OPEN CAST MINING -​ Goal: stabilize land and prepare it for vegetation

OPEN CAST MINING 5.​ Ore Extraction

-​ Used mainly for coal and other bedded deposits. a.​ Cleaning
-​ Ideally: surface of the ground and ore body at relatively -​ Rotary brush equipment
horizontal and not deep under the surface. -​ Sweep the top of the ore seam clean
-​ Wide area is available to be mined in a series of strips. b.​ Drilling
-​ -​ Small auger, small percussion air drill
c.​ Blasting
-​ ANFO, loading and firing similar to stripping
d.​ Excavation
-​ Front-end loader, power shovel, cutting head
excavator, hydraulic monitor
e.​ Haulage
-​ Truck, tractor-trailer, conveyor belt, hydraulic
conveyor, rail
6.​ Mine Restoration
TYPICAL DIMENSION -​ Voids are filled with waste material
-​ Highwall height: 100 - 200 ft -​ Waste surface area regraded
-​ Cut width: 70 - 150 ft -​ Vegetation is reintroduced
-​ Highwall slope: 60° - 70° -​ Mine infrastructure is dismantled
-​ Spoilage slope: 35° - 50° -​ Potential and environmental risk are addressed
-​ Angle of repose: 36°
VARIATION
GENERIC PROCESS ●​ Area Mining
1.​ Clearing and Topsoil removal -​ Relatively flat terrain, Flat-lying seams
-​ To expose the overburden. -​ Mining cuts are made in straight, parallel panels
-​ Vegetation are cleared ●​ Contour Mining
-​ Topsoil are recovered and stockpiled for later use in -​ Hilly or mountainous terrain
post mining rehabilitation -​ Mining cuts following the natural contours of the
mountain hillside
2.​ Fragmentation
-​ Breakage of rock. CONDITION
-​ Thin coal seams = digging -​ Ore strength: any
a.​ Dozer Ripping -​ Rock strength: any
-​ Weak or relatively thin (>4 m) overburden. -​ Deposit shape: tabular, bedded
-​ Thicker or harder seams = drilling and blasting -​ Deposit dip: any, but preferably horizontal or low dip
a.​ Drilling and Blasting -​ Ore size: large lateral extent, continuous; low to
-​ Strong and thick overburden. moderate thickness
-​ Ore grade: can be very low
3.​ Waste Removal -​ Ore uniformity: uniform or fairly uniform
-​ Fragmented waste materials are removed. -​ Depth: shallow
-​ Dozers, trucks, draglines, and excavators
-​ Methods: Generic Steps for Nickel Laterite
a.​ Cast-Doze Excavating a.​ Land preparation
-​ Shallow (<30 m) b.​ Ore extraction
-​ Cast blasting initially moves part of the c.​ In-pit stockpile
waste d.​ Progressive rehabilitation
-​ Dozer pushes the rest e.​ Land reclamation
b.​ Dragline Stripping
-​ Large and Deep (up to 85 m) Environmental Impacts and Solution
-​ Dragline equipment moves the overburden
Deforestation and habitat Rehabilitation by replanting
from the current strip to the previous loss due to land clearing. native trees and vegetation.
mined out strip
c.​ Truck and Loader Stripping Soil erosion and unstable Slope stabilization (using
-​ Complex shape, short lifespan, or flexible slopes after ore removal. engineered slopes and
operation planting grass or shrubs).
-​ Loaders dig up the overburdened and load
into trucks Water pollution and Construction of
sediment runoff into sedimentation ponds and
d.​ Continuous System Stripping
rivers/streams. drainage channels.
-​ Waste are crushed at the dig site
-​ Transported via long conveyor belt Dust generation affects air Regular water spraying on
-​ Spread at the dump site quality. haul roads and exposed
surfaces.
4.​ Waste Placement
-​ Stacked to shape the lands natural topography
-​ Topsoils is spread over
 MOUNTAINTOP REMOVAL MINING EQUIPMENT
●​ Drilling Equipment: Rotary Drill
MOUNTAINTOP REMOVAL MINING ●​ Explosive: ANFO
-​ Coal mining that destroys a mountain top or ridgeline. ●​ Excavation equipment: Draglines
-​ Whether or not the mined area will be returned to what is ●​ Loading equipment: Hydraulic excavator, backhoe loader
legally described as “approximate original contour” ●​ Hauling Equipment: Mining Haul Trucks
-​ Method: Cross-ridge mining, box-cut mining, steep slope
mining, area mining or mountaintop removal MINING COMPANIES
-​ Suitable for retrieving a mass amount of minerals. ●​ Bluestone Coal Corporation
-​ Waste or overburden is deposited into nearby valleys and ●​ Blackhawk Mining
fills below.
-​ Ore depth is 400 ft or deeper.

HISTORY
-​ Federal Surface Mining Control
-​ Reclamation Act in 1977
-​ Begun in West Virginia in 1967 at Cannelton
-​ “Big John” dragline can move 65 to 75 cubic yards at a
scoop.
-​ Today: the largest machinery moves more than 100 cubic
yards at a time.
-​ 1990 Clean Air Act, mid-1990s
-​ More than 500 ft, shaved and dumped as valley fills
-​ At least 500 mile had been filled and more than 300 square
miles of West Virginia
-​ Blasting shooks homes
-​ Dust covered houses and cars
-​ Runoff flooded streams and homes

SEQUENCE OF DEVELOPMENT
1.​ Clearing
-​ Topsoil and vegetation are removed.
2.​ Blasting
-​ 600 ft or more of elevation using millions of pounds of
explosives
3.​ Digging
a.​ draglines
4.​ Dumping waste
-​ valley fills
5.​ Processing
-​ Coal: chemically treated before shipped
6.​ Reclamation
-​ Stabilized and re-vegetate

CONDITIONS
-​ Ore strength: low to moderate
-​ Rock strength: moderate to high
-​ Deposit shape: layered and tabular, following the natural
stratigraphy
-​ Deposit dip: typically shallow
-​ Ore size: varies
-​ Ore grade: varies
-​ Ore uniformity: high uniformity
-​ Depth: relatively shallow

ADVANTAGES
-​ Provides high paying jobs for communities that
needed them
-​ It is cheaper method than traditional forms of coal
mining

DISADVANTAGES
-​ The operation can impact the local water table
-​ Changes how local lands can be used
 CONTOUR MINING ●​ Block-cut Mining
-​ Removes large section of overburden at once,
CONTOUR MINING depositing them in mined-out space
-​ Hilly and mountainous terrain -​ Suited for shallow, uniform deposits
-​ Mining proceeds around the mountain, following the -​ Process:
contour of the hillside 1.​ Box cut, wide block (over 70 ft wide or 20 ft
-​ Commodities: Coal, Nickel, Chromite, etc. wide)
-​ Appalachian coal fields 2.​ Removed overburden at once.
3.​ Load and haul in areas that have already been
PROCESS mined out.
1.​ Drilling and blasting overburden 4.​ Mine ore
-​ Triangle shape portion, box cut 5.​ Repeat procedure
2.​ Load and haul of overburden 6.​ Reclamation
-​ Loader: Backhoe, front-end loader, shovels
-​ Haulage: Haulage truck CONSIDERATIONS
3.​ Excavate or Drill and blast ore (if necessary) -​ Topography: must be hilly or rolling
-​ If ore is too hard (drill and blast) -​ Deposit geometry: minerals outcrops along hillside
-​ Relatively soft (excavate using backhoes) -​ Allowing multiple seams possible
4.​ Load and transport ore -​ Stripping ratio: mining stops at economic limit
-​ Loaders and haulage trucks -​ Environmental impact: reduced but still significant
5.​ Reclamation -​ Minimized by preserving topsoil and layers
-​ Overburden is dumped to mined out areas -​ Reclamation: area post-mining must be restored
-​ Regraded and smoothed to replicate as much -​ Selective Mining: allows targeting specific seams
as possible the original contour
-​ Topsoil is placed on top of the smoothed ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
overburden and replanted with vegetation -​ Deforestation and alteration of the natural landscape
-​ Habitat destruction
VARIATIONS: -​ Acid mine drainage and water pollution
●​ Haulback Mining -​ Saltation
-​ spoils/waste are moved back into mined-out areas as
mining advances along the seams. SOCIAL IMPACT
-​ Trucks, scrapers, or conveyor -​ Community displacement
-​ Little or no waste is placed downslope -​ Cultural erosion
-​ Process: -​ Health risk
1.​ Initial box-cut -​ Water scarcity
2.​ Remove overburden (drill and blast if
necessary) ADVANTAGES
3.​ Load and haul overburden -​ Economic extraction in rugged terrain
4.​ Mine ore -​ Access to multiple seams
5.​ Move to the next pit -​ Less land disturbance
6.​ Haul overburden back (haulback) -​ Concurrent reclamation

●​ Box-cut Mining DISADVANTAGES

-​ Sequence of cuts with spoil/waste management -​ Significant environmental Impact
between strips -​ Community and social disruption
-​ Requires benches for equipment. -​ Health hazards
-​ Overburden from the first cut is pushed downslope. -​ Limited Applicability
-​ Overburden from the second cut is placed into the -​ Long-term ecological damage
mined out first cut.
-​ Dragline, shovel CONTOUR MINING: PHILIPPINES
-​ Process: ●​ Lebach Nickel Corporation
1.​ Initial box cut -​ Project name: Proposed Brooke’s Point Nickel Mining
2.​ Remove overburden (drill and blast if Project
necessary) -​ Location: Brooke’s Point, Palawan
3.​ Haul and push the overburden downslope -​ Commodity: Nickel and associated minerals
creating a spoil pile ●​ Stagno Mining Corporation
4.​ Mine ore -​ Project name: Stagno Libjo Mining Project
5.​ Established bence or remove overburden with a -​ Location: Libjo, Dinagat Island
shovel -​ Commodity: Chromite and associated minerals
6.​ Second cut
7.​ Haul or push the overburden to the previous cut PPT:
8.​ Pust the spoil to cover highwall Contour Mining - PPT
 HIGHWALL MINING SUPPORT
-​ Web pillars
HIGHWALL MINING -​ Support between mined entries.
-​ Extraction of coal reserves locked behind high walls after -​ Ensure support of overburden.
conventional strip mining becomes uneconomical. -​ Barrier pillars
-​ Encompasses both traditional auger mining and advanced -​ Placed every 10 - 20 drives
mechanic systems. -​ Prevent cascading collapse
-​ Remote-controlled technology equipment for precise
extraction beyond the highwall boundary SAFETY CONSIDERATION
-​ Cost-effective, low-impact mining for “locked-up” coal. -​ Roof span collapse: Prevented by quick entry and
retraction; failure to do so may trap equipment under
HISTORY collapsed rock.
-​ Rooted in auger mining -​ Explosion Hazards: Managed with flameproof enclosures
-​ Earlier method of boring into highwalls after surface and methane monitoring.
mining operation -​ Highwall Hazards: Resulting from structural failure;
-​ Advanced through technological innovation addressed by defining: General safety zone and Vertical
-​ Efficient and safer drop zone.
-​ Now, equipped with hydraulic push beams, video
imaging, gamma detectors, and computerized control HIGHWALL MINER MACHINE
systems. -​ Miniature form of the continuous miner and sits at the pit
-​ Allows deeper and precise mining while ensuring bottom.
safety and improved productivity. -​ Total operation from coal cutting to despatch of coal is
done by a single machine.
REQUIREMENT FOR HIGHWALL MINING -​ Remotely controlled
●​ Competent coal seams and overburden to maintain -​ Minimum manpower of only 3-4 persons
stability
●​ Seam thickness: >80 cm COMPONENTS OF HIGHWALL MINER MACHINE
●​ Seam dip: -12° to +5° -​ Base unit - Control Systems
●​ Absence of major faults or geological disturbance -​ Push beams - Anchoring Units
-​ Cutter module - Conveyor Systems
USE -​ Reels and chains - Generator
●​ Strip mining becomes uneconomical
●​ Surface constraints limit further excavation MOBILITY
●​ The mine is transitioning from surface to underground -​ The machine is modular and can be disassembled easily.
operations. -​ Modules are road-legal in size for public transport.
●​ Specific mining environments/situations: -​ Tracks are used for short repositioning; heavy haulers for
○​ Contour mining long-distance moves.
■​ Along hill slopes in mountainous areas.
○​ Trench mining ADVANTAGES
■​ Extracting from both sides of a prepared -​ Cost Efficiency
trench. -​ Flexibility
○​ Bench mining -​ Applicability
■​ Multiple seam mining by creating working -​ Safety
benches either from top-down or bottom-down
LIMITATIONS
PROCESS -​ Equipment size is restricted by seam height and method.
1.​ Seam is penetrated by a Continuous Miner propelled by a -​ Curved highwalls can lead to coal loss.
Hydraulic Pushbeam Transfer Mechanism (PTM). -​ Precise planning is essential to avoid gaps between
2.​ Cycle includes pushing forward, raising and lowering of boreholes.
the Cutter head boom to cut the entire length of coal. -​ Low seam heights (<1 m) increase costs and decrease
3.​ Pushbeams of 6 m are placed between the cutter head and productivity.
power head as depth of penetration increases. -​ Weak roof or floor conditions add to safety risks and
4.​ Using Video imaging and gamma detector, the Cutter head operational costs.
moves inside the seam and cuts only coal.
5.​ All functioning is controlled from a touch screen panel
located in the operator's cabin.

PRODUCTION
-​ Seam height: 0.76 m to 3.05 m
-​ Dip: 12°
-​ Production per machine (continuous operation):
-​ Low seam: 0.5 million tons per year
-​ High seam: 1.5 million tons per year

PRODUCTIVITY
-​ Fewer personnel can produce 1.5 million tonne per annum
 DREDGING -​ loaded bucket is raised and emptied onto a
conveyor
DREDGING -​ belt or into a hopper on the dredge
-​ Netherlands 1565
-​ Underwater excavation of a placer deposit, usually carried ●​ Hydraulic Dredge
out from a floating vessel called a dredge -​ suction pipe is lowered to the sediment
-​ Common commodity: sand and gravel -​ powerful pump creates suction, drawing a
slurry (mixture of water and sediment) up the
TYPES OF DREDGING pipe
●​ Mechanical Dredges
-​ Dragline 3.​ Transportation
-​ simple excavating bucket attached to a cable on ●​ Mechanical transportation
a crane-like ladder structure. -​ loaded onto barges or scows that transport
-​ non metallics such as phosphates, aggregates, it to the processing plant or disposal site.
coal, or overburden. ●​ Hydraulic transportation
-​ Simple and comparatively low cost -​ slurry is pumped through a pipeline to the
-​ Grab bucket processing plant or disposal area and booster
-​ Commonly used for mining of aggregates or pumps may be used for longer distance
overburden
-​ bucket or clamshell is manipulated by a 4.​ Mineral processing
crane-type ladder to dig vertically into the material -​ Gravity separation, screening and classification,
-​ Fixed Arm flotation, leaching
-​ rigid machine that can dig into a deposit using an
upward and forward force applied to a toothed 5.​ Waste disposal, water management, and reclamation
open bucket on the digging arm
-​ for dry excavation ADVANTAGES
-​ Bucket ladder -​ Most productive of all mining methods
-​ utilizes a continuous chain of buckets to -​ Lowest mining cost
excavate and lift material from underwater -​ High production rate
-​ oldest and most reliable dredge -​ Low labor requirements
-​ Good recovery
●​ Hydraulic Dredges -​ Continuous operation
-​ Suction head
-​ dependent on slurry transport of the placer from DISADVANTAGES
the point of digging to the dredge and to the final -​ Environmental damage can be severe
destination -​ Moderate water requirements
-​ equipped with a high pressure water pump and -​ Limited to unconsolidated deposits that disintegrate under
powerful sand suction pipe. hydraulic or mechanical attack
-​ High capital investment for large dredges
APPLICABILITY -​ Inflexible and unselective; limited to placer-type deposits
●​ Natural Water
-​ Rivers, lakes, coastal and marine environments, lagoons
and estuaries
-​ Requires more robust monitoring equipment to track
water quality
-​ Might be subject to stricter regulations and require more
extensive treatment facilities

●​ Man-made Water
-​ Artificial impoundments created specifically to facilitate
the extraction of minerals
-​ Might allow for a more closed-loop water system

OPERATION
1.​ Site preparation and Dredge positioning
-​ detailed surveys of the water body and underlying
sediment
-​ onshore facilities such as processing plants,
pipelines, and settling ponds
-​ dredge is moved to the designated mining area
within the water body

2.​ Excavation
●​ Mechanical Dredge
-​ mechanism is lowered to the sediment
-​ material is physically scooped or grabbed
from the bottom
 QUARRYING 4.​ Hauling
-​ To processing plant or stockpile area
QUARRYING -​ Rigid haul trucks or articulated haul truck
-​ Systematic removal of rock layers or mineral deposits
-​ Process of removing rock, sand, gravel or other minerals 5.​ Processing and Crushing
from the ground in order to use them to produce materials -​ Crushing and screening of raw material to
for construction or other uses different sizes of aggregates.
-​ Gravel, sand, crushed stones
6.​ Washing and Processing
QUARRYING OF SAND AND GRAVELS -​ Remove impurities and ensure quality standard
-​ Extraction of unconsolidated granular material -​ May undergo sorting, grading, or blending to
-​ Open pit excavations or riverbeds meet specific project requirement
-​ For construction, manufacturing, and infrastructure
development 7.​ Stocking and Storage
-​ Require a higher rate of land use -​ Once processed, stockpiled and stored before
-​ Deposit is accumulations of the more durable rock transport
fragments, derived from weathering and erosion
8.​ Rehabilitation
QUARRYING METHODS (SAND AND GRAVEL)
●​ Dry Pit Working QUARRYING PHILIPPINES
-​ More efficient, interfaces are visible and allow ●​ Holcim Philippines, Incorporated
selectivity. Flexible. -​ Aggregates, cement, limestone, silica, and other
-​ Equipment: construction material
-​ Dragline Excavator
-​ Best for deep or hard-to-reach areas ●​ APO Land & quarry Corporation
-​ Long reach and wide coverage from one -​ Limestone, aggregates (crushed stone, sand, gravel)
position, efficient with conveyors,
durable, and easy to maintain. ●​ Cemex Holdings Philippines, Inc.
-​ Hydraulic Back - Acting Excavator -​ Cement, aggregates (crushed stone, sand, gravel)
-​ Best for shallow dry deposit, more
versatile
-​ Fast, versatile, precise, strong, and ideal
for varied tasks and tough conditions.

●​ Wet Pit Working

-​ Excavation of mineral from wet pit
-​ Require: dry shore access, with groundwater
below the sand surface

CRUSHED STONE QUARRY

-​ Extraction and breakage of large rocks into smaller pieces.
-​ Construction use

PROCESS FLOW (CRUSHED STONE QUARRY)

1.​ Overburden removal, if necessary.
2.​ Drilling and blasting of underlying raw material.
3.​ Loading and hauling of excavated rock material.
4.​ Secondary reduction of oversized material.

SEQUENCE OF DEVELOPMENT (GENERAL)

1.​ Removal of overburden
-​ 1 - 20 m
-​ hydraulic backhoe excavator, articulated or rigid
haul truck, tracked bulldozer.

2.​ Drilling and Blasting

-​ Factors to consider: Safety, Ground vibration
and air overpressure, Fragmentation, Efficiency,
and Optimization
-​ Blast design uses laser surveys to position
holes parallel to the quarry face for safe,
efficient rock breakage.

3.​ Excavation and Loading

-​ Excavators, loaders, or hydraulic shovels
 HEAP LEACHING -​ Can accommodate long leach times well and
expands upward and outward as the valley widens
HEAP LEACHING near the top.
-​ liberation of metals from ores by chemical dissolution,
forming the basis of most hydrometallurgical extraction TYPES OF SPRINKLERS
processes ●​ Wobbler Sprinklers
-​ “chemical extraction of metals” -​ Used at a large number of operations
-​ successful method of metal extraction, especially when -​ Deliver a uniform solution distribution pattern that
treating high grade ores ensures uniform leaching of the heap surface

LEACHING ●​ Reciprocating Sprinklers

-​ Loss of soluble compounds and colloids by percolation -​ Oscillating sprinkler
moisture from the top layer. -​ Not considered ideal for heaps but often find
-​ Material losses are transported downward (eluviated). application for sprinkling side slopes since they can
-​ Lower layers are norvally redeposited (illuviated). be mounted on the top edge to cover the entire slope.
-​ Results in a thick, compact lower layer and a brittle and free
top layer. ●​ High-rate Evaporative Sprinkles
-​ Operate at high pressures with an orifice designed
TWO VARIATIONS OF LEACHING: to produce fine droplets and shoot them in a high
●​ PERCOLATING LEACHING trajectory.
-​ Recovery of metals from a stockpile of crushed or
excavated ore by percolating water or solution through PROCESS
the ore and collecting the leachate. ●​ Heap construction
●​ FLOODED LEACHING -​ Trucks, front-end loaders, or conveyor slackers
-​ Occurs in flooded or waterlogged conditions, -​ Multiple-layered design, Thickness of the dump: 10
particularly in soils. When soils become flooded, the ft (3 m) to 100 ft (30.47 m)
excess water can lead to the leaching of nutrients from -​ Placed on a pad, which keeps the liquids circulating
the soil. in the systems and out of the surrounding geologic
materials.
HEAP (DUMP) LEACHING -​ Asphalt pads or pads constructed with
-​ Acid leaching geomembrane liners are commonly used.
-​ Pre-processed ore, crushed, grind, and roasted.
-​ Heap into an impermeable plastic or clay-lined leach pad ●​ Leaching
-​ Irrigated with a leaching solution, which percolates -​ Heaps are ordinarily leached for 30 to 90 days, but
through the heap and leaches both the target and other thicker dumps are normally leached for longer
minerals. periods.
-​ Solutions are applied to the surface of the heap
DRIP IRRIGATION -​ Sprinklers, wobblers, or drip emitters
-​ Method of applying leach solutions to a heap of ore, using a -​ Lixiviant must be evenly distributed through the heap
network of pipes and emitters

DRIP EMITTERS
-​ Small devices in drip irrigation system that control and
deliver leach solution

HEAP LEACHING CONFIGURATION

●​ Dynamic Heaps
-​ reuse the same lined area by loading the ore onto the
pad, leaching, washing, and then removing the ore
from the pads.
-​ Also referred to as “on/off heaps. ”
-​ A large amount of ore can be leached in a limited
area in relatively thin layers.

●​ Permanent Heaps
-​ The ore is stacked on a low-permeability surface
and never removed
-​ Usually reserved for a heap that is stacked on a
relatively tabular ground surface where solution can
exit at multiple points across the face of the heap

●​ Valley-fill Heaps
-​ The ore is dumped at the bottom of a valley and is
built up, “filling” the valley.
-​ Built in areas that do not have enough level terrain
to build an expanding permanent heap.
 DIMENSION STONE MINING EQUIPMENT AND MACHINERY USED IN CUTTING THE
STONES
DIMENSION STONE MINING ●​ Drilling and Broaching
-​ Dimension stone, natural rock, quarried and shaped to a ●​ Line Drilling
specific dimension ●​ Channeling Machines
-​ Use in: Building, construction, sculpture, monuments, etc. ●​ Jet Channeling
-​ Stone processed into: slabs, tiles, blocks, or flagstones ●​ Wire Saw using Abrasives
-​ Used since mesolithic and neolithic periods, great ●​ Chain and Belt Saw
pyramids and roman temples. ●​ Diamond Wire Saw
-​ Commercial dimension stones: marble, granite, slate, ●​ Water Jet
sandstone, greenstone, soapstone, and basalt.
-​ Desired qualities: color, tecture, durability, reliable supply CONDITIONS
●​ Durability
USES -​ must resist weathering and chemical breakdown over
●​ Tiles time.
-​ thin, square or rectangular polished stone pieces, ●​ Strength
typically used in flooring, walls, and countertops. -​ compressive and tensile strength must be high
●​ Ashlar ●​ Soundness
-​ rectangular stone blocks, often rough-faced, used in -​ freedom from flaws
walls and made from stone waste or flagstones. ●​ Weathering and Alteration
●​ Slate -​ stone should be fresh and unweathered
-​ used in roofing, electrical applications, and dimension ●​ Color and Texture Consistency
stone for various architectural features. -​ Uniform appearance is important for aesthetic value,
●​ Granite curbing especially for decorative applications.
-​ durable against freeze–thaw and deicing salts, shaped ●​ Accessibility and Overburden Thickness
by breaking or drilling. -​ The deposit should be near the surface with minimal
●​ Laboratory and industrial uses overburden to reduce stripping costs.
-​ Soapstone suits lab furniture; sandstone, quartzite, and
granite line grinding mills. ADVANTAGES
●​ Precision and refractory applications -​ High Market Value
-​ Granite is used for precision plates; sandstone and -​ Low Processing Cost
soapstone for refractory bricks. -​ Durable Product
●​ Specialized industrial equipment -​ Low Environmental Impact
-​ Granite is used in industries for its durability and -​ Aesthetic Appeal
resistance to corrosion. -​ High Recovery Rate
-​ Low Energy Requirement
QUARRY OPERATION
1.​ Big blocks of stone are loosened from the primary DISADVANTAGES
quarry's bench using different methods such as cutting, -​ High Initial Cost
sawing and drilling, and smooth blasting. -​ Labor-Intensive
2.​ Once isolated, the primary block is divided into slices, in -​ Weather Dependency
order to obtain parallelepiped with a rough thickness of 1.5 -​ Dust and Noise
to 3 meters. -​ Limited Market
3.​ The big slices are then divided into smaller parts to
facilitate easy transportation, making them easier to handle.
4.​ Quarry blocks are further subdivided into smaller,
manageable mill blocks that can be transported to the
processing mill. These slices serve as the starting point for
further processing, allowing the stone to be shaped into
more manageable and usable pieces.
5.​ Removing blocks in the quarry
-​ Use tractors, crawler- type derricks, and forklifts, the
latter being effective where flat surfaces or ramps are
available.
-​ Transport to mill operation
6.​ Mill operation
-​ cut into slabs, shaped to specific dimensions, and
finished according to their intended
application—whether for construction, flooring, or
decorative use.
7.​ Shaping, Grinding, and Polishing
-​ To achieve the desired finish and specifications.
-​ The finished product is then ready for use in
construction, sculpture, or other applications, based on
its final dimensions and aesthetic qualities.
 IN SITU MINING ●​ Key concerns: groundwater control, subsidence risk, ore
accessibility
IN-SITU MINING
-​ minerals are dissolved underground and brought to the SPECIFIC COMMODITIES
surface via fluid recovery ●​ Potash: mines Often mined from brines or flooded
-​ eliminates the need for traditional excavation ●​ Lithium: Solar evaporation of brines
-​ cost-effective, especially for low-grade deposits ●​ Magnesium, Borates, Soda Ash: recovered from lakes or
-​ reduces surface disturbance, avoids waste rock piles, and deep brines
eliminates tailings ●​ Uranium

APPLICATION PROCESSING TECHNIQUES

Used to recover both soluble salts and metals: ●​ Evaporation ponds or vacuum pan evaporation
-​ Salts: sodium chloride, potash, magnesia, soda ash, ●​ Selective crystallization
borates, lithium ●​ Brine recycling improves efficiency
-​ Metals: uranium and copper
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
SUITABILITY ●​ Minimal land disturbance
-​ deposits are either naturally permeable, or ●​ No open pits or waste piles
-​ can be made permeable, and ●​ Groundwater management is essential
-​ where the target minerals are water-soluble or ●​ Regulations drive safe practices
chemically leachable
ADVANTAGES
GEOLOGIC AND CHEMICAL REQUIREMENT -​ Low capital cost
1.​ Ore bodies with sufficient permeability -​ Reduced waste
2.​ Presence of natural or induced pathways for fluid flow -​ Access to difficult deposits
3.​ Amenability of minerals to chemical leaching
4.​ Host rock that does not excessively consume lixiviant CHALLENGES
5.​ Containment of leach solution within the ore zone -​ Limited to suitable geology
-​ Risk of groundwater contamination
TYPES OF DEPOSITS FOR IN-SITU MINING -​ Complex permitting and monitoring
-​ Evaporites (marine or alkali): sources of halite, sylvite,
trona, borates, lithium
-​ Natural brines: surface/subsurface, e.g., Great Salt Lake,
Dead Sea
-​ Sandstone-hosted deposits: uranium, copper
-​ In-situ mining success depends heavily on deposit type and
mineral solubility

MINING IMPERMEABLE SALTS DEPOSITS

1.​ Injecting hot water or lixiviant to dissolve salt
2.​ Forming underground caverns (monitored with sonar)
3.​ Pumping product brine to surface for processing
-​ Requires careful cavern design to prevent collapse.

MINING PERMEABLE SALT DEPOSIT

1.​ Brine injection and extraction via well network
2.​ Quicker startup as equilibrium brine already exists 3
3.​ Requires flow control to prevent short circuiting
-​ Geological modeling is critical for efficient recovery.

MINING PERMEABLE METAL DEPOSITS

1.​ Injection wells introduce lixiviant 2
2.​ Production wells recover mineral-rich solution
3.​ Monitored to prevent aquifer contamination

MINING METHODS USED IN IN-SITU

●​ Direct/Reverse Circulation
●​ Hydraulic fracturing enhances permeability
●​ Well field design: injection, recovery, monitor wells

REPROCESSING ABANDONED OR FLOODED MINES

●​ In-situ recovery can extract residual ore from flooded or
abandoned underground mines
●​ Strategic placement of injection and recovery wells
●​ Use of gravity-driven flow through former mine voids and
fractured zones
 GUANO MINING

GUANO MINING
-​ It refers to the extraction of bat and seabird excrement,
primarily for its use as a fertilizer due to its high
concentrations of nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium.
-​ 300 to 400 workers are employed daily in guano extraction
and processing.

GUANO
-​ It is the accumulated excrement of seabirds or bats.
-​ It originates from the Andean indigenous language
Quechua
-​ Guano is a highly effective fertilizer due to the high content
of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, all key
nutrients essential for plant growth.
-​ Guano was also, to a lesser extent, sought for the
production of gunpowder and other explosive
materials.

DEEP SEA MINING

DEEP SEA MINING

-​ Deep-sea mining refers to the extraction of valuable
metals and minerals from the ocean floor, hundreds or
even thousands of meters below its surface, typically at
depths exceeding 200 meters.
-​ Reserves: copper, cobalt, nickel, zinc, silver, gold, and
rare earth elements.
-​ The focus areas are resource-rich regions such as the
Clarion-Clipperton Zone in the Pacific Ocean, spanning
approximately 4.5 million square kilometers.
-​ Research suggests deep-sea mining could severely harm
marine biodiversity and ecosystems, but we still lack the
knowledge and means to implement protections.

THE PRIMARY TARGETS OF DEEP-SEA MINING

●​ Polymetallic Nodules
-​ Potato-sized lumps, rich in manganese, nickel,
cobalt, and copper lie scattered on the ocean floor.
●​ Polymetallic Sulphides
-​ Formed around hydrothermal vents, these deposits
contain high concentrations of copper, gold, silver,
iron, zinc, and lead.
●​ Cobalt-Rich Ferromanganese Crusts
-​ Found on seamounts, these crusts are enriched with
cobalt, nickel, and platinum.

DEEP SEA MINING VEHICLES

-​ Robotics and remotely operated vehicles (ROVs)

PROCESS
-​ The collection machine, about 30 ft long, is controlled from
the ship via an umbilical cord crawling across the floor.
-​ It shoots air jets into the sand to loosen nodules, then sucks
them up.
-​ The materials collected would be piped up, through a tube
called a riser, to a surface vessel for processing.
-​ Any waste, such as sediments and other organic materials,
would be pumped back into the water column

HYDRAULIC MINING

DIAMOND MINING