World History: Concise Timeline & Key Concepts for UPSC CSE

Revision
I. The Rise of Nationalism in Europe (Late 18th - 19th Century)
This section traces the emergence of the idea of the nation-state and the spread of
nationalism, primarily in Europe, which had global repercussions.

• 1789: French Revolution

o Concept: Shift from monarchy to sovereignty of citizens. Ideas of la patrie
(fatherland) and le citoyen (citizen).
o Impact: Spread of revolutionary ideas, new symbols (tricolour flag),
centralized administration, uniform laws, promotion of a common language
(French). Inspired nascent nationalist movements across Europe by
demonstrating the power of popular sovereignty and national identity.
• 1804: Napoleonic Code (Civil Code)
o Concept: Abolished privileges based on birth, established equality before
the law, secured right to property.
o Impact: Exported to regions under French control, modernizing
administration and legal systems but also inadvertently sparked nationalist
reactions against French rule, as subject populations developed a sense of
their own distinct identities in opposition to French domination.
• 1814-1815: Congress of Vienna & The Conservative Order
o Concept: Post-Napoleon, European powers (Britain, Russia, Prussia,
Austria) aimed to restore monarchies and create a new conservative order.
o Impact: Redrew European map, suppressed liberal and nationalist
movements. Led to the rise of revolutionaries and secret societies (e.g.,
Giuseppe Mazzini's Young Italy, Young Europe).
• 1821: Greek War of Independence begins
o Concept: Nationalist struggle against Ottoman rule, romanticized as a fight
for Christian Europe against Muslim empire.
o Impact: Mobilized nationalist feelings across Europe, Greece recognized as
independent (1832).
• 1830s - 1848: The Age of Revolutions
o July Revolution (1830) in France: Overthrew Bourbon monarchy, installed
constitutional monarchy.
o Belgian independence from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
 o Romanticism and National Feeling: Emphasis on shared culture, language,
folklore (e.g., Grimm Brothers in Germany, Karol Kurpinski in Poland) to
foster national identity.
o 1848 Revolutions: Widespread uprisings across Europe driven by food
shortages, unemployment, and liberal demands for constitutionalism,
national unification (e.g., Frankfurt Parliament in German regions).
▪ Concept: Liberal nationalism of the educated middle classes.
▪ Impact: Though largely suppressed, these revolutions highlighted the
force of nationalism and liberalism, leading to some reforms (e.g.,
abolition of serfdom in Habsburg dominions and Russia).
• Mid-19th Century: Unification of Nations
o Unification of Italy (c. 1859-1870): Key figures: Mazzini (ideology), Count
Cavour (diplomacy, Sardinia-Piedmont), Garibaldi (military campaigns). King
Victor Emmanuel II proclaimed king of united Italy (1861).
o Unification of Germany (c. 1866-1871): Led by Prussia under Otto von
Bismarck (policy of "blood and iron"). Achieved through wars with Denmark,
Austria, and France. Prussian King William I proclaimed German Emperor
(1871).
• The Strange Case of Britain:
o Concept: Nation-state formation was a long process, not a sudden
revolution.
o 1707: Act of Union between England and Scotland created the United
Kingdom of Great Britain. English dominance and suppression of Scottish
culture.
o 1801: Ireland forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom.
• Late 19th Century: Nationalism and Imperialism
o Concept: Nationalism, which initially focused on self-determination,
increasingly became a tool for aggressive foreign policy and competition
among European powers. This often involved its manipulation by states to
justify imperial expansion and assert dominance over other peoples.
o Balkan Region: Became a major source of nationalist tension as Slavic
peoples sought independence from the Ottoman Empire, leading to rivalries
among European powers and eventually contributing to World War I.

II. The Making of a Global World (Pre-modern to Early 20th Century)

This theme explores the increasing interconnectedness of the world through trade,
migration, capital flows, and the impact of colonialism and technology.
• Pre-modern World Interconnections:
o Silk Routes: Linked Asia with Europe and North Africa for trade (silk, pottery,
textiles, spices) and cultural exchange (spread of Buddhism, Christianity,
Islam).
o Food Travels: Exchange of crops (e.g., noodles/spaghetti, potatoes, maize,
tomatoes from Americas to Europe/Asia). Impact on diets and demography
(e.g., Irish potato famine).
o Conquest, Disease, and Trade: European "discovery" of Americas (16th C).
Spread of diseases like smallpox decimated indigenous populations, aiding
European conquest. Flow of precious metals (silver) from Americas to
Europe financed trade with Asia.
• The Nineteenth Century (1815-1914):
o Three Flows: Trade (goods), Labor (migration - e.g., Europeans to
Americas/Australia, indentured labor from India/China), Capital
(investments).
o A World Economy Takes Shape:
▪ Abolition of Corn Laws in Britain led to cheaper food imports,
restructuring of agriculture, and migration.
▪ Global agriculture: Lands cleared in Eastern Europe, Russia, America,
Australia to meet British demand.
▪ Role of Technology: Railways, steamships, telegraph facilitated long-
distance trade and movement. Refrigerated ships transformed meat
trade.
o Late Nineteenth-Century Colonialism:
▪ "Scramble for Africa": European powers partitioned Africa (Berlin
Conference, 1885).
▪ Rinderpest (Cattle Plague) in Africa (1890s): Devastated livestock,
destroyed African livelihoods, and aided European colonization by
forcing Africans into wage labor.
▪ Indentured Labor Migration from India: To Caribbean, Mauritius,
Fiji, Malaya, Ceylon for plantations, mines, construction. Harsh
conditions, but led to cultural fusion (e.g., 'Hosay' carnival, chutney
music).
o Indian Entrepreneurs Abroad: Shroffs, Chettiars financed export agriculture
in Asia. Sindhi traders established emporia worldwide.
o Indian Trade, Colonialism, and the Global System:
▪ Decline of Indian textile exports due to British industrialization and
tariffs.
 ▪ India became an exporter of raw materials (cotton, opium, wheat,
indigo) and importer of British manufactures.
▪ Britain's trade surplus with India used to balance deficits with other
countries and pay "home charges."
• The Inter-War Economy (Post-WWI to WWII):
o First World War (1914-1918):
▪ Impact: Huge economic and political instability. Britain borrowed
heavily from US, transforming US into an international creditor.
Industries restructured for war.
o Post-War Recovery Difficulties: Britain struggled to regain economic
dominance. Agricultural overproduction led to falling prices.
o Rise of Mass Production and Consumption (USA in 1920s):
▪ Henry Ford and the Assembly Line: Revolutionized car
manufacturing (T-Model Ford), lowered costs.
▪ Higher wages, hire purchase systems fueled consumer boom (cars,
refrigerators, radios).
o The Great Depression (1929 - mid-1930s):
▪ Causes: Agricultural overproduction, US withdrawal of loans, stock
market crash (1929), protectionist policies (doubling import duties).
▪ Global Impact: Catastrophic declines in production, employment,
incomes, trade. Agricultural regions worst hit. US banking system
collapsed.
▪ Impact on India: Exports and imports halved, agricultural prices
(wheat) plunged, peasant indebtedness increased. India became an
exporter of gold.
• Rebuilding a World Economy: The Post-War Era (Post-WWII):
o Second World War (1939-1945): Enormous death and destruction. US
emerged as dominant economic, political, military power in the West. Soviet
Union also a major power.
o Bretton Woods Institutions (1944):
▪ International Monetary Fund (IMF): To deal with external surpluses
and deficits.
▪ World Bank (International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development): To finance post-war reconstruction.
▪ System: Based on fixed exchange rates pegged to the US dollar,
which was anchored to gold. Aimed for economic stability and full
employment in the industrial world.
 o Early Post-War Years: Unprecedented growth in trade and incomes for
Western industrial nations and Japan.
o Decolonization and Independence: Most colonies in Asia and Africa
became independent post-WWII. Faced poverty and lack of resources.
o G-77 (Group of 77): Developing countries organized to demand a New
International Economic Order (NIEO) for fairer trade and development.
o End of Bretton Woods (early 1970s) and the Beginning of 'Globalisation':
▪ US dollar weakened, fixed exchange rates collapsed, system of
floating exchange rates introduced.
▪ Developing countries borrowed from Western commercial banks,
leading to debt crises.
▪ Multinational Corporations (MNCs) shifted production to low-wage
Asian countries (e.g., China).
▪ Collapse of Soviet Union and communism in Eastern Europe brought
many countries into the world economy.

III. The Age of Industrialisation (Primarily 18th-19th Century Britain and its Global
Impact)
This theme examines the transition from pre-industrial modes of production to factory-
based industrialization, focusing on Britain as the pioneer and its worldwide
consequences.

• Before the Industrial Revolution: Proto-industrialisation

o Concept: Large-scale industrial production for international markets before
factories. Merchants in towns supplied money to peasants/artisans in the
countryside.
o System: Merchants controlled network; goods produced in family farms.
Close link between town (merchants) and countryside (production).
• The Coming Up of the Factory (Britain, from 1730s, multiplied late 18th C):
o Cotton as the first symbol. Inventions (e.g., Spinning Jenny) increased
efficacy of production.
o Richard Arkwright's Cotton Mill: Brought processes under one roof and
management, allowing supervision and quality control.
• The Pace of Industrial Change:
o Dynamic Industries: Cotton (leading sector up to 1840s), then iron and steel
(driven by railway expansion).
o Traditional Industries: Coexisted and were not easily displaced. Small
innovations in non-mechanised sectors.
 o Slow Technological Change: New technology was expensive, often
unreliable. Steam engine (James Watt, 1781) adopted slowly.
o Typical Worker: Traditional craftsperson and laborer, not just machine
operator.
• Hand Labour and Steam Power in Britain:
o Abundance of human labor: Low wages, so industrialists less keen on
machines that replaced labor.
o Seasonal Demand: Industries like gas works, breweries, printing preferred
hand labor for seasonal peaks.
o Variety and Quality: Many products (e.g., 500 varieties of hammers)
required human skill. Handmade goods symbolized refinement for upper
classes.
• Life of the Workers:
o Job Scarcity: Many job-seekers, reliance on social networks.
o Seasonality of Work: Prolonged periods of unemployment.
o Low Wages & Fluctuations: Real wages affected by price rises (e.g.,
Napoleonic Wars). Income depended on days of work.
o Hostility to New Technology: E.g., attacks on Spinning Jenny by women
hand spinners.
o Infrastructure Development (post-1840s): Building activity (roads,
railways, tunnels) created employment.
• Industrialisation in the Colonies (Focus on India):
o Age of Indian Textiles: Pre-colonial India dominated international textile
market (silk, cotton). Surat, Masulipatam, Hoogly were key ports.
o Decline of Indian Merchants: European companies gained power, secured
monopoly rights. Old ports declined, Bombay and Calcutta grew under
European control.
o East India Company's Control over Weavers:
▪ Eliminated existing traders, appointed gomasthas (paid servants) to
supervise weavers, collect supplies.
▪ System of advances tied weavers to the Company, preventing sales to
other buyers.
▪ Clashes between weavers and gomasthas; weavers lost bargaining
power, faced low prices. Many deserted villages or took to agriculture.
o Manchester Comes to India (Early 19th C):
▪ British cotton industry expanded; industrialists pressured
government for import duties on foreign textiles in Britain and to sell
British manufactures in India.
 ▪ Indian export market collapsed; local market flooded with cheap
Manchester imports.
▪ American Civil War (1860s): Disrupted US cotton supply; Britain
turned to India, raw cotton prices in India shot up, starving Indian
weavers.
▪ Indian factories began production, further competing with handloom
weavers.
o Early Entrepreneurs in India: Dwarkanath Tagore (Bengal), Parsis like
Dinshaw Petit and J.N. Tata (Bombay) accumulated wealth from China trade
(opium, cotton) and invested in industries. Seth Hukumchand (Marwari).
o European Managing Agencies: Controlled a large sector of Indian industries
(tea, coffee, mining, jute), often with Indian finance but European decision-
making.
o Source of Factory Workers in India: Mostly from surrounding districts,
often migrating between village and city. Jobbers (often old, trusted workers)
recruited labor, gaining authority.
o Peculiarities of Industrial Growth in India:
▪ Early Indian mills produced coarse cotton yarn (not fabric, to avoid
competing with Manchester).
▪ Swadeshi Movement (early 20th C): Boycott of foreign cloth boosted
Indian mills.
▪ First World War: Manchester imports declined as British mills
focused on war production. Indian mills had a vast home market and
supplied war needs (jute bags, cloth, tents). Manchester never
recaptured its old position post-war.
▪ Small-scale Industries Predominated: Large industries were a small
segment. Handicrafts production (handloom) expanded in 20th C due
to technological changes (fly shuttle) and specialized weaves.
• Market for Goods (Advertising):
o Labels on Cloth Bundles: ("MADE IN MANCHESTER") to build familiarity and
mark quality.
o Use of Images: Indian gods/goddesses on labels for familiarity and divine
approval. Figures of emperors/nawabs to suggest quality.
o Calendars: Printed by manufacturers to popularize products, used even by
illiterates.
o Nationalist Messages: Indian manufacturers used advertisements to
promote Swadeshi ("buy Indian").
IV. Print Culture and the Modern World (Origins to 19th Century)
This section explores the history of print technology, its spread, and its transformative
impact on societies, cultures, and the dissemination of ideas.

• The First Printed Books:

o China (from AD 594): Woodblock printing. Paper invented there. Accordion
book. Imperial state major producer (civil service exam textbooks). By 17th
C, diversified use (merchants, leisure reading, women writers). Mechanical
presses imported late 19th C.
o Japan (from AD 768-770): Hand-printing introduced by Buddhist
missionaries from China. Oldest book: Diamond Sutra (AD 868). Printing of
visual material, ukiyo prints (e.g., Kitagawa Utamaro).
• Print Comes to Europe:
o Chinese paper reached Europe (11th C).
o Marco Polo (late 13th C): Brought knowledge of woodblock printing from
China to Italy.
o Demand for books increased; scribes employed by booksellers. Manuscripts
were expensive, fragile, limited circulation.
o Johann Gutenberg and the Printing Press (Germany, 1430s):
▪ Developed first-known printing press using movable metal type.
Adapted from olive press model.
▪ First book printed: The Bible (c. 1448). About 180 copies in 3 years.
▪ Initially, printed books resembled handwritten manuscripts
(ornamental styles, hand-illuminated borders).
▪ Impact: Rapid spread of printing presses across Europe. Book
production boomed (20 million copies by 1550, 200 million by 1600).
This was the Print Revolution.
• The Print Revolution and Its Impact:
o A New Reading Public: Reduced cost of books, increased accessibility.
Shift from a "hearing public" (oral culture) to a "reading public." Publishers
used illustrations for ballads/folktales to reach those who couldn't read.
o Religious Debates and the Fear of Print:
▪ Wide circulation of ideas, new world of debate.
▪ Fears of rebellious/irreligious thoughts spreading if uncontrolled.
▪ Martin Luther (1517): Used print to circulate his Ninety Five Theses,
challenging the Catholic Church. Led to Protestant Reformation.
Luther called printing "God's ultimate gift."
 o Print and Dissent:
▪ Stimulated individual interpretations of faith.
▪ Menocchio (16th C Italy): Miller who reinterpreted the Bible,
executed by Roman Church.
▪ Roman Church's Response: Imposed controls, Index of Prohibited
Books (from 1558).
• The Reading Mania (17th-18th Century Europe):
o Literacy rates increased. Churches set up schools.
o New forms of popular literature: Almanacs, ballads, folktales, penny
chapbooks (England), "Bibliotheque Bleue" (France), romances, histories.
o Periodical Press (early 18th C): Newspapers, journals carrying current
affairs, news, entertainment.
o Spread of ideas of scientists (Newton) and philosophers (Paine, Voltaire,
Rousseau) to common people.
• "Tremble, therefore, tyrants of the world!" (Mid-18th C):
o Common conviction: Books as means of spreading progress, enlightenment,
liberating society from despotism.
o Louise-Sebastien Mercier (French novelist): Declared printing press the
"most powerful engine of progress."
• Print Culture and the French Revolution:
o Arguments by historians:
▪ Print popularized Enlightenment ideas (critical commentary on
tradition, superstition, despotism; rule of reason).
▪ Created a new culture of dialogue and debate, re-evaluation of
norms.
▪ Outpouring of literature (1780s) mocking royalty, criticizing morality,
raising questions about social order.
o Caveat: People didn't read only one kind of literature; print opened up
possibilities for different interpretations and thinking.
• The Nineteenth Century (Europe):
o Vast leaps in mass literacy. New readers: children, women, workers.
o Children: Compulsory primary education, children's press (France, 1857),
Grimm Brothers' fairy tales (Germany, 1812).
o Women: Important as readers and writers. Penny magazines, manuals on
behavior. Novelists like Jane Austen, Bronte sisters, George Eliot defined a
"new woman."
 o Workers: Lending libraries for white-collar workers, artisans. Self-educated
working class wrote political tracts, autobiographies. Shortened working day
allowed time for self-improvement.
o Further Innovations in Printing: Metal presses, power-driven cylindrical
press (Richard M. Hoe, NY), offset press (six-color printing), electrically
operated presses. Serialized novels, cheap paperback editions (Shilling
Series in England, 1920s), dust covers.
• The development of print in India illustrates the global diffusion of this
technology and its adaptation to local socio-cultural and political contexts.:
o Manuscripts Before Print: Rich tradition (Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian,
vernaculars) on palm leaves/handmade paper. Expensive, fragile, limited
use.
o Print Comes to India: Portuguese missionaries (Goa, mid-16th C). Jesuit
priests printed in Konkani, Tamil, Malayalam.
o English Press (from 1780): James Augustus Hickey's Bengal Gazette.
Initially private enterprise, later officially sanctioned papers.
o Religious Reform and Public Debates (Early 19th C): Print spread new
ideas, shaped debates on widow immolation, monotheism. Rammohun
Roy's Sambad Kaumudi. Ulama used print to counter colonial influence
(Persian/Urdu translations, Deoband Seminary fatwas). Hindu religious texts
(Ramcharitmanas) widely printed.
o New Forms of Publication: Novels (Indian forms), lyrics, short stories,
essays. Visual culture (Raja Ravi Varma's prints for mass circulation).
Caricatures, cartoons in journals.
o Women and Print: Increased reading in middle-class homes. Journals by/for
women (education, widowhood, national movement). Conservative
backlash. Rashsundari Debi's Amar Jiban (1876). Tarabai Shinde, Pandita
Ramabai wrote on women's miserable lives.
o Print and the Poor People: Cheap books in markets, public libraries.
Writings on caste discrimination (Jyotiba Phule's Gulamgiri, Ambedkar,
Periyar). Millworkers' writings (Kashibaba, Sudarshan Chakr).
o Print and Censorship: Colonial state initially not too concerned, later
imposed controls (Vernacular Press Act, 1878) as nationalist newspapers
grew. Gandhi on liberty of press as crucial for Swaraj.