CHATPER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Agriculture is the largest employment sector in Nigeria. In keeping with Quarterly Labour Force Survey
2015-16, it employs 41% of the full proletariat and comprises 14.74% look after the country’s GDP (BER,
2017). The performance of this sector has a remarkable impact on most important macroeconomic objectives
like employment generation, poverty alleviation, human resources development and food security. Improving
agricultural productivity to fulfill the strain of an expanding population, in spite of an increasingly volatile
climate, is one in every of the foremost challenges Bangladesh is facing. Food security and adequate nutrition
are among the essential needs of each person (Osmani et al., 2016). Accordingly FAO, food security involves
four dimensions; availability, accessibility, food utilization and stability. Bangladesh has made commendable
progress over the past 40 years in achieving food security, despite frequent natural disasters and increase (WB,
2016). Vegetables are considered jointly of the foremost important groups of food crops thanks to their high
nutritive value, relatively higher yield and better return.
Vegetables provide dietary fiber necessary for digestion and health and combating malnutrition,
furthermore as curing some diseases like anemia, blindness, scurvy, goiter, etc. Vegetables are necessary for
physical and mental growth that helps to extend efficiency of labor and span of working life. Moreover,
vegetables are the foremost inexpensive and rich sources of vitamins. In Bangladesh, a decent number of
vegetables are grown throughout the year, both in winter and summer seasons. Vegetable is a vital crop-
subsector within the total agricultural exports of Bangladesh (Karim, 2008). Cucumber plays a vital role to
congregate the vegetable shortage during the scarce period, which eventually helps to enhance the
undernourishment problem in Bangladesh. It absolutely was found useful against human constipation and
improvement in digestion. It’s used as a cooling food in summer (Maurya et al., 2015).
A fresh Cucumber provides vitamin B complex, niacin, iron, calcium, thiamine, fibers and phosphorus.
Besides, it’s one in every of the very low-calorie vegetables; provide just 15 calories per 100 g. It’s a superb
source of potassium, a vital intracellular electrolyte. 100 g of cucumber provides 147 mg of potassium, but only
2 mg of sodium (USDA, 2019). Cucumbers contain unique antioxidants in moderate ratios like beta-carotene
and α-carotene, vitamin-C, vitamin-K vitamin-A, zeaxanthin, and lutein. It helps in checking weight gain and
high pressure level. The Cucumber originates from Southern Asia. However, it’s grown all told of the countries
within the world. Quite 50% production of Cucumber comes from Asia. Turkey, Iran, Uzbekistan, Japan and
Iraq, were considered as foremost Cucumber producing countries in Asia (Khan et al., 2015). In Bangladesh it’s
grown as a crop. There’s a scope for cultivation of cucumber within the cultivable land during summer season.
Poverty and food insecurity are prime disquiet within the recent times in Bangladesh (Rahman et al., 2013).

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Sustainable development and food security in poor countries cannot achieve the long-term without qualified
local individuals and institutions (Beyant, 2005). The basic elements of food security are the provision of food,
access to food and utilization of food. Availability may be a function of domestic production, imports, food aid
and therefore the stock of food. Considering these, domestic production is important in ensuring food
availability at household levels. In spite of considerable achievements in food availability through cereal
production in Bangladesh, food security at individual level remains a challenging issue of the government of
Bangladesh. Irrespective of the rise in food production and its availability, food insecurity furthermore as
poverty remains a key problem mainly; due to the dearth of buying power and thus access to food particularly
for the poorest of the poor. In keeping with the most recent survey results, the poverty rate has dropped to
24.3%; the poverty rate in rural areas was 26.4%, while urban poverty was 18.9% (BBS, 2017). This rate of
extreme poverty is 12.9%, compared to 17.6% six years ago (BBS, 2017). An outsized fraction of households
limit their consumption to a little number of food groups, namely cereals (primarily, rice), oil or fat, vegetables,
and fish.
The consumption of this food basket is insensitive to poverty status, that is, households across all
poverty strata consume an analogous mixture of food groups. In general, while households’ consumption of
meat products, milk, and eggs is proscribed, higher income groups are more likely to consume fruits and meat
products (Rabbani, 2014). It is clear from different evidences that Bangladesh is on the proper path thanks to
reduce poverty and attain food security for its citizens. Irrespective of the exciting increase in cereal production,
about one fifth of the population remains living in below poverty and is severely undernourished. For giving
emphasis on efficient cucumber production and food consumption status of the farm households; some research
questions should be answered. The research questions can provide the direction to maneuver on the way of set
the objectives and reach to the goal. The research questions of this study were: What are the costs, return and
profitability of cucumber production? What quantity is that the technical efficiency of cucumber farmers? And
is there food insecurity among the cucumber cultivating farmers within the study area? On the premise of the
research questions, this research was focused on to investigate the socioeconomic characteristics of sample
households, determine the profitability of cucumber production, estimate technical efficiency of cucumber
farmers, and determine the food security of cucumber producing households.
Cucumber (Cucumbis sativus), is an important vegetable and one of the most popular members of the
Cucurbitaceae family (Lower and Edwards, 2012; Thoa, 2018). It is thought to be one of the oldest vegetables
cultivated by man with historical records dating back 5,000 years (Wehner and Guner, 2019). The crop is the
fourth most important vegetable after tomato, cabbage and onion in Asia (Tatlioglu, 2020), the second most
important vegetable crop after tomato in Western Europe (Phu, 2020). In tropical Africa, its place has not been
ranked because of limited use. Fertile soils are used for the cultivation of cucumber; infertile soils result in bitter

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and misshapen fruits which are often rejected by consumers. Bush fallowing has been an efficient, balanced and
sustainable agricultural system for soil productivity and fertility restoration in the tropics (Ayoola and Adeniran,
2006), but as a result of increase in the population, the fallowing periods have decreased from ten years to three
years and this has had an adverse effect on the fertility restoration leading to poor yields of crops. Therefore, the
use of external inputsin the form of farmyard manures and fertilizer has become imperative.
The organic matter content as well as the fertility status of Bangladeshi soil is low. Now it is well agreed
that depleted soil fertility is a major constraint for higher crop production in Bangladesh and indeed, yield of
several crops are declining in some soils (Bhuiyan, 1991). Maintenance of soil fertility is a prerequisite for long
term sustainable agriculture and it is certain that organic manure (cowdung, poultry manure and their slurry) can
play a vital role in the sustainability of soil fertility and crop production. Bio-slurry organic fertilizer contains
20-30 % more nutrients than commonly used organic fertilizers such as cowdung, duck and poultry manure,
farmyard manure and compost. This fertilizer also contains heavy metals much below acceptable limit. Bio-
slurry may be used raw or after air drying to fertilize agricultural land. Although digested cowdung bio-slurry
has a low content of N, P and K as compared to chemical fertilizers, it is a valuable source of humus substance
(Gaur et. al., 1984). Preliminary investigations show that both cowdung and poultry litter bio-slurry contain
considerable quantities of plant nutrients, which may be used to improve soil fertility and thus the use of
chemical fertilizers can be reduced to a great extent. Poultry litter bio-slurry is especially suitable for acid soils
as it has strong liming effect. It reduces the acidity of the soils and thereby protects crops from aluminium
toxicity. This may take care of maintaining good physical condition of soil and balancing other macro and
micro-elements needed by plant.

Organic agriculture is developing rapidly, and statistical information is now available from 154
countries of the world. According to the Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) and the International
Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), 35 million hectares of agricultural land were under
organic management (both certified and in conversion) in 2008. The regions with the largest areas of
organically managed agricultural land are Oceania (12.1 million hectares), Europe (8.2 million hectares) and
Latin America (8.1 million hectares). The cropped area (arable land and permanent crops) constitutes 8.2
million hectares. Horticultural crops play an important role in organic agriculture. These crops (temperate and
tropical fruit, citrus fruit, berries, grapes and vegetables) constitute at least 760,000 hectares and thus almost ten
percent of the organic cropland. Regarding consumer preference, fresh vegetables and fruit are among the most
popular organic products. In Switzerland for instance, organic vegetables account for ten percent of all
vegetables sold, organic fruit for 6.5 percent of all fruit. In the U.S., organic fruits and vegetables account for
37% of all organic food sales (retail value). The most important categories are vegetables (28 percent of the

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organic horticultural land); grapes (20 percent) and tropical and subtropical fruit (19 percent). Organic
agriculture is a production system that sustains the health of different type of soils, ecosystems and people.
Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) is one of the most important exotic vegetables in the country. It is the
fourth most cultivated vegetable in the world and known to be one of the best foods for body’s overall health
(Natural News, 2014). It is one of the most popular members of the cucurbitaccae family. Cucumbers are a
valuable source of conventional antioxidant nutrients including vitamin C, beta-carotene, and manganese. It is
acknowledged that increased agricultural productivity would help in attaining the needed food security.
Enhanced productivity is a combination of measures designed to increase the level of farm resources as well as
to make efficient use of resources (Adeyemo and Kuhlmann, 2009). Productivity and efficiency of resource use
in the production must be sustained in order to benefit maximally from production practices. Efficiency and
productivity are indicators of overall competitiveness (Cechura et al., 2014).
The efficiency, with which farmers use available resources and improved technologies, is important in
agricultural production (Rahji, 2005). The efficient use of farm resources is an important part of agricultural
sustainability (Goni et al., 2013) and a prerequisite for optimum farm production since inefficiency in resource
use can distort food availability and security (Etim et al., 2005). An efficiency measurement is important
because it leads to substantial resource savings (Bravo-Ureta and Rieger, 1991). Technically efficient
production is defined as the maximum quantity of output attainable by a given input (Pitt and Lee, 1981).
According to Njeru (2004), technical efficiency is the ability of a firm to maximize output for a given set of
resource inputs. Cucumber can contribute to economic empowerment if efficiently produced due to the high
unit price of the commodity compared to local fruit vegetables. Inefficiency in the use of available scarce
resources has been the bane of increased food production. There is scarce information on economics and
efficiency of cucumber production in Oyo State. Empirical studies on the technical efficiency of vegetables in
various regions of Nigeria include those of Oguniyi and Oladejo (2011), Adenuga et al. (2013), Ayinde et al.
(2011) and Adeoye et al. (2011). The studies focused on tomato, pumpkin and watermelon. None of the studies
examined the economics and determinants of the technical efficiency of cucumber production in Oyo state. This
study is therefore carried out to examine the profitability and efficiency of cucumber production in Iseyin local
government area of Oyo state.
Farmyard manure has been used as a soil conditioner since ancient times and its benefit have not been
fully harnessed due to large quantities required in order to satisfy the nutritional needs of crops (Makinde et al.,
2019). The need for renewable forms of energy and reduced cost of fertilizing crops, have revived the use of
organic manures worldwide (Ayoola and Adeniran, 2020). Improvement in environmental conditions and public
health are important reasons for advocating increased use of organic materials (Ojeniyi, 2018; Maritus and
Vleic, 2001). However, because it is bulky, the cost of transportation and handling constitute a constraint to its

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use by peasant farmers. Farmyard manure release nutrients slowly and steadily and activates soil microbial
biomass (Ayuso, 2019; Belay et al., 2018). Organic manures can sustain cropping systems through better
nutrient recycling and improvement of soil physical attributes (El-Shakweer, 2018). The use of inorganic
fertilizer has not been helpful under intensive agriculture because of its high cost and it is often associated with
reduced crop yields, soil degradation, nutrient imbalance and acidity (Obi and Ebo, 2019).The complementary
use of organic and inorganic fertilizers has been recommended for sustenance of long term cropping in the
tropics (Ipimoroti et al., 2002). This study was therefore conducted to investigate the effect of different rates of
cattle dung on soil physiochemical properties and growth and yield of cucumber.
Cucumber (Cucumis sativa L.), a member of the family Cucurbitaceae, is regarded as an essential
vegetable for fresh consumption crops worldwide and is a rich source of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants.
Cucumber is a low-calorie food, consisting of 90% water, which is why it provides superior hydration. Its
eminent texture and flavor are the main reasons for its use in salads in fresh form and pickles in the processed
form. Its medicinal value is another distinguished property, which includes its antioxidant ability, ability to
lower glycemic and antimicrobial activity, etc. Its intake regularly helps to boost metabolism and improve
immunity. Due to its high yields and economic value, cucumber is extensively cultivated in greenhouses in
China throughout the year. Its global production in 2019 was 87,805,086 tons on 2,231,402 hectares of
cultivated area. It is ranked 10th among the most important vegetable crops worldwide. China shared
70,338,971 tons (80.11%) in global production in 2019 from 1,258,370 ha (56.39%) of cultivation area. To
cover rising demands, it is essential to produce a sufficient quantity of excellent quality cucumber. Several
cropping obstacles prevent productivity enhancement at the desired pace, and these are responsible for
restricting the healthy development of industry. Finding the possibilities and increasing the pool of knowledge
regarding continuous cropping obstacles are among the possibilities to develop practical approaches to
overcome the issues present in long-term intensive cucumber production [6]. Cucumber is assumed to perform
better with enhanced productivity under early-season crop growing and during the summer [7,8]. The optimum
growth occurs between 20 ◦C and 25 ◦C and with growth reduction below 16 ◦C or above 30 ◦C. Recently,
cucumber cultivation in soilless mediums under controlled greenhouse conditions has become more developed
and trendier around the globe than in the. Fertilization plays a vital role in improving soil fertility and crop
yield. Cucumber requires many nutrients for proper growth and yield. Nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium
(NPK) are the essential nutrients for plant growth when used in optimum amounts of, respectively. However,
the improper use of fertilizers is causing severe soil degradation and limited crop productivity. Poor
management of fertilizers leads to the accumulation of salt in soil aquifers. Fertilizer management should be
applied in an integrated manner according to soil type, climatic factors, and crop requirements. The integrated
utilization of mineral and organic fertilizers can enhance soil fertility. Previous studies have reported that the

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integration of mineral and organic fertilizers enhances plant growth, yield, and quality. It has been reported that
both organic and mineral fertilizers, when used together, led to higher nutrient uptake and increased fruit
production [16–18]. It is also reported that optimum poultry manure significantly influenced the growth, yield,
and nutritional quality of lettuce [19]. Due to the higher cost of inputs, commercial vegetable production has
become an expensive business. One prominent cause is the availability of arable land that is declining due to
extensive urbanization. Furthermore, accelerated poverty and unemployment are faced mainly in all
metropolitan cities across emerging nations, which can be prevented by opting for soilless culture to grow fresh
vegetables in the adjoined outskirts. Soilless cultivation is defined as the technique of growing various crops in
the absence of soil used as rooting media. Numerous nations have extensively adopted it during the last five
decades to sustain their crop production efficiently. Several research reports have been published regarding
cucumber cultivation in soilless media under greenhouse conditions. The current climate change situation has
accelerated interest in and choice of this approach, mainly due to environmental pollution, water shortage,
abrupt changes in the surrounding environment, etc. Recently, China has widely adopted this technique as the
eco-organic soilless culture at the commercial level, enabling organic manures as the substrate for plant
production. This economic technique has been recommended for developing countries due to its cost-
effectiveness compared to mineral solution systems. Usage of organic materials, such as crop residues, sewage
sludge, compost, and poultry manure, is well recognized as beneficial in soil resumption. Keeping in view the
health benefits and nutritional significance, organically produced vegetables are in high demand these days.
However, there is a lack of information regarding suitable proportions of mineral and organic fertilizers
required for vegetable production: excessive nitrogen fertilizers in agriculture lead to the accumulation of
nitrates in plants and groundwater, thus reducing chemical fertilizers required. The assessment and description
of trait variation are essential in selecting and devising best practices to achieve productivity and quality
enhancement. Furthermore, studies on variation under safeguard and decision-making are valuable in
performing efficient conservation phases and avoiding redundant practices that increase production. Therefore,
developing procedures for both characterizing variability and reducing data size to manageable and accessible
levels is essential in such studies. It is critical for agronomic characterization to be carried out using appropriate
statistical methods. The widely used techniques include various univariate and multivariate methods such as
ANOVA, mean comparison, regression, PCA, and AHC.
1.2 Statement of the Research Problems
New high yielding varieties of cucumber have continued to be released but the farmer’s yields continue
to decline (Borna, 2002). Release of these varieties have not been matched with their nutrient demands and
farming systems. Furthermore, most of the Nigerian farmers are resource poor and their population continues to
grow at a rate of 3.26% (Legard, 2019) which has put more pressure on land through continuous cultivation

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hence resulting in soil fertility problems such as nutrient mining, depletion and land degradation. The use of
cattle dung constitute a major source of nutrients for replenishing, improving soil productivity, and increasing
the crop yields (Musara and Chitamba , 2014).
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The main objective of the study is to:
i. Evaluate the effect of cattle dung on the physical and chemical properties of the soil;
ii. Evaluate the effect of different rate of cattle dung on the growth and yield of cucumber
(Cucumis satisvus).
1.4.1 Significance of the Study
This study is important in contributing to improving food security through increased sustainable
cucumber production utilizing low cost combination of inputs e.g. cattle manure. This will help farmers
understand which combinations of cattle manure give the highest maize yields, improve and amend soil
productivity, as well as mitigation of climate change. To the extension workers, more knowledge will be
acquired for advisory services to the farmers on how best to integrate organic and inorganic fertilizers and new
seed varieties. Researchers will be stimulated on how to manipulate the use of different combinations of organic
and inorganic fertilizers, and scholars carrying out related research will find the results of this study as
important literature.
1.4.2 Scope and Limitations of the Study
The scope of this study is limited to cucumbers planted in Agric Department at Emmanuel Alayande
College of Education, Oyo State.
1.7 Organization of the Study
This study is organised as follows: Chapter one covers the background of the study, statement of the
research problem, objectives of the study, significance of the study and definition of key concepts. Chapter two
contains review of related relevant literatures, Chapter three dwells on the methodology used in the research.
Chapter four contains the results and discussion . Chapter five presents the summary, contribution to
knowledge, conclusion and recommendations for further studies followed by the references cited in the work
and various appendices of relevant documents used in the dissertation.

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

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 This chapter covers literature on cucumber production, importance, production constraints in field
drought prevalence, low adoption of improved maize varieties, declining soil fertility and effect of organic
fertilizers on available plant nutrients (cattle manure).

2.1 Application of Cattle Dung in Agriculture

(Sarwar, et al. 2018) also found that silt and leaf manure increased fresh and dry biomass. As a result of
improved moisture retention, aeration, and nutrients, treatment T8 resulted in the greatest increase of fresh and
dry biomass. Leaf chlorophyll concentration was favourably influenced by various growth media proportions in
this experiment, however plants grown in T8 combination with equal proportions of all media components
demonstrated the highest leaf chlorophyll content. Increased chlorophyll content may have been a result of
increased nitrogen uptake from the growth medium. Cucumber leaf proline content was dramatically increased.
Because proline biosynthesis has been activated and oxidation of proline to glutamate has been reduced, proline
consumption has been decreased, and protein turnover has been raised, the amount of proline in the body has
grown. As a catalyst for photochemical reactions, nitrogen has a significant influence on green pigments
(Kumar et al. 1988). Nitrogen was shown to be responsible for the increase in chlorophyll content in both iris
and coriander leaves, according to the same findings by (Oke, et al. 2020). Photosynthesis is boosted as a result
of the increased chlorophyll concentration in the plants, which in turn leads to greater plant growth. Cucumber
plants' photosynthetic rate was raised in response to several medium combinations in the current study. Due to
the enhanced photosynthesis and respiration rates, this type of reaction is ideal for increasing the total
development of plants Nitrogen is an important nutrient for the regular development and production of plants.
Net plant development is stimulated by increased nitrogen absorption through the roots, which in turn promotes
the transfer of nutrients to the leaves. According to their results (Oke, et al. 2020). Coconut compost has been
shown to boost the availability of nitrogen to plants, resulting in increased growth. Biosynthesis of nucleic acids
and enzyme activation are all made possible by phosphorus' function in energy metabolism, gas exchange. In
the same way, potassium is the most essential mineral nutrient for the management of water in plants, protein
production, as well as drought tolerance and activation of particular enzymes.) It was shown that higher
potassium content in the leaves of plants boosted plant development as a result of increased organic matter in
the growing environment. Because of this, the total development and fruit production of cucumbers was
improved in the current study, as nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium minerals were better available.

For generations, farmers have used animal manure to fertilize their crops (Stevenson et al., 1926). In
traditional agricultural systems, grazing animals deposit manure on pasture and cropland, effectively recycling
many of the nutrients the animal consumed. In recent decades, producers have become increasingly specialized
in either crop or livestock production, and livestock production has moved from pasture-based to primarily
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concentrated feeding operations (MacDonald et al., 2018). Commercial fertilizers developed in the past century
serve as convenient, consistent nutrient sources and widespread adoption of commercial fertilizer facilitated this
specialization in crop production (Hergert et al., 2015). As production systems evolved, farmers increasingly
adopted animal confinement systems, which led to manure production being concentrated in one location. A
confined facility’s manure has fertilizer value when it is spread on fields, but manure is costly to transport and
spread. In some regions, confinement has resulted in the local supply of manure nutrients exceeding the nutrient
needs of crops (Paudel et al., 2004).

Manure is a valuable source of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which can make it a substitute for,
or complement to, commercial fertilizers. Manure also supplies a wide variety of micronutrients, including
calcium, magnesium, and sulfur (Schott and Schmidt, 2017). In addition, manure provides organic matter and
carbon, which makes manure a useful soil amendment for improving soil health, measured by chemical,
physical, and biological properties:

• Chemical: Manure has been shown to benefit soil chemical properties by increasing soil organic
carbon content, increasing nutrient retention and availability, and providing essential micronutrients. The
specific benefits realized from amending soils with manure, however, depend highly on the manure’s chemical
properties (Schott and Schmidt, 2017).

• Physical: Manure has been shown to improve soil physical properties, including decreased bulk
density, increased soil porosity, increased aggregate stability, and increased infiltration rates. These physical
improvements affect how crops can access air, water, and dissolved nutrients in the soil, and they affect how
well soils can resist degradation due to erosion and runoff (Schott and Schmidt, 2017).

• Biological: Although less research has focused on how manure applications affect soil biology, current
work indicates that soils amended with manure have greater numbers of soil bacteria, fungi, and earthworms
than soils amended with commercial fertilizers. Furthermore, compared with soil receiving commercial
fertilizers, manure-amended soils show increased microbial activity, which indicates healthy nutrient cycling in
the soil (Schott and Schmidt, 2017).

As discussed later in the report, because of its fiber content, manure also has promising value as a
renewable replacement for horticultural peat and as bedding for animals. Manure can also be a valuable
feedstock for energy production. While manure has substantial potential value as a fertilizer to farmers, two
characteristics of manure increase the costs of using it as a fertilizer replacement (Massey and Gedikoglu,
2021). First, manure has a low nutrient value-to-mass ratio. This is partly due to some manures’ water content,

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which can be up to 90 percent of total weight. The low quantity of nutrients per ton, relative to commercial
fertilizers, results in time-intensive and costly transportation. Depending on the weather, in any year, farmers
may have a few days with suitable conditions that allow them to prepare fields, spread fertilizer, and plant. Crop
planting takes priority, so to save time, farmers may choose commercial fertilizers rather than manure. Second,
manure as excreted and after storage has a nitrogen-to-phosphorus ratio that does not align with most crops’
nutrient requirements. Applying enough manure to meet nitrogen needs may create environmental hazards due
to high levels of phosphorus that accumulate in soil. This imbalance means that farmers apply supplemental
commercial fertilizer to meet a crop’s nitrogen needs instead of applying more manure. The nitrogen in manure
is also susceptible to being volatilized into the air during collection and long-term storage before land
application. Nitrogen volatilization further exacerbates the nutrient imbalance and can lead to health and
environmental issues (Aillery et al., 2005).

Farmers ultimately make their decisions about how they manage manure based on their farms’ previous
investments, land and labor resources, production system—and the broader technological, economic, and policy
context. With this broad systems approach in mind, we have identified three themes that shape the potential for
a given technology to enhance manure’s value for farms: manure value versus cost, farm size, and adoption
barriers. We use these three themes to discuss an optimum value model, or how farmers can optimize the value
of their manure resource. The second part of this report discusses how these themes are likely to influence the
viability and adoption of new technologies and practices.

Manure provides value from its ability to serve as a fertilizer or an input into energy production, animal
bedding, or industrial processes. Incorporating manure into any product or process entails costs.

The objective is to find a use for manure such that the benefits exceed the costs, i.e., that manure is
profitable. When the cost of using manure exceeds the value derived from manure, farmers have several
options:

 Reduce manure management costs;

 increase manure’s value;
 subsidize the loss from manure management with profits from animal production (e.g., consider manure
a necessary cost, and internalize its cost into the animal production cost);
 move to another location with lower manure management costs or greater manure value; or
 stop producing altogether.

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 Opportunities to increase manure’s value include transferring it to other locations where it has greater
value or transforming it into other products. Adding value to manure may involve stacking multiple manure
management benefits. Stacking already occurs in cases where producers receive income from selling manure
generated energy and renewable energy credits. As discussed in later sections, selling renewable energy might
also allow producers to earn emission reduction credits that further increase net income. To reduce manure’s
costs and increase its value, farms can make simple management changes or significant system changes. In
some cases, farmers may treat manure management as a necessary cost to bear because they lack suitable
technology or are operating in a location that is not conducive to manure use. Manure storage systems and
application equipment choice can affect both value and cost. Moving to a different location can change the
location-specific cropping systems, topographies, and climates that affect the opportunity for farms to capture
value from manure. High initial fixed investment costs can result in economies of scale—larger farms can
spread costs over more output, which reduces per unit costs and improves profitability. High fixed cost
technologies may, therefore, be economical for large farms but not for smaller ones. High initial investment
may also favor farmers who are able to self-finance because banks may be less willing to lend money for new or
unproven technologies. Fixed costs associated with technology adoption and the resulting minimum efficient
scale can result in barriers to entry and increasing scale of production (Martin, 1993). Economies of scale in
swine and poultry production have resulted in cost advantages for large production facilities and are related to
the rise of contracting in these industries (Martinez and Zering, 2004). Fixed costs may determine which types
of technology will be adopted by specific types of farms.

Social scientists have examined the factors that affect adoption of new technologies by farmers since the
1950s. Mansfield (1961), examining adoption of industrial technologies, found that it was related to both
profitability and the size of the investment. The development of new crop varieties in the 1960s and 70s led to
further research as summarized by Feder et al. (1985). More recently, there have also been many studies on
factors that promote adoption of conservation practices as summarized in Prokopy et al. (2019) and adoption of
best management practices for manure such as Gillespie et al. (2010) and Gedikoglu and McCann (2012).
Manure Production Farming practices that geographically concentrate animal production can increase pollution
risk (O’Donoghue et al., 2011) as the manure produced in a region can contain more nutrients than the locally
produced crops can use. For example, economic factors have fostered animal production in some areas where
crops are not common (e.g., poultry production in the Ozarks of Arkansas and Missouri) or where
environmental concerns pose an issue (e.g., dairy and poultry in the Chesapeake Bay watershed). Structural
change and location decisions are due to technological changes, economic factors, as well as public policy
including regulatory stringency (Abdalla et al., 1995). Abdalla and his co-authors (1995) indicated that
contracting has facilitated the clustering of livestock farms near centralized processing facilities. Increasing
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farm size and specialization have changed manure handling and use and exacerbated the manure distribution
problem. As farms have become more specialized, they have also increased in size and separated animal and
crop production. Crop and animal farming specialization has occurred over the past century and especially since
World War II. Farms specialized as they had access to mechanization and chemicals for fertilizer, pest
management, and animal health (MacDonald, 2020). As a smaller number of commodities were produced on
each farm, the share of all farms that produced any one commodity declined. Figure 1 shows this trend (between
1984 and 2017) for some select commodities. Specialization makes production more efficient by concentrating
resources to their best use. However, specialization also segments activities that can be complementary.

Before modern refrigeration, dairy cattle were raised near population centers to sell perishable dairy
products for local demand. Grain was transported to the dairies, forage was grown on the farm, and milk was
transported to nearby processors. As refrigerated transportation became more available, the “dairy crescent”
from New York through Minnesota emerged as the nation’s dairy belt because forage crops had a comparative
advantage over grain crops in the region’s cooler climate, shorter growing season, and thinner soils (Peterson,
2002).

Manure refers to substance added to soil in order to increase the availability of plant nutrients for higher
productivity (Gana, 2010). The application of manure has the aim of increasing soil fertility thus productivity
but the effect of addition depends partly on the existing soil fertility and application method (Gana, 2011).
Growing consensus has emerged on the need for both organic matter to reverse the negative nutrient balances in
the cropping systems in Nigeria as continuous sole application of inorganic fertilizer tends to create soil related
constraints to soil fertility to crop production (Vanlauwe et al., 2011) .

. Use of organic fertilizers in most countries including Uganda is limited to lack and scarcity of animals and
cattle are mainly used for traction. The use of organic fertilizers in combination with mineral fertilizers offers
potential for improving soil fertility and crop yields and forms an integral part of Integrated Soil Fertility
Management (ISFM) (Vanlauwe, 2015). Use of manure can help to supply some of the nutrients, increase pH,
organic natter and cation exchange capacity. It also improves soil physical characteristics such as water holding
capacity, and the use of zero grazed animals is recommended because of uniform composition, easy to access
and collect. Farmers recognize that soil fertility is major constraint to crop production. Existence of inorganic
fertilizers and manure are widely known but there are problems with availability, accessibility and affordability
especially for inorganic fertilizers (Vanlauwe et al., 2001). Another constraint is lack of reliable application
rates and with blanket guidelines for application of inorganic fertilizers, soil nutrient depletion is a continuous
process that renders such guideline obsolete with time. As for manure, it is often of low quality and not
available in required quantities (Materechera, 2010).
12
2. 2 Effect of Cattle Dung on available plant nutrients
Farm yard manure contains all essential plant nutrients required for plant growth such as calcium (C),
nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn),
sodium (Na), and zinc (Zn) (Baghel and Gupta., 2003). Cow dung has long been recognized as the most
desirable animal manure because of its high nutrient content and organic matter content. Addition of cow dung
increases the organic carbon content of degraded soils which may lead to increasing activity of beneficial
microorganisms as well as fertility status of soil by increasing availability of nutrients for the plants from the
soil (Zaman et al., 2017). It is basically made up of digested grass and grain. Cow dung is high in organic
materials and rich in nutrients. Cow dung or cattle manure has been used for ages in India to nourish the soil
and help in plant growth. Cattle manure is packed with high levels of minerals and nutrients and is one of the
best natural fertilizers to use in organic gardening (Sadique et al., 2013). Cow manure fertilizer can make an
excellent growing medium for garden plants. When turned into compost and fed to plants and vegetables, cattle
manure becomes a nutrient-rich fertilizer. It can be mixed into the soil or used as top dressing (Ram, 2017).
Low soil fertility is considered to be the most important constraints in agricultural production. Phosphorus in
manure is neither volatilized nor leached to any significant degree and soil incorporated with supply nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium (Gana, 2011).
Manure supplies nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium to growing crops. Manure’s nitrogen-to-
phosphorus ratio is usually lower than the ratio required by the crop being fertilized. Therefore, manure can
complement but not perfectly substitute for commercial fertilizers. The nitrogen-to-phosphorus uptake ratio of
crops may require that manured fields also receive commercial fertilizers to fully meet crop nutrient needs.
Applying manure to meet the phosphorus needs of a crop may not supply enough nitrogen. This mismatch of
nutrient demand and supply increases the cost of crop fertilization—and may reduce manure’s perceived value
— because when applying both manure and commercial fertilizer to a field, two trips through the field increase
the application costs. Alternatively, if manure is applied to meet a crop’s nitrogen needs, then it will oversupply
phosphorous, which will build up in the soil. Overapplication can also have negative environmental impacts
(Paudel et al., 2009). For applied manures, the nitrogen-phosphorus ratio ranges from 0.2 to 3.0.5 Manure
stored in lagoons tends to have lower nitrogen-to-phosphorus ratios than manure stored as a solid or slurry.
Lagoon storage loses nitrogen into the atmosphere and stores phosphorus in the sediment, on the bottom of the
lagoon, where it may remain for years. Poultry manure’s nitrogen-to-phosphorus ratio also tends to be lower
than the ratios for cattle and hog manure. Manure nutrient levels vary within and across farms, so manure must
be tested to be used efficiently. Manure tests measure the nitrogen and phosphorus in manure samples and have
typically required sending samples to a laboratory. Sampling is subject to variation due to manure mixing, the
sample’s timing relative to timing of manure’s use as a fertilizer, and other considerations. On-farm, real time

13
testing methods are being developed. A survey of Midwest animal farmers from Ali et al. (2012) found that
testing manure’s nutrient content was more likely to be done if the manure was transferred to another farm, a
farm paid for the manure, a formal contract existed, and the manure was transferred a farther distance. Unlike
commercial fertilizer, manure does not come with a guaranteed nutrient analysis. To reduce the risk of
insufficient crop nutrients, farmers may apply more manure-supplied nitrogen than the crop requires or may
supplement manure applications with commercial fertilizer. USDA ARMS data indicate that only 44 percent of
farmers who applied manure to corn also reduced commercial fertilizer applications to corn because of manure
applications. Those who reduced commercial nitrogen use indicated they reduced it by 46 percent. Both
statistics indicate that there is room for improved nutrient management to capture its nutrient value more fully.
Cow dung or cow manure has been used for ages in Indian agriculture to nourish the soil and help in
plant growth. Cow manure is packed with high levels of minerals and nutrients and is one of the best natural
fertilizers to use in organic gardening. If you have an organic garden or want to grow your own veggies without
the use of chemicals and pesticides, then you must consider using cow dung manure to nourish your soil. Cow
manure fertilizer makes an excellent growing medium for garden plants. When turned into compost and fed to
plants and vegetables, cow manure becomes a nutrient-rich fertilizer. It can be mixed into the soil or used as top
dressing. Most composting bins or piles are located within easy reach of the garden. Heavy manures, like that of
cows, should be mixed with lighter materials, such as straw or hay, in addition to the usual organic substances
from vegetable matter, garden debris, etc. Small amounts of lime or ash may also be added. The use of cattle
manure, or cow dung, in the garden is a popular practice in many rural areas. This type of manure is not as rich
in nitrogen as many other types; however, the high ammonia levels can burn plants when the fresh manure is
directly applied. Composted cow manure, on the other hand, can provide numerous benefits to the garden. Cow
manure contains 3 of the most important nutrients that plants need for their healthy growth. Nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium. While not all cow dung contains the exact same proportion of these minerals,
research shows that cow dung has roughly about 3% nitrogen, 2% phosphorus and 1% potassium and the best
part is that the beneficial bacteria in cow dung converts these essential nutrients into forms that are easily
absorbed by plant roots. These nutrients are slowly infused into the soil allowing the plants to enjoy the benefits
over longer periods. In the case of fresh cow manure, the moisture content is also high allowing for a better
aeration of roots.

Ducks are reared traditionally by poor farmers for their livelihood. Duck production is one component of
integrated farming systems which are regarded as being part of a sustainable development in agriculture. They
can be integrated with rice, orchards, cash crops, livestock and fish (Bui Xuan Men 2010). Thus, the
stakeholders not only can develop their livelihoods without accumulating debts, but also can get extra income
through off-farm and non-farm activities (Le Thanh Phong et al 2007).At smallholder level, many farmers have
14
not enough money to buy the high quality protein sources such as fish meal and soybean meal that are the basis
of intensive livestock feeding systems. However, they are able to grow many plants the leaves of which are
relatively high in protein. Examples of these potential protein sources are the foliages from duckweed, water
spinach, cassava, Taro and sweet potato. Duckweeds (Lemna spp) sre small green plants belonging to the family
Lemnaceae. They grow on natural pond surfaces. They are fast growing and when adequately fertilized may
contain up to 40% protein in DM (Porath et al 1979; Bui Xuan Men et al 1995; Skillicorn et al 1993; Leng et al
1995). Duckweed protein has a well-balanced array of essential amino acids, better than most vegetable proteins
and closely resembles animal protein according to Culley and Epps (1978).

Cattle are not able to utilize 100% of the nutrients that they consume. While highly variable depending
on the animal, ruminants retain approximately 25% of consumed nitrogen, 35% phosphorus and 12%
potassium8. Excess nutrients will be excreted through urine and feces. Reducing feed losses, improving
digestibility, and feeding animals according to their requirements will help to avoid oversupplying nutrients,
which may pass through the cattle onto the land.
Soil testing is an excellent way to avoid over-application of fertilizer. All plants, including forages,
perennial legumes such as alfalfa, or annual crops such as barley have different nutrient requirements. When
these plants are removed through grazing or harvest, considerable amounts of nutrients are also removed. As
their yields increase, more nutrients are removed. For example, a corn silage crop can remove about 4.3 pounds
of phosphorus per ton (2,000 pounds) of silage (35% dry matter)9. Each ton of alfalfa hay can remove 15
pounds of phosphorus. Application of manure can help to replace the nutrients that are removed. Using manure
analysis together with soil tests to calculate the recommended rates will reduce the risk of over-application of
certain nutrients. Composting is an active management treatment that encourages aerobic conditions to
accelerate the breakdown of organic matter in the manure pile. Microorganisms consume oxygen while feeding
on the organic matter, generating water vapour, heat and carbon dioxide. As the microbes digest the organic
material the manure heats, often over 65 degrees Celsius. This heating can kill weed seeds, parasites and
bacteria which cause plant diseases. While there are costs (fuel, labour, time) involved in turning the manure
pile to begin the composting process, turning reduces volume and weight. Hauling costs can be reduced with as
little as one turning. True composting relies on five or six turnings over three to six months with a period of
curing. In the curing phase microbial activity slows down and composted manure approaches ambient air
temperature.
Moisture levels and aeration are important to monitor during composting. If the manure becomes too
wet, over 60% of the nutrients may be leached, porosity is reduced, odours are produced, and decomposition is
reduced. Wetter compost should be turned over more often. When moisture content drops below 40%,
microorganism activity is reduced. Too much aeration cools and dries the material, reducing decomposition,
15
and in high N mixtures ammonia volatilization and N loss can occur. While some nutrients can be lost during
composting, reducing the volume of manure can also concentrate the nutrients in the compost relative to fresh
manure. Research at Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Lethbridge compared fresh and composted manure and
found that composted manure retained 56% more N, 84% more P, 91% more zinc, and 76% more copper.

Use the “squeeze test” to check for moisture levels. If water can be squeezed out, the manure is too wet.
If it doesn’t form a ball, it’s too dry.

Several different methods of composting can be used such as creating piles or windrows of manure.
Rows are commonly 10 to 12 feet (3 to 3.5 metres) wide and 4 to 6 feet (1.5 to 1.8 metres) high. Turning the
pile or windrows with a front-end loader increases oxygen to facilitate the decomposition of the organic matter.

Producers often clean pens in the fall prior to moving weaned calves in for winter feeding. Fall
composting allows the pile to decompose through the winter. While microbial activity is generally slower
during cold temperatures, fall and winter composting can also reduce the risk of leaching and nutrient loss,
avoiding run-off caused by heavy rains that may occur during summer composting. After the curing period, the
composted manure will be ready for analysis and field application in the spring prior to seeding.

Drying, filtering and separating manure are less common treatment strategies in cow/calf operations.
Innovative opportunities exist to develop treatment methods that can produce energy or other by-products such
as bedding or fibre products. Aerobic digestion of manure and the resulting biogas has been used effectively in
some European countries, and the technology has recently been used to build Canada’s largest biogas plant in
Lethbridge, Alberta. This plant will process over 100,000 tonnes of raw material including 50% liquid manure
and commercial organic waste, producing 2.8 megawatts of power, which is enough for 2,800 homes13. While
the capital cost of these innovative systems is prohibitive for smaller operations, advances in technology and
products continues with a focus on protecting and preserving the environment.

Effect of Cow dung and soil productivity:

Soil provides numerous essential ecosystem services such as primary production (including agricultural
and forestry products); regulation of biogeochemical cycle (with consequences of the climate); water filtration,
resistance to diseases and pests and regulation of above ground biodiversity (Jhariya and Raj, 2014). Soil
fertility depletion is the single most important constraint to food security. Manure is an important input for
maintaining and enhancing soil fertility. As per Fulhage (2000) manure contains the three major plant nutrients,
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK), as well as many essential nutrients such as Ca, Mg, S, Zn, B, Cu,
Mn etc. That, in addition to supplying plant nutrients, manure generally improves soil tilth, aeration, and water
16
holding capacity of the soil and promotes growth of beneficial soil organisms. The application of cowdung
manure and vermicompost increases soil organic matter content, and this leads to improved water infiltration
and water holding capacity as well as an increased cation exchange capacity. As per Mandal et al. (2013)
integration of inorganic, organics and biofertilizers can produce 50-92% more yield in Aonla. According to
Adegunloye et al. (2007) C: N ratio in cowdung manure is an indication that it could be a good source of protein
for the microbes which involved in decomposition of organic matter. Manure and urine raise the pH level and
accelerate the decomposition of organic matter and termite activity (Brouwer and Powell, 1995, 1998). If
inorganic fertilizer, especially nitrogen, is combined with manure, the manure reduces soil acidification and
improves the nutrient buffering capacity and the release of nutrients (Williams et al., 1995). The soil
productivity is also related to available nutrient source in either through manures (dung) or chemical fertilizers
(superphosphate etc). Dung increased pH, CEC, total N, organic C, loss on ignition, and exchangeable Mg and
Ca. It decreased sulphate sorption. Moreover, cowdung manure plays a significant role in maintaining the
nutrient status of the plant. Vermicomposting of cow manure using earthworm species E. andrei (Atiyeh et al.,
2000b) and E. foetida (Hand et al., 1988) favoured nitrification, resulting in the rapid conversion of ammonium-
nitrogen to nitrate-nitrogen. Therefore it improves the nutrient cycling and helping to convert unavailable
nitrogen in available forms to plants. The soil biological attributes are also responsible for determination &
maintenance of physical properties of soil. The physical properties of soil in its own turn control not only the
quantum of chemical properties, but also the rate of their release and availability to plants essential for
metabolic processes. Thus, it may be said that soil biology is the door to maintenance of soil health (Kumari et
al. 2014). As per Dinesh et al., (2000) there is a positive relationships between relevant soil properties and
enzyme activities and suggested that addition of organic matter increased microbial activity/ diversity and
turnover, which subsequently leads to greater enzyme synthesis and accumulation in the soil matrix. The effects
of cattle dung on soil microbial biomass are also studied and compared to controlled condition of soil (no any
dung application). When dung was mixed with grassland soil under controlled conditions the size of the SMB
increased (P < 0.001). Respiration rate also increased (P < 0.001) and specific respiration was higher (P < 0.05)
in soil treated with beef cattle dung than in that treated with dairy cow dung (Lovell and Jarvis, 1996).

COWDUNG AS ENERGY RESOURCE:

Shortage of fuel wood is a major problem which forces the rural people to use a cowdung for their fuel
purpose, which effects on the productivity status of cultivated land. Cowdung is a good resource for maintaining
the productivity status and enhance the beneficial microbial population of soil. The share of the Indian
population relying on traditional biomass for cooking stands at 72% per cent (IEA, 2011b). In the states of
Bihar, Haryana, and Punjab, the percentage distribution of rural households using
dung cakes as the primary cooking fuel is reaching 22%–33% percent (TERI, 2010).
17
 nutrient balance and consequently affects agricultural productivity.

Materials and Methods

Statistical analysis : When the data will be generated, the data will be subjected to statistical analysis by using
computer built-in statistical software programme Minitab-16. Graps will be prepared by using computer built-in
Microsoft excel -2010.

Sample Root Shoot Leaves Fresh Dry Moisture

length/plant Length Per Weight Weight Content
(cm) Plant Per Per
(gm) %
Plant Plant
(gm)
(gm)
T0 4.37 32.03 7.87 1.58 0.15 90.51

T1 7.21 41.18 10.2 2.35 0.22 90.64

T2 6.47 52.15 13.4 3.04 0.28 90.82
T3 5.77 36.82 9.13 1.60 0.18 88.75

Time Frame :

Activities January Februay March April May June

Literature
Review
Compost preparation
Soil sample
collection & analysis
Experimental setup
Data analysis and
draft report writting
SOCIO ECONOMICAL IMPORTANCE
Soil nutrient management is essential for sustainable biomass production and for maintaining soil
quality. Organic manure increased soil pH, the concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, and major cations. The
growth of Water spinach by organic manure treatment is comparable to that of NPK fertilizer treatment. Prior to
18
applying livestock byproduct-derived organic manure, the different nutrient compositions of the organic
manures by the types of livestock byproducts, the soil properties of the application lands, the nutrient
requirements of the target tree species, and environmental and sanitary conditions in surrounding areas should
be taken into consideration. This study confirmed that organic manure originating from livestock byproducts
not only promoted the growth of but also improved soil conditions. Therefore, organic manure should be
considered as an alternative to chemical fertilizers in crops production.

Expected outcome: out of this three organic compost,s (cowdung,poultry manure and duck manure) which
perform best can be find out and physiological and chemical effect of compost on soil and growth can be
observe.

2.3 Common Diseases in Cucumber

Common cucumber diseases are anthracnose, bacterial wilt, scab, cucumber mosaic, angular leaf spot and
powdery mildew (Reviewed by Asgrow Seed Company, 1984).Two common mosaic viruses are Cucumber
Mosaic Virus (Anderson et al., 1992) and Tobacco Mosaic virus (Wolf et al., 1989). Millions of dollars have been
lost as a result of direct feeding damage and plant diseases caused by whitefly transmitted geminiviruses
(reviewed by Lin et al., 2007). Cucumber vein yellowing virus, a tentative member of the Potyviridae family, and
cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus are two viruses that can be transmitted by whitefly (Bamisi tabaci) to
cucumber (Lecoq et al., 2000). Symptoms are vein yellowing, vein clearing, and stunting with a reduction in fruit
production; these are recently discovered viruses that are still being researched to determine a genus (Louro et al.,
2004; Lecoq et al., 2000; EPPO, 2005).
Powdery mildew is a prevalent cucumber disease in greenhouse production and is caused by
Sphaerotheca fusca (Fr.) Blumer syn. S. fuliginea (Schlechtend.:Fr.) (McGrath and Shishkoff, 1999). The
management of powdery mildew in greenhouse operations has become one of the most challenging research
areas in plant pathology (Askary et al., 1997). Control of this disease is mostly done by the application of
fungicides (Daayg et al., 1995) and should be implemented to prevent loss of fruit yield (McGrath, 1996).
Basic requirements Cucumbers require warm, dry conditions to develop optimally, preferring both
warm days and warm nights and growing best at a temperature of 30°C (86°F). Cucumbers will yield best if
grown in a fertile, well-draining soil, rich in organic matter and with a pH between 6.5 and 7.5. Cucumbers are
very sensitive to cold and should be planted in full sun and provided with ample soil moisture due to their
shallow root system.
Cucumber varieties One of the biggest considerations when choosing a cucumber variety is whether or
not it requires pollinating. Many newer cucumber varieties are gynoecious which means that they produce only,
or mostly, female flowers. Some gynoecious varieties require pollinating with male flowers, in which case a

19
proportion of the seeds in the packet will be pollinator plants which produce the male flowers. Some gynoecious
varieties are parthenocarpic which means that they do not need the male plants to produce fruit. These types are
recommended for growing in glasshouses as they do not require the presence of insect pollinators.
Sowing seeds Direct seeding is the preferred method for sowing cucumbers as they do not transplant
well. Seeds should be sown after the last frosts and when the soil has warmed to at least 15.6°C (60°F). Sow
seeds 1.3–2.5 cm (0.5–1.0 in) deep, thinning to a spacing of at least 30 cm (12 in) between plants after
germination. Cucumbers can also be seeded on hills or mounds of soil to encourage warm soil and better
drainage. In this instance, seeds should be sown on hills in groups of 4–6 seeds, allowing 1.2 m (4 ft) between
each group in all directions. After emergence, thin the seedlings to 1 or 2 plants per hill. Cucumber seeds should
germinate in 4–13 days depending on the soil temperature.
General care and maintenance Cucumber vines are sprawling and require plenty space to grow. Vines
can be trained to grow on a trellis or fence. Providing burpless varieties with vertical support allows the fruits to
hang loose and grow straight. Cucumbers also require a continuous supply of water and where drip irrigation is
not being used, plants should be watered deeply once per week, providing at least an inch of water. Shallow
watering or watering less frequently will reduce fruit yields. Mulches can be used to conserve soil moisture and
black plastic mulch has the advantage of warming the soil.
Harvesting Cucumbers should be harvested from the plant when they are still immature and green in
color. Mature fruits are yellow and the flesh is often tough with woody seeds. The size of cucumbers at harvest
depends on the variety of the cucumber being grown and what it is to be used for. Cucumbers for pickling are
generally picked when they are less than 5 cm (2 in) long whereas burpless cucumbers for slicing should be
allowed to reach approximately 4 cm (~1.5 in) in diameter. It is important to remove any fruits nearing maturity
to ensure the plant remains productive. Their rapid growth means that cucumbers may need harvested every
couple of days.
SYMPTOMS: This disease is most commonly found on cucumber, melon and watermelon.
Symptoms on leaves begin as water-soaked spots which typically become yellowish in appearance on
cucumber and melon or dark brown to black on watermelon. These spots eventually turn brown and may
expand over the leaf surface. Foliar lesions are not restricted by leaf veins and often have cracked centers.
Infected petioles and stems may develop shallow, elongated, tan lesions on melon but the lesions are less
obvious on cucumber. Stem lesions on melon can girdle the stem and cause plant wilting. Infected fruit develop
circular, sunken, blackish lesions where tiny fruiting bodies (acervuli) may develop. Under humid conditions,
the fruiting bodies produce conidia which give the lesions a pinkish-salmon color, which is very characteristic
of this disease. When pedicels of young fruit become infected, the fruit may shrivel and abort.

20
 CONDITIONS FOR DISEASE DEVELOPMENT: Colletotrichum orbiculare can be associated with
seed and infected crop debris. Spread of this fungus can occur by splashing rain, overhead irrigation, insects,
field workers and equipment. Disease development is favored by warm, humid weather. Optimum temperature
for disease development is 24°C (75°F). Late infection of the crop may result in fruit becoming unmarketable
during storage, shipment or display.
CONTROL: Implement a comprehensive preventative fungicide spray program. Employ other cultural
control measures, such as crop rotation (two years out of cucurbits), avoid overhead irrigation, thoroughly
incorporate crop debris following harvest and implement a hygiene program for personnel and equipment. Use
resistant varieties when available.
2.4 Cucumber Growth Habit
Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) is a trailing (climbing), normally monoecious, annual herb, with vines 2
to 10 feet long covered with stiff bristly hairs (McGregor, 1976). Cucumber is indeterminate in growth and may
vary in sex expression (Galun, 1961). The cucumber is grown for its edible green fruit. Texas Tech University,
Leah Crosby, December 2008 4
2.5 Classes of Cucumber
Cucumber fruit fits into two classes: slicers and picklers (USDA, 2000). Traditionally, slicers are grown
for fresh consumption while picklers are grown for processed consumption. Fresh market greenhouse-grown
cucumbers are harvested year-round, while pickling cucumbers are harvested mainly in the spring and the fall
(USDA, 2000). About 60 percent of cucumber consumption is fresh with the remainder in pickled products
(USDA, 2000). Rising fresh-market consumption likely reflects the popularity of salads, the general trend
toward more healthful lifestyles, and an increasing interest in greenhouse cucumbers (USDA, 2000).
Slicers. Slicers refer to cucumbers that are sold fresh for immediate consumption as a salad item
(Schultheis, 2000). Slicers are characterized by thick, uniform, dark green skin, and are bred for resistance to
mechanical damage during handling and shipping (Schultheis, 2000).
Picklers. Processing quality in select cultivars is characterized by thin skin, black spines, firm texture,
low bloating incidence, and a small seed cavity (USDA, 2000). Pickling cucumbers are bred for an once-over
destructive harvest and thus yield a concentrated fruit set (Connor and Martin, 1971; Cantliffe and Phatak,
1975). Pickling cucumbers are usually purchased by a small number of pickling companies that encourage the
use of particular cultivars by the growers to maintain the uniformity of their product (Gusmini and Wehner,
2008). Texas Tech University, Leah Crosby, December 2008
2.6 Types of Cucumber
Slicers and picklers can be further classified into cucumber types. Greenhouse cucumber types grown
for retail worldwide are American, Dutch (European) greenhouse, Middle-Eastern (beit alpha), and oriental

21
trellis (Shetty and Wehner, 1998). Types differ in color, skin toughness, skin texture, and market size.
American-type cucumbers are dark in color, bred with thick skins for good keeping ability and protection
during shipping, and are harvested at 18 to 23 cm (Shetty and Wehner, 1998). European-type (Dutch
greenhouse) cucumbers are mild in flavor, seedless, have thin edible skin that requires no peeling, and are
harvested at 30 to 36 cm (U.C. Leaflet 2775). Middle Eastern-type (beit alpha) cucumbers are distinct from
other types of cucumber because of their relatively thin, smooth skin, uniform lighter green color, and harvest
length of 8 to 13 cm (Shetty and Wehner, 1998). Beit-alpha types will support several fruit per node thus
increasing their fruit yield when compared to Dutch-greenhouse type which only support one fruit per node
(Shaw et al., 2000).
2.7 Sex Expression of Cucumber
Depending upon the ratio of male, female, and bisexual flowers produced by the plant, cucumber plants
are classified as monoecious, gynoecious, andromonoecious, or hermaphrodite (Shiffis, 1961; Saito et al., 2007;
Galun, 1961). Monoecy, the most common flowering phenotype, produces numerous male flowers with
infrequent female Texas Tech University, Leah Crosby, December 2008 flowers (Saito et al., 2007).
Gynoecious cucumber plants produce only female flowers (Malepszy and Niemirowicz-Szczytt, 1991).
Andromonoecious plants produce perfect and staminate flowers on the same plant, while hermaphroditic plants
produce perfect flowers with both staminate and pistillate organs (Yamasaki et al., 2001). Most greenhouse-
grown cultivars grown before 1980 were monoecious; however, modern cultivars are gynoecious hybrids
(Wehner and Guner, 2004). Although sex expression in cucumber plants is determined genetically, it can be
modified by environmental factors; high nitrogen, short days, low light intensity, and low night temperatures are
factors that favor femaleness (Iwahori et al., 1970).
2.8 Fruit set of Cucumber
The initiation of fruit set involves the stimulation of the ovary to develop into a rapidly growing fruit
(Fuller and Leopold, 1975). In cucumber, fruit set can occur through pollination or parthenocarpy- induced
either naturally (genetic) or chemically by application of growth regulators (Cantliffe et al, 1972; Boonkorkaew
et al., 2008).
Pollination. Fruit set in cucumber is initiated when pollination of the pistillate flower occurs, that is,
when pollen is transferred to the stigma (Wein, 1997). For successful pollination, both male and female or
perfect flowers must be open on the same day and insects, usually bees, transfer the pollen (Wein, 1997). Hand
pollination can be done but this practice is labor intensive. Cucumber fruit yield is dependent on pollination
unless the plant is parthenocarpic (Wehner and Guner, 2004; Strong, 1931).

22
 Parthenocarpy. Pollination can be mimicked by exogenous hormone application (induced
parthenocarpy), mainly auxin and giberellin, or by endogenous growth signals Texas Tech University, Leah
Crosby, December 2008 7
(natural parthenocarpy) (Fos et al., 2001; Cantliffe et al., 1972; Dean and Baker, 1983). There are conflicting
reports involving the number and kinds of gene actions that control parthenocarpy (Sun et al., 2006). Pike and
Peterson (1969) suggest that parthenocarpy in cucumber is controlled by an incomplete dominant gene while
Sun et al. (2006) found that it is controlled by multiple genes. The degree of parthenocarpic expression in
cucumber is said to be epigenetic or directly related to changes in the environment during the growing season
(Sun et al., 2006) and is more strongly expressed in lines that have a higher proportion of female flowers (Wein,
1997). The mechanism for fruit-set initiation in parthenocarpic cucumbers is localized in the immature ovary
(Cantliffe and Phatak, 1975). An increase in the level of auxin present in the ovary has been reported to trigger
parthenocarpy in cucumbers (Beyer and Quebedeaux, 1974); however, recent research conducted by
Boonkorkeaw and others (2008) contradict reports that pollination activates cell division by stimulating the
synthesis of cytokinins and auxin in cucumber fruit.

CHAPTER THREE
Materials and Method

23
This chapter covers the description of the study area in terms location, amount of rainfall received,
temperatures and farming system. Materials and methods used for each objective, experimental layout and
design, application of cattle manure, and, agronomic practices carried out, and how data was collected during
experimentation.
3.1 Experimental site
The experiment was conducted at the University of Uyo Teaching and Research Farm, Use-Offot Uyo, Akwa
Ibom State of Nigeria. The site is located at Latitude 5 017I and 5027IN, Longitude 7027I and 7058IE and on
altitude of 38.1m above sea level. This rainforest zone receives about 2500mm rainfall annually. The rainfall
pattern is bimodal, with long (March - July) and short (September – November) rainy seasons separated by a
short dry spell of uncertain length usually during the month of August. The mean relative humidity is 78% and
the atmospheric temperature is 300C. The mean sunshine hours is 12 (Peters et al, 1989).
3.2 Social economic activities
Use-Offot Uyo in Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria farmers are into farming system involving cucumber, however,
farmers also grow annual crops such as maize, sweet potatoes and vegetables like tomatoes, spinach, cabbages,
egg plants, collard greens . Most farmers use improved high yielding varieties from seed companies and
recognized agricultural markets which has improved their household income through the sale of their surplus
produce to middle men and local markets. Less of fertilizers and pesticides are used by the farming households.
3.3 Soil characterization
Soil samples were collected using random sampling method (because it was straight forward and potentially
increasing accuracy of soil tests) (Walvoort et al., 2010). This was done at a depth of 0-15cm and 15-30cm
because it is a root zone and contains organic matter and major nutrients for plant growth. A hand hoe was used
for sampling from each point, they were put in a basin and mixed thoroughly to attain a composite soil sample,
which were packed in polythene bags and then taken to the University of Uyo soil and plant laboratory for
analysis. Routine soil analytical tests (soil pH, soil texture, soil organic carbon, nitrogen, available phosphorus,
potassium, calcium, magnesium and sodium) were done following the standard laboratory procedures (Okalebo
et al., 2002).
3.4 Experimental layout and design
The experimental site was cleared of existing vegetation and packing of debris was carried out before it was
marked into plots. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design (RCBC) replicated three
times in split plot arrangement. The main plot size was 15 x 3m (45m 2) while sub-plot size 3 x 3m (9m2). Each
plot was separated from the others by 2m paths. The variety of cucumber used was Ashley.
3.5 Sources of Materials

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It was obtained from National Horticultural Research Institute (sub-station) Mbato, Okigwe – Imo State,
Nigeria. Planting was done on 19th and 28th April, 2010 and 2011 respectively. Two (2) seeds of cucumber
were sown per hole at a spacing of 75cm x 75cm.
Organic manure (poultry dropping and goat dung) were obtained from Department of Animal Science (Poultry
and Cattle Unit) University of Uyo, Akwa Ibom State. The laboratory analysis of soil, poultry dropping and
cattle dung in 2010 and 2011 is presented in Table 1a and Table 1b. The organic manures were applied
according to treatments two weeks before sowing.
Table 1a: Soil Physico-chemical properties of the experiment site before planting
Parameters Soil Depth
0-15cm 15-30cm
2010 2011 2010 2011
Total N (%) 0.60 0.12 5.50 2.04
Organic matter(%) 2.25 2.10 2.01 1.98
Available P (mgkg-1) 74.33 41.81 50.38 48.35
K 0.07 0.11 0.05 0.08
Ca 2.56 2.90 2.35 2.15
Mg 1.60 4.10 1.10 8.90
Na 0.05 0.20 0.04 0.09
Exchange acidity 2.85 4.66 2.83 4.11
Bulk density (gcm-3) 1.20 1.30 1.45 1.54
Ph (1:1) H2O 5.40 5.50 5.30 5.20
Sand 86.40 90.20 78.80 88.30
Silt 4.60 3.30 8.00 5.60
Clay 9.00 6.50 13.20 6.10
Electrical Conductivity 0.05 0.06 0.04 0.05
Base Saturation (%) 54.44 63.20 52.55 78.21

Table 1b: Chemical composition of organic Manure

Properties 2010 2011
Poultry Dropping Cattle Dung
Nitrogen 4.71 4.82 4.40 4.25
Phosphoros(%) 0.39 0.42 0.24 0.26
Potassium(%) 0.81 0.83 0.30 0.32

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 Calcium 0.05 0.03 0.36 0.38
Magnesium(kg) 0.25 0.28 0.30 0.32
Sodium 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.33
Organic Carbon 49.20 50.11 58.30 57.40
3.6 Treatment
The main treatment were; cattle dung and poultry dropping while organic manure rates; control, 2, 4, 6,
and 8t/ha constituted the sub-treatment. Weeding was done manually at 3, 6 and 9 weeks after sowing. The
crops were sprayed with lamdacyahalothrin as “Karate” (insecticide) at the rates of 2 litres at 3 and 6 weeks
after sowing. Also benomyl (benlate) fungicide at 1.5kg/ha was sprayed at 4, 6 and 8 weeks after sowing to
protect the crops against fungal diseases. Harvesting of the cucumber fruits commenced at seven (7) weeks after
sowing when the fruits had turn deep green in colour. Harvesting was done by handpicking of the matured fruits
weekly.
3.7 Data Collection
The following growth and yield data were collected; vine length, number of leaves, leaf area at 3, 6 and
9 weeks after sowing (WAS), while number of fruits per plant, fruit length, circumference and fresh fruit yield
(t/ha) were determined at harvest. All data collected were subjected to analysis of variance. The means that
shows significant difference were separated with least significant difference at 5% probability level.
3.7.1 Plant growth and yield data
Two (2) seeds of cucumber were sown per hole at a spacing were randomly sampled from each
experimental plot for phonological data because random sampling potentially increases accuracy and reduces
bias and this was done after each two weeks from germination. The following growth parameters were
determined:
i. Plant height was measured in centimeters (cm) using a tape measure with the zero cm end placed at the
soil level and measurement taken at the third leaf from the tip of the cucumber plant, this was before the flag
leaf developed. After the flag leaf developing plant height was measured from the soil level to the flag leaf.
ii. Number of leaves per plant obtained by direct counting of individual mature leaves on the plant.
iii. Leaf length was measured in cm using a tape measure with the zero cm mark placed at the leaf collar and
measurement taken to the leaf apex.
iv. Leaf width was measured in cm using a ruler placed across the third leaf from the tip of each
representative plant.
v. Stem girth was measured using a small thread which was placed around the stem,8cm above the soil
level to obtain the circumference and the was transferred to a ruler to read off the measurements in cm
vi. Number of cucumber per plant were obtained by direct counting of the individual cucumber on the plant

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vii. Leaf area was determined in cm2 by multiplying the leaf length and leaf width of each leaf of the
representative plants
viii. Leaf area index (LAI) was determined using the linear regression analysis equation where we multiply
the length and the width by a constant 0.75 for all cereals (Stewart, 1999).
3.8 Data analysis
The data was subjected to Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using Gen Stat 12th Edition statistical package
(VSN International 2011) to generate Means, Least significant Differences (LSDs), and F-probability.
Treatment means were compared using Fisher’s Least Significant Differences LSD test. The Means, LSDs and
contrasts generated were then extracted from the Gen Stat output and tabulated as shown in the results section

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