Section 1 1927-1971:-

The period between 1927 and 1971 is crucial in the emergence of Pakistan
and its eventual political, social, and economic evolution. This era saw
significant events that shaped the foundation, growth, and challenges of the
country. Below are the key events from this period:

1. The Simon Commission (1927)

● The Simon Commission was set up by the British without Indian

representation, including no Muslim members. This sparked
widespread protests, especially among Muslims, as they felt their
political rights were being ignored.
● The Muslim League began to assert itself more strongly as the
representative of Muslim interests, and demands for political
autonomy for Muslims grew.

2. The Lahore Resolution (1930)

● In 1930, Allama Iqbal, in his famous speech at the Allahabad Session

of the Muslim League, called for the creation of a separate state for
Muslims in the northwest of India. Though the idea of Pakistan was
not yet fully articulated, this speech laid the groundwork for the
eventual demand for an independent Muslim state.

3. The Government of India Act (1935)

● The Government of India Act of 1935 was a significant step toward

self-governance, granting more power to Indian provinces. However,
the Act did not fully satisfy Indian demands for independence, and it
did not address the growing demand for a separate Muslim state.

4. The Formation of the Pakistan Movement (1930s-1940)

● The Muslim League, under Muhammad Ali Jinnah, started moving

away from collaboration with the Indian National Congress and began
to advocate for Muslim political rights.
● By 1937, Jinnah had become the leader of the Muslim League, and
he increasingly advocated for the creation of a separate nation for
Muslims
5. The Lahore Resolution (1940)

● The Lahore Resolution (also called the Pakistan Resolution) was

passed at the Muslim League's annual session in Lahore in March
1940. This was a turning point where the demand for a separate state
for Muslims was formally articulated. It marked the beginning of the
Pakistan Movement and the demand for the creation of Pakistan.

6. The World War II Impact (1939-1945)

● World War II created a political vacuum and intensified the demand

for self-rule. While the British were preoccupied with the war, the
Indian independence movement gained momentum.
● The Quit India Movement (1942), led by Mahatma Gandhi, was
another push for independence, but the Muslim League distanced
itself from the Congress Party and further strengthened its demand
for a separate Muslim state.

7. The Cabinet Mission (1946)

● The Cabinet Mission of 1946 was sent by the British government to

India to negotiate with the Indian leadership. The mission proposed a
federal structure, but it was rejected by the Indian National Congress
and was accepted by the Muslim League, which saw it as a victory for
the demand for a separate Muslim-majority state.
● The Muslim League's success in the 1946 elections in Muslim-
majority provinces strengthened its case for the creation of Pakistan.

8. The Direct Action Day (1946)

● On August 16, 1946, the Muslim League called for Direct Action Day
to press for the creation of Pakistan. This led to violent communal
riots in Calcutta, known as the Great Calcutta Killings, marking a dark
chapter in the independence movement and highlighting the
deepening religious divides.

9. Independence and Partition (1947)

● On August 14, 1947, British India was partitioned into two

independent dominions: India and Pakistan. Pakistan was created as
a homeland for Muslims, consisting of two geographically separated
 regions: West Pakistan (present-day Pakistan) and East Pakistan
(present-day Bangladesh).
● The partition led to large-scale violence, mass migrations, and
communal riots, with millions of people displaced and significant loss
of life.

10. Establishment of Pakistan (1947)

● On August 14, 1947, Pakistan was formally established, with

Muhammad Ali Jinnah as its first Governor-General.
● Lahore became the first capital, and the constitution of Pakistan was
in the making. However, the political situation was difficult due to the
mass displacement and communal violence.

11. The Kashmir Conflict (1947)

● The Kashmir dispute erupted shortly after partition when the princely
state of Jammu and Kashmir, with a Muslim-majority population but a
Hindu ruler, chose to accede to India.
● This led to the first Indo-Pakistani War (1947-1948), and the region
has been a source of conflict between India and Pakistan ever since,
leading to a long-standing territorial dispute.

12. The Constitution of 1956

● Pakistan's first Constitution was adopted in 1956, and it declared

Pakistan an Islamic Republic.
● However, the political instability in the country continued due to the
military's involvement in politics and frequent changes in government
leadership.

13. The Military Coup of 1958

● In 1958, General Ayub Khan led a military coup, abrogating the 1956
constitution and declaring martial law. This marked the start of
military rule in Pakistan.
● Ayub Khan's regime introduced significant economic and industrial
reforms but also led to growing political discontent and protests.

14. The 1965 War with India

● Pakistan and India fought the Second Indo-Pakistani War over the
disputed Kashmir region in 1965. While the war ended in a stalemate,
it further deepened animosities and intensified the Kashmir issue.
● The war also led to increased military spending and reliance on
defense, which affected Pakistan's economic development.

15. The Six-Point Movement (1966)

● Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, a leader from East Pakistan, presented the

Six-Point Movement in 1966, demanding greater autonomy for East
Pakistan. This was a reaction to the perceived political and economic
marginalization of the eastern wing.
● The movement began to gather support in East Pakistan, and
tensions between the two wings of Pakistan grew.

16. The 1970 General Elections

● The 1970 general elections were a turning point in Pakistan's history.

The Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, won a landslide
victory in East Pakistan, securing the majority of seats in the national
parliament.
● However, the ruling Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) led by Zulfikar Ali
Bhutto in West Pakistan, and the military government led by General
Yahya Khan, refused to transfer power to the Awami League,
deepening the political crisis.

17. The Bangladesh Liberation War (1971)

● The refusal to recognize the Awami League's victory led to

widespread protests and the eventual Bangladesh Liberation War in
1971.
● East Pakistan declared independence as Bangladesh, leading to a
brutal conflict with the Pakistan military. India intervened on the side
of the Bengali independence movement, resulting in Pakistan's
defeat and the creation of Bangladesh on December 16, 1971.
 Section 2 1883-1927

Between 1883 and 1927, the Indian subcontinent saw a number of

important events, many of which were related to the struggle for
independence from British rule. Here are some key developments:

1. The Formation of the Indian National Congress (INC) (1885)

● The Indian National Congress (INC) was founded in 1885, initially as

a forum for the educated Indian elite to voice concerns to the British
government. It became the principal political party leading the Indian
independence movement over time.

2. The Partition of Bengal (1905)

● In 1905, Lord Curzon, the British Viceroy of India, partitioned Bengal

into two provinces: Bengal (East Bengal, largely Muslim) and Bengal
(West Bengal, largely Hindu). The partition was largely viewed as a
"divide and rule" tactic to create division among Hindus and Muslims,
and it sparked widespread protests and opposition, especially from
nationalists.
● The partition was reversed in 1911 due to mass protests and unrest.

3. The Formation of the All-India Muslim League (1906)

● The All-India Muslim League was established in 1906 with the aim of
safeguarding the interests of Muslims in India. It would later play a
significant role in advocating for the creation of Pakistan.

4. The Swadeshi Movement (1905-1908)

● The Swadeshi Movement was launched as a reaction to the partition

of Bengal in 1905. It called for boycotting British goods and promoting
indigenous industries. This movement played an important role in
stirring nationalistic feelings among Indians.

5. The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)

● One of the most horrific events in the history of the British Raj, the
Jallianwala Bagh massacre took place in Amritsar on April 13, 1919.
British Brigadier General Reginald Dyer ordered his troops to fire on
an unarmed crowd, killing over 400 people and injuring thousands.
 This event galvanized the Indian independence movement and
intensified demands for freedom from British rule.

6. The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)

● Led by Mahatma Gandhi, the Non-Cooperation Movement was a

nationwide campaign against British rule. Gandhi called for Indians to
boycott British institutions, schools, courts, and products, and to
refuse to cooperate with the British administration.
● The movement gained massive popularity, but it was abruptly called
off by Gandhi in 1922 after the Chauri Chaura incident, where violent
● clashes between protesters and police led to the deaths of
policemen.

7. The Rowlatt Act (1919)

● The Rowlatt Act was passed by the British colonial government,

giving them the authority to imprison anyone suspected of sedition
without trial. It was widely seen as repressive and led to widespread
protests, especially in Punjab, culminating in the Jallianwala Bagh
massacre.

8. The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919)

● The British government introduced the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms

to gradually increase Indian participation in governance. These
reforms led to the introduction of diarchy (a division of powers
between elected Indian ministers and appointed British officials) in
provincial governments.
● The Government of India Act 1919 was an important legislative
measure that provided a framework for increased self-rule, but it was
seen as inadequate by many Indian leaders.

9. The Khilafat Movement (1919-1924)

● The Khilafat Movement was led by Maulana Mohammad Ali and his
brother Shaukat Ali, aiming to protect the Ottoman Empire's caliphate
after its defeat in World War I. The movement had significant support
from the Indian Muslims, and it united them with the Non-Cooperation
Movement led by Gandhi, although it eventually declined after the
abolition of the Caliphate by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.
10. The Rise of Gandhi's Influence

● In the 1910s and 1920s, Mahatma Gandhi emerged as the leader of

the Indian independence movement. His ideas of ahimsa
(nonviolence) and satyagraha (truth force) became central to the
struggle for independence.

11. The Simon Commission (1927)

● The Simon Commission was set up by the British government to

review the Government of India Act of 1919. However, it was
controversial because it included no Indian members. This led to
widespread protests and calls for complete self-rule. It also marked
the beginning of demands for a more radical approach to gaining
independence.

These events reflect the growing political consciousness and the resistance
movements that gained momentum throughout the period, setting the stage
for the eventual independence of India in 1947.

Section 3 Relations/world affairs 1947-1999

Relations with india:-

1. Kashmir Conflict (1947-1999)

The Kashmir issue has been central to India-Pakistan relations since 1947.
Both countries claim the region, leading to wars and continuous political
and military tensions. The UN-mediated ceasefire (1948) divided Kashmir
but did not resolve the conflict, and Pakistan continues to support calls for a
plebiscite, while India maintains its control, seeing Kashmir as an integral
part of India.

2. Wars and Military Conflicts

India and Pakistan fought three major wars (1947-48, 1965, and 1971), all
of which were driven by territorial disputes, mainly over Kashmir. Despite a
UN-mediated ceasefire in 1948 and the Simla Agreement in 1972, the wars
failed to resolve the core issues. The 1971 war resulted in Bangladesh's
independence, marking a major shift in the region’s political landscape.

3. Nuclear Arms Race

Both India and Pakistan developed nuclear weapons in the 1970s and
1990s, with India conducting its first test in 1974 and Pakistan following in
1998. The nuclear arms race changed the strategic balance in the region,
making military conflict more risky due to the potential for nuclear
escalation, though it also acted as a deterrent for full-scale war.

4. Diplomatic Engagements

India and Pakistan have attempted several diplomatic solutions, such as

the Tashkent Agreement (1966), the Simla Agreement (1972), and the
Lahore Declaration (1999). However, most efforts failed to resolve the
Kashmir issue or build long-lasting peace. Despite these setbacks,
diplomatic dialogues have been a key part of their relationship, with some
brief moments of cooperation.

5. Pakistan’s Support for Militant Groups

Pakistan has been accused of supporting militant groups in Kashmir and

India, particularly after the insurgency in 1989. This has worsened
relations, with India blaming Pakistan for fueling violence and terrorism in
Indian-administered Kashmir, while Pakistan denies direct involvement but
supports the right to self-determination for Kashmiris.

6. International Involvement

International powers like the United States, China, and the United Nations
have often intervened in India-Pakistan conflicts, particularly to mediate
during the wars and in the Kashmir dispute. The Cold War also shaped
alliances, with Pakistan aligning with the U.S., while India pursued a non-
aligned policy but later developed closer ties with the Soviet Union,
influencing the dynamics of their relations.
Relations With afghanistan:-

1. Early Relations and the Durand Line Dispute (1947-1950s)

After the partition in 1947, Afghanistan was one of the few countries that
did not recognize Pakistan’s legitimacy, mainly due to the Durand Line. The
Durand Line (1893) was the border drawn between British India and
Afghanistan, which Pakistan inherited, but Afghanistan never fully accepted
it. The dispute over this border led to tensions, with Afghanistan periodically
calling for the Pashtun region to be given autonomy or independence.

2. Cold War Alignments (1950s-1960s)

In the 1950s, Pakistan aligned with the United States and became part of
military alliances like SEATO and CENTO to counter Soviet influence in the
region. Afghanistan, on the other hand, leaned toward the Soviet Union for
aid and military support. Despite this, both countries maintained diplomatic
ties and limited cooperation, mainly due to the regional political dynamics of
the Cold War.

3. The 1973 Coup and Relations with Zahir Shah (1970s)

In 1973, Sardar Daoud Khan overthrew the monarchy in Afghanistan and

established a republic, which initially led to a slight improvement in relations
with Pakistan. However, Daoud’s Pan-Afghanism (the idea of uniting ethnic
Pashtuns across Pakistan and Afghanistan) caused tensions again. This
vision clashed with Pakistan's interests, as it threatened Pakistan's
territorial integrity, particularly concerning the Pashtunistan issue.

4. Soviet Invasion and Pakistan’s Support to Mujahideen (1979-1989)

In 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to support the communist

government, and Pakistan became a key ally of the United States in
supporting the Afghan mujahideen (freedom fighters) against Soviet forces.
Pakistan provided military and financial assistance, allowing the CIA to
funnel weapons and resources to the Afghan resistance. This cooperation
led to a deepening of Pakistan’s involvement in Afghanistan's internal
affairs, as Pakistan sought to ensure a friendly, non-communist
government in Kabul.

5. The Role of the ISI and the Rise of the Taliban (1990s)

Following the Soviet withdrawal in 1989, Afghanistan plunged into a civil

war between various mujahideen factions. Pakistan’s Inter-Services
Intelligence (ISI) played a crucial role in supporting Islamist groups, most
notably the Taliban. By 1996, the Taliban captured Kabul and established a
regime aligned with Pakistan's strategic interests. Pakistan saw the Taliban
as a means to secure its influence in Afghanistan, and it provided them with
political and military support, though this led to strained relations with
Afghanistan’s Northern Alliance and India.

6. Tensions Over Pashtunistan and Regional Influence (1990s)

Throughout the 1990s, tensions continued over the Pashtunistan issue and
ethnic divisions between the two countries. Pakistan, supporting Pashtun
autonomy, viewed the Taliban as a way to ensure its regional influence,
while Afghanistan, led by Burhanuddin Rabbani's government and backed
by India, saw Pakistan's interference as destabilizing. Pakistan's growing
influence in Kabul and its attempts to install a Pakistani-friendly
government continued to exacerbate relations with Afghanistan.

7. Pakistan-Afghanistan Relations Post-Taliban (Late 1990s)

By the late 1990s, Afghanistan was largely controlled by the Taliban, who
were heavily supported by Pakistan. However, relations became more
strained as the Taliban's rule grew increasingly controversial, particularly
due to their treatment of ethnic minorities and women, and their harboring
of al-Qaeda militants. Although Pakistan maintained its support for the
Taliban, it also faced growing international pressure to distance itself from
the Taliban regime due to its links with Osama bin Laden and the threat of
terrorism.

Relations with China:-

1. Early Relations and Border Issues (1947-1950s)

Following Pakistan's creation in 1947, China and Pakistan initially had

limited interaction. Relations began to warm in the 1950s as both nations
shared a common interest in countering India’s influence in the region.
China also sought Pakistan's support in its territorial disputes with India,
especially regarding Aksai Chin, a region claimed by India but controlled by
China.

2. The Sino-Indian War and Growing Ties (1960s)

In 1962, China fought a brief war with India, which greatly influenced
Pakistan-China relations. With India and China at odds, Pakistan saw an
opportunity to strengthen its ties with China as a counterbalance to India's
regional dominance. In the mid-1960s, China provided Pakistan with
economic and military assistance, marking the beginning of a strategic
partnership between the two nations.

3. The Border Agreement and the Karakoram Highway (1960s-1970s)

In 1963, China and Pakistan signed a border agreement that resolved the
dispute over Aksai Chin, where China maintained control. This agreement
laid the foundation for closer bilateral ties. In the 1970s, the construction of
the Karakoram Highway (a major infrastructure project linking China’s
Xinjiang region to Pakistan's Gilgit-Baltistan) further strengthened the
relationship, allowing for increased trade and military cooperation.

4. The Kashmir Issue and Strategic Partnership (1970s-1980s)

Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Pakistan continued to seek Chinese

support in the ongoing Kashmir dispute with India. China backed Pakistan
diplomatically, including at international forums like the United Nations. This
period saw a significant strategic partnership, with China providing military
aid, including missiles, to Pakistan. This was crucial for Pakistan’s defense
capabilities, especially amid tensions with India.

5. Sino-Pakistani Military Cooperation (1980s-1990s)

In the 1980s, China and Pakistan’s military cooperation deepened,

particularly during the Afghan-Soviet War. Pakistan acted as a key
intermediary for China in the region, supporting Afghan mujahideen groups
fighting the Soviet Union. Pakistan’s military also benefited from Chinese
weapons systems and technology, including nuclear technology. This
collaboration laid the foundation for China’s continued role in Pakistan’s
military modernization.

6. Nuclear Cooperation and the 1990s

By the 1990s, China became a key partner in Pakistan's nuclear program,

providing both technological and diplomatic support. Pakistan conducted its
first successful nuclear tests in 1998, and China's role in Pakistan’s nuclear
ambitions remained significant, despite international concerns. China also
continued to offer economic aid and infrastructure development support to
Pakistan.

7. Strategic Importance of the China-Pakistan Relationship (1990s)

Throughout the 1990s, the China-Pakistan relationship grew in importance

due to shared security concerns regarding India. Both countries viewed
their partnership as vital to maintaining a balance of power in South Asia.
As India grew stronger economically and militarily, Pakistan increasingly
relied on China as an ally, particularly in countering India’s influence
regionally and globally.

Relations with USA:-

1. Early Relations and Cold War Alignments (1947-1950s)

Following Pakistan's creation in 1947, relations with the United States were
initially cordial. Pakistan aligned itself with the U.S. during the Cold War in
an effort to counter Soviet influence in the region. Pakistan joined SEATO
(Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) and CENTO (Central Treaty
Organization) in the 1950s, solidifying its position as an ally of the U.S.
against communist expansion, particularly in the context of the Soviet
Union and China.

2. Military and Economic Aid (1950s-1960s)

During the 1950s and 1960s, the U.S. provided Pakistan with substantial
military and economic aid to bolster its defense capabilities and
development. Pakistan’s role as a frontline state in the Cold War was
crucial to the U.S., especially in containing the Soviet threat. However,
relations began to strain due to regional conflicts, including the Kashmir
dispute with India, which the U.S. was hesitant to get involved in.

3. The 1965 War and Diplomatic Tensions

The 1965 Indo-Pakistani War led to significant tension between the U.S.
and Pakistan. The U.S. initially showed neutrality, but Pakistan's
disappointment with U.S. refusal to offer military assistance during the war
led to growing frustration. The Tashkent Agreement (1966), brokered by
the Soviet Union, further complicated U.S.-Pakistan relations as Pakistan
felt sidelined in the peace process, with the U.S. urging a ceasefire and
return to pre-war positions.

4. The 1971 War and Post-War Relations

During the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War, the U.S. backed Pakistan

diplomatically, but India's defeat of Pakistan and the creation of
Bangladesh led to a cooling of relations between Pakistan and the U.S.
The Nixon administration's support for Pakistan, despite its human rights
abuses in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), caused a backlash, especially
after the war’s outcome. The U.S. began to distance itself from Pakistan in
the post-war period.

5. The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan and Strategic Alliance (1980s)

In 1979, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan marked a dramatic shift in

Pakistan-U.S. relations. Pakistan became a key ally of the U.S. in
supporting the Afghan mujahideen against Soviet forces. CIA and ISI (Inter-
Services Intelligence) collaboration intensified, with Pakistan receiving
massive U.S. military and financial aid for its role in the conflict. This
partnership marked a high point in bilateral relations, as both countries
shared common interests in countering Soviet influence in Afghanistan.

6. Post-Afghan War Fallout and Sanctions (1990s)

After the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in 1989, the U.S. and
Pakistan’s relationship began to deteriorate. In 1990, the U.S. imposed
sanctions on Pakistan under the Pressler Amendment, due to Pakistan’s
suspected pursuit of nuclear weapons. This led to a period of
estrangement, with Pakistan feeling betrayed by the U.S. Despite this,
Pakistan continued to maintain limited ties with the U.S., especially
regarding security issues in South Asia.

7. The Nuclear Tests and Diplomatic Fallout (1998-1999)

In 1998, Pakistan conducted its first successful nuclear tests, which

resulted in a severe diplomatic fallout with the U.S. and the international
community. The U.S. strongly condemned the tests, leading to economic
sanctions under the Glenn Amendment. Despite the sanctions, the U.S.
recognized Pakistan’s strategic importance and continued to engage
diplomatically, but relations remained strained, particularly as tensions
between Pakistan and India escalated, culminating in the Kargil conflict
(1999).

Relations with the USSR/Russia:-

1. Early Cold War Tensions (1947-1950s)

After Pakistan's creation in 1947, relations with the Soviet Union were
initially minimal, as both countries had competing ideologies during the
Cold War. Pakistan aligned itself with the United States, joining military
alliances like SEATO and CENTO, which were opposed by the Soviet
Union. The USSR viewed Pakistan’s alignment with the West warily, given
its strategic location and Pakistan’s support for U.S. containment of
communism.

2. Diplomatic Relations and Economic Aid (1960s)

In the 1960s, despite ideological differences, the Soviet Union and Pakistan
tried to engage diplomatically. Pakistan sought to diversify its foreign
relations, and in 1962, the USSR agreed to provide some economic aid to
Pakistan, including industrial and agricultural assistance. However, the
relationship was strained by Pakistan's alliance with the West and its
support for the U.S. position on global conflicts, especially in Southeast
Asia.

3. The 1965 War and Soviet Support for India

The 1965 Indo-Pakistani War caused significant tensions, as the Soviet
Union supported India diplomatically, viewing it as a natural ally due to its
non-aligned stance. The Soviet Union's backing of India during the war and
the subsequent Tashkent Agreement (1966), which was brokered by the
USSR, led to Pakistan’s growing dissatisfaction with Soviet influence in the
region. This further strained Pakistan’s relationship with the USSR.

4. The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan and Strategic Shift (1979-1980s)

In 1979, the Soviet Union’s invasion of Afghanistan dramatically shifted

Pakistan’s position. Pakistan became a key ally of the U.S. and supported
the Afghan mujahideen in their fight against Soviet forces. This led to
significant tensions with the Soviet Union, as Pakistan provided military and
logistical support to Afghan resistance fighters. The USSR viewed Pakistan
as a hostile neighbor, as the Soviet Union sought to maintain its influence
in Afghanistan.

5. Soviet Withdrawal and Post-Afghan War Relations (1989-1991)

After the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in 1989, relations between

Pakistan and the Soviet Union remained frosty. The USSR's defeat in
Afghanistan marked the end of its influence in the region, but Pakistan
continued to align itself with the West and remained wary of Soviet
intentions. The Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, marking a new phase in
Pakistan’s relations with the newly formed Russian Federation.

6. Post-Soviet Era and Russia-Pakistan Relations (1990s)

In the 1990s, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia emerged
as a newly independent state. Relations between Pakistan and Russia
were relatively distant, with both countries preoccupied with their respective
internal and regional challenges. However, there was a slight thaw in
relations, with some efforts at diplomatic engagement and economic
cooperation, though the influence of the U.S. and India remained a key
factor in shaping Russia’s policies in South Asia.

7. Russia’s Growing Relations with India and Its Impact on Pakistan

Throughout the 1990s, Russia maintained strong ties with India, its
traditional ally, particularly in defense and nuclear cooperation. This
relationship limited Pakistan’s ability to develop a meaningful partnership ;)
with Russia. Despite occasional diplomatic talks, Pakistan remained
concerned about Russia’s close ties with India, particularly as both nations
cooperated in defense and strategic matters, leaving Pakistan on the
sidelines of Russian policy in South Asia.