DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Module-I
Introduction: Concepts and definitions: Disaster, hazard, vulnerability, resilience, risks, frequency
and details, capacity, impact, prevention, mitigation.
Disasters classification; natural disasters (floods, draught, cyclones, volcanoes, earthquakes, tsunami,
landslides, coastal erosion, soil erosion, forest fires etc.); manmade disasters (industrial pollution,
artificial flooding in urban areas, nuclear radiation, transportation accidents, terrorist strikes, etc.);
hazard and vulnerability profile of India, mountain and coastal areas, ecological fragility.
Disaster Impacts: Classification, Causes, Impacts including social, economic, political,
environmental, health, psychosocial, etc.- Differential impacts- in terms of caste, class, gender, age,
location, disability, etc. Dos and Don’ts during various types of Disasters.

INTRODUCTION
Irrespective of whether the causes are natural or man-made, disasters can occur at any point of time.
Often, the official response to a disaster is through relief and rescue operations that follow the
catastrophe. Nevertheless, if the preparation is adequate, there might be a reduction in the impact of a
disaster. This reduction can take place if sound knowledge of precautionary measures is applied
accompanied by proper usage of specific life-saving apparatus and procedure. These, when utilized in
the event of a disaster, are able to control the overall damage to life and property.
Disaster management is the discipline that pertains to the preparation for disaster before it occurs,
response to disaster and support and reconstruction of society after the occurrence of natural and man-
made disasters. It is a continuous process for the protection of all communities, regions and nations
from serious hazards. In the absence of planning, a natural event may turn into a human and economic
disaster. The aim of disaster management is to procure the most useful data for decision making in the
most cost-effective and practical manner in the face of any kind of disaster facing humanity.

Concepts and definitions

Disaster:
A disaster is a sudden, calamitous event that seriously disrupts the functioning of a community or
society and causes human, material, and economic or environmental losses that exceed the
community’s or society’s ability to cope using its own resources. Though often caused by nature,
disasters can have human origins.

Hazard:
A hazard can be defined as a dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may
cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services,
social and economic disruption, or environmental damage.
Vulnerability:
This refers to the human condition that is attributed to the physical, social, economic and
environmental factors, which determine the likelihood and scale of damage from the impact of a
hazard. The difference between poverty and vulnerability is that poverty measurement is very static,
depends on income or food intake, whereas vulnerability analysis is more dynamic encompassing the
physical, social, economic and environmental factors. All the poor are vulnerable, but not all the
vulnerable are poor.
(Vulnerability + Hazard) / Capacity = Disaster

SN. Hazard Vulnerability

1 A hazard can be defined as a Vulnerability refers to the
dangerous phenomenon, characteristics and circumstances of a
substance, human activity or community, system or asset that
condition that may cause loss of make it susceptible to the damaging
life, injury or other health impacts, effects of a hazard.
property damage, loss of
livelihoods and services, social and
economic disruption, or
environmental damage.
2 The hazards of concern to disaster There are many aspects of
risk reduction is of natural origin vulnerability, arising from various
and related environmental and physical, social, economic, and
technological hazards and risks. environmental factors.
3 Such hazards arise from a variety of Examples may include poor design
geological, meteorological, and construction of buildings,
hydrological, oceanic, biological, inadequate protection of assets, lack
and technological sources, of public information and awareness,
sometimes acting in combination. limited official recognition of risks
and preparedness measures, and
disregard for wise environmental
management.
4 Hazards are described Vulnerability varies significantly
quantitatively by the likely within a community and over time.
frequency of occurrence of different
intensities for different areas, as
determined from historical data or
scientific analysis.
Risk:
Risk is expressed as the likelihood of loss of life, injury or destruction and damage from a disaster in
a given period of time. It is the interaction between likelihoods of hazards and consequences of hazards.
It can be said that,
Risk (R) = Hazards (H) * Vulnerability (V)/Coping Capacity (C).

Resilience:
Resilience is the ability of individuals, communities, organizations and states to adopt and recover
from hazards, shocks or stresses without compromising long term prospects for development.

Capacity:
This refers to the manner in which an individual, a collection of individuals and organizations use the
available and existing resources under their control to limit the impact of a disaster. Vulnerability
cannot be changed without the political will of the government and the long-term development
interventions aimed at the poor and the vulnerable people living in the known disaster-prone areas.

Mitigation:
Mitigation embraces all measures taken to reduce both the effects of the hazard itself and the vulnerable
conditions to it in order to reduce the scale of a future disaster.

Preparedness:
The knowledge and capacities developed by governments, professional response and recovery
organizations, communities and individuals to effectively anticipate, respond to, and recover from, the
impacts of likely, imminent or current hazard events or conditions.

Prevention:
The outright avoidance of adverse impacts of hazards and related disasters. Public awareness: The
extent of common knowledge about disaster risks, the factors that lead to disasters and the actions that
can be taken individually and collectively to reduce exposure and vulnerability to hazards.

Recovery:
The restoration, and improvement where appropriate, of facilities, livelihoods and living conditions of
disaster-affected communities, including efforts to reduce disaster risk factors. Response: The
provision of emergency services and public assistance during or immediately after a disaster in order
to save lives, reduce health impacts, ensure public safety and meet the basic subsistence needs of the
people affected. Retrofitting: Reinforcement or upgrading of existing structures to become more
resistant and resilient to the damaging effects of hazards.

Epidemics:
Epidemics is a disease that has spread across a large region.
Pandemic:
Pandemic is an epidemic occurring on a scale which crosses international boundaries, usually affecting
a large number of people. Pandemics can also occur in important agricultural organisms (live stock,
crop plants, fish, tree species ) or in other organisms.
A widespread endemic disease with a stable number of infected people is not a pandemic.
Widespread endemic diseases with a stable number of infected people such as recurrences of seasonal
influenza are generally excluded as they occur simultaneously in large regions of the globe rather than
being spread worldwide.

Disaster Management Cycle:

The disaster management cycle consists of seven stages: Response, Rehabilitation, Reconstruction,
Development, Prevention, Mitigation and Preparedness, as shown in the Figure 1. Figure 1 depicts the
disaster management cycle: The continuum of Disaster – Response – Rehabilitation – Reconstruction
– Development – Prevention – Mitigation – Preparedness. It is advised that the agencies involved in
the development and humanitarian response follow the whole cycle of disaster management.

Figure 1 Disaster Management Cycle

There are three key phases of activity within disaster management:

1. Pre Disaster: Before a disaster to reduce the potential for human, material or environmental losses
caused by hazards and to ensure that these losses are minimized when the disaster actually strikes.
2. During Disaster: It is to ensure that the needs and provisions of victims are met to alleviate and
minimize suffering.
3. Post Disaster: After a disaster to achieve rapid and durable recovery which does not reproduce the
original vulnerable conditions.
A successful disaster management planning must encompass the situation that occurs before, during
and after disasters.
1. Pre - Disaster Phase
Prevention and Mitigation -
Reducing the risk of disasters involves activities, which either reduce or modify the scale and intensity
of the threat faced or by improving the conditions of elements at risk.
Although the term, prevention is often used to embrace the wide diversity of measures to protect
persons and property its use is not recommended since it is misleading in its implicit suggestion that
natural disasters are preventable. The use of the term reduction to describe protective or preventive
actions that lessen the scale of impact is therefore preferred.
Mitigation embraces all measures taken to reduce both the effects of the hazard itself and the vulnerable
conditions to it in order to reduce the scale of a future disaster. In addition to these physical measures,
mitigation should also be aimed at reducing the physical, economic and social vulnerability to threats
and the underlying causes for this vulnerability. Therefore, mitigation may incorporate addressing
issues such as land ownership, tenancy rights, wealth distribution, implementation of earthquake
resistant building codes, etc.
Preparedness
The process embraces measures that enable governments, communities and individuals to respond
rapidly to disaster situations to cope with them effectively. Preparedness includes for example, the
formulation of viable emergency plans, the development of warning systems, the maintenance of
inventories, public awareness and education and the training of personnel. It may also embrace search
and rescue measures as well as evacuation plans for areas that may be at risk from a recurring disaster.
All preparedness planning needs to be supported by appropriate rules and regulations with clear
allocation of responsibilities and budgetary provision.
Early Warning
This is the process of monitoring the situation in communities or areas known to be vulnerable to slow
onset hazards, and passing the knowledge of the pending hazard to people in harm’s way. To be
effective, warnings must be related to mass education and training of the population who know what
actions they must take when warned.
The Disaster Impact
This refers to the “real-time event of a hazard occurring and affecting elements at risk. The duration
of the event will depend on the type of threat; ground shaking may only occur in a matter of seconds
during an earthquake while flooding may take place over a longer sustained period.

2. During Disaster Phase

Response
This refers to the first stage response to any calamity, which include for examples such as setting up
control rooms, putting the contingency plan in action, issue warning, action for evacuation, taking
people to safer areas, rendering medical aid to the needy etc., simultaneously rendering relief to the
homeless, food, drinking water, clothing etc. to the needy, restoration of communication, disbursement
of assistance in cash or kind. The emergency relief activities undertaken during and immediately
following a disaster, which includes immediate relief, rescue, and the damage, needs assessment and
debris clearance.

3. The Post - Disaster Phase

Recovery
Recovery is used to describe the activities that encompass the three overlappingphases of emergency
relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction.
Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation includes the provision of temporary public utilities and housing as interim measures to
assist long-term recovery.
Reconstruction
Reconstruction attempts to return communities to improved pre-disaster functioning. It includes such
as the replacement of buildings; infrastructure and lifeline facilities so that long-term development
prospects are enhanced rather than reproducing the same conditions, which made an area or population
vulnerable in the first place.
Development
In an evolving economy, the development process is an ongoing activity. Longterm prevention/disaster
reduction measures for examples like construction of embankments against flooding, irrigation
facilities as drought proofing measures, increasing plant cover to reduce the occurrences of landslides,
land use planning, construction of houses capable of withstanding the onslaught of heavy rain/wind
speed and shocks of earthquakes are some of the activities that can be taken up as part of the
development plan.

CLASSIFICATION OF DISASTERS
A disaster is a serious disruption occurring over a short or long period of time that causes widespread
human, material, economic or environmental loss which exceeds the ability of the affected community
or society to cope using its own resources.

Based on the origin disaster is grouped into two types: Natural disasters and Man-made disasters
1. Natural disasters It refers to those disasters that are generated by natural phenomena. ex) cyclones,
floods, earthquakes, landslides and tsunami
2. Man-made disasters It usually refers to the disasters resulting from man-made hazards. ex)
Accidents, pollution, fire

Natural Disasters:
When disasters occur due to natural forces they are called natural disasters, over which man has hardly
any control. These disasters cause enormous loss to life and property.
Natural disasters can be of various kinds, the most prominent of which, have been listed as follows:
Land-movement disasters: These kinds of disasters can further be classified into the following:

 Earthquakes
 Landslides and mudflows
 Avalanches
 Volcanic eruptions
Water disasters: The various water disasters are:

 Floods
 Tsunamis
 Droughts
Air disasters: The disasters caused by weather disturbances are:

 Cyclonic storms
 Hailstorms
 Tornadoes
Natural fires (like forest fire)
Health and diseases: The hazards that can be caused due to health problems are as follows:

 Epidemic
 Famine
Some of the common natural disasters, their impact on environment, and their prevention, control and
mitigation are discussed below:

1. Earthquakes:
An earthquake is the shaking of the earth’s surface caused by rapid movement of the earth’s crust or
outer layer. Ever since it came into existence 4.6 billion years ago, the earth has been a dynamic,
evolving system. The position of the different continents and oceans that we see today, has changed a
number of times in the earth’s history.

The earth is primarily composed of three layers:

1. The outer crust,
2. The middle mantle, and
3. The inner core.
The Earth’s outer layer or crust is made up of a number of zig-saw pieces like structures that interlock
into one another. These pieces are called tectonic plates. These plates are in continuous motion over
the mantle, which is known as tectonic movements. These tectonic processes are also responsible for
the mountain building processes. The plates that are moving past over one another are slowed by
friction along their boundaries. Due to this, the rocks are under strain. When the stress on the rocks
exceeds certain limits, the rocks rupture and form a fault along which the rocks are displaced during
tectonic movements.
 Figure 2: Elements of Earthquake

This sudden rupture of the rocks releases energy in the form of earthquake waves.Thus earthquake is
a form of energy, which is transmitted to the surface of the earth in the form of waves called seismic
waves. The study of earthquakes and the waves they create is called seismology (from the Greek
Seismos, “to shake”). Scientists who study earthquakes are called seismologists. The instrument that
records the seismic waves is called seismograph. The exact spot under the earth surface at which an
earthquake originates is called the focus or hypocenter. The point on the earth surface above the focus
is called the epicenter. The Richter scale is used to measure the intensity of earthquakes.
The intensity is measured on a scale of 0 to 8 and above.
Table 1: Richter Scale

Impact of Earthquake on the Environment

The destruction, an earthquake causes, depends on its magnitude and duration or the amount of shaking
that occurs. In the last 500 years, earthquakes around the world have killed several million people.
Earthquake is one of the most catastrophic natural disasters. Massive loss of life and property occurs
due to collapse of buildings. Besides, roads, bridges, canals, electric poles, etc. are severely damaged.
Certain regions of the earth are more prone to earthquakes. These are places located in the unstable
regions of the earth crust, which are subjected to tectonic activities.
Countries like Japan, parts of Southeast Asia, Turkey, Iran, Mexico, etc. are affected by severe
earthquakes. In India, the entire Himalayan region, parts of the Gangetic Plain, Kutch and Andaman
and Nicobar Islands are in the earthquake hazard zone.
Shaking of the ground and surface rupture: This is the main cause of destruction in which buildings,
bridges, roads, canals and other structures are damaged.
Liquefaction: Earthquakes make sands and silts to transform from a solid to liquid state. This also
results in building collapse.
Landslides: Earthquakes of high intensity often trigger many landslides in the hilly regions.
Fires: It is a major hazard associated with earthquakes. The shakings of the ground and
building damage often break the gas pipes and electric lines that cause fires.
Changes in the land elevation: The surface topography of a region and groundwater conditions are
altered after an earthquake.
Tsunami: It is a Japanese term meaning ‘harbour waves’. Tsunamis are massive sea waves that are
mainly caused due to earthquakes in the ocean floor or possibly due to an undersea landslide or
volcanic eruption. When the ocean floor is tilted or offset during an earthquake a set of waves is created
similar to the concentric waves generated by an object dropped into the water. These waves are massive
in size and gain height as they approach the seashore. Tsunamis up to the height of 30 m are recorded.
Tsunamis are the most catastrophic among natural disasters as they affect a very wide geographical
area.
Prevention and mitigation of earthquake and hazard reduction programs
Despite the advances made by modem science, the exact time and place where an earthquake may
strike cannot be predicted. Hence, the occurrence of an earthquake cannot be prevented. However,
there are certain regions that are earthquakes prone and so the administration must work before hand
to minimize the damages due to occurrence of earthquakes in such areas.
The control and mitigation measures in earthquake prone regions include hazard reduction
programmes, development of critical facilities and proper land use planning.
Hazard reduction programs: These include the following:
i. Earthquake education and evacuation plans.
ii. Use of proper construction material that is not injurious even if the structures collapse.

iii. Construction of quake resistant buildings having proper structural design.

Development of critical facilities: These include the following:
i. Establishment of earthquake regulatory agencies for fast relief.
ii. Establishment of specific health care units for treating earthquake injuries proper land use planning.
iii. Mapping of faults and weak zones in earthquake prone areas.

iv. Buildings such as schools, hospitals, offices, etc. should be in areas away from active faults.

2. Floods:
Floods refer to the ‘inundation of large parts of land which otherwise remain dry by water for some
duration of time’. Floods are one of the most common natural disasters occurring in many parts of the
world every year. Floods occur due to heavy rainfall within a short duration of time in a particular
region which causes the rivers and streams to overflow. Since most of the precipitation occurs within
span of two to three months during the rainy season, most floods occur during that time.
Types of Floods
1. Flash floods: If extremely heavy rainfall occurs for some time and the ground loses its absorbing
capacity then this type of flood generally takes place. These types of floods last for a short duration
with a relatively high peak discharge.
2. River floods: If due to heavy rain the water level of river flows much above the danger mark, this
type of flood occurs.
3. Storm surge: Low-pressure storm associated with strong wind causes the sea level to rise
suddenly. If strong winds are directed towards the shore, they drive the seawater onto the land. The
storm that produces the surge can also give rise to heavy rainfall, resulting in coastal areas being
subjected simultaneously to flooding due to incessant rains and seawater.
The plain areas of a region which are drained by a number of rivers, are the places most affected by
floods. In India, states like Assam, Bihar and parts of Gangetic Uttar Pradesh are quite prone to floods
during the rainy season. The Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers and their tributaries are most susceptible
to floods. However, heavy rains cause occasional floods in parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu. Flooding, in India, is a major problem and some part or the other is affected by the
fury of floods usually during the months from July to September.
Floods cause untold miseries to the affected regions in the form of huge losses of life and property.
There is great damage to agriculture and livestock. Flood affected areas face acute shortages of food
and drinking water. Besides, floods cause a number of waterborne diseases such as diarrhoea,
gastroenteritis, jaundice, malaria, etc.
Impact on the Environment:
Though the lives lost in floods may not be as high as in case of earthquakes or cyclones, the damage
to the environment is immense. The problem is further aggravated if the floods last for a longer
duration of time.
Floods not only damage property and endanger if lives of humans and animals, but have other effects
as well, such as:
1. Floods cause the spread of many epidemic diseases.

2. Rapid runoff causes soil erosion.

3. Wildlife habitat and forests are often destroyed.

4. Manmade structures like buildings, bridges, roads, sewer lines, power lines,
etc. are damaged.
5. Floods cause widespread damage to the standing crops and degrade the
agricultural land.
6. Flood affected areas are faced with acute shortage of food and drinking water.
Prevention, Control and Mitigation:
Though floods are a natural hazard, it is sometimes intensified due to undesirable human activities.
The measures that can be taken to control the extent of flood damage include land use planning,
building of physical barriers, preventing human encroachment and use of technology for relief.
Land Use Planning: Proper land use planning in flood prone areas includes:
1. Demarcation of the flood-prone areas that are first inundated during floods.
2. Construction work and concentration of human population should be avoided in the floodplains.
3. Afforestation on the upper reaches of the river (catchment areas) to control soil erosion and excessive
runoff.
Building of Physical Barriers: Flood can be prevented by building certain structures, such as:

1. Embankments along the banks of rivers in densely populated areas.

2. Building of reservoirs to collect excess water during floods.
3. The construction of channels that divert floodwater.
Preventing Human Encroachment: Human encroachment should be avoided in the following areas:
1. Floodplains and catchment areas.
2. This would control deforestation and soil erosion which would prevent excessive runoff.
Use of technology for relief: Advanced technology can be used in the following ways:
1. Advanced communication techniques for flood forecasting and warning.
2. Fast evacuation of people.
3. To provide relief in temporary shelters.
4. Immediate supply of medicines, drinking water, food and clothes.
5. Epidemic diseases must be controlled through spraying, vaccination, etc.
3. Drought:
Drought is a condition of abnormally dry weather within a geographic region. Drought refers to the
lack or insufficiency of rain for an extended period of time in a specific region. During droughts,
rainfall is less than normal causing a water imbalance and resultant water shortage. It occurs when the
rate of evaporation and transpiration exceeds precipitation for a considerable period.
Drought should not be confused with dry climate, as in the Sahara or Thar Desert. It is marked by an
unusual scarcity of water and food for the humans as well as animals.
Certain regions of the world, such as parts of Central Africa, are characterized by low amount of
rainfall resulting in perennial drought-like conditions.
Some part of India is often affected by drought even during the rainy season. As India is primarily an
agricultural country, droughts cause untold miseries to the common people. Many Indian farmers are
still totally dependent on rainfall for irrigation and because of abnormally dry spells there is extensive
crop damage. The main drought prone areas of the country are parts of Rajasthan, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Chhattisgarh. However, sometimes drought like conditions also
prevail in the Gangetic Plain also.
In India, droughts have been classified into four types. These are:
1. Meteorological droughts occur when there are long gaps in normal rainfall and are measured
based on the degree of dryness and the duration of the dry period.
2. Agricultural droughts occur when there is insufficient soil moisture to meet the needs of a crop
at a particular time. Agricultural drought usually follows meteorological drought and occurs before
a hydrological drought. Agricultural drought can be measured through indicators such as lack of
rainfall, changes in evapotranspiration, soil water deficits, reduced groundwater or reservoir levels
etc.
3. Hydrological droughts are the result of surface and subsurface water supplies from streams, rivers
and lakes becoming scarce due to scanty rainfall. The frequency and severity of hydrological
droughts are defined at the watershed or river basin scale and are influenced by factors such as land
degradation or land use changes, construction of dams etc.
4. Socioeconomic droughts occur when water shortage starts to affect people’s lives, individually
and collectively.
Impact of environment:
The severity of the drought is gauged by the degree of moisture deficiency, its duration, and the size
of the area affected. If the drought is brief, it is known as a dry spell or partial drought.
Drought causes serious environmental imbalances, which are summarized below:
1. Water-supply reservoirs become empty, wells dry up and there is acute water shortage.
2. Groundwater level is also depleted because of less recharge.
3. Soil degradation and erosion occurs. Soil cracks because of shrinkage during desiccation.

4. Dust storms occur when drought hits an area suffering from desertification and erosion
5. There is extensive crop damage.

6. People become impoverished and there are diseases due to malnutrition.

7. Mass migration, resulting in internal displacement and international refugees
8. Widespread damage to flora and fauna air including domestic animals.
9. Wildfires, such as Australian bushfires, are more common during times of drought
Prevention, Control and Mitigation:
Rains are caused by a number of natural factors like air currents, wind direction, etc. Thus, droughts
are a natural phenomenon, beyond human control and prevention. Though, global warming may have
changed the pattern of rainfall in the recent times. In modem times, by the use of satellites, we can
predict the weather pattern over a particular area.
Drought-like conditions can be overcome by better water harvesting techniques. Certain precautions
can be taken in drought prone areas, which relate to management of water resources, proper
agricultural techniques and relief by different agencies.
Management of water resources: These include the following:
1. Conservation of water through rainwater harvesting, building check dams, bunds, etc.
2. Construction of reservoirs to hold emergency water supplies.

Proper Agricultural Techniques: These include the following:

1. Increased use of drought resistant crops.
2. Proper irrigation techniques, such as drip and trickle irrigation that minimize the use of water.
3. Over-cropping and overgrazing should be avoided.
Relief measures: Immediate relief to the drought-affected people should be provided in the form of :
1. Employment generation programmes, like ‘food for work’ in the drought affected areas.
2. To provide fodder for domestic animals.

4. Cyclones
Cyclone is an area of low atmospheric pressure surrounded by a wind system blowing in anti-clockwise
direction, formed in the northern hemisphere. In common terms, cyclone can be described as a giant
circular storm system. In a cyclone, the wind speed must be more than 119 km/hr.
Cyclones generate in the seas and oceans and move with a very high speed towards the land.
Cyclones form when moisture evaporates from the warm oceans during the hot season. The air rises,
condenses and gathers momentum as it moves over the ocean. Due to the extreme low pressure in the
centre, more and more air rushes inwards and it grows to a considerable size and intensity.
It strikes the land with a devastating force and gradually withers off on land when they are cut from
their source of ocean moisture.
Cyclones are named variously depending on their source of origin. They are called hurricanes in the
Atlantic, typhoons in the Pacific, cyclones in the Indian Ocean and willy-willies in Australia.
Impact on the Environment:
Cyclones are quite common in the Bay of Bengal and often cause much damage in Bangladesh and
coastal areas of West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
Cyclones cause devastation when they hit the landmass in the form of very strong winds, heavy rains
and storm tides.
1. The coastal low-lying areas are most affected.
2. The affected areas are inundated both with rainfall and the surge of seawater.
3. Devastation is also increased due to the accompanying high velocity winds.
4. Widespread damage in the form of uprooted trees, blown-off roof tops, standing crops, injuries and
death to humans and animals.
5. Many shipwrecks occur during cyclonic storms.
6. The affected areas are impoverished and are followed by spread of epidemic and diseases.

Prevention, Control and Mitigation:

The occurrence of cyclones is a natural phenomenon, over which humans have no control, hence it
cannot be prevented. However, some scientists have speculated that rise in global warming may cause
an increased occurrence of cyclones. The devastating effects of cyclones can only be controlled and
mitigated through some effective policies such as use of advanced technology, hazard reduction
initiatives and relief measures.
Use of Advanced Technology: These include the following:
1. Satellites can easily forecast the origin of cyclones in advance.
2. Satellite images can track the movement and intensity of cyclones.
3. Installation of early warning systems in the coastal areas.
Hazard Reduction Initiatives: These include the following:
1. Increasing public awareness regarding cyclones.
2. Increasing the public response to cyclone warnings through training.
3. Development of underground shelter belts in the cyclone prone areas.
Relief Measures: These include the following:
1. Rushing relief to the affected areas in the form of medicines, food, clothes, etc.
2. Checking the spread of epidemic water borne diseases as cyclones are generally accompanied by
flooding.

5. Landslides:
Landslides refer to a rapid down-slope movement of rocks or soil mass under the force of gravity.
It is also known as slope failure and mass wasting. Landslides may be typed as mudflow where there
is down-slope movement of soil and debris flow, which is the down-slope movement of coarse material
and rocks.
Landslides may occur when water from rain and melting snow, seeps through the earth on a sloppy
surface and encounters a layer of loose, unstable material such as clay.
Landslides mostly occur on unstable hillsides by the action of rain or snow that seep through the soils
and rocks. This results in the sliding of earth and rock masses down the hill slopes. These are further
triggered due to deforestation and human encroachment on unstable slopes. All the hilly regions of our
country are prone to landslides.
The important factors responsible for landslide occurrence are as follows:
1. Stability of slopes
2. The type of earth and rock material
3. The type of vegetation
4. The role of ground water conditions and precipitation
5. Presence of streams, etc.
Impact on the Environment:

Landslides, though local in nature, occur quite often in many parts of the world. Landslides occur in
the hilly regions; the Himalayan region in India is particularly prone to landslides.
Every year landslides occur, especially during the monsoon season and cause much damage to life and
property.
The impact on the environment is manifested in the form of:
1. Uprooted trees and degraded soil
2. Buried building and settlements
3. Damage to crops and plantation
4. Frequent roadblocks in the hilly areas
5. Injuries and death to humans and animals.
Prevention, Control and Mitigation:

Though landslides are a natural phenomenon and may occur without human interference, in certain
cases human activities like deforestation, mining, etc. can also induce landslides. Landslides can be
controlled, to some extent, by adopting initiatives, such as providing slope support and minimizing
human encroachment.
Providing Slope Support: These include the following:
1. By building retaining walls made of concrete, gabions (stone filled wire blocks) and wooden and
steel beams, etc.
2. By providing drainage control measures so that water may not infiltrate into the slope.
Minimizing Human Encroachment: These include the following:
1. Mining activities should be monitored in the hilly, unstable regions.
2. Plantation of trees should be undertaken on the unstable hilly slopes.
3. By preventing human encroachment in the form of buildings, roads, agriculture, grazing, etc. on
unstable slopes.

6. Avalanche:
It is a type of landslide involving a large mass of snow, ice and rock debris that slides and fall rapidly
down a mountainside. Avalanches are initiated when a mass of snow and ice begins to rapidly move
downhill because of the overload caused due to a large volume of new snowfall. This result in internal
changes of the snow pack, producing zones of weakness along which fissure occurs.
An avalanche typically happens in mountainous regions, and also brings down air and water along
with snow. A strong enough avalanche can drag down with itself ice, and large objects like rocks, trees,
and other material down the slope. While rock slides, mudslides, serac collapses and rock avalanches
are all caused by icefalls, an avalanche is different from them because it is primarily composed of
flowing snow
Terrain: Terrain plays an important role in the formation and trigger of an avalanche in three ways—
first, the evolution of the snowpack is determined by the meteorological surroundings of the snow
pack, which are affected by the terrain. Second, the stability of the snowpack is determined by the
ground composition and geometry of the slope, again functions of the terrain. Third, the down slope
angle and direction of the terrain determine the route and impact of an avalanche.
Weather: The formation of a snow pack is an occurrence that is orchestrated by many meteorological
conditions coming together with very narrow margin of error. The critical conditions include heating
by the sun, radiational cooling, vertical temperature gradients in standing snow, snowfall amounts and
snow types. Surprisingly, mild winters lead to formation of snow packs and very cold, extremely windy
conditions lead to weakening of snowpacks.
Prevention, Control and Mitigation:

Avalanches may be prevented to a certain extent. Over time, humans have come up with ways to
mitigate the destructive power and incidence of avalanches. There are largely two kinds of techniques
used:
1. Active techniques: Under this method, small artificial avalanches are triggered which are obviously
less harmful than big avalanches. This is done by disturbing the snow deliberately using explosives
like bombs or shelling or even howitzer rifles.
2. Passive techniques: Under this method, basically, snow is either slowed down, stopped or diverted
or prevented from moving in large masses that could cause damage. One of the ways to block snow is
to build a cemented structure blocking it.
Some classifications of avalanche control structures are:

 Snow retention structures like snow racks, avalanche snow bridges and snow nets. These are all
used in the upper path of likely avalanche routes.
 Avalanche barriers: The key to an avalanche barrier is a strong steel wire mesh, which is extended
across the slope. The support provided by the mesh helps prevent creeping within the snowpack.
The avalanche is thus stopped at the starting point itself and minor snow shifts remain harmless.
The stress caused by the snow pressure is absorbed into the snow nets and taken away over the
swivel posts and anchor ropes into anchor points.
 Snow redistribution structures (wind baffles, snow fences)
 Snow deflection structures: These are used to restrict and redirect the moving snow within the
avalanche path. The redirecting should be gradual and not sharp because if it is sharp they might
be overpowered by the avalanche.
 Snow retardation structures like snow breakers are usually used in small slope portions of the
avalanche path, to promote its slowdown naturally
 Snow catchment structures
 Direct protection of important objects and structures, such as using snow sheds (avalanche sheds)
 Avalanche dams, ditches, earth mounds, terraces, etc. may also help in redirecting, slowing down,
and engineered collection of snow.

7. Forest Fires
A forest fire is a natural disaster consisting of a fire which destroys a forested area, and can be a great
danger to people who live in forests as well as wildlife.
They pose a threat not only to the forest wealth but also to the entire regime to fauna and flora seriously
disturbing the bio-diversity and the ecology and environment of a region. During summer, the forests
become littered with dry senescent leaves and twinges, which could burst into flames ignited by the
slightest spark.
There are two types of forest fire i) Surface Fire and ii) Crown Fire
1. Surface Fire: A forest fire may burn primarily as a surface fire, spreading along the ground as the
surface litter (senescent leaves and twigs and dry grasses etc) on the forest floor and is engulfed by
the spreading flames.
2. Crown Fire: The other type of forest fire is a crown fire in which the crown of trees and shrubs
burn, often sustained by a surface fire. A crown fire is particularly very dangerous in a coniferous
forest because resinous material given off burning logs burn furiously. On hill slopes, if the fire
starts downhill, it spreads up fast as heated air adjacent to a slope tends to flow up the slope
spreading flames along with it. If the fire starts uphill, there is less likelihood of it spreading
downwards.
Impacts on Environment:
Forest fires also pose serious health hazards by producing smoke and noxious gases. The burning of
vegetation gives not only carbon dioxide but also a host of other, noxious gases (Green house gases)
such as carbon monoxide, methane, hydrocarbons, nitric oxide and nitrous oxide, that lead to global
warming and ozone layer depletion. Consequently, thousands of people suffered from serious
respiratory problems due to these toxic gases. Burning forests and grasslands also add to already
serious threat of global warming. Recent measurement suggest that biomass burning may be a
significant global source of methyl bromide, which is an ozone depleting chemical.
Prevention, Control and Mitigation:
Fire Alert System: The fire alert system was developed by FSI using Geospatial technology. The fire
points detected by the satellite are being sent to concerned forest officers through mobile & emails for
further action at the end of the forest department.
Mobile Squads: In fire season, intensive patrolling is carried out by the staff deployed by the state
forest department for the detection and disposal of fire. Mobile squads equipped with vehicles are used
to mobilize the manpower from nearby villages to the nearest possible site of a forest fire.
Rock Walls: In many places, permanent fire control rock wall barriers are constructed to protect the
forest from fire. These constructed barriers prevent the spread of surface fire as well as ground fire
from one place to the other place
Use of Leaf Blower: Nowadays, leaf blowers are being used to control the fire by clearing a strip at
some distance from the advancing fire. The advancing fire dies off when it reaches this cleared strip
due to the absence of litter/fuel material.
Fire Watch Towers: The most effective way for early detection of forest fires is by monitoring forest
lands from fire lookout towers, especially in fire-sensitive forests. As soon as the fire is detected by
the forest officials from the watch towers, a forest fire fighting team reaches the site of the fire. Thus,
the established watch tower can monitor a large forest area.
Soil and Moisture Conservation Works: Soil and moisture conservation activities include contour
trenches, gully plugs, loose boulder structures, water harvesting structures, etc. All of these measures
are employed to increase the moisture content of the soil which helps in reducing the frequency and
spread of forest fires.
Communication Devices: Communication plays a key role in ensuring for control of forest fires
before they spread/cover large areas. Forest departments are nowadays making use of wireless systems,
especially in protected areas, for communications and especially regarding forest fires. If any fire
incident is observed inside the forest, a message is sent through the communication devices to the fire
control room. After getting the information, the control room officer informs the concerned forest
officer about the fire who then deploys his personnel to control the fire.
Community Participation: Forest Departments have adopted a participatory approach to controlling
forest fires. Joint Forest Management (JFM) is an important tool for the participation of people in
forest management. Forest departments of states have constituted Joint Forest Management
Committees (JFMCs) in the villages having forests in the vicinity.

8. Volcanic Eruptions
An opening in the surface of the earth that allows lava, volcanic ash and gases to escape from its
magma chamber below the surface is called a volcano. The sudden occurrence of a violent discharge
of steam and volcanic material from a volcano is a volcanic eruption. There are essentially three meta
types of volcanic eruptions.
The most common are magmatic eruptions, which involve the decompression of gas within magma
that propels it forward. Another type of volcanic eruptions is known as phreatomagmatic eruptions.
These are driven by the compression of gas within magma, direct opposite of the process powering
magmatic activity. The third type of volcanic eruption is known as phreatic eruption. It occurs as a
result of the superheating of steam via contact with magma. Phreatic eruptions often exhibit no
magmatic release, instead causing the granulation of existing rocks. There are two types of volcanic
eruptions in terms of activity—explosive eruptions and effusive eruptions. Explosive eruptions are
characterized by gas-driven explosions that propel magma and tephra. Effusive eruptions, meanwhile,
are characterized by outpouring of lava without significant explosive eruption.
Impact on the Environment:
Volcanic eruptions are extremely dangerous.
Hazards during volcanic eruptions include emission of volcanic gases like carbon dioxide, sulfur
dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen, and fluorine. When sulfur dioxide gases react with water droplets
in the atmosphere, it creates acid rain that corrodes vegetation. Carbon dioxide concentrations are
poisonous to people and animals alike. Fluorine is a toxic gas that is absorbed onto volcanic ash which
falls to the ground during eruptions. These ashes can poison livestock as well as water supplies.
Along with volcanic gases, lava flows are another hazard of volcanic eruptions. Lava flows are molten
rocks that ooze onto the earth’s surface. They are hot enough to burn everything in its path.
1.3 TYPES OF MAN-MADE DISASTERS
The man-made disasters can be broadly categorized in the following types:
a) Accidents: Road, rail, air, river, sea, tr~nsport of hazardous material, building collapse.
bj Fires: Buildings, coal mines, oil (exploration sites, refmeries and storage depots), forest fires.
c) Industrial and technological mishaps: Leaks, fires, explosion, sabotage Technical system
failure, plant safety failure.
d) Nuclear Hazards: .Radioactive leaks, thefts, transportation, waste disposal, Reactor melt-
down.
e) Warfare: Conventional, Chemical, Biological and Nuclear.
f) Poisoning: Food, Hooch, Water supply.
g) Civil Conflicts: Arson, sabotage, terrorist and other criminal activities.
h) Ecological: Air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution, soil erosion and degradation, waste
accumulation including toxic waste, disease and epidemics, loss ofbiodiversity, loss of habitat,
deforestation, global warming, sea level rise, depletion of stratospheric ozone and increase in
tropospheric ozone.
Needless to say, even this cannot be an exhaustive list because the possibility of man-made disasters
in the high tech and fast speed societies ofthe present day is practically endless.
In the succeeding fifteen Units (Unit 2 to 16) ofthis course, we shall deal in some detail with the
more important man-made disasters. It may be stated that these disasters in the succeeding Units
are not arranged in any particular order because it would be difficult to have a consensus on the
relative importance of a particular man-made disaster to individuals or a particular society.
While we shall deal with the prominent man-made disasters in the subsequent units in detail, it is
considered advisable to discuss these in a general manner briefly in the following paragraphs in this Unit.

1.3.1 Industrial and Technological Disasters

In highly industrialised cities, industrial and technological accidents cannot be ruled out. Industrial
development has led to concentration and localisation of industries in certain areas where attempts
at regulating them are essential. These require strong legal framework with adequate institutional
and implementation set-up.
Industrial disasters are caused due to malfunctions, failures, or unanticipated side effects of
technological processes. Industrial hazards can occur at any stage in the production process
comprising of extraction, processing, manufacture, transportation, storage, use, and disposal, like
technical spills, radiation fallout, explosion and fires, structural failure and transportation mishaps
may also bring these about.
Losses generally involve the release of damaging substances (e.g. chemicals.radioactivity, genetic
materials) or damaging levels of energy from industrial facilities or equipment into surrounding
environments. This usually occurs in the form of explosions, fires, spills, leaks, or wastes. Releases

/
 Understanding Man-Made Disasters- 15

,may occur because of factors that are internal to the industrial system (e.g. engineering flaws) or
they may occur because of external factors (e.g. extremes of nature). Releases may be sudden and
intensive, as in a power-plant explosion, or gradual and extensive, as in the build-up of ozone-
destroying chemicals in the stratosphereor the progressive leakage of improperly disposed toxic wastes.
All technological innovations have benefits but also certain amount of risks. A technological disaster
is seen as a man made disaster because of failure of human being in one form or another. Threat of
or actual impact of toxic chemical spills, radiation fallout explosions and fire, structural failure or
transportation failure, aspects like toxic Poisoning, radiation contamination, air degradation, industrial
emissions, water pollution etc. Risk of accidents in various types of industries like manufacturing,
power production, and in storage or transportation of various hazardous materials constitutes the
hazard. These require developing counter measures to keep in check any type of casualty and
have adequate safeguards to handle the associated risks.
The manufacturing, processing, transportation, distribution, storage and the application or use of
the many products in the chemical or nuclear industries is hazardous and have multiple risks associated
with them. Chemical disasters can be of the nature of :fire,explosion, and toxic release or a combination
of these. Such chemical emergencies can be clubbed under the following heads, so as to determine
their emergency response procedures:
• factories / Static Installation Emergencies;
• Transportation Emergencies;
• Environmental Emergencies;
• Pipeline Emergencies; and
• Distributed / Uncharted Emergencies.
An example of hazardous material disaster is Bhopal Gas Tragedy that occurred in December
1984. Approximately 2500 people died in this tragedy and thousands of people were directly or
indirectly affected by this accident. .
Another threat really being faced by disaster management is the threat from atomic and nuclear
sources, This threat is really in the form of radiation of harmful rays. Problems like nuclear leaks
are likely because of development programmes in this field. The possibility of global war may have
receded over recent years but the possibility of nuclear weapons b~ing used in some lesser form of
conflict cannot be disregarded altogether. Even though a country is not directly involved in use of
such nuclear activities or terrorism, it could well suffer severely from the radioactive side effects.

1.3.2 Fires
The occurrence of fire is heavily tilted towards urban conglomerations with high-rises and slums
bunched into tight, flammablepockets, landfills with slow burning garbage, plastic discards and
polythene bags, factories with inadequate fire protection. In the countryside, forest fires siinmer
.~ unabated during hot summers ignited by locals clearing land, illegal loggers and poachers covering
, their track, orjust carelessness. Fires are common phenomena usually happening during dry season,
and could be grouped into various types like: '

~
• Fire accidents in squatter settlements in the towns and cities.
{~
'e;
• General fire accidents in cities.

• Industrial fire accidents.

• Coal Mine Fires.

• Forest fires.

/
 16 Understanding Man-Made Disasters

Fires are not just physio-chemical phenomena but also related to social factors with varying frequency
offire incidents, loss pattern and extension techniques. The fire at Uphaar cinema hall in June
1997 was a great tragedy where everything ~at could have gone wrong did. In Asansol- Dhanbad
- Jharia coal belts there is slow bum underground fur decades in which thousands oftonnes of coal
have burnt and much more to go as these old mines were abandoned without filling.
"
-. --
1.3.3· Environmental Disasters
Environmental degradation is a real threat to human lives and property in our country. One ofthe
prices paid for development is some form of pollution. The environment degradation due to industrial
effluents and civic waste could also be considered as man-made disaster. Environmental degradation
is mostly borne by the poor who suffer from diseases, depletion of ground water, destruction of
land and properties and other economical losses. The various causes for environmental problems
are:
.
,
• Growth of population that increases demand on natural resources resulting in their unsustainable
exploitation,
• Indifference of industries and municipalities towards environmental safety and protection
aspects, leading to spread of unhealthy air, water and soil pollution.
• Increased energy consumption contributing to greenhouse gases.
• Low level of environmental awareness resulting in under-evaluation of economic and ecological
aspects ofbio-diversity causing extensive damage to life support systems.
,. Inadequate enviromnental incorporated policies in development projects that do not consider
long term ecological and social impact.
Many disasters are either caused or exacerbated by environmental degradation. The life ofliving :'
creatures is governed by atmosphere, land and water and the natural resources directly related to
environmental degradation are air, water, soil and forests. Deforestation leads to rapid rain run off,
which contributes to flooding. The destruction of mangrove swamps decreases a coastline's ability
to resist tropical strom winds and storm surges. The creation of drought conditions-and the relative
severity and length oftime the drought lasts-is mainly a soil erosion and degradation phenomenon.
Drought conditions may be exacerbated by: poor cropping patterns, overgrazing, stripping of
topsoil, poor conservation techniques, depletion of both the surface and subsurface water supply,
and, to an extent, unchecked urbanisation. Economic entitlements and ecological obligations should
be mutually considered for lasting natural resource based economic progress. At micro-levels the
causes of environmental hazards need to be identified.

1.3.4 Rail and Road Accidents

The disasters caused by various accidents are also a part of the enlarged scope of man-made
disaster management. Various issues related to accident disaster are to be treated for each ofthese
in a unique manner. The main issues in dealing with such disasters are:
• Fully effective systems are not in place due to procedural imbalances in terms of early warning,
availability of appropriate equipment for rescue operations and inadequacy of coordination.
• .There is no warning or very little indication of an impending disaster. There are a number of
agencies that get involved in accidents relief and the coordination required between them has
to be-improved in order to save lives and to contain the damages.
• It has also been found that the time factor gets aggravated due to the procedures followed by
certain departments and officials like accident casualties are not accepted by all hospitals and

!
Understanding Man-Made Disasters 17

this could cause a victim of an accident to lose life.

• Advance techniques available in the form of Satellite Aided Rescue systems could help in
reducing the response time.
• Coordination between the various agencies / departments needs to be specially ensured.
• Non-availability of trained personnel reduces the efficiency at various levels.
• There is also a lack of proper motivation in the persorinel involved in different activities.
Invariably the tasks are unpleasant and are executed under a lot of stress and physical difficulties. "-..
Some incentives for good performance and at the same time punishment for omissions in the
course of duty are to be considered.

i) Road accidents
Human road accidents are largely urban-centric while commercial road related accidents are
predominantly highway nightmares. India has one per cent ofthe total number of vehicles in the
world but records 6 per cent of the total road accidents in the world. The rate of road accidents on
the Indian roads is increasing at an alarming rate of eight percent. Studies carried out indicate that
out of the total accidents in a period of25 years, the 23 Metro cities in India account for 57 per
cent accidents. The road fatalities involving pedestrians and bicyclists are on the increase due to
the spiralling increase in number of vehicles clogging the roads. Road accidents are caused by the
negligence of the drivers, lack of proper road sense in the public and also by use of vehicles which
are not fully road worthy. ,

ii) Rail accidents

Railway is the principal mode of transport for both passengers and goods in the country. The
safety of railway operations is becoming all the more imperative in view ofthe railway endeavour
to lift more passengers and freight traffic. Accordingly, high priority is being given to various safety
measures to ensure greater safety in rail travel and transportation of goods. Factors contributing to
occurrence of Rail Disasters are:
• Breaches oftanks due to heavy rains
• Cyclone/flash floods
• Human failures
• Equipment failures
• Heavy rains leading to washing away of the track / collapse of bridges
• Landslides
• Non-observance of section 131 of Motor Vehicle Act, 1988, by road users leading to
unmanned railway level crossing accidents
• Sabotage
• Tampering with track
In areas prone to ~atural disasters, like cyclone and floods, Railways adopt measures to tackle
problems. Weather warning is received through the meteorological department and is relayed. The
track is patrolled on foot and the condition of track and bridges are observed and special watch is
kept at vulnerable locations.
Bomb blasts or anonymous calls are dealt with the help ofthe concerned government, railway
police/ state police who rush to the spot and conduct checks. The Accident Relief Train and
Medical Relief Train are moved to-the site.

r
 18 Understanding Man-Made Disasters

Accidents at Unmanned Level Crossings occur mainly due to non-observance of safety precautions
mentioned in section 131 of motor vehicle act - 1988 by the road users while crossing the unmanned
railway crossing in the face of an approaching train ..

1.3.5 Air and Sea Accidents

.
"

Transportation by air and sea is an increasing requirement in the world as the world gets interlinked.
With increased traffic of aircrafts and ships, the possibility of accidents also becomes greater than
before. These require striI;gent adherence to safety and security procedures along with a well-
established international response network.

i) Air accidents
Air accident is an occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft which takes place between
the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of flight until such time as all such persons
have disembarked. Accident to aircraft can occur at any time and anywhere; however, majority of
them occur during takeoffs and landings. These occur within the airport boundary or a short
distance away. All airports should have contingency plans to deal with the accidents including the
air safety guidelines issued by the Director General of Civil Aviation. An accident can occur at any
phase of operation at ground, en-route and landing. The type of accident indicates the immediate
circumstances under which the accident occurs, e.g. in air, where it may be a collision or engine
tear away, a wheels-up accident during the take-off, or a nose-down type of accident.
The responsibility of aircraft accident investigation within the Indian territory and its territorial
waters lies with the Air Safety Directorate ofthe Director General of Civil Aviation. For accidents
beyond Indian territorial limits, the responsibility for carrying out the investigation rests with the
State of Registry of the aircraft or the country where the accident occurs.

ii) Sea accidents

With increased volume of ships and sea fishing in recent times, boat capsising is a distinct possibility.
. The factors, which contribute to this disaster have been identified as partly due to natural hazards
such as cyclones or floods and in greater measure, due to man made causes such as over loading
ofthe boat, poor quality of equipment in the boat, poor maintenance and consequent breakdown
and of course human error of judgment.
The areas prone to such type of accidents could be as fishing boats operating within 5 miles of
coastline or near harbours and at high seas, fishing trawlers/crafts operating deep inside the sea.
The factors, which will contribute towards causing sea accident, are as follows:
a) Natural conditions
b) Machinery breakdown.
c) Overloading of boat.
d) Poor quality of equipment used onboard.
e) Poor maintenance of machinery and life saving equipment.
f) Human error,
Search and Rescue Operations in waters surrounding the Indian Coast is the responsibility ofthe
Indian Coast Guard. Indian Navy, however, under the Charter of Duties, 'Aid to Civil Power' and
'Safety of Life at Sea', has a Search and Rescue Plan. There is coordination between Coast
Guard, Civil Aviation Department, Port Authorities, Mercantile Marine Department and Director
General of Shipping as member of the Regional Contingency Committee and with naval commands
and authorities, Indian Air Force, Police and Customs Organisations for supplementing naval

/
Understanding Man-Made Disasters 19

efforts at sea and for assistance over land in case of an aircraft in distress. On receiving the distress
call.information is immediately communicated to the nearest naval authority who immediately
passes the distress message to the appropriate naval authority for activation of assistance procedure.
Normally a duty ship is detailed for search and rescue duties.
Oil spill related disaster with damage to the oil tanker/facilities occur due to natural calamities,
tanker collision off the coast, defect or malfunctioning of oil extension pipe line, possibility of oil
tankers running aground along the coast; discharge of the bilge water mostly containing oil, danger
of oil spillage when the oil is being transferred from the offshore terminal to the ship and from the
ship to shore facilities in various ports.

1.3.6 Complex Disasters

Situations entirely due to human element, such as, famines; wars that may be conventional, guerrilla,
etc.; unrest or riots having political undertone; and terrorism are complex disasters. Apart from
technological disasters, human-made disasters many times involve situations in which civilian
population suffer casualties, loss of property, basic services and means of livelihood as a result of
war, civil strife, other conflict or policy implementation. In many cases people are forced to leave
their homes, giving rise to congregations of refugees or externally or internally displaced persons.
The trend towards growing urbanisation, in the midst of high-density areas with poorly built and
maintained infrastructure, subjects the inhabitants to greater risks in the event of a disaster. The
chaotic growth of massive urban conglomerations makes them ill equipped to deal with exponential
population accumulations. The failure of urban local bodies and other institutional set-ups expose
these areas not only to epidemics, fires, gas leaks and accidents, but also in the context of increasing
unemployment and social tensions turn them into ethnic and communal tinderboxes.
Another type, where the situations become worse for want of rational policies or lackadaisical
enforcement, is commonly observed and could be referred as policy disasters. These result from
sale of harmful drugs, banned pesticides, excessive displacement of people due to development
projects, systemic failure in civic services, exploitive trade and business practices, dumping of
hazardous and dangerous waste products, etc.
War and civil strife are also regarded as man-made disasters, that is, extreme events that produce
disasters. These often result in displaced people, a major cause of human suffering in the world.
The impacts of war and civil strife include competition for scarce resources, religious or ethnic
intolerance, and ideological differences.
 VULNERABILITY FACTORS
Factors that have inhibited the response to disasters in the past include,

 Lack of a national-level plan policy,

 Absence of an institutional framework at the center/state/district level,
 Poor intersectoral coordination,
 Lack of an early warning system,
 Slow response from the relief agencies,
 Lack of trained/dedicated search and rescue teams, and
 Poor community empowerment.
Vulnerability in this context can be defined as the diminished capacity of an individual or group to
anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a natural or man-made hazard.
The concept is relative and dynamic. Vulnerability is most often associated with poverty, but it can
also arise when people are isolated, insecure, and defenseless in the face of risk, shock, or stress.
People differ in their exposure to risk as a result of their social group, gender, ethnic or other identity,
age, and other factors.
Vulnerability may also vary in its forms: Poverty, for example, may mean that housing is unable to
withstand an earthquake or a hurricane, or lack of preparedness may result in a slower response to a
disaster, leading to greater loss of life or prolonged suffering.
To determine people’s vulnerability, two questions need to be asked:
1. To what threat or hazard are they vulnerable ?
2. What makes them vulnerable to that threat or hazard ?
Counteracting vulnerability requires

1. Reducing the impact of the hazard itself where possible through mitigation, prediction and warning,
preparedness;
2. Building capacities to withstand and cope with hazards;
There are three dimensions of vulnerability: Exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity.
Exposure is the degree to which people and the things they value could be affected or “touched” by
coastal hazards; sensitivity is the degree to which they could be harmed by that exposure; and adaptive
capacity is the degree to which they could mitigate the potential for harm by taking action to reduce
exposure or sensitivity.
The expression “things they value” not only refers to economic value and wealth, but also to places
and to cultural, spiritual, and personal values. In addition, this expression refers to critical physical
infrastructure such as police, emergency, and health services buildings, communication and
transportation networks, public utilities, and schools and daycare centers. It also refers to social
infrastructure such as extended families, neighborhood watch groups, fraternal organizations, and
more. The expression even refers to such social factors as economic growth rates and economic vitality.
Characterizing Vulnerability to Disasters:

Vulnerability to disasters can be characterized by several factors, including social, economic, and
environmental conditions. Vulnerability is often a product of multiple factors, and the interaction of
these factors determines the degree of vulnerability.
a. Social Vulnerability: Refers to the susceptibility of individuals or communities to the social impact
of disasters. It includes factors such as social networks, cultural values, and access to information.
In its broadest sense, social vulnerability is one dimension of vulnerability to multiple stressors and
shocks, including abuse, social exclusion and natural hazards.
Social vulnerability refers to the inability of people, organizations, and societies to withstand adverse
impacts from multiple stressors to which they are exposed. These impacts are due in part to
characteristics inherent in social interactions, institutions, and systems of cultural values.
Although different groups of a society may share a similar exposure to a natural hazard, the hazard has
varying consequences for these groups, since they have diverging capacities and abilities to handle the
impact of a hazard.
b. Economic Vulnerability: Refers to the susceptibility of individuals or communities to the economic
impact of disasters. It includes factors such as income, employment, and access to resources.
Household level earthquakes affect the full range of social classes - from royalties to the homeless.
Apparently, earthquake treats everyone equally. However, some are more equal than others. Actually,
the poor and socially disadvantaged groups of society are the most vulnerable to and affected by
earthquakes and other natural hazards, reflecting their social, cultural, economic, and political
environment.
The vulnerability is reflective of,

 The location of housing (poor and marginal lands)

 Poor quality building (non-engineered, using poor quality materials)
 Primary types of occupation, level of access to capital (low)
 Degree (low) of concentration of assets
Further, disasters exacerbate poverty by inflicting physical damage, loss of income-generating
opportunities, and the resulting indebtedness.

Political Vulnerability
A country's political system influences how vulnerable it is to disasters. At the same time, disasters can
also impact political stability and the government's credibility.
When disasters are used by political groups to support their own causes, this is called politicization.
Disasters are external events that affect politics, and their impact is often beyond the control of those
in power.
In places where political competition is usually restricted, disasters can unexpectedly create new
opportunities for political debate and change.
Ideally, governments should be aware of natural disaster risks in their specific region and set policy or
regulatory measures to deal with them, before they occur. Progressive and wealthy governments
usually do a risk assessment and then act accordingly.
Poorer government may be aware of risks, but have little financial resources to put preparatory
measures in place before something bad happens. Irresponsible or unprepared governments tend to go
into react mode once a disaster hits and people usually suffer or die needlessly as the response is often
slow or inadequate.
c. Physical Vulnerability: Refers to the susceptibility of the built environment to the impact of
disasters. It includes factors such as building design, construction quality, and location.
Factors that affect physical vulnerability

 Location: Proximity to hazard-prone areas, such as floodplains, fault lines, or coastal regions
 Building features: The size, design, maintenance, and material of buildings
 Infrastructure: The condition of roads, bridges, hospitals, schools, and government buildings
 Safety standards: The standards in place to reduce the effects of hazards
Examples of physical vulnerability: A wooden house may be less likely to collapse in an earthquake,
but more vulnerable to fire or hurricane. Poor housing and aging infrastructure can increase the impact
of disasters.
d. Environmental Vulnerability: Refers to the susceptibility of the natural environment to the impact
of disasters. It includes factors such as climate change, deforestation, and land use change.
How environmental factors contribute to disaster risk

 Climate change: Climate change increases the frequency and intensity of natural hazards like
droughts, wildfires, and cyclones.
 Ecosystem degradation: Deforestation, wetland loss, and other environmental degradation can
lead to landslides, flooding, and other disasters.
 Natural resource scarcity: Scarcity of food, water, and other natural resources can increase
vulnerability to disasters.

VULNERABILITY PROFILE OF INDIA

India’s vast and variable geographical extent, diverse relief features coupled with climatic variations
has made it vulnerable to different types of disasters. The whole country has been divided into six
climatic zones namely, hot and dry, warm and humid, moderate, cold and cloudy, cold and sunny, and
composite, each showing different characteristics and thus vulnerable to different types of disasters.
On the one hand, the northern most parts of the country is vulnerable to avalanches, frost bite, debris
avalanche and flash floods while the southernmost tip is prone to cyclone, sea-level rise and urban
floods.
The same is true for eastern and North-Eastern India, which is prone to forest fires, mine collapses,
over flooding, etc. and western sections, which are prone to groundwater salinization, landslides, etc.
After all these challenges, India’s disaster management has evolved with time.
A. Earthquake
 In accordance with the history of earthquakes in the country, a total of ~59% of the land mass
of India (covering all states of India) is prone to earthquakes of different intensities.
 As per the seismic zoning map of the country, the total area is classified into four seismic zones.
 Zone V is seismically the most active region, while zone II is the least. Approximately, ~ 11%
area of the country falls in zone V, ~18% in zone IV, ~ 30% in zone III and remaining in zone
II.

Figure 3 Seismic Zones of India

B. Cyclones and Tsunamis

 Out of 7516 Km of Indian coasts line 5770 Km (76.76%) are highly vulnerable to natural
hazards such as Cyclones and Tsunami.
 Most of the cyclones generated in the South Asia are from Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean.
Indian region inhabits 7 % of the total tropical cyclones of the world.
 In India, cyclones are classified by: Strength of associated winds, Storm surges, Exceptional
rainfall occurrences.
 More cyclones occur in the Bay of Bengal than the Arabian Sea and the ratio is approximately
4:1.
India’s vulnerability to Tsunamis
 Some of the studies have suggested that Indian Ocean Region in general and India’s West Coast
in Particular is vulnerable to Tsunamis.
  The Makran subduction zone can have magnitude 9 earthquake and consequent high tsunami
wave.
 These waves can have larger impacts on India’s West Coast which is signified by India’s
economic prosperous regions and houses nuclear plants.

Figure 4 The Makran Subduc on Zone

Wind and Cyclone Zones in India:

Figure 5 Cyclone Zones in India

C. Land Slides
 Over 12% of India’s landmass is prone to landslides. The major landslide prone areas in India
include the Western Ghats and Konkan Hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and
Maharashtra), Eastern Ghats (Araku region in Andhra Pradesh), North-East Himalayas
 (Darjeeling and Sikkim) and North West Himalayas (Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu
and Kashmir).

Figure 6 Landslides Prone Zones in India

D. Forest Fires
 40% of forests in India are exposed to occasional fires, 7.49% to moderately frequent fires and
2.405 to high incidence levels while 35.71% of India’s forests have not yet been exposed to
fires of any real significance.
 According to the State of Forests Report, 2021, last year India reported 2.7 times more than the
fires reported between November 2019 and June 2020.

Figure 7 Forest Fire in India

E. Floods

 India faces some of the highest disaster risk levels in the world, ranked 29 out of 191 countries
by the 2019 Inform Risk Index.
 India has very high exposure to flooding, including, riverine, flash, and coastal, as well as high
exposure to tropical cyclones and their associated hazards and drought.
 According to National Disaster Management Authority, out of the total geographical area of
329 million hectares (mha), more than 40 mha is flood prone.

Figure 8 India’s Flood Prone Regions

F. Droughts
 As high as 68 percent of the cropped area in India is vulnerable to droughts of which 33 percent
is classified as 'chronically drought-prone' comprising desert and semiarid regions that receive
less than 750 mm mean annual rainfall.

Figure 9 India’s Drought Prone Regions

Due to its geographical extent, India must opt for regional and tailor made solutions for disaster
mitigation with locally available resources and community participation. Climate change has adversely
impacted India in many ways as it has increased the frequency of natural disasters such as forest fires,
floods, and droughts coupled with salinization of the water table and submergence in coastal regions,
intensification of cyclones, etc.

Vulnerability Assessment
A vulnerability assessment is the process of identifying, quantifying, and prioritizing (or ranking) the
vulnerabilities in a system.
Examples of systems for which vulnerability assessments are performed include, but are not limited
to, information technology systems, energy supply systems, water supply systems, transportation
systems, and communication systems. Such assessments may be conducted on behalf of a range of
different organizations, from small businesses up to large regional infrastructures.
Vulnerability from the perspective of disaster management means assessing the threats from potential
hazards to the population and to infrastructure. It may be conducted in the political, social, economic
or environmental fields.
Assessments are typically performed according to the following steps :
1. Cataloging assets and capabilities (resources) in a system.
2. Assigning quantifiable value (or at least rank order) and importance to those resources.
3. Identifying the vulnerabilities or potential threats to each resource.
4. Mitigating or eliminating the most serious vulnerabilities for the most valuable

resources.

Vulnerability and Disaster Risks

A) Earthquake Vulnerability

 Within minutes of shaking, the earthquake reveals the vulnerabilities of buildings, households,
communities, and of a country.
 The consequences expose flaws in governance, planning, siting of physical structure, design,
construction, and use of the built environment in country with seismic hazard.
 It reveals the influence of prevailing culture and way of life, on the capacity of the community to
be preparedness for an earthquake hazard.
 The scale of physical damage and social disruption inflicted upon a community or a nation by an
earthquake event is the measure of how vulnerable the community or the nation is.
 Vulnerability can also be defined as the degree of loss to a given element at risk, or set of such
elements, resulting from an earthquake of a given magnitude or intensity, which is usually
expressed on a scale from 0 (no damage) to 10 (total loss).
 Earthquake vulnerability is thus a function of the potential losses from earthquakes (death and
injury to people, damage, and other physical structures) and the level of preparedness (the extent
to which a society has been able to translate mitigation measures into practice).
 It reflects the unattended weakness in the built environment of a community and the constraints in
the society that affect the ability (or inability) to absorb losses after an earthquake and to recover
from the damage.
 Vulnerability condition precedes the earthquake event and contributes to its severity, impedes
emergency response, and usually continues long after the earthquake has struck.
 The extent of investments in public policies to protect people, property, and community resources
through the adoption and implementation of mitigation, preparedness, emergency response, and
recovery and reconstruction measures and regulations, and
 The attitudinal extent of policymakers and stakeholders who seek to add a value of at least one
dollar for every dollar invested in mitigation.
B) Flood Vulnerability

 Housing density and condition are also an influential factor influencing flood vulnerability.
 Homeless people are more vulnerable to flood, as they have no shelter.
 The poor quality of housing and overcrowding are also responsible to make the situation worse
during flood.
 The longer period of flood and the higher velocity of floodwater accelerate damage to properties
and lives.
 Sometimes duration of flooding is more important than depth. Flood height, duration, and some
inter-community variables such as availability of public hospital and electricity are used for
assessing vulnerability.
 However, warning can also reduce both the tangible and the intangible damage caused by floods.
 The availability of response and warnings can also influence vulnerability. Advance notice of
floods could help them reduce loses.
 Sheltering place is another factor to influence flood vulnerability.
 One more significant and recent study proved that poor road networks, long distances between
home and shelters, low capacity of shelters, intensify the vulnerability of people.
 As a result, those people or communities are more vulnerable who live far away from the flood
shelter.

Economic fragility
Economic fragility in disaster management refers to the financial and economic instability that can
hinder disaster response and recovery efforts.
Economic impact of disasters

o Disasters can cause significant damage to assets, production, output, employment, and
consumption.
o Disasters can strain local and national economies.
o Disasters can lead to credit market breakdowns, which can hinder economic growth or deepen
recessions.
Economic vulnerability factors: Financial constraints, Economic instability, Poor design and
construction of buildings, and Unregulated land use planning.
Disaster management strategies
 Economic capacity: Adequate financial resources at the community, organizational, and
governmental levels can help with disaster preparedness, response, and recovery.
 Flexible budgets: Budgets should be flexible to ensure timely and effective disaster response.
 Escape clauses: Countries that employ fiscal rules should include well-defined escape clauses in
their frameworks.

IMPACT OF DISASTER
Appropriate disaster response depends on the assessment of the impact that helps senior management
of the private and public institutions to make informed choices. The possible immediate impacts of a
disaster are:
Loss of life: Human loss is the most widely used indicator of the extent of a high impact disaster like
flood, earthquake, tsunami, cyclone and civil war. In case of slow impact disasters like drought,
HIV/AIDS, arsenic contamination in drinking water, loss of life alone cannot be the indicator of the
extent of the impact: number of people affected and the geographical spread are the better indicators
of impact.
Livestock loss: In case of a severe disaster, livestock losses can reduce the income and food security
of people primarily dependent on livestock, for up to five years till stocks and herds are rebuilt. Disaster
can threaten livestock in a given region in case of both slow and rapid onset of disaster.
Loss of habitation: Loss of habitation is one of the major problems of the disaster-affected people
after high onset disasters, like flood, cyclone, earthquake and tsunami.
Agricultural loss: In 2007, agriculture accounted globally for employment to one-third of the total
workforce of the world. In the same year, in India, agriculture contributed to almost 16.6% of the GDP
and provided employment to 52% of the total workforce in the country. However, agriculture is heavily
dependent on weather, climate, availability of water, distribution of the annual rainfall, and hence, is
adversely affected by hydro meteorological disasters, in particular.
Livelihood loss: It has been mentioned earlier that 52% of the total workforce of India is dependent
on agricultural activities. Any serious disruption of agricultural practices due to disaster is bound to
adversely impact the livelihood of the majority of the workforce in the country. All natural disasters,
therefore, shrink the livelihood opportunity, more so of the poor in the unorganized sector.
Health hazards and Malnutrition: In the chaos that follows natural disasters, the risk of outbreak of
communicable diseases is generally presumed to be very high. It has been observed globally, that the
risk factor of epidemic is associated primarily with population displacement. The factors that influence
the risk and consequently the deaths, are: availability of safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, the
degree of crowding and the underlying health status of the displaced population like the nutritional
status, level of immunity to vaccine– preventable diseases such as measles.
Psychological Impacts: Natural disasters can be overwhelming and potentially traumatic life
experiences. People directly impacted by natural disasters, may endure serious injuries or near death
experiences; they may witness devastation among their friends, family, neighbors, and greater
communities; and they may experience the irreparable loss of possessions and property. For those
directly impacted, the immediate aftermath of a disaster can be disorienting, marked with
displacement, shock, and a strong need to restore order. The weeks and months following a disaster
may be consumed with various tasks related to restoration to a “new normal,” sometimes in new homes
and with new possessions. Thus, for some people, the full impact of a disaster and its impact on their
mental health may not be obvious for weeks or months after the disaster occurs.
Environmental loss: Degradation of environment is both the cause and effect of a disaster. The biggest
threat that the world is facing today, i.e., global warming, has been caused by changes in the
environment. According to the News Release of June 2000 of the United Nations Environment
Program, land degradation alone affected more than 1900 million hectares of land globally. The loss
of potential productivity due to this was estimated to be equivalent to 20 million tons of grain every
year.
Lack of safety and security: In the parlance of disaster response, ‘assistance’ includes ‘protection’.
It has been observed in places where disaster affected people were forced to live in temporary shelters
for long, the women suffer in the aspects of safety and security. In such a situation, the social norms
tend to break down making women vulnerable.

The impact caused by any disaster can be broadly classified into following domains;
1. Physical: Damage caused to body/physical structures or worsening of pre-existing physical
condition. E.g., injuries, rashes, fracture, maternity complications etc.
2. Psychological: The psychological, emotional or behavioural responses to a disaster. E.g., shock,
denial, fear, anger, sadness, flashbacks, increased use of substance etc.
3. Social: Hardship created in the family or society due to the disaster. E.g., emergence of single
parent families, migration, displacement, increase in crime rate etc.
4. Economic: Financial, property and livelihood losses incurred. E.g., financial loss, loss of property,
debt traps etc.
These impacts are interconnected. Therefore, caregivers need to understand the connection between
these impacts and to normalise it through psychosocial support.
 DISASTER IMPACTS ON DIFFERENTIAL GROUPS
Disasters have different impacts on diverse population groups. When the forces of nature exceed a
person’s ability to avoid or survive those forces, disasters become more devastating. Disasters tend to
impact more ruthlessly on those already disadvantaged. Consequently, injury, morbidity, and mortality
were disproportionately endured by renters, unemployed persons, and the poor.

Low-income population
Several qualitative studies have explained the linkages between poverty and disasters regards to certain
type of disaster in a particular community.
Poor people are more exposed to natural disasters and extreme weather events than the non-poor.
The poor are physically vulnerable because they tend to live in hazardous areas, such as gullies or
coastal areas that are predisposed to disaster; and economically vulnerable because disasters devastate
their households’ natural, physical, and social assets.
They are more likely to experience stress, anxiety, isolation, disruption, displacement, depression, and
feelings of powerlessness.
As the poor being the most affected, there is a strong correlation between disaster and poverty due to
the exposure to physical and economic vulnerability.
They face greater restrictions in physical abilities, have fewer social contacts, experience more
trepidation about area hazards, and possess inadequate resources for preparedness and response
actions.
The poor people are more likely to identify hazards as precarious events, less likely to prepare for
hazards or buy insurance, less likely to respond to warnings, more likely to die and suffer injuries,
proportionately greater material losses; have more psychological distress, and face more complications
during the stages of response, recovery, and reconstruction.
Poor people face double jeopardy during disaster, as they already victims of poverty and further
victimized in disasters.
However, classism makes the middle class distance themselves from the poor and they view the poor,
working poor, and welfare recipients in the most negative light, because people on welfare are
perceived as dishonest, uninterested in education, and dependent.
Morbidity and mortality are rampant among the poorer and disadvantaged segments of the society and
they are always more vulnerable to various types of disasters.
Research on the impacts of hurricanes, tropical storms, and tornadoes suggest thatthe poor
communities suffer disproportionately in human fatalities and injuries.

Female population
In terms of both impacts and capabilities to reduce vulnerability, gender is repeatedly an unseen
dimension in disaster scholarship despite general recognition within social sciences that there exists a
gendered dimension to the responses to any social event.
In recent years several studies has focused on how men and women are affected and respond differently
during disasters.
If gender were regarded as a “natural” fact, questions concerning the stability and resilience of the
gender order following a disaster would not arise; however, once one concedes that gender is a social
construction, one must look to social factors to explain its importance.

Disaster fatalities are seldom gender neutral and survival rates of women are much lower than men in
many disasters.
Based on sample of 141 countries over the period from 1981 to 2002, found that natural disasters lower
the life expectancy of women more than that of men which means on average natural disasters and
their succeeding impacts kill more women than men or kill women at an earlier age than men.
Table 2 Impact of disaster on women

The impact of disasters on the gender gap in life expectancy is negatively associated with the socio-
economic status of women.
Female mortality rate is higher in disasters not because women are physically weaker, but because of
male-dominated social structure, underpinned by cultural traditions.
The expectation that a woman will look after the elderly and having numerous children hold her back
from saving her own life without considering other household members.
As a result, socially constructed gender-specific vulnerability of females assembled into everyday
socioeconomic forms lead to comparatively higher female disaster mortality rates relative to men.
Women are amongst the most vulnerable population groups because they are generally poorer than
men, have less access to and control of resources, and many cultures and jurisprudence might have
restricted their means to become independent and take up the position of power.
Poverty leaves people more vulnerable to disaster that amplifies by the ideologies about gender
Poor women can hardly afford quality housing located on raised ground, adequate storage of food
which are crucial for self-protection.
A poor woman might die or be injured in a disaster because not only she lives in a flimsy shack on
marginal and unstable land, but also, in all likelihood, they might consume inadequate diet and work
irregularly for little pay.
Unless poverty is abridged, the increase in disasters and extreme weather events linked with climate
change is likely to affect women more than men, because being female is strongly linked to being poor.
Female-headed households are more likely to have inadequate preparation for a disaster and may need
more and dissimilar assistance after a disaster.
In female-headed households, the ability of women to create safe conditions in the face of impending
floods or hurricanes is reduced due to poverty that affect people’s ability to provide adequate self-
protection.
Female headed households are underprivileged, not because of unfairness against them in disaster
damage or relief, but because of gendered division of labor.
Women, particularly poor and minority women, experience a disproportionate costs associated with
disasters.

Children
A number of studies focused on vulnerability of children in disaster situation because of their
physiological, psychosocial, and cognitive differences compared with adults.
Children’s immature ability to understand and process the instantaneous and longstanding effects of
emergencies, including their own injuries and exposure to troublesome events, traumatized or injured
parents, loss of beloved ones, interruption of daily routines, and frightening images in the media, make
them amongst the most vulnerable members of affected communities.
Children have unique needs and disasters disrupt their basic needs including access to food, water,
accommodation, and principal caregivers.
Victimization was associated with depression among 2 to 9 year-old disaster survivors, and with
depression and aggression among 10 to 17 year-old survivors.
Poverty, parenting capacity, social support and many other stressful environmental factors may lead to
maltreatment and victimization of children.
Children are particularly predisposed to the messages and images seen on television.
Children are not only at risk of losing their lives, but also more vulnerable because many of them lose
their guardians.
Moreover, it is difficult to separate the influence of age, gender, and class, consequently the impact of
disaster is more acute for girls.
Children with disabilities and special health care needs stance a special challenge in post disaster
response, because general populations are not adequately prepared for major disaster events, with
members of vulnerable populations even less prepared at personal and family level.
Mental health problems among the children exposed to Hurricane Katrina were common and
widespread.
Younger age groups are more likely to be diagnosed with adjustment disorder after a disaster, and those
who had lost relatives, friends or neighbors, as well as whose residence were heavily damaged, were
tended to be diagnosed mental disorders.
Most commonly observed traumatic reactions in school-aged children include certain fears, separation
problems, sleep difficulties, reenactment of the trauma in play, regression, physical complaints,
irritability, survival guilt, deterioration in academic performance, anxiety of recurrence of the trauma,
and trauma-related guilt.
Table 3 Impact of disaster on children

Elderly people
It is evident from the changing global demographics that in future years the proportion of elderly
people will increase exponentially who might be exposed to disasters.
The larger the fraction of elderly in a community, the more vulnerable it is and the extended time it
will take for the community to entirely recover from a disaster.
Elderly people are accepted as among the most vulnerable people in disasters, because they tend to be
less mobile and more easily trapped, confined, and injured than younger adults.
Impaired physical mobility, diminished sensory awareness, preexisting health conditions and social
and economic restraints increase the vulnerability of frail elderly people during disasters.
During time of calamities psychological stress, social adversities, and higher mortality rates are
experienced by the elderly people in the United States.
Their vulnerability is higher because of physical constraints and declining cognitive abilities that
amplify their powerlessness or unwillingness to comply with mandatory evacuation orders.
Elderly populations are less resilient to acute trauma and capacity to cope with the long-term
consequences of disaster, including relocation, underprivileged accommodations, crowded conditions
and diminished admittance to health facilities.
The ailments of elderly persons, including but not limited to, heart disease, cancer, stroke, arthritis,
poor vision and hearing, depression, and dementia. Elderly persons have difficulty obtaining necessary
assistance due to physical and mental impairments, which worsened by limited income, fewer
economic resources, inability to read or speak English, inadequate supports from friends and family
members, and anxiety of traveling to the source of assistance.
It was revealed in the study on elderly persons that the association between income inequality and
depression was greater among those with more physical sicknesses.
When elderly persons adversely affected or evacuated by disasters and become victims of tornadoes,
earthquakes, floods and hurricanes, certain characteristics of elderly victims, such as loss of a sense of
belonging and personal disorientation, loss of familiar persons and things, are results in problems of
spatial disorientation.
In conjunction with being elderly, having family members or friends utterly injured, having lost
essential belongings, having felt culpability concerning one's death or injury, and having not utilized
mental health amenities are independent risk factors for general psychological distress.
Along with different health and socio-economic factors, age affecting elderly people’s ability to
prepare for, respond to, and recover from a disaster and place them at greater risk.
Although the health and functional status of elderly people is improving in many countries, the reality
is that there is a subpopulation among elderly people who represent some of the most vulnerable
people.
Further distresses in any natural disaster that intensify risk factors for elders include power outages
that disturb life-support equipment (e.g., oxygen generator, wheelchair) and elevators (making
emergency evacuation very challenging or even impossible); lack of social support and language and
cultural barriers (e.g., lower reading aptitude, speaking difficulty); and commotion of entitlement
program assistance, upon which many elders are completely dependent.
In many disasters the morbidity of elderly people is much higher due to their physical inability and
dependence on family members.
Table 4 Impact of disaster on Older adult

People with disabilities

People with disabilities, including deaf, blind, mentally retarded, those with restricted mobility are
more vulnerable in a disaster situation.
The problem of disability has two faces; first, disabled people need special attention when disaster
warnings and evacuation orders are given, because they may not hear or understand. Second, many
disasters cause injuries that lead to long-term disability.
Table 5 Impact of disaster on persons with disability

The financial burden of caring for the disabled is carried by families and local communities.
The vulnerability of children with disabilities to disasters are multifarious because their families’ social
context may be linked to social, structural, and financial deprivations.
Without appropriate interventions, people with disabilities may be expected to show elevated poverty
rates, longer exposure to hazards, and higher vulnerability in the context of traumatic loss or separation
from caregivers.

Caste
Scheduled caste people are inhabited at low land areas.
Housing condition of these people are precarious and risk.

During flood they have no space to take shelter, neither the higher caste people allow them to take
temporary shelter in their paka houses.
Sheer poverty and disaster make them worse.
Lack of information about a possible occurrence of disaster make threat to their lives and livelihood.
Scheduled Tribe people inhabited at the foot of the hills and mountain and flash flood wash them away.
Social institutions like caste, community or religion influence the mental health of an individual. Sense
of belongingness and togetherness, being in an identifiable group provide social support to the
individual. On the other hand, social evils like., untouchability, discriminatory practices, religious
hatred contribute to the ill health and poor access to the resources/services.

DOS AND DON’TS DURING VARIOUS TYPES OF DISASTERS

Floods
A) Before floods
To prepare for a flood, you should :

 Avoid building in flood prone areas unless you elevate and reinforce your home.
 Elevate the furnace, water heater, and electric panel if susceptible to flooding.
 Install "Check Valves" in sewer traps to prevent floodwater from backing up into the drains of your
home.
 Contact community officials to find out if they are planning to construct barriers (levees, beams
and floodwalls) to stop floodwater from entering the homes in your area.
 Seal the walls in your basement with waterproofing compounds to avoid seepage
B) When flood is likely to hit

 Ignore rumours, stay calm, don't panic

 Stay available - Keep your mobile phones charged for emergency communication; use SMS
 Be alert - Listen to radio, watch TV, read newspapers for weather updates
 Don't ignore animals - Keep cattle/animals untied to ensure their safety
 Survival is key - Prepare an emergency kit with essential items for safety and survival
 Save your valuables - Keep your documents and valuables in water-proof bags.
C) During floods

 Don't take risk - Don't enter flood waters. In case you need to, wear suitable footwear
 Watch your step - Stay away from sewerage lines, gutters, drains, culverts, etc.
 Don't get electrocuted - Stay away from electric poles and fallen power lines to avoid electrocution
 Remain healthy - Eat freshly cooked or dry food. Keep your food covered
 Evade Illness - Drink boiled/chlorinated water
 Ensure cleanliness - Use disinfectants to keep your surroundings clean.
D) After floods

 Protect children - Do not allow children to play in or near flood waters. Don't use any damaged
electrical goods, get them checked.
 Watch your step - Watch out for broken electric poles and wires, sharp objects and debris
 See what you eat - Do not eat food that has been in flood waters
 Mosquitoes can kill - Use mosquito nets to prevent malaria
 Use clean water - Don't use the toilet or tap water.
E) If you need to evacuate

 Raise furniture, appliances on beds and tables

 Put sandbags in the toilet bowl and cover all drain holes to prevent sewage back flow
 Turn off power and gas connection
 Move to a higher ground/ safe shelter
 Take the emergency kit, first aid box and valuables with you
 Do not enter deep, unknown waters; use a stick to check water depth
 Come back home only when officials ask you to do so.

Earthquake
A) What to do before an earthquake

 Repair deep plaster cracks in ceilings and foundations. Get expert advice if there are signs of
structural defects.
 Anchor overhead lighting fixtures to the ceiling.
 Follow BIS codes relevant to your area for building standards
 Fasten shelves securely to walls.
 Place large or heavy objects on lower shelves.
 Store breakable items such as bottled foods, glass, and china in low, closed cabinets with latches.
 Hang heavy items such as pictures and mirrors away from beds, settees, and anywhere that people
sit.
 Brace overhead light and fan fixtures.
 Repair defective electrical wiring and leaky gas connections. These are potential fire risks.
 Secure water heaters, LPG cylinders etc., by strapping them to the walls or bolting to the floor.
 Store weed killers, pesticides, and flammable products securely in closed cabinets with latches and
on bottom shelves.
 Identify safe places indoors and outdoors.
o Under strong dining table, bed
o Against an inside wall
o Away from where glass could shatter around windows, mirrors, pictures, or
o where heavy bookcases or other heavy furniture could fall over
o In the open, away from buildings, trees, telephone and electrical lines, flyovers
o and bridges
 Know emergency telephone numbers (such as those of doctors, hospitals, the police, etc)
 Educate yourself and family members
B) Have a disaster emergency kit ready

 Battery operated torch with extra batteries

 Battery operated radio
 First aid kit and manual
 Emergency food (dry items) and water (packed and sealed)
 Candles and matches in a waterproof container
 Knife
 Chlorine tablets or powdered water purifiers
 Can opener.
 Essential medicines
 Cash
 Thick ropes and cords
 Sturdy shoes.
C) Develop an emergency communication plan

 In case family members are separated from one another during an earthquake (a real possibility
during the day when adults are at work and children are at school), develop a plan for reuniting
after the disaster.
 Ask an out-of-state relative or friend to serve as the 'family contact' after the disaster; it is often
easier to call long distance. Make sure everyone in the family knows the name, address, and phone
number of the contact person.
 Help your community get ready
 Publish a special section in your local newspaper with emergency information on earthquakes.
Localize the information by printing the phone numbers of local emergency services offices and
hospitals.
 Conduct week-long series on locating hazards in the home.
 Work with local emergency services and officials to prepare special reports for people with
mobility impairment on what to do during an earthquake.
 Provide tips on conducting earthquake drills in the home.
 Interview representatives of the gas, electric, and water companies about shutting off utilities.
 Work together in your community to apply your knowledge to building codes, retrofitting
programmes, hazard hunts, and neighbourhood and family emergency plans.
D) What to do during an earthquake

 Stay as safe as possible during an earthquake. Be aware that some earthquakes are actually
foreshocks and a larger earthquake might occur.
 Minimize your movements to a few steps that reach a nearby safe place and stay indoors until the
shaking has stopped and you are sure exiting is safe.
If indoors

 DROP to the ground; take COVER by getting under a sturdy table or other piece of furniture; and
HOLD ON until the shaking stops. If there is no a table or desk near you, cover your face and head
with your arms and crouch in an inside corner of the building.
 Protect yourself by staying under the lintel of an inner door, in the corner of a room, under a table
or even under a bed.
 Stay away from glass, windows, outside doors and walls, and anything that could fall, (such as
lighting fixtures or furniture).
 Stay in bed if you are there when the earthquake strikes. Hold on and protect your head with a
pillow, unless you are under a heavy light fixture that could fall. In that case, move to the nearest
safe place.
 Use a doorway for shelter only if it is in close proximity to you and if you know it is a strongly
supported, load bearing doorway.
 Stay inside until the shaking stops and it is safe to go outside. Research has shown that most injuries
occur when people inside buildings attempt to move to a different location inside the building or
try to leave.
 Be aware that the electricity may go out or the sprinkler systems or fire alarm may turn on.
If outdoors

 Do not move from where you are. However, move away from buildings, trees, streetlights, and
utility wires.
 If you are in open space, stay there until the shaking stops. The greatest danger exists directly
outside buildings; at exits; and alongside exterior walls. Most earthquake-related casualties result
from collapsing walls, flying glass, and falling objects.
If in a moving vehicle

 Stop as quickly as safety permits and stay in the vehicle. Avoid stopping near or under buildings,
trees, overpasses, and utility wires.
 Proceed cautiously once the earthquake has stopped. Avoid roads, bridges, or ramps that might
have been damaged by the earthquake.
If trapped under debris

 Do not light a match.

 Do not move about or kick up dust.
 Cover your mouth with a handkerchief or clothing.
 Tap on a pipe or wall so rescuers can locate you. Use a whistle if one is available.
 Shouting can cause you to inhale dangerous amounts of dust.

Cyclone
A) Before the Cyclone season:

 Check the house; secure loose tiles and carry out repairs of doors and windows
 Remove dead branches or dying trees close to the house; anchor removable objects such as lumber
piles, loose tin sheets, loose bricks, garbage cans, sign-boards etc. which can fly in strong winds
 Keep some wooden boards ready so that glass windows can be boarded if needed
 Keep a hurricane lantern filled with kerosene, battery operated torches and enough dry cells
 Demolish condemned buildings
 Keep some extra batteries for transistors
 Keep some dry non-perishable food always ready for use in emergency
B) When the Cyclone starts
 Listen to the radio (All India Radio stations give weather warnings).
 Keep monitoring the warnings. This will help you prepare for a cyclone emergency.
 Pass the information to others.
 Ignore rumours and do not spread them; this will help to avoid panic situations.
 Believe in the official information
 When a cyclone alert is on for your area continue normal working but stay alert to the radio
warnings.
 Stay alert for the next 24 hours as a cyclone alert means that the danger is within 24 hours.
When your area is under cyclone warning get away from low-lying beaches or other low-lying areas
close to the coast
o Leave early before your way to high ground or shelter gets flooded
o Do not delay and run the risk of being marooned
o If your house is securely built on high ground take shelter in the safe part of the house.
However, if asked to evacuate do not hesitate to leave the place.
o Board up glass windows or put storm shutters in place.
o Provide strong suitable support for outside doors.
o If you do not have wooden boards handy, paste paper strips on glasses to prevent splinters.
However, this may not avoid breaking windows.
o Get extra food, which can be eaten without cooking. Store extra drinking water in suitably
covered vessels.
o If you have to evacuate the house move your valuable articles to upper floors to minimize flood
damage.
o Ensure that your hurricane lantern, torches or other emergency lights are in working condition
and keep them handy.
 o Small and loose things, which can fly in strong winds, should be stored safely in a room.
o Be sure that a window and door can be opened only on the side opposite to the one facing the
wind.
o Make provision for children and adults requiring special diet.
o If the centre of the cyclone is passing directly over your house there will be a lull in the wind
and rain lasting for half an hour or so. During this time do not go out; because immediately
after that, very strong winds will blow from the opposite direction.
o Switch off the electrical mains in your house.
o Remain calm.
C) During a cyclone
DO NOT venture out even when the winds appear to calm down. The 'eye' of the cyclone might be
passing. Winds might intensify and gush again and cause damage. Be safe inside till it is officially
announced that the cyclone has passed.
When Evacuation is instructed
o Pack essentials for yourself and your family to last a few days. These should include medicines,
special food for babies and children or elders.

o Head for the proper shelter or evacuation points indicated for your area.
o Do not worry about your property
o At the shelter follow instructions of the person in charge.
o Remain in the shelter until you are informed to leave

Landslides
 Avoid building houses near steep slopes, close to mountain edges, near drainage ways or along
natural erosion valleys.
 Avoid going to places affected by debris flow. In mud flow areas, build channels to direct the flow
around buildings.
 Stay alert and awake. Many deaths from landslides occur while people are sleeping.
 Listen for unusual sounds that might indicate moving debris, such as trees cracking or boulders
knocking together.
 Move away from the landslide path or debris flow as quickly as possible.
 Avoid river valleys and low-lying areas. Any person near a stream or channel be alert for any
sudden increase or decrease in water flow and notice whether the water changes from clear to
muddy.
 Go to designated public shelter if you have been told to evacuate.
 Stay away from the slide area as there may be danger of additional slides.
 Check the injured and trapped persons near the slide, without entering the direct slide area.
Fire
 In case of fire, dial emergency number in your area/town.
 Learn at least two escape routes and ensure they are free from obstacles.
 Remain calm, unplug all electrical appliances.
 Keep bucket of water and blankets ready.
 If clothes catch fire; stop, drop and roll.
 In case of uncontrolled fore, wrap the victim in a blanket till the fire ceases/stops.
 Don’t burn crackers in crowded, congested places, narrow lanes or inside the house.
 Don’t cover crackers with tin containers or glass bottles for extra sound effect.
 Avoid wearing long loose clothes during fire, as they increase the risk of catching fire.
 Don’t remove burnt clothes unless it comes off easily.
 Don’t apply adhesive dressing on the burnt area.
 Don’t throw lighted cigarette butts.

Droughts
 Never pour water down the drain, use it water your indoor plants or garden.
 Repair dripping taps by replacing washers.
 Check all plumbing for leaking and get them repaired.
 Choose appliances that are more energy and water efficient.
 Develop and use cop contingency plan to meet drought situation.
 Plant drought-tolerant grasses, shrubs and trees.
 Install irrigation devices which are most water efficient for each use, such as micro and drip
irrigation.
 Consider implementing rainwater harvesting wherever it is suitable.
 Avoid flushing the toilet unnecessarily.
 Avoid letting the water run while brushing, washing or bathing.

Epidemics
 Store at least two week supply of water and food.
 Periodically check availablity of regular prescription medicines.
 Have non-prescription medicines and other health supplies in hand including pain relievers,
stomach remedies, cough & cold medicines, fluids with electrolytes and vitamins.
 Volunteer with local groups to prepare and assist during emergency response.
 Keep your surroundings clean and do not let the water be stagnant.
 Avoid close contact with people who are sick. When sick, keep distance from others to protect
them from getting sick.
 If possible, stay at home; keep away from work, school, etc. when you are sick. This will help
prevent others from getting infected.
 Cover mouth and nose with a tissue while coughing or sneezing. Washing hands often to help
protect from harmful germs.
 Avoid touching eyes, nose or mouth. Germs often spread when a person touches something that is
contaminated with germs and then touches his or her sensitive body parts.

Forest Fire
 Try to maintain FOREST BLOCKS to prevent day litter from forests during summer season.
 Try to put the fire out by digging a circle around it by water, if not possible to call a Fire Brigade.
 Move farm animals and movable goods to safer places.
 During fire, listed regularly to radio for advance information and obey the instructions cum advice.
 Teach the causes and harm of fire to general masses and make them aware about forest fire safety.
 Do not be scared when a sudden fire occurs in the forest, be calm and encourage others and
community overcome the problem patiently.
 Do not throw smoldering cigarette butts or bidi in the forests.
 Do not leave the burning wood sticks in or near the forests.
 Do not enter the forest during the fire.
 Discourage community to use slash and burn methods.