CHAPTER -I

INTRODUCTION

In the current age we live in, social change and improvement are gaining
momentum gradually and technologies are also affecting every moment of
individuals' lives. Every day there are some new gadgets and software that make our
life easier and improves on the existing technologies. In the present days the intensive
use of technology in every field of life has changed priorities, lifestyles, way of
thinking and learning needs of the new generation drastically as compared to older
generation. Great differences are observed between the present generation and the
previous one in terms of studying, doing homework, reading and communicating with
the surroundings. Many of the jobs that did not require technology use in past years
do require the use of technology now a day. Many more homes have computers than
in past years, and increasing numbers of people know how to use them. Technology is
being used by children and adults on a daily basis by way of web surfing, texting,
social networking, interactive games, and in more ways. We are an evolving
technological society and we also have become dependent on its use. As a result,
these development have differentiated the student profile and the outputs expected
from education, and its natural consequence, educational systems have been affected
by this change and improvement and the use of technology in education have become
widespread (Turan, 2013). Modern and sophisticated electronic devices and
e-learning tools have been blended and integrated in the curriculum and syllabuses to
make learning and teaching activities become more interesting, interactive, and fast.

Today, not only the transfer of knowledge but also its construction has become
the central point of education. The technology having become widespread has
facilitated the course contents to be taken out of the course and students have been
provided with the opportunity to reach the information independently from time and
environment (Turan, 2015). Since students come to the classroom with emerging
technological tools and new skills of the field each year, it is obvious that the interest
and participation of those students, who have been accustomed to technology, will not
be on the expected level when it comes to the use of traditional methods in the
educational-instructional process. From another point of view, the use of methods
through which students will be active in accordance with the technological

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developments in the classroom setting will affect their interest, participation and the
achievement level of the students (Bergmann and Sams, 2012; Tarman, Baytak and
Ayas, 2011).

Today, there is a common focus on raising student achievement while

integrating technology as a tool. Policymakers and educators are renewing their
commitment to programmes and instructional practices that help to enhance
maximum effects on instruction and student outcomes. Due to the large use of
technology in the world in which we live, the use of technology in teaching and
learning is essential if we are to make a lasting impact on how students learn. Now,
with the onset of the Common Core Standards and their emphasis on technology, the
use of technology will become even a bigger priority in schools (Cristen, 2009).In this
context, many classroom teachers are searching for more different ways to use
technology in their courses in order to engage students in meaningful learning
environments and help students to use and experience powerful cognitive instruments.

Students now days learn through mobile gadgets and tablets. Technology has
simplified the way teachers teach their students and it has also helped students learn
from unlimited resources. Information is power, so both students and teachers can use
advanced technologies for education to conduct research on subjects of interest. Some
of the most popular technological advances which have changed the face of education
include: use of smart phones in classroom, use of tablets and mobile computers in
education and classroom, use of internet for long distance learning, use of social
media to connect students with teachers. In this way, technology offer exciting
possibilities to create vast opportunities for student‟s learning. Classroom technology
has become increasingly more popular. Efforts are made to introduce features like the
interactive whiteboard or use of 2D and 3D demonstrations, videos and animations in
place of textbooks. Due to this, children become more interested to learn. Also,
internet has made it possible for the students of schools and colleges to learn anything
at any place and during any time of the day.

These new technologies make teaching student-centered i.e. these technologies

work according to the appropriate situation that suits students and environment best.
By using the modern technologies in classroom we enjoy the smooth learning. One
can take advantage of the available information only if he can manage and understand
how the technology works. The complete success of the teaching-learning process
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depends on the skills of using the technology in an interactive and appropriate way.
Technology, being on such possibility offers a great potential for enhancing teaching
and learning outcomes. The realization of this potential depends much on how the
teacher uses the technology. Today‟s students as digital natives, Tapscott (1998)
called them net generation. Because they are born in a different world which is full of
digital technology and this technology is an important part of their lives. Prensky
(2001) stated that the new generation is exposed to a huge amount of information
since early childhood and therefore they think and process information much faster
and are used to multi-tasking. However, they have little patience for long tasks and
get bored easily. Therefore, it is vital for teachers to make a shift in methodology and
learning content. This change requires new competencies in teachers. For teachers to
be able to integrate the use of technology in teaching, a vast array of competencies
need to be developed, such as creativity, flexibility, logistic skills for assigning work
and study places as well as grouping students skills for project work, administrative
and organizational skills, collaborating skills and computer competence. They should
be able to appreciate the potential of technology and have positive attitude towards
technology. They should operate computers and use basic software of word
processing, spreadsheets and power point presentations and evaluate the use of
computers and related technological tools for training and education of teachers. To
integrate technological tools into learning activities throughout the curriculum, create
hypertext documents and understand about network demonstrate knowledge of ethics
and equity issues related to technology and keep up-to-date as far as educational
technology is concerned (Dahiya, 2008).

1.1 Computer in Education

Human nature is full of curiosity. Human beings are always involved in new
innovations. One of its innovations is computer. Today computer is used in all spheres
of today. It makes an important contribution in this modern age. Information
technology collectively bounded all the uses of computers and new revolutions in the
area of communication. Computers are being used in different places by many people
in different fields. One way computers help us is in our lives. We use the computer to
communicate with people such as web conferencing with friends who are overseas, to
look up on information about a particular topic, socialize on social networks such as

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Facebook or even to do something as simple as sending an email or digital cards to
friends and loved ones. The computer has also managed to change us from reading
hard copies of books, magazines and newspapers, to reading online digital documents
such as online newspaper articles and e-books. Computers have changed the way we
work, be it any profession. Computers play a vital role in every field. They aid in
industrial processes, find application in medicine and they are the heart of the
software.

Computer is an electronic device which executes software programmes. This

is a programmable machine that can store, retrieve and process data. It automatically
carries out a sequence of an arithmetic or logical operation. The particular sequence of
operation can be changed readily, allowing the computer to solve more than one kind
of problem (Britannica Concise Encyclopedia, 2012).

In addition, according to Columbia Encyclopedia (2012) computer is a device

that accepts information (in the form of digitalized data) and manipulates it for some
results based on a programme or sequence of instruction how the data is to be
processed. Computers also include the means for storing data for necessary duration.
Moreover computer is device that is capable of performing a series of arithmetic or
logical operations. A computer is distinguished from a calculating machine such as an
electronic calculator by able to store computer programmes and it can repeat its
operations and make a logical decisions by the number and complexity of the
operations it can perform and by its ability to process store and retrieve data without
human intervention (McGraw –Hill Dictionary, 2002).

The computer as productivity tool has great role in education. Computers

include hardware and software, word processing functions, graphics, programmed
instruction for problem solving, spreadsheets, data bases, networking and
telecommunications for today high technology developments as a reflective to
education. In addition to this, within the constructivist approach perspective,
computers help the differentiate roles of students and teachers, application of
instruction by providing equal standards, understanding, meaningful learning for all
students. Computer help to convert teacher based instruction to child centered
instruction with providing multiple intelligence atmosphere to the educational cycle
(Forcier, 1996).

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1.1.1 Computer for Instruction
Computer is a useful tool in instruction because it has many capabilities. It
serves as information tool, communication tool, situating tool and constructive tool.
Computer can provide a vast amount of information in various forms such as text,
graphics, sound and video. Even multimedia encyclopedias are available today on the
internet. The internet itself provides an enormous database from which users can
access global information resources that include the latest news as well as educational
information directly useful to them. In addition, computer can be used as a situating
tool. By means of Virtual Reality Extension System (VRES), the computers can
create 3-D images on display to give the user the feeling that they are situated in a
virtual environment. A flight simulation programmes is an example of situating tool
which places the user, in a simulated flying environment (Lucido, 2001). Moreover,
computer can be used as communication tool destroy it.

Along the constructivist point of view, it is not enough for students to

download relevant information using the computer as an information tool. Students
can use the gathered information for composition or presentation projects as may be
assigned by the teacher. Given the fact that the internet can serve as a channel for
global communication, the computer can very well play the key tool for video
teleconferencing sessions. Computers can also be used for manipulating information;
visualizing one‟s understanding and building new knowledge. The Microsoft word
computer programme itself is a desktop publishing software that allows the users to
organize and presents their ideas in attractive formats (Lucido, 2001)

1.1.2 Computer for Enjoyment

Computer makes the teaching and learning process more enjoyable, interesting
and interactive by using of software programmes such as educational games,
PowerPoint presentation, Photoshop and other audio-visual presentations. Computer
games are great way for students to learn that learning can be fun. Educational games
allow students to learn in fun and inter active way. Computer in the classroom are
beneficial and help students to learn and grow (Johnson, 2011). A teacher who uses
computer while teaching can easily get attention of her students. Through PowerPoint
presentation a teacher can deliver her lessons on a colorful and dynamic presentation
students find it more interesting than traditional teacher lectures by it provide the
students with visual presentation of information help them to retain information from

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lessons covered in class (Thea, 2012). Moreover, computer also provides interactive
learning. When learners use computer in the classroom, it provides active
participation from students, which could lead to a better understanding of the school
subjects (Thea, 2012).

In addition, using computer projectors to present lessons adds the audio-visual

element to instruction and reaches those whose learning style is not addressed through
traditional teacher lectures. Since today‟s students are heavily oriented to the visual,
this approach appeals to everyone. Students and teachers in learning situations both
respond positively to the use of computers for the same reasons and both groups
benefit when computer technology is utilized in instruction (Watts and Hammons,
2002). Students today instantly raise their level of interest and appreciable when they
are allowed to work on the computers. A student learns best by doing instead of
listening and using computer in instructions is hands on for them, requiring active
involvement and participation. Many instructional programmes are interactive, giving
the students the opportunity to answer a question or work a problem and receive
immediate feedback (Walts and Hammons, 2002).

Furthermore, when students are using computer, they are in an active role of
recipient of information transmitted by a teacher, textbook or broadcast. The student
is actively making choices about how to generate, obtain, manipulate or display
information. Information technology use allows many more students to be actively
thinking about information, making choices and executing skills than in typical
teacher lessons. Moreover, when computer is used as a tool to support in performing
automatic tasks, the students are in the position of defining their goals, making design
decision, and evaluating their programmes (Brown et al., 2001).

On the other hand, use of computer in the classroom, the teacher‟s role
changes as well. The teacher is no longer the center of attention and the dispenser of
information, but rather plays the role of facilitator, setting project goals and providing
guidelines and resources, moving from the student to student or group to group,
providing suggestions and support for student activity.

Literacy games are also available online and for downloading, as well
as reviews of educational software programmes. Another wonderful resource is a
large variety of online books, often organized by subject, with the text and pictures of

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each page easily viewed on the screen by the student, who can click on the arrow to
turn the page. For students who may not be interested in reading but love computers,
online books can be a helpful teaching tool, as well as providing an easy way for a
teacher to expand the classroom library. A wonderful related feature of several
websites is the information they provide about the authors and illustrators of children's
books.

One particularly exciting feature of going online is the ability to e-mail anyone
in the world. Teachers and students worldwide are beginning to use this ability to talk
to each other. They can even do projects together and help each other learn about their
different cultures. E-mailing back and forth with another classroom also provides
excellent opportunities for students to practice writing skills for a real-life
purpose. Word processing can be used before documents are pasted into e-mails, so
that students not only practice this essential skill of word processing but also can edit
much more easily to produce a well-crafted piece of writing.

By this way computer is a new dimension that provides opportunity for stable
effective learning. Use of Information and communication technology (ICT) for
promoting education and development has always been a part of policy and plan
documents on education of India. The decision makers at both central and state levels
are favoring inclusion of new computer and internet based ICT in education (adopting
cloud based virtual classrooms/universities and Mobile Learning [M-Learning]
initiatives). The Government of India has implemented several national as well as
state specific schemes that run concurrent to large number of privately led ICT
initiatives at school and higher education levels.

The Government of India assessed the importance of the ICT intervention in

education as early as 1984-85 with the introduction of Computer Literacy and Studies
in Schools (CLASS) as a joint venture of the Ministry of Human Resource
Development in collaboration with the Department of Electronics, wherein 12000
secondary and senior secondary schools were beneficiaries. This project was later on
adopted as a centrally sponsored scheme during the 8th Five Year Plan (1993-1998),
and beneficiary institutions increased in number and were provided financial
assistance for purchase and maintenance of computers, text books as well as provision
for computer instructors. The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986 did not
specifically mention the use of ICTs for promoting primary and secondary education,

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but the 1992 Programme of Action (POA) on NPE stressed the need to improve
access to computers in schools. This move was followed by the constitution of the
National Task Force on Information Technology and Software Development (IT Task
Force), by the Prime Minister in 1998 that introduced certain attractive schemes such
as Vidyarthi Computer Scheme, Shikshak Computer Scheme and School Computer
Scheme to inspire and initiate both teachers and the taught to make themselves tech-
savvy. These schemes were supported by a suitable cache of initiatives such as
lowering the cost of personal computers, easy installment bank loans, computer
donations by information technology companies and other business houses, bulk
donations of computers by NRI organizations and individuals, large-volume bargain
price imports, multi-lateral funding, etc. Computers and Internet to be made
accessible to schools, polytechnics, colleges, and public hospitals in the country by
the year 2003. Though this initiative failed to make a comprehensive impact, yet the
concept of SMART Schools attracted the attention of many schools and higher
educational institutions such as colleges, universities where the emphasis was not only
on Information Technology in classes, but also on the use of skills and values that will
be ultimately beneficial to all stake-holders. The significant role ICT can play in
school education has also been highlighted in the National Curriculum Framework
(NCF) 2005. Use of ICT for quality improvement also figures in Government of
India's flagship programme on education, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA). SSA also
seeks to provide computer education to bridge the digital divide. For instance to
promote technology driven education and open and distance learning the country
launched a dedicated satellite EDUSAT on September 20, 2004. It was expected that
EDUSAT would bring both quantitative and qualitative revolution in education.
Again, ICT has figured comprehensively in the norm of schooling recommended by
the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE), in its report on Universal
Secondary Education, in 2005. The Information Technology Policy 2005 recognized
the strategic importance of ICTs as key component of socio-economic development,
governance and enhanced service-delivery. Additionally, the policy also called for
improvement and spread of education to achieve computer literacy among students.
The VISION 2020 programme, initiated by President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam,
encompassed a holistic development module that included integrated information
technology tools with a sustainable environment-conscious approach to education.
The Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) also undertook took several
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long-term strategies to ensure spread, development and optimization of ICT tools in
Indian classrooms, integrating them with traditional frameworks of knowledge-
dissemination.

E-Pathshala has been developed by NCERT for showcasing and disseminating

all educational e-resources including textbooks, audio, video, periodicals and a variety
of other print and non-print materials through website and mobile application. The
platform addresses the dual challenge of reaching out to a diverse clientele and
bridging the digital divide (geographical, socio-cultural and linguistic), offering
comparable quality of e-contents and ensuring its free access at every time and every
place. All the concerned stakeholders such as students, teachers, educators and parents
can access e-books through multiple technology platforms i.e. mobile phones
(android, IOS and windows platforms), and tablets (as e-pub) and on web through
laptops and desktops (as flipbooks). The Web portal and Mobile App of e-Pathshala
was launched by Hon‟ble human resource development minister during the National
Conference on ICT in School Education on 7th November, 2015.

However, an overview of the ICT policy initiatives of the Government of

India as well as state governments, will reveal that though there have been
considerable progress in incorporation and institution of ICT tools in education
programme, there is still a huge abyss between the initial projected progress and hard
reality. The policy processes are sometimes too complex and fantastic to be
implemented in the existing framework. Often there is a lacuna between the
development rhetoric and its translation into practice. The essentially theoretical
approach to implementation of this progressive strategy, without taking into account
several practical parameters, is the basic error that hinders successful action. One such
parameter is teacher‟s resistance toward these technologies because of fear or phobia.
Teachers find themselves wandering in a situation, where they have to make use of
computers to update their knowledge and deliver lessons through the computer and on
the other side of the picture, they face certain stressful symptoms while dealing with
the computer in the classroom. Most teachers agree that computers are very useful
tool but few of them use computers extensively in the classroom. Teachers often
avoid technology because they don‟t understand it or know how to use it to their best
advantage. Most teachers today use a computer as a natural instrument, but avoid this
into the classroom as they feel anxious about potentially losing their authority. Given

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that today‟s students are referred to as digital natives, and today‟s educator as digital
navies, it is quite possible and even expected that students may be more proficient
than their teachers in term of their technology know-how. Due to this fact among
faculty, many of them feel incapable of cultivating these skills within themselves or
their students. In India most of the pupil teachers come from rural areas and computer
technology to a large extent is English based. Teacher's confidence and motivation
levels are also identified as factors influencing its use in classroom. These negative
attitudes such as fear and avoidance about interaction with computers result in
Computer Phobia.

1.2 Computer Phobia

Changes in society‟s expectations mean that school teachers need to be able to
use computers in education. Teachers need support and training to positively integrate
technology into their classroom and teacher attitudes toward ICT may be a significant
factor in the implementation of ICT in education. In our country, along with
“Educational Technology Ability Standards for Elementary and middle schools
Teachers "issuing by Ministry of Education, the new turn of the whole staff
educational technology ability training is started. But the trainable teachers are
numerous and there are many problems in teaching training, which hinder the
development of teacher‟s ICT ability. For the reason above, great attention should be
taken on teachers to investigate the status of using ICT and find out the factors which
determine the use of ICT in education.

In the early 1980s, the age of the personal computer had arrived and
"computer phobia" was suddenly everywhere. Sufferers experienced "a range of
resistances, fears, anxieties, and hostilities," according to the 1996 book Women and
Computers. "These can take such forms as fear of physically touching the computer or
of damaging it and what's inside it, a reluctance to read or talk about computers,
feeling threatened by those who do know something about them, feeling that you can
be replaced by a machine, become a slave to it, or feeling aggressive towards
computers."

Humans often converge around massive technological shifts–around any

change, really–with a flurry of anxieties. In the early days of the telephone, people
wondered if the machines might be used to communicate with the dead. Today, it is

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the smartphone that has people jittery. (Are iPhones making us stupid? Lazy?
Narcissistic? Anti-social?)

Three decades ago, "Computer phobia" came up in magazines, newspapers,

computer training manuals, psychology studies, and advertising copy. Computer
Phobia is an intense fear of something that possess little or no danger. While people
with computer phobia realize that these fears are irrational, they often find that facing
or even thinking about this bring panic attack. This fear becomes further common as
technology takes a more relevant place in society. Like many phobias, this irrational
fear can negatively impact several areas of an individual's life. The phobia of
computers, though, particularly presents problems in business and in education as it
can affect work productivity and training effectiveness. Computer Phobia is a
symptom of the modern times induced by the frequently and rapidly changing nature
of technology. There is no consensus in the literature on the use of the terms such as
Computer Phobia or techno phobia. In the studies performed so for this subject has
been handled under some titles, Computer Phobia, techno stress, cyber phobia,
computer aversion, technophobia and computer anxiety (Keating, 1996; Yaghi and
Abu-Saba, 1998; Chai, Ligon and Ward, 2002; Thorpe and Brosnan, 2007; Wang,
Shu and Tu, 2008). Almost one third of individual within most population exhibit a
certain degree of Computer Phobia (Brosnan, 1998 and Davidson, 1994). Computer
Phobia and computer anxiety are interchangeably used to describe the fear of
impending interaction with a computer (Chua, Chen, and Wong, 1999; Rosen and
Weil 1992). Computer phobia is becoming a commonly used term, but its definition is
still evolving, and little is known about its extent or causes.

In a pioneering work, Jay (1981) defined computer phobia as (1) a resistance

to talking about computers or even thinking about computers, (2) fear or anxiety
toward computers, and (3) hostile or aggressive thoughts about computers.

The behavioural, emotional, and attitudinal components he identified have

influenced others conducting research in this area, although some may emphasize one
more than another. Some empirical work has been done to investigate the attitudes
people have about computers. Less effort has been directed toward understanding the
widespread fears about computers and their impact on society.

Herdman (1983) defined computer phobia as emotional fear, apprehension,

and anxiety felt by individuals towards interactions with computers or when they
think about using computers.

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 According to Lazarus and Folkman (1984), the interaction between humans
and computer can result in negative effects. These negative effects were described
using various labels: computer anxiety, negative attitude towards computers,
computer phobia and computer avoidance.

Howard (1986) defined computer phobia as “fear of impending interaction

with a computer that is disproportionate to the actual threat presented by the
computer”.

Appelbaum and Primmer (1990) pointed out that “cyberphobia” is “an intense
anxiety about computers that can produce physical symptoms ranging from sweaty
palm to dizziness, shortness of breath, heart pounding, and feelings of unreality”

Rosen and Maguire (1990) defined technophobia as “anxiety about current or

future interactions with computers or computer-related technology; negative global
attitudes about computers, their operation or their societal impact; and/or specific
negative cognitions or self-critical internal dialogues during actual computer
interactions or when contemplating future interaction”.

Rosen and Weil (1992) defined Computer Phobia as, “(a) anxiety about
present or future interactions with computers or computer related technology,
(b) negative global attitudes about computers, and their operation or their societal
impact; and/or, (c) specific negative cognitions or self-critical internal dialogues
during actual computer interaction or when contemplating future computer
interaction.”

Hudiburg (1996) and Abd-Hamid et al. (2003) added that techno-stress is

labeled by other researchers as technophobia, cyber phobia, and computer stress.
Techno-stress is explained as a maladaptive reaction caused by the inability to handle
new computer technology in a healthy way.

Rosen and Weil (1997) technophobia can be defined as fear/dislike of

advanced technology or complex devices especially computers. It is the negative
global attitude about computers and their operation or their societal impact. In this
study, technophobia is used interchangeably with computer phobia.

According to Brosnan (1998), “Computer Phobia is also associated with

technophobia, which refers to a phobia towards technology, and cyber phobia, which
refer to a phobia towards computers.
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 Chua, Chen and Wang (1999) opined that Computer Phobia and computer
anxiety are interchangeably used to describe the fear of impending interaction with a
computer that is disproportionate to the actual challenge presented by the computer‟s
use. Individuals who are “computer phobic” display negative behaviour and
physiological reactions to computers, thus exhibit behaviours which may include the
use of computers for a limited time, negative comments about computers and
avoidance of computer usage (Beckers and Schmidt, 2003; Bozionelos, 2004).

Morreale, Osborn and Pearson (2000) described computer phobia as

technophobia and is often based on unfamiliarity with a medium.

McIlroy, Sadler and Boojawan (2001) Computer Phobia is also referred to as

technophobia about being present or future interactions with computers or computer-
related technology.

Brod (1984) cited in Sami and Pangannaiah, (2006) described the above
definition as the modern disease of adaptation caused by the inability to cope with the
new computer technologies in a healthy manner and Brosnan and Lee (1998) agree
with him as they also believe that technophobia can have associated behavioural
consequences. Wang, Shu and Tu (2008) keep faithful to Rosen and Weil definition
of Computer phobia and highlight how this can be a reflection of someone‟s
discomposure, fear, tenseness and anxiety when one is learning and using computer
technology directly or indirectly, that ultimately ends in psychological and emotional
repulsion that prevents one from using such technology. Selwyn (2003) delves more
into the human experience of it all as he believes that Computer phobia encompass the
fear and apprehension felt by an individual when considering the implications of
using computer, even when it poses no real or immediate threat. This clearly shows
how computer phobia can cloud an individual‟s perception of technology, appearing
to be “not for them“

According to Doyle, Stamouli, and Huggard (2005), Computer Phobia is “a

real phenomenon” and is a psychological response definition of the term computer
anxiety.

This condition as described should not be construed as merely academic for it

has been associated with slower learning of tasks and more errors (Paxton and Turner,
1984). Avoidance of computing activity may be a particular application of the more

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general finding that people with high anxiety use avoidance as a coping strategy for
anxiety-generating situations (Rachman, 1998). Furthermore, Kanfer and Heggestad
(1997) concluded that the negative feeling linked with high anxiety was likely to
detract cognitive resources from task performance. There has been a growing
recognition over several decades that computer phobia is a widespread phenomenon
in the student population (Selwyn, 2003). People suffering from computer phobia
often hold a negative attitude toward computers, which in turn eventually causes
avoidance of computers (Harrington, McElroy, and Morrow, 1990; Heinssen, Glass,
and Knight, 1987; Rachman, 1998; Todman, 2000; Torkzadeh and Angula, 1992;
Weil and Rosen, 1995).

To label someone as a computer phobic the individual may suffer from, severe
reactions on all three dimensions described by Rosen and Weil above, to mild
discomfort on just one of the single dimensions (Rosen and Weil, 1992). Brosnan and
Lee (1998) expand to this and state that when a computer phobe does use technology,
they are likely to experience negative feelings and cognitions or self-critical internal
dialogue resulting in slower and less accurate performance and subsequent increase in
levels of computer anxiety and negative attitudes (1990, Rosen and Maguire, cited in
Brosnan and Lee, 1998). The explanation on these three dimensions follows:

(a) Computer phobia – Computer Anxiety

Anxiety can be defined in a range of definitions from uneasiness and

apprehension to “a state of diffuse arousal following perception of “threat” to
“unresolved fear” (Epstein 1972, cited in Brosnan, 1998). What is common is that it is
sometimes interrelated with fear for example, for some people air travel is a real
anxiety. Computer anxiety is sometimes portrayed as the irrational fear invoked by
computers (Howard, 1986 cited in Brosnan, 1998) which can be seen as a symptom of
modern times, partially brought on by the constant and rapid changing nature of
computers and the subsequent pressure for social change. The anxious computer
phobe according to Sami and Pangannaiah (2006) is the person who exhibits the usual
signs of being anxious such as headaches, sweaty palms, heart palpitations while
showing the below indicative behaviour (Brosnan, 1998):

 Total avoidance of computers, computer labs, internet cafés and

anywhere related

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  Extreme caution with computers
 Negative remarks about computers
 Attempts to minimize as much as possible the necessary use of
computers.
(b) Computer phobia - Negative Global Attitudes

Negative attitudes can be explained as a state of mind or a feeling towards

someone or something or “a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently
negatively manner with respect to an object” (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975).
Subsequently computer negative attitudes are negative dispositions towards
computers that can sometimes lead to computer misuse (Desmond, 1984 cited in
Brosnan, 1998). Although literacy in computers has been found as unrelated to
negative global attitudes towards computers, illiteracy did slightly impact such
attitudes (Mahmood and Medewitz, 1990 cited in Brosnan, 1998), thus most of the
time “uncomfortable users” are slightly anxious, that leads to negative attitudes, as
they lack enough information about computers to use them effectively (Sami and
Pangannaiah, 2006).

(c) Computer phobia - Specific Negative Cognitions or Self-Critical

Internal Dialogues

Cognition or internal dialogue are thoughts we have every day such as “what a
nice day today is” or “I like that car” and can be described as the act or process by
which knowledge is acquired such as intuition, perception and reasoning, and thus
negative cognitions are negative perceptions or intuitions vis-à-vis computers such as
“I am going to make a mistake”. This, most of the time, effects directly or indirectly
self-efficacy i.e. a judgment of how well one can execute courses of action required to
deal with prospective situations (Sami and Pangannaiah, 2006), which can be
translated to self confidence in actually managing to use well a computer. Cognitive
computer phobes may appear cool, calm and relaxed externally but internally they are
bombarding themselves with negative cognitions such as “everyone else seems to
know what they are doing except me” (Sami and Pangannaiah, 2006).

1.2.1 Characteristic of Computer Phobia

1. Concept specific: it regularly occurs in a specific type of situation (Harris and

Grangennet, 1997) Concept-specific phobia is a transitory-neurotic type of

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 phobia. This is phobia that people associate with specific situation, in our
case when a person interacts with computers.

2. An Affective response: An emotional fear of potential negative outcomes

such as damaging the equipment or looking foolish. Computer phobia is the
complex emotional reactions that are evoked in individuals who interpret
computers as personally threatening.

3. A Multi-dimensional Construct: Computer phobia has also been classified as a

complex psychological construct that cannot be fully described from a single
perspective (Chua, Chen and Wong, 1999). They simply generalized it a kind
of phobia, which can be changed and measured along multiple dimensions”.
It includes psychological aspects (i.e. attitudes toward computers, self-
perceptions, self-efficacy, personality types, or avoidance), operational
components (previous experiences, the frequency of computer use, and
owning a personal computer), and sociological factors (gender, age, ethnicity,
academic major, nationality, or socio-economic status).

4. Irrational Fear: It is intense fear of something that possess little or no danger.

Computer anxiety manifests itself in many forms and results in a number of
common fears. Users are afraid that they will break the computer or destroy
vital information. They feel awkward and fear looking stupid. Computers
seem to have almost human characteristics and their speed can make people
feel like the machine is smarter than they are. They feel over whelmed by the
technology and their lack of understanding is expressed as “if I am so far
behind already how I will ever catch up? (Raub, 1981).

Research has established firmly that stress and phobia reduce performance
effectiveness. The presence of computer phobic and anxious people in the work place
can lead to other serious performance problems, including sabotage, decline in
motivation, work quality and morale; and increase in mistakes, absenteeism,
interpersonal conflicts and turnover (Morgan, 1985).

Dr. Larry Rosen, research psychologist, computer educator, and professor at

the California State University suggested that there are three dominant subcategories
of technophobes- the "uncomfortable users", the "cognitive computer phobes", and
"anxious computer phobes".

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Towards a Taxonomy of Computer Phobia
A taxonomy of computer phobia tries to distinguish different qualities and
intensities of computer phobia. Kinds and strength of computer phobia are important
for assessing differential effects on new technologies in various contexts. Some forms
Computer phobia may range from the more passive forms of computer phobia of
those who are indifferent toward cyberspace to the responses of those who see digital
technology as a medium of intrusive surveillance; more extreme responses may
involve anti-technological paranoia expressed by social movements that radically
oppose „technological society‟ and „the New World Order.

Active/passive and individual/collective

Computer phobia is frequently described as active or passive. Active refers to
purposeful actions that may involve violence against computer or direct attacks
against machines, the destruction of machines, the intrusion or occupation of building
sites. This may include forms of violence that are often confined to a small circle of
determined, specially trained and motivated activists. By contrast, passive computer
phobia comprises forms of willful inactivity, where bodily movements are restricted:
non-compliance, blocking, sit-ins, not doing things one is expected to do by law.
Passive resistance is more easily turned into mass action, as people do not need
special training and it may be physically less demanding.

In the eyes of critique

Champions of technology like Hellman allege that critics of technology are
motivated by fear and anxiety, a charge implying that technology critics suffer from a
psychological condition. In his 1998 publication the psychologist Brosnan elevated
this Hominem approach to academic respectability by developing a model of the
cognitive and psychosocial factors that might account for feelings of fear and anxiety
about technology.

People who fear computers may also be known as “Luddites”. Luddites are
wary of all new technology, and prefer a low-tech approach for living their lives.
They may also fear cellphones, Blackberries, and other new and modern gadgets, such
as iPods and other MP3 players.

The Amish group of people resists technology because of the convictions of

their Faith. Likewise, many environmental groups are known to maintain social stance

17
against technology. This might not be a phobia per se; rather it is what these groups
believe to be “best practices”.

Impact on various Field

There are different ways that someone could experience computer phobia.
Teachers may experience a form of computer phobia if they are forced to change their
way of teaching. Another way people may experience computer phobia is if they feel
that they are incompetent, or that the new technology is not needed to advance in life,
or that they feel that they lack skills for the new age of technology. Another way
people may experience computer phobia is if they feel like they are going to lose
control, or the new technology will affect their status in life. Computer phobia can
cause problems in a person‟s career, because almost every office or retail job requires
the use of computers. In fact, it is difficult to think of jobs where computers don‟t
factor in somehow. Appelbaum and Primmer (1990) pointed out that “cyberphobia” is
more common than other phobias in business and industry. The person with
Computer phobia may prefer “old-fashioned” careers, such as carpentry, that rely on
creating things with their own two hands. However, technology can make life easier:
when it is shunned, advances that make work more efficient may be missed out on.
For the true Computer phobic, the computer is a source of anxiety and trepidation

Computer phobia and Teachers

The role of present day teacher has become very challenging, complex and
multifaceted, which requires preparation on the part of teachers in both ways-before
entering in profession and after entering into job. In this era of globalization when
knowledge driven economy and ICT are strongly emphasized, there is need for
paradigm shift in the teaching learning process and that can be done if the curriculum
allows us to do so (Gupta and Mittal, 2011). With the increased emphasis on the use
of computers in education, it is reasonable for society to expect that teachers should
have the knowledge and confidence to use computer technology effectively in the
classroom. Increasingly, in primary and secondary schools, teachers are expected to
know not only how to use computers, but how to use them effectively with students.
There is a general belief that computers will continue to be important for students
both in their school years, and for the remainder of their lives. However, there is now
considerable evidence to suggest that school teachers in many countries are not
confident in the use of computers. Therefore the role of teacher at this point is vital.

18
Teachers are required to decide how to make appropriate educational use of Computer
in the classroom, where there are no longer lecture-based or didactic teaching
methods in classrooms any more. The effective and efficient use of ICTs depends
largely on technically competent educators/teachers. They should be able to
appreciate the potential of ICT and have positive attitude towards ICT. They should
operate computers and use basic software for word processing, spreadsheets and
power point presentations etc. evaluate the use of computers and related ICT tools for
training and education of teachers. To integrate ICT tools into learning activities
throughout the curriculum, create hypertext documents and understand about network:
demonstrate knowledge of ethics and equity issues related to ICT and keep up-to-date
as far as educational technology is concerned (Dahiya, 2008). The main goal of ICT
in education is to enhance teaching and learning quality. A number of studies have
shown a wide range of factors which influence educators‟ utilization of ICTs in their
teaching. Computer Phobia is argued to be a major deterrent to the utilization of ICT
by educators. Technological advancement has reduced the world into tiny space. In
other world, it is something that has really connected people living all over the world
and has turned the planet earth into a global village. These technologies assist teacher
and facilitate learning. Thus, without a knowledge of teachers‟ and prospective
teachers‟ perceptions and future plans for using computer in education, any potential
innovations in this area may lack utility. Recent studies of ICT environment in teacher
education focus mainly on the difficulties in establishing such environments
(Wedman and Diggs, 2001; Schaffer and Richardson, 2004). First, regarding use of
digital technologies, teachers having less confident may feel embarrassed about
having problems such as not understanding computer errors, being unable to access a
file or web pages not loading. Small problems such as this can make teachers feel out
of control and that their professional competence is being compromised. As digital
technologies become more and more familiar with students and colleagues, some
teachers may even feel ashamed that they are not confident using new devices or
resources. Time off task in the classroom trying to fix problems can result in students
becoming disengaged and disruptive. Teachers may feel time taken from instruction
will have negative effects on learning. Of course these concerns may seem like
excuses or justifications for not using digital technologies and being resistant. Various
researchers studies (OTA, 1995; Smaldino, Russell, Heinich, Molenda and
Cavanaugh, 2005; Whetstone and Carr-Chellman, 2001) analyzed that teacher did not
19
know how to use computers to enhance computer application in class room activities.
Similarly, Gihar, Saxena and Kukreti (2005) also indicated that 70 percent teacher
educators accepted that they never used the computer and internet facilities in the
classroom teaching. This then leads to the second issue. Teachers are more likely to
adopt digital technologies and new practices that align with learning aims and goals.
Many digital technologies present new ways to teach and learn which are unknown,
the benefits to learning may be unknown or are not significantly greater than a non-
digital approach. If the benefit to work or learning is unknown or not greater then it
may be difficult for some teachers to justify the cost of time spent learning about
digital technologies, planning for teaching and potential issues in the classroom. Some
teacher training programmes remain problematic due to the amount of time spent on
the courses with technological contents. As mentioned in literature, many pre-service
teachers believe that they are not adequately trained and often are not given
appropriate tools in order to implement educational technology in their classroom.
Grabe and Grabe (1998) even reported a recent situation in which computers were not
used effectively in teaching practice, due in part to teachers‟ attitudes and fears
regarding this relatively new technology. While Lunenburg and Ornstein, 1996; Grabe
and Grabe (1998) found that teachers felt anxious about potentially losing their
authority. In India most of the pupil teachers come from rural areas and computer
technology to a large extent is English based. In today‟s world the use of computers
has become a part of daily life of an individual. It has almost become an extension of
the self rather than a mere tool. In this context if pupil teachers have computer phobia,
it affects their own teaching as well as the ability of the students to learn, apart from
being a social handicap. If teachers are unsure of their computer knowledge and skills,
they can be cautious about implementing CALL in the classroom teaching for their
respective students (Chen, 2012).

There are three categories of personal factors that could give rise to Computer-
Phobia, demographic, personality and cognitive style. The demographic factors
involve the variables such as gender, age group, educational background etc. The
personality factor would include trait anxiety, personality type, locus of control etc.
The cognitive style factor refers an individual‟s tendency in matters relating to the
acquisition, analysis, evaluation and interpretation of data in decision process (Zmud,

20
1979). The general model of Computer Phobia is schematically represented in
following figure:

Figure 1.1 Systematic Representation of General Model of Computer Phobia

1.3 Academic Stream

The Government of India has introduced the 10+2+3 system in National
Policy of Education, 1986. The first stage covers ten years of schooling for all. It
contains basic -curriculum, general education with emphasis on science and
mathematics with the addition of new subjects like work experience, physical
education, art and craft etc.

At the 10+2 stage or the senior secondary stage there is a diversification of

Academic and Vocational streams. The students opting for Academic stream have to
make decision regarding the act of carrying of higher studies in the field of arts,
science and commerce. This depends on the choice of the students and also on the
facilities available.

It is assumed that although educational and vocational decisions are made by

an individual, these are generally influenced by so many other factors. One of the key
factor is the quality of teacher. The quality of teacher without having teaching skills
seems impossible. In fact, teacher is considered the top most academic and
professional person in the educational pyramid (Singh, 2007). Without good teachers
even the best system of education is found to fail while with good teachers the defects
of the system can largely be overcome. Bhargava (2005), Agra (2005) and Sharma

21
(2003) were of the view that the performance of students and quality of education
depended upon the quality of teachers. To improve the quality of teachers, teachers
must be given a professional status. Being professional, teachers are expected to use
the best practices and strategies to meet challenging demand of their career, which
involves imparting knowledge and developing essential skills and attitude in the
students. The accomplishment of these goals in teaching is determining. They have to
use the best of their abilities to achieve these outcomes and use those practices and
strategies that have been found more efficient and effective. A good teacher is
expected to be committed to his work and would have the ability to take initiatives
(Cruickshank, 2009). In the Indian education system at secondary school level
teachers are appointed on the basis of subjects opted by them in their graduation
studies which are termed as academic streams.
 Academic stream is usually a field to choose after some kind of Graduation/
High school.
 Academic streams signify various options of studies available for the person to
choose from.
 Academic stream just means your course of study, that is, what courses you
will take in the future; the direction your studies will go.

Therefore academic stream of a teacher means the main subject of study for
which the teacher is appointed in the school. In the present study academic stream
means the teaching subject of the prospective and in-service teachers. The teachers
will be categorized in two groups- Sciences (Physical Sciences, Biological Sciences,
and Mathematics) and Humanities (Social Sciences and Languages).

1.4 Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

Information and communication technology (ICT) is a force that has changed

many aspects of the way we live. If one was to compare such fields as medicine,
tourism, travel business, law, banking, engineering and architecture, the impact of
ICT across the past two or three decades has been enormous. The way these fields
operate today is vastly different from the ways they operated in the past. But when
one looks at education, there seems to have been an uncanny lack of influence and
fearless change than other fields have experienced. A number of people have
attempted to explore this lack of activity and influence (Collis, 2002).There have been

22
a number of factors impeding the wholesale uptake of Information and
communication technology in education across all sectors. These have included such
factors as a lack of funding to support the purchase of the technology, a lack of
training among established teaching practitioners, a lack of motivation and need
among teachers and students to use ICT as teaching and learning tools Starr, 2001).
But in recent times, factors have emerged which have strengthened and encouraged
moves to use ICTs into classrooms and learning settings. These have included a
growing need to explore efficiencies in terms of programme delivery, the
opportunities for flexible delivery provided by ICTs, the capacity of technology to
provide support for customized educational programmes to meet the needs of
individual learners and the growing use of the Internet and www as tools for
information access and communication (Kennedy and McNaught, 1997).Information
and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are increasingly utilized by higher
education institutions worldwide. ICTs are emerging as a part of on campus delivery
as well as open and distance modalities of higher education delivery. ICTs in higher
education are being used for developing course material; delivering content and
sharing content; communication between learners, teachers and the outside world;
creation and delivery of presentations and lectures; academic research; administrative
support, student enrolment. Higher education institutions in developing countries are
on the whole making the most of computers and software available to them even
though challenges including insufficient telephone and telecommunication
infrastructure, lack of training resources for teachers, and lack of skilled and
experienced information technology specialists to assist with development,
maintenance and support of ICT usage in higher education institutions remain.
Positive ICT policies and investments are clearly beneficial to higher education
institutions, even though ICT has not replaced classroom-based modes of learning or
teaching. Undoubtedly, ICT can provide greater access for different target learners,
and have become vehicles for enriched pedagogical experiences, particularly for
distance educators and learners separated by time and space. The accelerating shift to
high-technology and information technology economies requires sustained human
resource development and training. Driven by globalization and pressures to teach and
train knowledgeable, skilled and competitive professionals, universities face a huge
challenge to increase access to higher education and improve the quality of higher
education against the stark reality of decreasing resources. Fundamental to the
23
creation of qualified human resources is an accessible, effective and efficient higher
education system, particularly when governments are counting on university
graduates to be competitive in creating wealth for their respective countries.
Universities are compelled to be innovative and lead by example in using cutting edge
technology to meet these expectations (UNESCO. Higher Education and ICTs, 2013).

1.4.1 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) defined

According to Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary (2016) “Information

Technology is the study or use of electronic equipment, especially computers for
storing, analyzing and sending out information.”

ICT is an acronym which stands for Information and Communication

Technology. In order to attain a clear definition of what ICT is. The following
definitions provided by UNESCO (2003) can be used as a guide: Information
technology (IT) is the term used to describe computer hardware and software which
are used "to access and retrieve information, and store, organize, manipulate and
present'" it by electronic means. While the items of equipment such as personal
computers, scanners and digital cameras are included in the hardware category,
database storage and multimedia programmes take place in the software category.
Communication technology (CT) is the term used to describe telecommunications
tools which are used to seek and access information, such as phones, faxes, modems
and computers. Information literacy represents the composition of knowledge,
understanding, skills, and attitudes that individuals need to have in order to
completely contribute as members of society in the information age. In light of these
terms explained above, Information and communication technology (ICT) can be
considered as an umbrella term that includes all technologies for the manipulation and
communication of information; it is the overlap of computer information and
telecommunication technologies, and their applications. Therefore, ICT offers more
than just computers, but any technology involved in communicating such as software,
CD-ROMs, the Internet, television and radio, image capture devices including still
and video cameras, sending, data logging and control apparatus, and other equipment,
for example even using a video recorder (Alsop and Hicks, 2001).Information and
communication technologies (ICTs) are information handling tools that are used to
create, store, process, distribute and exchange information. These different tools are
now able to work together, and come together to form networked world which reaches

24
into every comer of the world. Thus, ICT can be used to access global knowledge and
communicate with other people since it is an electronic based system of information
transmission, reception, processing and retrieval, which has drastically changed the
way people think, the way people live and the environment in which people live
(Ogunsola, 2005). Pelgrum and Law (2003) reported that at the end of 80s, the term
computer was replaced by Information Technology signifying a shift of focus from
computing technology to the capacity to store and retrieve information. Then, around
1992 when e-mail started to become accessible to the general public, this was
followed by the introduction of the term Information and communication technology
(ICT); Information technology (IT) was then replaced by ICT. However, it is also
very common to find definitions of ICT that are synonymous with those of
information technology. For instance, Killick (2000) describes IT as the group of
technologies which is revolutionizing the handling of information and embodies a
convergence of interest between electronics, computing and communication. In this
study, the terms IT and ICTs will be used nearly synonymously and in a somewhat
broad sense as well. Akir (2006) in his research defined Information and
communication technology (ICT) as a term that refers to stand-alone computers,
networked devices and telecommunication technologies with multimodal interface,
mobile phones/devices with capability to perform data communication, and other
technologies that allow multimodal and interactive communication. ICT encompass
all the technologies by means of which we can detect these signals, interpret them and
exchange information with others. The term ICT is plural, referring to a great many
technologies. To sum up, ICT is an all-encompassing term that includes the full gamut
of electronic tools by means of which we gather, record and store information, and by
means of which we exchange and distribute information to others (Anderson,
2010).Information and Communication Technologies are defined as all digital
devices, tools, content and resources, which can be deployed for realizing the goals of
teaching-learning as well as management of the educational system. (ICT Policy,
2012).

1.4.2 The Theoretical Underpinning of ICT Use

The rapid growth in computer-based Information and communication

technology (ICT) is creating new opportunities for universities to manage teaching
and training differently. In order to societies to be economically and socially

25
successful in the new knowledge-based world, a highly skilled and well-trained
population is required. The advances in digital technologies that are faster, more
capable, and easier to use have made it possible for university teachers to rethink the
pedagogical assumptions related to teaching strategies (Li, 1998). Information
technologies offer new opportunities for teacher‟s to enhance the quality and
accessibility of their instructional material. Tools such as electronic mail, computers,
and the World Wide Web are assumed to strengthen communication and collaboration
between students and university teachers. Modem communication technologies
provide increased opportunities for interaction that are useful for problem solving,
sharing resources, and enhancing face-to face contact (Dickering and Ehrmann,
1997). Teaching and learning also benefits in illustration of difficult concepts with
animation or video and providing simulations and gaming in carrying out training and
scientific experiments. These technologies allow new information search methods,
new teaching configurations, and just-in-time academic interchange (Guttormsen and
Krueger, 2000). With Internet technologies, learners and teachers can work
collaboratively anytime, almost anywhere. The classroom experience is no longer
limited to a physical space. It can now be extended through virtual private networks to
include online classrooms characterized by an open and collaborative learning
environment (Schank, 2001).Both collaborative work and e-learning have gained
momentum in corporations all over the world due to the availability of web-enabling
technologies and services. In many ways, technology-supported collaborative learning
has preserved, and in some cases added to, the advantages of traditional face-to-face
collaborative learning (Collins and Berge, 1996).Teachers and trainers have the
opportunity to provide their students and clients with more detailed feedback through
creative and interactive presentations that allow for more learner input. Web-based
teaching can accommodate varying rates of individual progression and provide a
degree of flexibility not possible with the delivery of information through mass
lectures. In addition, educational technologies have a positive role to play in providing
flexible opportunities for continuing and life-long learning (Lueddeke, 1997).

1.4.3 ICT in Teaching and Learning Process

Integration of ICTs in education has been a controversial issue. As Jhurree

(2005), claims some people argue that technology will change the educational
landscape forever and in ways that will engender a dramatic increase in the

26
performance of learners (Papert, 1997). Unlike these extreme advocates, there are
others who adopt a balanced approach (Jhurree, 2005). They are convinced that ICTs,
if properly integrated, have the potential to enhance the teaching and learning process
(Commission of the European Communities, 2001; Pelgrum and Law, 2003;
UNESCO, 2003; Wagner and Kozam, 2003; Hepp et al. 2004). As a tool, "ICT has
the potential to transform the way that education is delivered" (Fisher, 2005).
Similarly, the researchers like Smeet (2005), Wegeriff (2004), and Asan (2003)
studied how ICTs help to enhance the quality of teaching. Ramsay (2001) said that
learning with ICT was considered to be a means of nurturing meaningful
communication, creativity, design and problem solving. The demands of the 21st
century information rich and knowledge based society, make it essential for both
teachers and students to utilize technology effectively. The point has been made that
within a sound educational setting, technology can empower and enable students to be
capable information technology users, information seekers, analyzers, evaluators,
problem solvers and decision maker, creative and effective users of productivity tools;
communicators, collaborators, publishers, and producers; and informed, responsible,
and contributing citizens. In the new technology era, the role of teacher has changed
and continues to change from being an instructor to a constructor, facilitator, coach
and creator of learning situations. So, in both teaching and learning, ICT is used.
Teaching and learning are best thought of not as separate and independent activities,
but rather as two sides of the same coin interconnected and interrelated. Studies of
teaching and learning in schools around the world identify four broad stages in the
way that teachers and students learn about and gain confidence in the use of ICT.

1.4.4 ICT Development at Different Stages

 Discovering ICT tools: The first stage that teachers and learners go through
in ICT development is of discovering ICT tools and their general functions
and uses. In this discovery stage, there is usually an emphasis on ICT literacy
and basic skills.
 Learning how to use ICT tools: After the stage of discovering ICT tools,
comes the stage of learning how to use ICT tools and beginning to make use
of them in different disciplines. This stage involves the use of general and
particular applications of ICT and is linked with the applying approach in ICT
development.

27
  Understanding how and when to use ICT tools: The next stage is
understanding how and when to use ICT tools to achieve a particular purpose,
such as in completing a given project. This stage implies the ability to
recognize situations where ICT will be helpful, choosing the most appropriate
tools for a particular task, and using these tools in combination to solve real
problems. This stage is linked with the infusing and transforming approaches
in ICT development.
 Specializing in the use of ICT tools: The fourth and last stage involves
specializing in the use of ICT tools such as when one enters more deeply into
science that creates and supports ICT. In this stage, students study ICT as a
subject to become specialists. Such study concerns vocational or professional
education rather than general education and is quite different from previous
stages involving the use of ICT tools.

1.4.5 ICT development and Different Approaches

Advancements in technology and the way technology is used into a system is a

dynamic process. Each school must work within the sphere of its own system to
fit choices which best suit its unique situation and culture. Even within a school,
various units or courses may use different approaches. The approaches are
hierarchical with the emerging approach as a beginning point, and the
transforming approach as a goal many perceive as the future of education.

 Emerging Approach: The emerging approach is linked with schools at the

beginning stages of ICT development. Such schools begin to purchase
computer equipment and software or perhaps have had some donated. In this
initial phase, administrators and teachers are just starting to explore the
possibilities and consequences of adding ICT for school management and the
curriculum. The school is still firmly grounded in traditional teacher centered
practice. For example, teachers tend to lecture and provide content while
students listen, take notes and are assessed on the prescribed content. School
organization provides discrete time periods for each subject. Learners‟ access
to technology is through individual teachers. A curriculum that focuses on
basic skills and an awareness of the uses of ICT assists movement to the next
approach.

28
 Applying Approach: The applying approach is linked with schools in which
a new understanding of the contribution of ICT to learning has developed. In
this phase, administrators and teachers use ICT for tasks already carried out in
school management and in the curriculum. Teachers still largely dominate the
learning environment. For example, instructing may be supplemented with
ICT such as electronic slide presentations and word processed handouts.
Students receive instruction and notes to teacher prepared handouts. They use
ICT tools to complete required lessons and are assessed on prescribed content.
Learners access to technology through one or two classroom computers and
computer labs. Until now, ICT has been taught as a separate subject area. To
move to the next phase, the school chooses to implement an ICT based
curriculum that increase ICT across various subject areas with the use of
specific tools and software.
 Infusing Approach: The infusing approach is linked with schools that now
have a range of computer based technologies in labs, classrooms and
administrative areas. Teachers explore new ways in which ICT changes their
personnel productivity and practice. The curriculum begins to merge subject
areas to reflect real world applications. For example, content is provided for
multiple sources including community and global resources through the World
Wide Web. Students‟ access to technology enables them to choose projects
and ICT tools that stimulate learning and demonstrate their knowledge across
subject areas. School organization provides the flexibility to combine subjects
and time periods. Learners have more choices with regard to learning styles
and pathways. They take more responsibility for their own learning and
assessment. ICT is taught to selected students as a subject area at the
professional level. To advance to the next phase, schools choose an ICT
curriculum that allows a project based, ICT enhanced approach. These schools
begin to involve the community more in the learning environment and as
resource providers.
 Transforming Approach: The transforming approach is linked with schools
that have used ICT creatively to rethink and renew schools organizations. ICT
becomes an integral though invisible part of the daily personal productivity
and professional practice. The focus of the curriculum is now much more
learner centered and integrates subject areas in real world applications. For
29
 example, students may work with community leaders to solve local problems
by accessing, analyzing, reporting and presenting information with ICT tools.
Learners‟ access to technology is broad and unrestricted. They take even more
responsibility for their own learning and assessment. ICT is taught as a subject
area at an applied level and is incorporated into all vocational areas. The
school has become a center of learning for the community.

1.4.6 ICT for Skill Development in India

According to MHRD the Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

in schools has been subsumed in the Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan
(RMSA). Now ICT in schools is a component of the RMSA. The Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) in Schools was launched in December, 2004 and
revised in 2010 to provide opportunities to secondary stage students to mainly build
their capacity on ICT skills and make them learn through computer aided learning
process. The Scheme is a major catalyst to bridge the digital divide amongst students
of various socio economic and other geographical barriers. The Scheme provide to
States/UTs to establish computer labs on sustainable basis.

Components

The scheme has essentially four component:-

 Partnership with State Government and Union Territories Administrations for
providing computer aided education to Secondary and Higher Secondary
Government and Government aided schools.
 Establishment of smart schools, which shall be technology demonstrators.
 Teacher related intervention, such as provision for engagement of an exclusive
teacher, capacity enhancement of all teachers in ICT and a scheme for national
ICT award as a means of motivation
 The State will draw up a Programme of Action (POA) to inform and guide
various aspects of the ICT programme, viz. development of infrastructure,
management of the programme, and development of digital resources, capacity
building, monitoring and evaluation of the programme. The State‟ Department
of Education will spearhead an advisory group to guide the implementation of
ICT programme, its monitoring and evaluation. The advisory group will consists
of the concerned Department, a reputed engineering Institute of the State,

30
 University Department, etc. taking into consideration the variety of technical,
educational, financial and administrative tasks involved.

1.5 ICT Culture

Young people today live in a world characterized by dramatic cultural,
economic, social and educational differences; individual circumstances depend
largely on where a person is born and raised. More than 800 million adults (two-thirds
of them women) still lack basic literacy skills; at the other end of the spectrum, the
use of information and communication technologies (ICT) is skyrocketing.
Notwithstanding the immense diversity in living environments, an unprecedented and
unifying global ICT culture has developed that challenges and often surpasses such
traditional forms of socialization as family and school.

This complex cultural situation in which young people are struggling to find
direction in their lives or simply to survive, to improve their living conditions, and to
develop their identities has been given various names. Some call it the information or
informational age, while others prefer the term techno culture or techno capitalism,
global ICT culture, or simply globalization, referring to the dialectic process in which
the global and the local exist as “combined and mutually implicating principles”.
Labels such as post-industrial, virtual and cyber society are also in use. The idea
behind all these terms is that across the globe, ICT are playing a central role in young
people‟s lives and in society at large.

Two major assumptions underlie the role of ICT: the first is that the
proliferation of these technologies is causing rapid transformations in all areas of life;
the second is that ICT function to unify and standardize culture. It is on the basis of
these assumptions that the term “ICT culture”, incorporating the phenomena of
informationalism and globalization, is used in the present context.

Children and young people are often seen as innocent victims of the pervasive
and powerful ICT culture. Schools have been transformed into teaching factories
incapable of providing young people with the coping skills they need to survive and
thrive in the ICT culture. The ICT present material that disturbs children and makes
them passive, because they have not yet reached a stage of development that allows
them to appropriately process the information they are receiving.

31
 From this perspective, children and young people are seen as tractable
recipients of messages, as spellbound viewers susceptible to a range of addictions. An
even clearer manifestation of such pessimism is “media panic”, which describes the
concern, worry or fear that arises from the use of new devices or the adoption of new
cultural forms by children and teenagers during a period in which they are challenging
earlier cultural practices and conceptions. It is useful to remember that, years ago, the
spread of the cinema to a wider audience unleashed a panic and inspired a wave of
research intended to provide empirical proof of the destructive effects of motion
picture viewing. Another panic emerged in the early 1950s in the United States (and
in the following decade occurring now. A sad fact about media panics is that they
rarely evoke questions about what might be elsewhere) when the television became a
standard feature in many homes. The third media panic focused on the detrimental
nature of ICT is called problems of the factual world. It may be, however, that these
panics are becoming less fierce in nature as social reality becomes increasingly
pluralistic with regard to ethnic foundations, gender codes and cultural meanings.

In examining young people and ICT, it is impossible to overlook the fact that
the youth of today inhabit multiple worlds simultaneously. On the one hand, they are
forced to struggle with a range of vastly different livelihood and adjustment issues.
While some young people live in extremely poor conditions, others contemplate their
identities in their bedrooms, chatting away at their personal computers. While some
strive to escape the authority of parents, others look for someone to offer security and
consolation.

On the other hand, the youth of today are faced with a global ICT culture that
represents a unifying force, a type of cultural pedagogy that teaches them how to
consume and act “and what to think, feel, believe, fear, and desire”. Culture
permeated by ICT creates a setting in which the traditional modes of socialization are
altered and, at least to an extent, replaced with new ones. In today‟s world of
mediated popular culture, ICT constitute a socialization force potentially more
powerful than the home or school.

Countries all over the world have identified the significant role of information
and communication technology (ICT) in improving education (Kozma and Anderson,
2002; Pelgrum, 2001; Hennessy, Ruthven, and Brindley, 2005; Goodison, 2003;
Kangro and Kangro, 2004), and have invested heavily in increasing the number of
32
computers in schools and in the networking of classrooms (Pelgrum, 2001).
Furthermore, many researchers have predicted that the importance of educational
technology in the classroom will continue to increase (Becker and Ravitz, 2001).
However, the integration of technology in the school curriculum continues to be a
complex and challenging process (Cooper, 1998), and the seamless integration of
computers in teaching and learning has yet to be achieved (Kozma and Anderson,
2002).

Change and schools

In the last two decades the global technology investment in schools has
increased by more than a hundredfold (Lim et al., 2013). The result of investment has
been great availability of digital technologies, such as laptops, computers and tablets,
in schools. Consequently, there has been an increase in use of these tools in teaching
and learning. It is quite common to see a wide array of digital technologies in schools.
In teaching and learning these tools have largely been used to replicate existing
teaching practices. Moreover, in many cases it has been found that technologies are
not being used effectively or in ways that allow students to explore, problem-solve,
create and collaborate (Ermterand Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010).

Three key factors

Three key factors relating to the school have been shown to significantly affect
teachers‟ use of digital technologies and change in teaching and learning:
1) leadership, 2) shared group vision and 3) technical and pedagogical support. The
first factor, leadership, relates to the school principal. Research has shown that how a
principal prioritizes digital technologies was the strongest contributing factor to
teachers‟ use and related student-centered pedagogy (see Law, Pelgrum and Plomp,
2008). An important component of this is a clear vision outlining how digital
technologies are expected to be used, such as students will engage in critical analysis
of texts in each subject area. Teachers should participate in creating this vision, which
leads to the second key point. By participating creation of a „shared vision,‟ teachers
are more likely to feel invested in technology use and change, which it creates a
school culture of change. Change becomes a community activity. As part of this
process, leading to the third point, the principal would also provide the necessary

33
support structures for change to occur. This includes both technological support for
learning about and using digital technologies, as well as pedagogical support for
developing and experimenting with using technologies in teaching and incorporating
student-centered practices. Through these three components it is communicated to
teachers that use of digital technologies and change is valued in the school. However,
all three of these components have systematically been lacking in many, if not most,
technology-related school change initiatives (Hargreaves and Shirley, 2009). Often
this is not on purpose, but rather a result of competing school change initiatives, lack
of time and funding to fully support different programmes. For example, as discussed
earlier, there has been significant pressure on schools to perform well on standardized
tests. These tests tend to focus on literacy and numeracy, hence reading and
mathematics skills. A principal may value use of digital technologies, but they may
need to ask teachers to focus their time on literacy tasks and target reading
programmes, rather than developing teaching resources to better integrate
technologies. Another possibility is that a principal may not know digital technologies
can be used most effectively in different areas of teaching, so they let the teachers
decide for themselves. This provides teachers with the opportunity to create their own
shared vision, but more often results in teachers doing what they know will reliably
support student learning. However, there is general consensus that the most critical
agents in facilitating educational change are teachers, and therefore, it is essential for
teachers to consider how they learn and how schools can support that process.

Change and Teachers

The teacher‟s role in the integration of computers in schools is obviously very

important, and every educational reform effort should take into consideration
teachers‟ knowledge, skills, beliefs, and attitudes (Cuban, 2000). Shahan (1976)
argued that one important concept of school reform is the human element, which
embraces emotions, feelings, needs, beliefs, and pedagogical assumptions. Similarly,
Fullan‟s (1982, 1991, 2000) theory of school change also emphasizes that the
alteration of mindsets, such as pedagogical assumptions, values, and beliefs, is a key
factor to any educational change effort. Watt (1980) stated that beliefs and attitudes
play a fundamental role in the way that teachers deal with ICT in the classroom. In
other words, dealing effectively with ICT relates not only to knowledge of the

34
capability, limitations, applications, and implications of ICT, but also to individuals‟
attitudes and perceptions regarding ICT tools. Veen (1993) stated that the effective
implementation of ICT depends upon users‟ having a positive attitude towards it. He
showed that schools can go only so far to encourage ICT use, and that actual take-up
depends largely on teachers‟ personal feelings, skills, and attitudes towards ICT. This
implies that teachers who have positive attitudes toward ICT and perceive it to be
useful in promoting learning will evidently integrate ICT in their classroom more
easily than others (Becker and Riel, 2000; Cox, Preston, and Cox, 1999; Pedretti,
Smith-Mayer, and Woodrow, 1999; Sandholtz, Ringstaff, and Dwyer, 1997).

The decision to use technology for instruction rests on the classroom teacher.
Educational technologists have long suggested that use of digital technologies is more
likely to lead to enhanced learning outcomes and student achievement when
combined with student-centred practices (Ertmer, 2010; Lim et al., 2013), but it is
often uncertain which practices or digital technologies produce these results. This
uncertainty has been a significant factor in teachers‟ adoption of digital technologies
in their practice. While some teachers are likely to incorporate digital technologies in
their practice, many will not. Of those that do, the approach to teaching with
technology use will widely vary. There are three key factors influencing teachers‟
decisions about integration. The first is their school culture.

School culture

One result of ongoing educational change is that teachers have become

disengaged with school change initiatives. Considering the three broad school factors
outlined in the previous section, possible reasons can be considered: 1) lack of
leadership prioritizing the change, 2) shared vision not developed and 3) technical or
pedagogical support to fully engage in the change is not provided. Failure to
adequately address and support change communicates to teachers that the change is
not valued and not a school priority. The connection between what is valued at the
school level and what teacher‟s value is critical. Teachers are more likely to value and
feel digital technologies are of benefit in teaching and learning, if these beliefs are
supported and reinforced by their peers and the school (Zhao and Frank, 2003). The
same goes for using student-centered teaching practices. If the school does not value
this approach, teachers are less likely to incorporate it in their practice.

35
Individual factors
The other two significant factors are confidence using technology, and
teachers‟ beliefs about technology and teaching. On the first point, teachers who are
more confident using technology are more likely to integrate technology in the
classroom. In fact, researchers have identified that the most important factor in
teachers‟ use of technology is confidence (Inan and Lowther, 2010). However, it is
not only that they feel confident using digital technologies; they also hold the belief
that they can troubleshoot and problem-solve issues that may arise from unreliable
tools or technical glitches. Conversely, teachers who feel anxious about using digital
technologies and are uncertain about their ability to effectively teach with it are less
likely to use it in their practice. This anxiety often results from feeling they will not be
able to fix technical issues while teaching. Teachers with less confidence using digital
technologies will perceive greater risks and negative effects on learning resulting
from technical issues and problems than teachers feeling more confident (see Howard,
2013). Integration is also influenced by beliefs about digital technologies and
teaching; these are not necessarily related or the same thing. Teachers likely to
integrate digital technologies in their practice are likely to believe 1) they are relevant
to their specific area of teaching and learning and 2) use of the digital technology
aligns with the aims and goals of their teaching. As such, a good portion of use will be
replicating existing valued practices, which can be done more efficiently through a
technology. The interactive whiteboard is a good example of this. Using this tool
teachers are still presenting content to students, so it matches a valued and reliable
teaching practice. However, the device also provides easy access to a wide range of
supporting multimedia tools, without having to go between a computer and
whiteboard, so it is useful and relevant. Research has shown that teachers who are
likely to integrate digital technologies are also more likely to use more student-
centred approaches (see Ertmer and Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010).Unfortunately,
research evidence (Cuban, 2000; Becker and Ravitz, 1999; Bosch and Cardinale,
1993; Brush, 1998; Darling-Hammond, 1990; Ely, 1995; Hunt and Bohlin, 1995)
indicates that technology reform efforts have failed because teachers‟ beliefs, skills,
and attitudes were never taken into consideration. Teacher behaviour, though, is not
only a function of their abilities, skills, and attitudes, but also a function of their
surrounding work environment.
36
 The main goal of ICT in education is to enhance teaching and learning quality.
A number of studies have shown a wide range of factors which influence educators‟
utilization of ICT in their teaching. Computer Phobia is argued to be a major deterrent
to the utilization of ICT by educators. Technological advancement has reduced the
world into tiny space. In other world, it is something that has really connected people
living all over the world and has turned the planet earth into a global village. These
technologies assist teacher and facilitate learning. Grabe and Grabe (1998) even
reported a recent situation in which computers were not used effectively in teaching
practice, due in part to teachers‟ attitudes and fears regarding this relatively new
technology. Thus, without a knowledge of teachers‟ and prospective teachers‟
perceptions and future plans for using computer in education, any potential
innovations in this area may lack utility.

1.6 Introversion-Extroversion

Personality is what makes an individual unique. It is the uniqueness that

impels us to enquire into the pertinent difference among the individuals. A pleasing
personality has a marketable value in the society. Personality is a factor to be
comprehended meticulously as it is considered being the sum total of behaviour of an
individual in relation to the society.

Commonly, the term „Personality‟ is understood in term of "appearance",

"attractiveness" and "charm" of a person. The word “personality" has originated
from the Latin word „Persona‟ that was associated with Greek theatre. The mask worn
by actor was called „Persona‟. The mask or persona of the actor implied a cover for
the real person behind it. The term personality in English „Personalite‟ in French,
„personlichikeit‟ in German has a close similitude with the personalities of Medieval
Latin. The concept of personality differs from culture to culture. Each culture has its
own value system and approved way to living, which affects the thoughts the feelings
the emotions the actions and endeavors of its people. These fundamental values of a
culture to which a child belongs, tends a pattern to his basic personality. For instance
the western culture emphasizes egocentric and more realistic tendencies whereas
Indian culture emphasizes such values, sympathetic attitude, self-sacrifice,
cooperation and self-discipline. Personality is that which makes us what we are and it
makes us different from others. It is seen as a complex pattern of deeply embedded

37
psychological characteristics that are expressed automatically in almost every area of
psychological functioning.

Allport (1966) in his book „Personality – A Psychological Interpretation‟

defines, “Personality is the dynamic organization with in the individual of those
psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment.”

According to Cattell (1990), “Personality is that which permits physique,

which determines his unique adjustment to the environment.”

In the words of Ryckman (2004), personality is defined as a dynamic and

organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences his or
her cognitions, motivations and behaviours in various situations.

According to Larsen and Buss (2005), “Personality is the set of psychological

traits and mechanisms within the individual that are organized and relatively enduring
and that influence his or her interactions with, and adaptations to, the intra-psychic,
physical, and social environments.”

According to Funder (2007), “Personality refers to an individual‟s

characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behaviour, together with the
psychological mechanisms – hidden or not – behind those patterns.”

From above definitions, it may be said that, personality is complex blend of a

constantly evolving and changing patterns of one‟s unique behaviour, emerged as a
result of one‟s interaction with one‟s environment and directed towards some specific
ends. Several attempts have been made to explain personality by classifying
individuals into certain types.

There are various models of personality such as biological, psycho-dynamic,

interpersonal, cognitive, trait and factorial perspectives. Among which, the five factor
model is the most prominent current model of personality which was derived from the
analysis of various personality inventories, not words from the dictionary (Costa and
McCrae, 1992). It postulates five largely independent and relatively broadly designed
personality dimensions such as, neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience,
agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Among the different models of personality, the
Big Five Model is extensively researched with students (Rubinstein, 2005; Bidjerano
et al., 2007 and White et al., 2009).

38
1.6.1 The Five Factor Model of Personality

During the last years conformity about the basic personality traits has
emerged. It has been stated that they are extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness,
conscientiousness and openness to experience. These dimensions are stable across the
lifespan and directly related to behaviour. They also seem to have a physiological
base (Revelle and Loftus, 1992).

The five factors are the following;

1. Extraversion: The extraverts tend to be more physically and verbally active

whereas the introverts are independent, reserved, steady and like being alone.
The person in the middle of the dimension likes a mix between social
situations and solitude. (Howard and Howard, 1998). Extraverts are
adventurous, assertive, frank, sociable and talkative. Introverts are quiet,
reserved, shy and unsociable. (Boeree, no date).
2. Agreeableness: The agreeableness scale is linked to altruism, nurturance,
caring and emotional support versus hostility, indifference, self-centeredness
and jealousy. Agreeable people are altruistic, gentle, kind, sympathetic and
warm. (Boeree, no date).
3. Conscientiousness: The conscientious, focused person is concentrating on
only a couple of goals and strives hard to perceive them. He is career oriented,
while the flexible person is more impulsive and easier to persuade from one
task to another. Conscientiousness has been linked to educational achievement
and particularly to the will to achieve. (Howard and Howard, 1998). The more
conscientious a person is the more competent, dutiful, orderly, responsible and
thorough he is.
4. Neuroticism: The persons with a tendency towards neuroticism are more
worried, temperamental and prone to sadness. (Howard and Howard, 1998).
Emotional stability is related to calm, stable and relaxed persons, whereas
neuroticism is linked to anger, anxiousness and depression. (Boeree, no date).
The name neuroticism doesn‟t refer to any psychiatric defect. A more proper
term could be negative affectivity or nervousness. (McCrae and John, 1992).
5. Openness: People with a high openness have broader interests, are liberal and
like novelty. This factor relates to intellect, openness to new ideas, cultural

39
 interests, educational aptitude and creativity (Howard and Howard, 1998).
These individuals are cultured, esthetic, intellectual and open. (Boeree, no
date). The openness to experience can be connected to activities like writing,
science and art (Wallach and Wing, 1969).

Among the myriad personality traits and individual differences recognized and
explored in relation to learning and pedagogy, lie the fundamental concepts of
extroversion and introversion. Extraversion and introversion were popularized by
Swiss psychoanalyst Carl Jung (1875-1961) in 1921. Jung (1971) categorized people
into definite personality types based on the outward and inward flow of their libido
i.e. life energy. Jung (1971) asserted that a person‟s psychological make-up (psyche)
is always working on two levels: the conscious and unconscious. Moreover, a
person‟s conscious and unconscious states are self-balancing, that is when conscious
side or attitude becomes dominant, the unconscious will manifest in some way to
rectify the balance. Jung divided psychic energy into two basic general attitude types:
introverted and extroverted. The extroverted attitude is oriented towards the external,
outer world. The people who prefer this attitude would like to spend time interacting
with the outside world, than dealing with the inner world of subjective experiences
and mental events. The introverted attitude oriented towards the inner, subjective
world. People who prefer this attitude like to spend time in quiet contemplation and
reflection. In addition to the attitudes of extraversion and introversion, Jung identified
four psychological functions: thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition. A preferred
function being dominated and conscious, while the non-preferred function is auxiliary
and unconscious. The two basic attitudes extraversion-introversion, when combined
with four functions produces eight Jungian Types: Extroverted Thinking, Introverted
thinking, Extroverted Feeling, Introverted feeling, Extroverted Sensation, Introverted
Sensation, Extroverted Intuition and Introverted Intuition.

The introvert, on the other hand is governed primarily by subjective factors or

objective values. What he does tends to be guided by this old ideas, by absolute
standards. He tend to lack flexibility and to adjust to his own inner values. Thus,
introvert tends to be subjective, instead of subjectively oriented. This, of course, is the
opposite of the extrovert.

40
 Table 1.1: Jung’s Classification of Personality Types

Thinking Feeling Sensation Instruction

Seen mainly A mystical

in women who dreamer
A An Oil
Introverts express their may be an artist
philosopher painter like
confidence or an
like Kant Renoir
in diaries and inappropriate
Secret poetry “genius”

Fashion
conscious
people An outgoing
A Scientist A promoter who
interested in Seeker of has a keen
like interest for new
Extroverts causes and “sense”
Charles enterprise
cultural affairs Experience as a showing promise
Darwin Gourmet or an for development.
especially art lover.
common in
women

(Source: C.G Jung, Psychological, Pantheon, New York, 1959)

Jung described introversion as a condition of psychological balance in which

the individual turns his life energy inward. That is to say, he is governed by objective
factors. Extroversion, the contrasting type, marks the individual whose life energy is
directed outward to people and tangible objects. In an effort to affect a more detailed
analysis of introvert-extrovert personalities, Jung subdivided each into four subtypes:-
the thinking, the feeling, the intuitive, and the sensational introvert or extrovert. This
subdivision of types to some extent has been substantiated by a factor-analysis of
items in personality inventories dealing with the concept of introversion-extroversion.

Jung (1973) referred to the basic attitude as a “central switchboard” that

controls both behaviour and conscious experience. However, if behaviour and
conscious experience are extroverted a person is in conscious sphere, and vice versa.
This compensation is understood in the diagram by the fact. Extrovert is on one side

41
of the swinging line, and introvert is the other, the more extroversion faces
consciousness, the more introversion faces the unconscious.

Jung defined one of the basic attitudinal division into which man could be
categorized as the direction taken by the libido in relation to the outside world. These
inborn temperamental differences led either too subjective (introverted) functioning in
which the self is uppermost or to objective (extroverted) functioning in which the
outside world is uppermost in importance.

Conscious

Intuiting
Sensing

Feeling Thinking

Unconscious

The two attitudes of mind

Sensing Thinking

Intuiting Feeling

Fig 1.2 Four Functions of Mind

According to Jung, both introvert and extrovert tendencies are ordinarily

present in the personality of an individual but one of them is found to be dominant,
thus making the person of a particular type. Moreover, an individual may also be seen
to shift from one orientation introvert and extrovert, to the other e.g. an introvert may

42
behave in a gregarious fashion in response to some particular environmental situation
and vice-versa.

Fig 1.3 Combined Representation of Four Functions of Mind

Eysenck (1954) described extroversion-introversion as the degree to which a

person is outgoing and interactive with other people. The behavioural differences are
presumed to be the result of underlying differences in brain physiology. Eysenck
proposed that extroversion was caused due to variability in cortical arousal; introverts
are characterized by higher level activity than extroverts and so are chronically more
cortically aroused extroverts. Because extroverts are less aroused internally they
require external stimulation than introverts. Eysenck designated extraversion as one
of three major traits in his P-E-N model of personality, which also includes
psychoticism and neuroticism.

Eysenck originally suggested that extraversion was a combination of two

major tendencies, impulsiveness and sociability. He later added several other more
specific traits, namely liveliness, activity level, and excitability. These traits are
further linked in his personality hierarchy to even more specific habitual responses,
such as partying on the weekend.

Today, extraversion remains an important measure of the way in which our

personalities differ from one another. Alongside openness, conscientiousness,
agreeableness and neuroticism, extraversion is considered one of the „Big Five‟ traits.
These traits are often used to provide broad measures of individuals‟ personalities.

43
 According to the psychologist Allport (1937), an extrovert “is one whose
mental image, oughts and problems find ready expressional overt behaviour”, whereas
an introvert “dwells largely in realm of imagination. Introverts, if given sufficient
ability may become visionary poets or artists”.

According to Jung's theory of psychological types (Jung, 1971), people can be

characterized by their preference of general attitude:

 Extraverted (E) vs. Introverted (I), their preference of one of the two functions
of perception:
 Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N), and their preference of one of the two functions
of judging
 Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F) represents how a person processes information.

The three areas of preferences introduced by Jung are dichotomies (i.e. bipolar
dimensions where each pole represents a different preference). Jung also proposed
that in a person one of the four functions above is dominant – either a function of
perception or a function of judging. Myers, a researcher and practitioner of Jung‟s
theory, proposed to see the judging-perceiving relationship as a fourth dichotomy
influencing personality type (Myers, 1980): Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P).

Extraversion and introversion are typically viewed as a single continuum.

Thus, to be high on one it is necessary to be low on the other. Jung and the authors of
the Myers–Briggs provide a different perspective and suggest that everyone has both
an extraverted side and an introverted side, with one being more dominant than the
other. Rather than focusing on interpersonal behaviour, however, Jung (1971) defined
introversion as an "attitude-type characterized by orientation in life through subjective
psychic contents" (focus on one's inner psychic activity); and extraversion as "an
attitude type characterized by concentration of interest on the external object" (the
outside world).

According to Myers and Myers (1980) introverts focus mainly on inner

thoughts while extraverts mainly focus on people and external activities.

Burruss and Kaenzig (1999) argue that every individual possesses the qualities
of both introversion and extraversion and shows both of them in their daily lives but
still one of these dominates over the another overall and this can be practically
observed by knowing their work preferences and how they react to stress.

44
 In the last two decades, cognitive definitions of an extroversion-introversion
continuum are proposed, each of them adopting a different point of view and therefore
emphasizing a different aspect of these personality traits in their definition. The
characteristics of extroversion.

A definition of extroversion–introversion considering the affective and

cognitive dimensions is done by Depue and Collins (1999). To them extroversion is
composed of two major dimensions termed interpersonal engagement and impulsivity.
Interpersonal engagement refers to being receptive to the company of others and
agency means seeking social dominance and leadership roles, and being motivated to
achieve goals. In addition, impulsivity refers to need for excitement and change for
risk-taking, adventures and sensation seeking.

While the definition of Depue and Collins (1999) has been used in psychology
literature, Busch (1982) and Brown (1993) use slightly different definitions.

Brown (1993) makes a cognitive definition of extroversion-introversion and

states that extroversion is “the extent to which a person has a deep-seated need to
receive ago enhancement, self-esteem, and a sense of wholeness from other people as
opposed to receiving that affirmation within oneself”.

Busch (1982) defines states that “extroverts tend to seek stimulation from the
environment to increase arousal level, while introverts attempt to seek a reduction of
stimulation. The behavioural differences are such that extroverts seek out the presence
of other persons, enjoy social activities and talking, tend to act aggressively and
impulsively and crave excitement”.

Looking at these three definitions, we see three main concepts, social

dominance in Depue and Collins (1999), self-esteem in Brown‟s (1993) definition,
and sociability in Busch‟s (1982) definition.

These are the cores of these three definitions. All these definitions cover
aspects of the construct extroversion, however, as they are applied in different areas
of research, each of them putting the emphasis on a different aspect. Rauch (2003)
"Introverts are people who find other people tiring".

The trait of extroversion-introversion is a central dimension of human

personality. Extroversion is the act, state or habit of being predominantly concerned
45
with the obtaining gratification from what is outside the self. Extroverts tend to enjoy
human interaction and are enthusiastic, talkative, assertive and gregarious. Extroverts
take pleasure in activities that involve social gatherings, enjoy risk taking and often
show leadership qualities. An extrovert is energized when around other people. An
extrovert is fluent in speech, free from worries, likes to work with others, friendly, not
easily embarrassed, interested in outdoor activities, governed by objective data,
flexible and adaptable, neglectful of ailments and personal belongings, aggressive,
unscrupulous and popular with people.

Introversion is the state of or tendency toward being wholly or predominantly

concerned with and interested in one's own mental life. Introverts tend to be quite,
low-key, deliberate and relatively non-engaged in social situations. An introvert is
energized when alone. An introvert is better in writing than speech, inclined to worry,
likes to work alone, rather reserved, easily embarrassed, fond of books and
magazines, more influenced by subjective feeling, lacking in flexibility, careful about
ailments and personal belongings, submissive, scrupulous and not popular with
people.

Some people are, of course, more extraverted than others, and to different
degrees. We can understand extraversion as varying in extent on an introversion-
extraversion scale. A person with a lower level of extraversion may be described as an
introvert. Introverts feel more comfortable when socializing in small groups, and with
people who they are familiar with. They may find demanding social gatherings to be
draining, and be reluctant to draw attention to themselves in groups.

As a result, introverts tend to have fewer friends and associates, but form
strong relationships with those friends they do have. Instead of seeking stimulation by
socializing, they receive it from within, and are content with their own company.
Introverts tend to be quieter, more cerebral and more reflective than extraverts.

As people tend to fall somewhere between two extremes of extraversion and

introversion, extraversion is measured on a continuum. Many people will exhibit
extraverted behaviour to different degrees in particular situations. At other times, the
same people will behave in an introverted fashion. The term ambivert is used to
describe a person who falls in the middle of the extravert-introvert scale.

46
1.6.2 Factors Determining Personality

Both environmental and genetic factors have been shown to determine

personality traits, including introversion/extroversion (Triandis and Suh 2002).

Biological factor

According to Eysenck, biological factors play a significant role in determining

our personality traits. Eysenck proposed that extraversion was caused by variability in
cortical arousal. He hypothesized that introverts are characterized by higher levels of
activity than extraverts and so are chronically more cortically aroused than extraverts.
Extraverts require more external stimulation than introverts has been interpreted as
evidence for this hypothesis. Other evidence of the "stimulation" hypothesis is that
introverts salivate more than extraverts in response to a drop of lemon juice. This is
due to increased activity in their reticular activating system, which responds to stimuli
like food or social contact.

Extraversion has been linked to higher sensitivity of the mesolimbic dopamine

system to potentially rewarding stimuli. This in part explains the high levels of
positive affect found in extraverts, since they will more intensely feel the excitement
of a potential reward. One consequence of this is that extraverts can more easily learn
the contingencies for positive reinforcement, since the reward itself is experienced as
greater.

One study found that introverts have more blood flow in the frontal lobes of
their brain and the anterior or frontal thalamus, which are the areas that deal with
internal processing, such as planning and problem solving. Extraverts have more
blood flow in the anterior cingulate gyrus, temporal lobes, and posterior thalamus,
which are involved in sensory and emotional experience. This study and other
research indicates that introversion-extraversion is related to individual differences in
brain function. A study on regional brain volume found a positive correlation between
introversion and grey matter volume in the right prefrontal cortex and right
temporoparietal junction, as well as a positive correlation between introversion and
total white matter volume.

A recent study has provided further support for the idea that biological factors
influence extraversion. In a paper published in the journal Social Cognitive and
Affective Neuroscience, researchers in Italy, the US and UK studied MRI scans from

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the Human Connect home Project. They found a series of correlations between
participants‟ Five Factor personality traits and brain structures. Specifically, the
research revealed increased cortical thickness amongst extraverts in the precuneus
region of the brain (Riccelli et al., 2017).

Differences in brain structure were found in the precuneus of extraverts,

compared to introverts (Riccelli et al., 2017).

Nurture

Research also suggests that environmental factors could play a role in

personality development. Noftle and Shaver (2006) found that the mother-child
relationship can affect extraversion levels. They investigated attachment styles - the
type of relationship formed between mother and child during the early stages of
childhood development. Noftle and Shaver reported that children who formed a
secure attachment with a parent exhibited higher levels of extraversion than those who
formed other types of attachment.

Other studies have focused on child-rearing styles and later interactions

between parents and their children, as influences on extraversion levels. Researchers
at Osaka University in Japan found that the children of protective parents tended to
exhibit lower levels of extraversion, for instance (Nakao et al., 2000).

Parental discipline may also influence the development of a child‟s

personality. Siegelman (1966) reported that sons who were punished by their parents
would exhibit more introverted behaviour than those who were less severely
disciplined.

Behaviour

Extraverts and introverts have a variety of behavioural differences. According

to one study, extraverts tend to wear more decorative clothing, whereas introverts
prefer practical, comfortable clothes. Extraverts are more likely to prefer more upbeat,
conventional, and energetic music than introverts. Personality also influences how
people arrange their work areas. In general, extraverts decorate their offices more,
keep their doors open, keep extra chairs nearby, and are more likely to put dishes of
candy on their desks. These are attempts to invite co-workers and encourage
interaction. Introverts, in contrast, decorate less and tend to arrange their workspace to
discourage social interaction.
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 Despite these differences, a meta-analysis of 15 experience sampling studies
has suggested that there is a great deal of overlap in the way that extraverts and
introverts behave. In these studies, participants used mobile devices to report how
extraverted (e.g., bold, talkative, assertive, outgoing) they were acting at multiple
times during their daily lives. Fleeson and Gallagher (2009) found that extraverts
regularly behave in an introverted way, and introverts regularly behave in an
extraverted way. Indeed, there was more within-person variability than between-
person variability in extraverted behaviours. The key feature that distinguishes
extraverts and introverts was that extraverts tend to act moderately extraverted about
5–10% more often than introverts. From this perspective, extraverts and introverts are
not "fundamentally different". Rather, an "extravert" is just someone who acts more
extraverted more often, suggesting that extraversion is more about what one "does"
than what one "has".

Additionally, a study by Lippa (1978) found evidence for the extent to which
individuals present themselves in a different way. This is called expressive behaviour,
and it is dependent upon the individuals' motivation and ability to control that
behaviour. Lippa (1978) examined 68 students who were asked to role-play by
pretending to teach a math class. The students' level of extraversion and introversion
were rated based on their external/expressive behaviours such as stride length, graphic
expansiveness, the percentage of time they spent talking, the amount of time they
spent making eye contact, and the total time of each teaching session. This study
found that actual introverts were perceived and judged as having more extraverted-
looking expressive behaviours because they were higher in terms of their self-
monitoring. This means that the introverts consciously put more effort into presenting
a more extraverted, and rather socially desirable, version of themselves. Thus,
individuals are able to regulate and modify behaviour based on their environmental
situations.

Humans are complex and unique, and because introversion-extraversion varies

along a continuum, individuals may have a mixture of both orientations. A person
who acts introverted in one situation may act extraverted in another, and people can
learn to act in "counter dispositional" ways in certain situations. For example, Brian
Little's free trait theory suggests that people can take on "Free Traits", behaving in

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ways that may not be their "first nature", but can strategically advance projects that
are important to them. Together, this presents an optimistic view of what extraversion
is. Rather than being fixed and stable, individuals vary in their extraverted behaviours
across different moments, and can choose to act extraverted to advance important
personal projects or even increase their happiness, as mentioned above.

Regional Variation

Some claim that Americans live in an "extraverted society" that rewards

extravert behaviour and rejects introversion. This is because the US is currently a
culture of external personality, whereas in some other cultures people are valued for
their "inner selves and their moral rectitude". Other cultures, such as Japan and
regions where Orthodox Christianity, Buddhism, Sufism etc. prevail, prize
introversion. These cultural differences predict individuals' happiness in that people
who score higher in extraversion are happier, on average, in particularly extraverted
cultures and vice versa.

Researchers have found that people who live on islands tend to be less
extraverted (more introverted) than those living on the mainland, and that people
whose ancestors had inhabited the island for twenty generations tend to be less
extraverted than more recent arrivals. Furthermore, people who emigrate from islands
to the mainland tend to be more extraverted than people that stay on islands, and those
that immigrate to islands.

In the United States, researchers have found that people living in the mid-
western states of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and
Illinois score higher than the U.S. average on extraversion. Utah and the southeastern
states of Florida and Georgia also score high on this personality trait. The most
introverted states in the United States are Maryland, New Hampshire, Alaska,
Washington, Oregon and Vermont. People who live in the northwestern states of
Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming are also relatively introverted.

1.6.3 Personality Assessment

The introversion/extroversion dichotomy has featured in many theories

of personality such as Hans Eysenck's P-E-N three factors and the "Big Five" traits,
and the tests designed to measure them. Katharine Briggs and her daughter, Myers,

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found Jung's Analytical theory of introvert/extrovert types and four functions
(thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuiting) of processing information so revealing of
people's personalities that they developed a paper-and-pencil test to measure these
traits. Called the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), their test became one of the
most popular, and most studied, personality tests in the twentieth century. This test
has been used to great effect in the areas of pedagogy, group dynamics, guidance
counseling, leadership training, marriage counseling, and personal development.

While most people view being either introverted or extroverted as a question

with only two answers, the reality is that many people fall in between. The term
"ambivert" was coined to denote people who fall more or less directly in the middle
and exhibit tendencies of both groups. An ambivert is normally comfortable with
groups and enjoys social interaction, but also relishes time alone and away from the
crowd. They tend to be moderate thinkers and weigh more than one side to an issue.
Most have warm but controlled personalities.

Although neither introversion nor extroversion is pathological,

psychotherapists can take temperament into account when treating clients. Clients
may respond better to different types of treatment depending on where they fall on the
introversion/extroversion spectrum. Teachers can also consider temperament when
dealing with their students, for example acknowledging that introverted children need
more encouragement to speak in class while extroverted children may grow restless
during long periods of quiet study. Recognizing differences between introverts and
extroverts can also help people to develop their personal spirituality, religious worship
activities, and better understand the nature of their faith and that of others (Hirsh and
Kise, 2006).

To conclude, the theories of personality types imply that each individual has a
natural conscious orientation that falls into one psychological type or the other in each
of the four areas described by Jung i.e. one individual is primarily extroverted or
introverted, sensing or intuitive, thinking or feeling and judging or perceiving.
People's preferences for each of these functions vary, with the differences giving rise
to the individual differences among people. Extraversion and introversion have their
own special dynamics and both attitudes by progressive and regressive properties
(Ryckman, 2004).

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1.7 Operational Definitions

Computer Phobia: In the present study the scale to be used to find Computer Phobia
among prospective and in-service teachers is originally developed by Rajasekar and
Raja (2010). According to the scale Computer Phobia is an irrational fear towards the
use of computer. Scores of Computer Phobia Scale will be taken as computer phobia
in the 0present study.

Prospective Teachers: In the present study prospective teachers means the students
doing B.Ed. in the colleges of education of Punjab on regular basis.

In-service Teachers: In the present study in-service teachers means the teachers
working in government high/ secondary schools on regular basis.

ICT Culture: In the present study the scale to be used to find ICT Culture will be
developed by the investigator. In the scale ICT Culture is defined as the way
computer is being used by the teacher in the present context. It includes physical,
emotional and social aspect of culture consisting infrastructure, facilities and support
system.

Academic Stream: In the present study academic stream means the teaching subject
of the prospective and in-service teachers. The teachers will be categorized in two
groups- Sciences (Physical Sciences, Biological Sciences, and Mathematics) and
Humanities (Social Sciences and Languages).

Introversion-Extroversion: In the present study the scale that will be used to

measure Introversion Extroversion is originally developed by Aziz and Gupta
(2009).In the development of the scale Introversion Extroversion was based on Jung‟s
(1971) concept. Therefore, Jung‟s definition of Introversion-Extroversion is accepted
for the present study. Jung (1971) defined introversion as an "attitude-type
characterized by orientation in life through subjective psychic contents" (focus on
one's inner psychic activity); and extraversion as "an attitude type characterized by
concentration of interest on the external object" (the outside world).

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