Definition of a Problem

A problem refers to any challenge, limitation, or issue that arises during the development,
adoption, or implementation of a new or advancing technological innovation. These problems
often stem from the technology's novelty, lack of maturity, or the need for integration into existing
systems and societal frameworks. OR
A problem is a situation, question, or condition that requires resolution or improvement because
it represents a gap between the current state and the desired state. Problems are often characterized
by challenges, obstacles, or issues that need to be identified, analyzed, and addressed.
 The problem describes the detail of a particular challenge within a system and all the
requirements for change necessary to improve the system.
 When dealing with computer problems, you must first understand the source of the problem
and then find a solution to fix the problem.
 Locating the source of a problem is known as troubleshooting.
 When dealing with software problems where bugs exist in a program, you need to
download a patch that resolves the issue.
 Other software problems may be solved by changing a setting in the program or computer
or closing other programs conflicting with the program.
 When hardware problems or physical defects occur, the only solution may be to replace
the malfunctioning device.

Key Characteristics of a Problem:

1. Current State: The existing condition or situation that is unsatisfactory or needs

improvement.
2. Desired State: The goal or outcome that one aims to achieve.
3. Obstacle: The barrier or challenge preventing the transition from the current state to the
desired state.
4. Need for Action: A problem typically calls for a solution, decision, or intervention to close
the gap

Examples of Problems:

1. Personal: "How can I improve my time management?"

2. Professional: "How can we increase sales in a declining market?"
3. Social: "How can we reduce poverty in urban areas?"
4. Technical: "How can we optimize the performance of this software?"
Identify the Problem of the System
Identifying the problem of a system involves examining the system's current performance,
functionality, or outcomes to determine what issues, inefficiencies, or obstacles prevent it from
achieving its intended goals. This process typically includes analyzing the system's inputs,
processes, outputs, and external influences.

How Do You Identify the Problem?

 Identify the root cause of the problem by collecting information and then talking with
stakeholders.
Combining existing research and information from your stakeholders can offer some
insight into the problem and its causes. Consider data sources that could help you more
clearly define the problem.
Start by doing an environmental scan, a literature review, and if necessary, surveys in the
community.
 Develop your problem statement.
Describe how the problem occurs, how serious it is, and its outcomes and impacts. Doing
this can also help you identify any gaps in the data you have gathered.

Prioritizing Problems of the System

Prioritizing problems in a system means looking at how serious, impactful, and urgent each issue
is to decide which ones to fix first. This helps make sure time and resources are used wisely to
solve the most important problems that affect the system and its users the most.
Priority System is that serves different users/processes in a particular order based on their
priority levels, where high priority means more chances and privileges.
Priority decisions arise whenever limited facilities must be apportioned among competitive
demands for service. Broadly viewed, even the familiar first-come first-served discipline is a
priority rule.
It favors the longest-waiting user, and guards against excessive delays. Other priority rules, such
as shortest-job-next, are keyed instead to considerations of operating efficiency.
Problem Prioritization helps us understand “what are the first set of problems that need solving?
Prioritize problems that were discovered during research so the team can focus on the most
important ones.
Methods for Analyzing a Problem of the System
Analyzing a problem in a system involves systematic approaches to identify root causes,
evaluate impacts, and determine possible solutions.
Problem analysis is a series of steps for identifying problems, analyzing them, and developing
solutions to address them. It's an inquiry or investigation into the causes of an error, failure, or
unexpected incident.
With the Problem analysis we understanding real-world problems and user's needs and proposing
solutions to meet those needs.
While the major aim of issue analysis is to develop solutions, the process also provides you with
an in-depth understanding of a problem that enables you to prevent other kinds of problems that
might arise from the same cause.
 The goal of problem analysis is to gain a better understanding of the problem being solved,
before development begins.
 To identify the root cause, or the problem behind the problem, ask the people directly
involved.
 Identifying the actors on the system is a key step in problem analysis.

The different approaches you can take when analyzing a problem include:
Fishbone diagram
A fishbone diagram is also known as the cause-and-effect diagram, because it highlights the
causes of a current or potential problem, or any other deviation from your team’s standard
workflow. Companies use fishbone diagrams to help streamline processes, boost customer
satisfaction, and drive better business outcomes.
The diagram actually looks like a fish skeleton. A horizontal arrow represents the fish spine and
points to the problem (or effect), which is the head of the fish. Shorter arrows act as the fish ribs,
branching out to expose the problem’s causes.

How the fishbone method solves problems

The fishbone method of analysis helps teams go deep with their problem-solving, uncovering key
factors teams can target and troubleshoot. When used effectively, a fishbone diagram can help
you1:
 Easily identify and categorize the causes—big and small—of a particular problem in a
highly visual way.
 Develop actionable solutions more quickly by providing a structured yet flexible
approach to address problems.
  Promote a more effective work environment by fostering better collaboration and
communication across teams.
 Continuously improve your product or process by documenting root causes to avoid
repeating the same mistakes in the future.

5 steps to create a fishbone diagram

Step 1: Define the problem.
Create a clear, concise problem statement. This should address a known issue or one you’re trying
to prevent, such as “customer satisfaction rate for our app has fallen 20%.” Use FigJam’s online
whiteboard to brainstorm and agree on a problem statement. Or try FigJam’s fishbone diagram
template.

Step 2: Label potential issues.

You can use the six labels in the classic fishbone diagram (see sidebar), or create your own set of
categories to suit the product and problem facing your team. For example, Mazda chose styling,
touch, cornering, driving, listening, and braking as key issues to address in developing the MX5
Miata sports car.

Step 3: Brainstorm all possible causes.

Ask why this problem occurred, and organize possible causes by category. For example, under the
people category, you might list causes for a drop in customer satisfaction as staff burnout, lack of
training, or employee turnover. Some causes may fit under more than one category.
Step 4: Add more detail to your fishbone analysis.
Keep asking why to further identify sub-causes that contribute to the problem. FigJam’s 5 whys
template will help you dig deeper.

Step 5: Review each cause and develop action items.

Work with your team to create a list of action items that will help solve the problem. Invite your
team to check the finished diagram, making sure no detail has been overlooked (see sidebar).

The classic 6-rib fishbone diagram

A typical fishbone diagram includes six ribs, each labeled with a potential issue to address. This
could include:
1. People. Evaluate everyone involved in the process, including their skill level, training, and
performance.
2. Machines. Examine equipment and any maintenance or upgrades required to solve
a problem.
3. Materials. Assess the raw and finished materials used. Do they meet expectations?
4. Environment. Consider external factors such as bad weather or safety issues that can affect
the development cycle.
5. Method. Audit your team’s process—the number of steps, their complexity, and any
potential bottlenecks.
6. Measurement. Review the way your process is measured, controlled, and monitored.

Steps for Analyzing Problem of the System

Some steps you can take to understand a problem before developing solutions include:
1. Define the problem
As an employee working within a team or a department, you may have a subjective perspective on
a problem. For instance, if a computer system starts malfunctioning, you may identify it as a
hardware failure, while others may see it as a software or network error.
The first step in an issue analysis is establishing a consensus on the definition of the problem. Start
by consulting all the relevant parties and discussing the matter.
This step allows you to see all the different perspectives and factor them in when developing a
description of a problem.
Next, you may document the problem and write out the definition to see if everyone agrees.
Problem definition is the most important part of the analysis process, as it sets the direction for the
next steps.
An incorrect problem diagnosis may mislead the team into an adjacent problem inquiry. In addition
to defining the problem, establish an order of priority for all the system features.
Break down the various aspects of the problem to decide which is most important. Then, reach an
agreement with all relevant parties regarding the order of importance.
2. Identify the root cause
When identifying the true cause of the problem, you may use any method of issue analysis. For
instance, you might use root cause analysis to identify its primary cause. Root cause analysis helps
you develop solutions by focusing on the problem rather than symptoms.
To identify the root cause of an issue, first ask the people whom it primarily concerns. While the
root cause analysis is a strong starting point for identifying the cause of a problem, you can
supplement this methodology with other types, such as the fishbone analysis and the five “whys.”
There are some situations where other secondary sources hide the root cause of a problem. In this
instance, the five “whys” is an appropriate method to apply alongside the root cause inquiry.
In another instance, the problem's primary cause may be a combination of other primary or
secondary causes. In this instance, the fishbone analysis gives you a broader understanding of the
problem, while identifying dependent and related causes.
This stage of the analysis process requires significant input from subject matter experts and
experienced professionals.
3. Outline the stakeholders and users
Next, identify the stakeholders and relevant parties to the issue. A stakeholder is an individual who
has valuable input in new system implementation or an individual who feels the direct impact of
system changes due to the identified problem. Stakeholders have varying views on a problem and
on the requirements for a new system.
Involving all relevant stakeholders in the analysis and solution-finding process ensures
thoroughness and eliminates the need for a re-work process in the future.
Additionally, most complex problems usually require the input of various parties to provide a more
standard and efficient solution.
Stakeholders of a problem may include managers, information technology professionals, system
developers, users, and external regulators. Managers are management personnel and employees
who maintain the system and manage users.
Then, depending on the company structure, there are IT professionals who implement, install,
maintain, and manage the new systems. System developers usually work with IT professionals to
develop and implement solutions to problems.
Users are the direct end-users who feel the impact of system changes, while external regulators are
third-party bodies that implement constraints on the system based on existing policies.
4. Clarify the system or solution boundary
The system boundary is a defined goal for the solution you wish to find or a framework for a
proposed solution. After all relevant parties have agreed to a problem statement, you can define
the solution boundary.
A system proposal has two aspects: the system and its functionalities and external factors that
interact with the system. The actors are people outside the system that interact with it.
Define the solution constraints
After developing the solution, you may run further checks to pre-empt possible restrictions. These
might be systemic, and evaluating existing limitations is important, as they determine the level of
efficiency of a solution.
Some possible restrictions include political, environmental, economic, and technical factors.
Political restrictions are internal or external political considerations that may affect a proposed
solution.
Economic restrictions are budgetary or financial constraints that may impede a solution's success.
Technical limitations are mostly internal and focus on the type of technology that a company uses
to develop and implement solutions.

Technical System Architecture

Technical Architecture (TA) refers to the structured design of a system that defines its
components, their relationships, and the way they interact to achieve specific goals. It provides a
blueprint for how hardware, software, networks, and data flow together within a system to deliver
functionality, performance, and scalability.

Key Components of Technical System Architecture

1. Hardware: The physical infrastructure, including servers, clients, network devices, and
storage systems.
 Examples: Computers, routers, firewalls, load balancers, cloud resources.
2. Software: Applications, operating systems, middleware, and databases that run on the
hardware.
 Examples: Web servers (Apache, NGINX), databases (MySQL, Oracle), enterprise
software.
3. Networking: Communication pathways that enable data to move between components.
 Examples: LAN, WAN, VPN, Internet, network protocols (TCP/IP, HTTP).
4. Data: How data is stored, managed, and transferred within the system.
 Examples: Databases, data warehouses, file storage, data lakes.
5. Interfaces: Points of interaction between systems, users, and components.
  Examples: APIs, user interfaces (UI), command-line interfaces (CLI).
6. Security: Mechanisms to protect data, applications, and infrastructure.
 Examples: Firewalls, encryption, access control, security policies.
7. Integration: The way systems connect and work together.
 Examples: Middleware, APIs, message queues, enterprise service buses (ESBs).

5 Useful Technical Architecture Diagrams

In TA, the use of a technical architecture diagram is common practice as it provides a much-
needed bird’s eye view of a company’s IT infrastructure. It usually shows all the components of
a system as well as its interdependencies.
These high-level architecture diagrams serve different purposes and make it easier for IT
specialists to come up with the right technology solution design.
They also help fill the gaps in communication between technical and nontechnical staff and
illustrate how changes will impact the whole system.

Below are 5 frequently used TA diagrams.

1. Application architecture diagram
As the name suggests, the application architecture diagram focuses on the applications within a
computer system and how they interact with databases and each other.
If an application needs to be replaced, upgraded, or merged with other applications, technical
architects can quickly assess how this will affect the system. With a single glance, they see
which applications reside in shared container clusters, what their interactions and dependencies
look like, and how the desired state of architecture can be reached.
2. Integration architecture diagram
While the application architecture diagram deals with the “What” in relation to the system, the
integration architecture diagram focuses on the “How” by emphasizing integration protocols
between single components.
This diagram comes in handy when an external partner system needs to be integrated into the
existing one. With this diagram, technical architects are forced to think about how services are
organized and how they’re exposed.
If they’re exposed externally, it helps them decide on how they’ll be secured and tracked during
and after the integration.
3. Deployment architecture diagram
In the deployment architecture diagram, IT specialists depict the network boundaries as well as the
infrastructure of hardware and software components.
Since this diagram also tends to specify the quantity and size of components, it both addresses the
questions “Where” and “How many”.
In practice, the deployment architecture diagram is used to facilitate the upgrading of services
or applications. This might be necessary when existing resources have become unable to handle
the increasing scale and load caused by a growing number of users.
4. DevOps architecture diagram
This diagram is used to optimize processes and deployment flows. By not only looking at the
components but also at their processes, technical architects can identify weaknesses within the
deployment process like non-standardized practices or bottlenecks.
The diagram makes technical architects examine what kind of applications are deployed, what the
current process flow looks like, and how configurations are managed across applications.
Once these areas of improvement or integration points are uncovered, it’s easier to implement new
tools.
5. Data architecture diagram
With a data architecture diagram, technical architects visualize how data is collected, stored,
processed, and used. It also helps them capture the flow of data between all the components
that make up a system.
Nowadays, businesses deal with an increasing amount of data that can quickly slow down the
system or cause even bigger issues.
A data architecture diagram is the first step to optimizing data collection and storage as it reveals
where upgrades are needed and where costs can be lowered.

Information Systems (IS) Best Practices

Refer to the guidelines and strategies that ensure the effective development, management,
and security of information systems within organizations. These practices help optimize
system performance, enhance security, and align systems with business objectives.
A best practice is group of tasks that optimizes the efficiency (cost and risk) or effectiveness
(service level) of the business discipline or process to which it contributes. It must be
implementable, replicable, transferable and adaptable across industries.
A best practice is a standard or set of guidelines that is known to produce good outcomes if
followed. Best practices are related to how to carry out a task or configure something.
Strict best practice guidelines may be set by a governing body or may be internal to an
organization.
Other best practices may be more informal and can be set forth in manufacturer's guidance, in
published guidelines or even passed along informally.
Best practices in information management
Ensure that an organization's information is effectively collected, stored, protected, and utilized
to meet business goals. Effective information management supports decision-making, improves
efficiency, and enhances data security.
We live and work in the Information Age. Whether your company makes physical products or
provides intangible services, the way that you manage information will have a significant impact
on your bottom line and the morale of your employees
A survey from M-Files found that 82% of employees said that poor information management had
a negative effect on productivity, while 86% ran into obstacles when it came to finding
information needed to perform their job.

To help your workers manage company information efficiently, consider these

steps:
1. Set up a user access management system
Not every employee needs or should have access to all your company information. There may be
sensitive files that should only be seen by a limited number of authorized team members.
Setting up a user access management system lets you control who gets to see which information.
For example, you can have a system that allows personnel in one department to have access to data
pertinent to their department only or to other data sets elsewhere in your company.
Employees who want access to company information outside of their purview would be required
to submit a formal request. Managers might also want to monitor the flow of information for
greater oversight.

Digitize your records

Before the pandemic, on-site employees could easily obtain physical records and paper documents.
Now that remote workforces are here to stay and records are scattered across different locations,
you should consider digitizing your records.
Doing so gives your employees the freedom to access them from any location and on any device,
saving time and effort.
You can either choose a document management app that lets you do-it-yourself or contract with a
scanning company depending on the volume of records to be converted.

Organize your curated content

In a business context, curated content is content taken from other sources that is relevant to the
mission of your company or the goals of your team.
To keep from drowning in the sheer volume of material available, you need to have some type of
content management system that puts the material in a searchable order.
For example, apps like Trello or Slack are popular tools for organizing and tracking social media
postings.
Facilitate content retrieval
Amassing data and determining levels of employee access is just one side of the topic. Employees
also need to be able to retrieve information quickly and efficiently.
To do so requires some type of service that lets employees get the files they need through an easy
search. Depending on your needs, you may choose an onsite or cloud-based retrieval system, or a
combination model.

Harness an enterprise data management system

The data in your files is an enormous asset to your employees, provided they know the scope of
material or intellectual property stored.
An enterprise data management system can help you inventory not only the data that is generally
known, but also material that has not been organized, such as Google documents, email PDFs and
audio files.
Setting up easy-to-use systems that support your employees in accessing and managing
information better can not only save your company time and money, but also foster a more loyal
workforce.

Operating Systems (OS)

An operating system (OS) manages all other applications and programs in a computer, and it is
loaded into the computer by a boot program.
It enables applications to interact with a computer’s hardware. Through a designated application
Programme interface, the application programmed request services from the operating system
(API).
The kernel is the software that contains the operating system’s core components.
To run other programmed, every computer has to have at least one operating system installed.

Features of OS
1. Provides a platform for running applications.
2. Handles memory management and CPU scheduling.
3. Provides file system abstraction.
4. Provides networking support.
5. Provides security features.
6. Provides user interface.
7. Provides utilities and system services.
8. Supports application development.

Functions of an Operating System (OS)

The functions of an Operating System (OS) describe its roles in managing hardware, software,
and user interactions, ensuring efficient and secure operation of a computer system.

1. Processor Management: An operating system manages the processor’s work by allocating

various jobs to it and ensuring that each process receives enough time from the processor to
function properly.
2. Memory Management: An operating system manages the allocation and deallocation of the
memory to various processes and ensures that the other process does not consume the memory
allocated to one process.
3. Device Management: There are various input and output devices. An OS controls the working
of these input-output devices. It receives the requests from these devices, performs a specific task,
and communicates back to the requesting process.
4. File Management: An operating system keeps track of information regarding the creation,
deletion, transfer, copy, and storage of files in an organized way. It also maintains the integrity of
the data stored in these files, including the file directory structure, by protecting against
unauthorized access.
5. Security: The operating system provides various techniques which assure the integrity and
confidentiality of user data. Following security measures are used to protect user data:
 Protection against unauthorized access through login.
 Protection against intrusion by keeping Firefall active.
 Protecting the system memory against malicious access.
 Displaying messages related to system vulnerabilities.
6. Error Detection: From time to time, the operating system checks the system for any external
threat or malicious software activity. It also checks the hardware for any type of damage. This
process displays several alerts to the user so that the appropriate action can be taken against any
damage caused to the system.
7. Job Scheduling: In a multitasking OS where multiple programs run simultaneously, the
operating system determines which applications should run in which order and how time should
be allocated to each application.
Access Control Software and Data Communication Software
Access control software is the digital application in which you grant “access” (or admittance)
privileges to sensitive documents, files, rooms, buildings, and spaces.
You can purchase access control software as a standalone item and pair it with physical hardware
for your building. Although, most people purchase the software when they purchase an access
control system as a bundle.
You can view/change employee permissions, keep a record of which employee has accessed which
data, and keep areas secure.
If you do not have physical hardware, you would need to purchase that separately if you have
already bought the software.
Data Communication is the transportation of Information from one point to another through a
communication medium. This information may be anything fax, letter, e-mail, file or data.
It is a computer program required on DTE (PC) to bridge the gap and interpret the bits/bytes that
are transmitted via the communication media through the interface.
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) is equipment that is either a destination or source for digital
data.
Examples of DTE's are computers, printers, application servers, file servers, routers and bridges
etc.
Without software, Data communication is incomplete. Further Communication Software is that it
is responsible for controlling data formatting, data transmission, and total communication control.
What the significance of communication Software
Communication software plays a crucial role in enabling and managing the exchange of
information between individuals, systems, or devices across various platforms and networks. Its
significance lies in its ability to facilitate seamless communication, collaboration, and data
exchange in both personal and professional contexts.
Controls the user accessibility to information. It means how a user can access the information and
how information shall be presented to user.
It controls the optimal configuration of communication hardware and make the effective utilization
of network resources.
Types of Access Control Software
There are several types of access control software options however there are three main options:
1. Server Based
 This type of access control software is hosted on a server within a specific building. The
software can be used to control the access within that building and only that building. You
cannot access it remotely and each building would need its own server.
 An administrator on location gives access to employees and guests through this system.
These are usually bought within a whole access control system.
2. Embedded
 Similar to dedicated server-based access control systems, browser-based solutions include
a web application. For the application to operate, there is no requirement for Internet
access; it connects to the LAN (local area network) and can be accessed from any device
within the LAN.
 These are usually bought within a whole access control system. However, it is best that
you do have a reliable internet connection.
3. Cloud-Based
 Last but not least, most access control systems are turning to cloud-based solutions. The
access control software is located on a remote server and can be accessed by the
administrator.
 From the admin panel, you can complete any function anywhere as long as you have an
internet connection. You can also control your entire campus, including multiple buildings,
from one admin panel.
 You will need an internet connection to review the admin panel and make updates or
changes. However, even without the internet, the hardware will still function as
commanded.
 You just won’t be able to make updates without an internet connection. This type of system
can be bought separately or bundled with an access control system.
 This type of system can also be used with third-party hardware devices.