was a visual manifestation of the Mughal concept of kingship that has been established by Akbar.
However, Shahjahanabad was not solely dependent on the emperor for its growth or sustenance.
The urban communities retained ‘their own distinctive style and character’ which is evident from the
fact that the city continued to flourish even after the decline of the Empire. Further Shahjahanabad
cannot be singularly looked only as a planned capital city of the Mughal Empire. Shahjahanabad
served as a political, religious and economic space for the empire and reflected the magnificence of
the Mughal Empire.
