HEALTH

MICROBIAL
AGENT
DISEASE
 TOPIC

TYPES OF DISEASE
TYPES OF HEALTH
• Health is the state of complete physical ,mental and social well-being and not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity(WHO)

Physical Health
Mental Health

Is when a person has bodily functions and processes working at their peak

Refers to a person’s emotional social and psychological well being

 Disease

Congenital disease Acquired disease

(Present since birth) (Developed after birth)

Degenerative Diseases Deficiency Disease Allergies Other

(Cause due to hypersensitivity
Cancer
(caused due to malfunctioning (Cause due to lack of nutrients
of
(Cause due to various
Of vital body organ) in diet) (Caused due to uncontrol physical agent or any
The body to certain foreign growth of cell tissue) other
substance )
They are disease that can be spread from • They are disease that cannot be spread from
infected person to un-infected one to another
Person • Examples are
• Examples are • Stroke
• Chickenpox • Cancer
• Ebola • Diabetes
• Covid-19
• Hepatitis B and C
• HIV/AIDS
• ETC
 MICROBIAL AGENT OF
MEDICAL
Definition of Micro Organism
Division of Micro organism
Classification of Microorganism
 DIVISION OF MICROORGANISM
• Bacteria
• Fungi
• Protozoans
• Helminths
• Virus
• Arthropods
 : cellular composition is either it is either multicellular or
unicellular

: Can be classify base on their physical structure /side or shape

(Flagella, Cilia ,Pseudopodia )

: can also be classified by how they reproduce or double in

number
Micro organism vary also in the following 1.Small in size 2.Have the ability to
quickly change their properties and adopt to changing environment
They can change their features in order to adopt to new environment.
 : Microorganisms play a crucial role in digestion,
primarily in the gut, where they aid in breaking down complex molecules into
simpler ones that can be absorbed by the body. One of the most well-known
groups of microorganisms involved in this process is the gut microbiota, which
consists of trillions of bacteria, fungi, viruses, and other microbes.
: Imagine tiny plants, so tiny you
can't see them with your eyes. These are microorganisms like algae and
certain bacteria. They live in water and use sunlight to make food, just like
how plants do. But here's the cool part: as they make food, they also release
oxygen into the water or air around them.
: The process I
described primarily occurs in the soil, where certain types of nitrogen-fixing
bacteria live. These bacteria take nitrogen gas from the air and convert it into
a usable form, such as ammonia or nitrate, which then becomes available in
the soil for plants to absorb through their roots. This process is known as
nitrogen fixation.
 : Think of microorganisms as
tiny, helpful creatures that have special powers to break down different
things around us. So, in simple words, microorganisms are like tiny
superheroes that help clean up the world by breaking down different
materials and turning them into useful things for nature
: Guarding the Gates:
Microorganisms, especially good bacteria, set up camp in your body, like in
your gut or on your skin. They act like guards, making it hard for harmful
bacteria to sneak in because they take up all the space and resources.
• So, think of microorganisms as your body's loyal defenders, working hard
behind the scenes to keep you safe from harmful invaders!!
• Bacteria are microscopic living organism that have only one cell that mean
it is unicellular
•

• Streptococcus pneumoniae
• Clostridium Tetani
• Vibrio cholerae
• Legionella pneumophila
• Helicobacter pylori
 CHARACTERISTIC OF BACTERIA
• They are microscope single –celled organisms:
• They are ubiquitous
• Their cells are generally surrounded by protective covering cell wall and cell
Membrane
• Some don't have cell wall at all eg Mycoplasma
• They are unicellular
• They are prokaryotic (lack nucleus)
• Most have specific shapes
• They divided by binary fission
• They have a rigid wall
 SHAPE OF BACTERIA
• Coccus
• Bacillus
• Spirillum
• Diplococcus
• Staphylococcus
• Streptococcus
 CLASSIFICATION OF BACTERIA
• Nature of the cell wall .(gram+ or gram-)

• Their shape

• Respond to gaseous exchange

•
• They way they obtain energy

• Difference in their genetic make up

• Bacillus anthracis :Anthrax can cause pneumonia

• Clostridium botulinum: Botulism (Food Poisoning)

• Chlamydia trachomatis :(Vaginal discharge)

• They aid in digestion (Streptococcus)
• Some bacteria prevent colonization by harmful pathogens
• Used in the food processing industry
 FUNGI
CHARACTERISTIC OF FUNGI
Mushroom ,Mold and yeast
They are eukaryotic cells(with true nucleus)
Most of the fungi are multicellular
Cell wall composed of Chitin
Gain nutrient by absorbing
Reproduce by releasing spores
Fungi may produce an allergic
Fungi may produce toxin that make humans ill
Fungi may actually grow on or in human body and may cause infectious
disease (mycoses)eg Candidiasis
 PROTOZOA
• They are unicellular aerobic eukaryotes
• The cell wall is made up of cellulose
• Obtain nourishment by absorption or ingestion through specialized structures
• Mode of Locomotion
 MODE OF MOVEMENT
• Flagellates
• Ciliates
• Amoeboid
• Sporozoans
• Plasmodium ……….Malaria

• Trypanosoma…………Sleeping Sici

• Trichomonas…………..Trichomonas Vaginails
• They are non-cellular entities
• They do not have cell nucleus
• They do not have an organized cell structure
• They have a nucleic acids core (DNA AND RNA)
• They are inactive when not inside a living cell but active when inside another
Living cell
 VIRAL DISEASE
• HIV AND AIDS
• EBOLA
• Measles
• Hepatitis
• Poliomyelitis
• Swine flen
• Mechanical
• Toxin
• Deprivation of nutrient
• Immunological
• Excessive tissue proliferation
Biological associations are interaction or
relationship that exist among living
organism
This is a biological interaction between
different organisms usually with benefit
to one
• Mutualism
• Commensalism
• Paratism
• Predation
• Competition
• An association between organism of two
different species in which each benefits from
the relationship
• Eg digestive bacteria and humans
• Flowering plants and bees
• An association between two organisms in
which one benefits and the other
Derives neither benefit nor harm
Eg Bird and trees
• An association between two different
organisms, in which one called the
predator attacks and devours the other
called prey
•This refers to an interaction among
organisms for limited environmental
resources .It can be intra-specific or
inter-specific
• An association between two different
organisms where one organism ,the parasite
lives on or inside the other ,the host, and
causes harm to it
• Eg Mosquito and man
Immune is a latin word (immunus) meaning to be free
or exempted
System is a set of things (cell ,tissues and
organs)working together as part of a mechanism
Immune System is refers to organs and cells and
processes of the body that provide resistance to
infectious and toxins
• Immunity is the body’s ability to resist or eliminate potentially harmful foreign
materials or abnormal cells
• The immune system is a functional system that includes
• Skin
• Living of mucous membranes
• Secretions (tears ,mucus)
• Blood cell
• Bone marrow
• Liver
• Lymphatic system
• Primarily the system targets microbes such as bacteria ,parasites and fungi
that can cause infections
Recognition

•Response
 : the system has to recognize the
foreign material ,it attacks and differentiate it
from itself.
: the host reaction to invasion by
microbes once immune cells recognize the
Foreign invader
• Defense against invading pathogens
• Removal of worn out cells
• Identification and destruction of abnormal or
Mutant cell
Rejection of foreign cells
Inappropriate responses
 BLOOD GROUP
Blood group Antigen Present Antibodies Genotype
A A B AA OR OA
B B A BB OR OB
AB A and B None AB
O None A and B AO
 : Substance in the body that
neutralized or destroy foreign materials

• :Foreign material that enters the body

and stimulate antibody production .

:cell that speciliaze in engulfing and

digesting microbes and cells
 IMMUNE SYSTEM

INNATE ADAPTIVE
 IMMUNE SYSTEMS

IMMUNE

Innate Immune Adaptive

systems Immune systems
 ADAPTIVE

ACTIVE PASSIVE
(NATURA) (ARTICIAL)
 Active

NATURE ARTIFICIAL
 PASSIVE (ARTICIALLY ACQUIRED)

PASSIVE

NATURAL ARTIFICIAL
• Refers to non-specific defense mechanism that come to play immediately or
within hours of an antigen appears on the body

• Designed to act within minutes of the host being infected

• Responses do not require

 IS the This is the
immune you acquire from immunity acquired after exposure
to an infection or from a vaccine
someone it can be drugs
The vaccine are the weaker form
or fluid of the original disease when it is
The milk the mother has injected the body manufacture or
produce
giving the babies contain
Cell to fight it so once the body is
antibodies to fight able to fight it ,then the body
disease becomes immune to that disease
because it now cell to fight it
incase it should appear again
 PASSIVE
• Artificial acquired: snake serome • Natural: IS the milk transfer from the
from the snake to a person bitten mother to baby which contain
antibodies to fight against disease
 NATURALLY ACQUIRED
• Naturally Acquire : Is the body itself • Artificial is when a weaker form of
produce cell to attack organism an original organism or vaccine is
when the organism has already introduce into the body for the
attack the body before body to produce cell to fight
against it .when it is able to fight it
now get cell to figh aginst just
disease incase it could appear
again
 INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM

❖Born with it

❖This refers to non-specific defense mechanism

that comes into play immediately or within
hours of an antigens appearance in the body

❖Designed to act within minute of the host

being
 ASPECT OF INNATE

❖First line defense

❖Cell communication

❖Sensory system

❖Phagocytes

❖Fever

❖inflammation
• This separate and shield the interior of the body from surrounding environment

❖Touch durable bodies border ,sloughs of microbes

❖PH of the skin prevent microbial growth

❖Intact surface
 . This
protective barrier acts as a physical barrier, preventing
microbes from entering the body. Additionally
, produced by
natural oils, helps prevent the growth of harmful
microorganisms.
• Specialized immune cells in the skin also contribute to
detecting and combating potential threats,
collectively working to maintain a robust defense
against infections.
• The shedding of dead skin cells, also known as desquamation, helps to
remove microbes from the skin surface in a couple of ways.
• Firstly, as old skin cells are shed, they take any attached microorganisms
along with them, effectively reducing the microbial load on the skin's
surface. Secondly,
• the shedding process promotes the renewal of the skin's outer layer, ensuring
that any microbes that manage to settle on the skin are continuously being
sloughed off. This turnover of skin cells helps to maintain a cleaner and less
hospitable environment for microbes, thus contributing to the skin's role in
protecting against infections.
They are constantly bathed with mucus
and secretions that help wash from
Surface
✓Or They constantly produce mucus and
secretion that helps wash microbes from
getting inside the body
• Mucus in humans is a Sticky substance produced by
mucous membranes lining various parts of the body,
like the nose, throat, and lungs. It helps trap dust,
germs, and other particles, preventing them from
entering deeper into the body. You can find mucus
in your nose when you have a runny nose or cough
up mucus when you have a cold or respiratory
infection. It serves as a protective barrier, keeping
harmful stuff out and helping to keep your
respiratory system healthy.
 ANTIMICROBIAL SUBSTANCE
• The inhabit or kill microorganisms

•Sweat
•Lysozyme
•Lactoferrin
 NORMAL FLORA
Population of microorganism routinely found growing on the body surface of
Healthy individually
They cover binding parts
They consume available nutrient
They consume available nutrient
Produce toxin
Destruction of the flora result in growth of candida albicans
 ystem move from one part of body to another travelling
through the blood .Their numbers usually increase during infections
Blood-RBC platelet and WBC (keukocyte)
❖RBC-Carry Oxygen

❖Platelets-blood clothing
 SENSORY SYSTEMS
of invasion or tissue damage and then destroy the invading
microbes or recruit other component of the host defense (detects bacteria
cell wall component )

• Toll-like receptors :Surface receptor that enable certain cell

 PHAGOCYTOSIS
• This is the process whereby phagocytes engulf and digest material including
invading organism

❖Chemotaxis
❖Recognition and attachment
❖Engulfment
❖Fusion of Phagosome with lysosome
❖Destruction and digestion
❖Exocytosis
❖Chemotaxis is a chemical attachment
• Certainly! The process of phagocytosis involves the following steps:
• 1. *Chemotaxis:* The phagocyte is attracted to the site of infection by chemical
signals.
• 2. *Recognition and Attachment:* The phagocyte recognizes and attaches to
the foreign material or invading organism.
• 3. *Engulfment:* The phagocyte engulfs the foreign material by forming a
phagosome around it.
• 4. *Fusion of Phagosome with Lysosome:* The phagosome fuses with a lysosome,
forming a phagolysosome.
• 5. *Destruction and Digestion:* Enzymes within the phagolysosome break down
the engulfed material.
• 6. *Exocytosis:* The remaining indigestible material is expelled from the cell
through exocytosis.Chemotaxis is the process where the phagocyte is guided by
chemical signals toward the site of infection, facilitating the recognition and
attachment phase.
 FEVER

❖Is one of the strongest indications of infectious

disease especially for bacteria
❖This is an important host defense mechanism
❖Normal temp of healthy individual -----37Oc or
98.6Of
❖When oral temp is 37.8Oc -----------Fever
❖Four body is normally at 37.8Oc
 E
❖The body first mechanism is to increase the temperature for
the immune cell to check or The body is under going some
defense system
❖Inhibits the growth of many pathogens
❖Elevating temp above the optimum growth temp of the
pathogens
❖Activating and spreading up a number of other body
defense
❖Slow growth allows other defense to destroy invader
❖The innate is faster the adopts
 ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM
• They are composed of highly specialized cells and process that eliminate or
prevent pathogen growth

• Adaptive response are high specific to the particular pathogen that induced
them .They provide long lasting protection

• The important hallmark of Adaptive Immunity (A.S.) is its ability to create

immunologic memory. This memory allows the immune system to mount a more
rapid and robust response upon subsequent encounters with a specific
pathogen.
• Vaccination takes advantage of this phenomenon by exposing the immune
system to harmless forms of pathogens or their antigens, thereby priming it to
recognize and respond effectively to the pathogen in the future. This leads to
enhanced protection against infectious diseases.
 CHARACTERISTIC OF ADAPTIVE
IMMUNE SYSTEMS
• Highly specific : The adaptive immune system is highly specific because it
relies on specialized cells called T cells and B cells that can recognize and
respond to specific antigens.
• Take time to produce its response: Unlike the innate immune system, which
provides immediate, nonspecific defense mechanisms, the adaptive
immune response takes time to develop. It involves processes such as
antigen presentation, lymphocyte activation, and clonal expansion before
mounting an effective defense against the invading pathogen.
• Once the pathogens is cleared before ,the cells involves keeps “MEMORY”
If the organism is infected again with the same pathogen these cell can
mobilize more quickly to defend the host
COMPONENT OF ADAPTIVE
IMMUNE SYSTEMS
• Each class of immunoglobulin (Ig) has distinct responsibilities in the immune
system:1.
• *IgG (Immunoglobulin G): IgG antibodies are responsible for providing general
immune protection against a wide range of pathogens. They can cross the
placenta, providing passive immunity to newborns, and are involved in long-term
immunity.
• 2. *IgA (Immunoglobulin A): IgA antibodies are primarily found in mucosal areas
such as the respiratory and digestive tracts, as well as in bodily secretions like saliva
and tears. They play a crucial role in preventing pathogens from entering the body
through these routes
• .3. IgM (Immunoglobulin M): IgM antibodies are the first antibodies produced
during the initial stages of an immune response. They are effective in activating the
complement system, which enhances the immune response, and are commonly
found in blood.
• 4. IgE (Immunoglobulin E): IgE antibodies are primarily associated with allergic
reactions and defense against parasitic infections. They are found in tissues and on
the surface of mast cells and basophils, triggering the release of inflammatory
mediators in response to allergens or parasites.
• 5. IgD (Immunoglobulin D): IgD antibodies are found on the surface of B cells and
are involved in the activation of B cells, although their exact function is still being
studied.
• Each class of immunoglobulin contributes uniquely to the body's immune defense
against pathogens and other foreign substances.
 Sure, let's break down the responsibilities of each immunoglobulin in simpler terms with examples:
1. ):* These antibodies are like the Swiss Army knife of the immune system. They're
found all over the body and help fight off a wide range of germs, like bacteria and viruses. For example,
when you get a vaccine, IgG antibodies are the ones that remember the germ and protect you from
getting sick again.

2. ):* Think of IgA as the bodyguard of your body's entrances, like the nose,
mouth, and gut. It's found in places where germs try to sneak in, like saliva, tears, and mucus. IgA
antibodies act like a shield, blocking germs from getting inside and causing infections.

3. ):* These antibodies are like the first responders in an emergency. When a new
germ enters the body, IgM antibodies rush to the scene to stop it from spreading. They're found mainly in
the bloodstream and help kickstart the immune response to fight off the invader.

4. * ):* IgE antibodies are like the alarm bells of the immune system. They're involved
in allergic reactions and fighting off parasites. When your body comes into contact with something you're
allergic to, like pollen or dust, IgE antibodies sound the alarm, triggering symptoms like sneezing or itching
to get rid of the allergen.
5. * ):* IgD antibodies are a bit mysterious, and scientists are still figuring out exactly
what they do. They're found on the surface of certain immune cells and seem to play a role in helping the
immune system recognize threats. Think of them as the scouts, always on the lookout for trouble. Each
type of antibody has its own special job in keeping you healthy and protected from germs
and other invaders.
• Account for 5% to 13%circulating antibody

• They are the largest

• First seen in an infection or seen in response to initial

exposure to an antigen

• 3rd most abundant

 IG(G)
Account for 70% to 80% in a healthy people

This is the smallest but most abundant

Present in all blood fluids

Important in fight bacterial and viral infection and is transfer

a crossed to the placenta to protect fetus .

It is present in colostrum (first breast milk)

The first breast milk providing essential immune support to
newborns
 IGA

• Found in areas of the body such as nose ears ,vagina

• They protect body surface that are exposed to outside

foreign substance

• Secretion antibody –found in tears ,silva ,breast milk .mostly

found at mucous surfaces First line defense

 IGD
• Less than 1%
Involves in development and maturation of antibody response
 IGE
❖It is barely detected in normal blood
❖Found in lung and mucous
membranes
❖They are involved in allergic reactions
to certain substance
❖They are also involved in the certain
parasites infection
• This is an acute intestinal infection caused by ingestion of food or water
contaminated with the bacterium

• Vibrio has a short incubation period from less than one day to 5 days

• This bacteria produces an enterotoxin that copious, painless ,watery ,

diarrhoea often accompanied by vomiting that can quickly leads to

Severe dehydration and death if treatment is not promptly given

• There are so many types of vibrio species some include

• V.valnificus

• V.Adaptatus

• V.Tapatis

• V.parahaemolyticus

• V.cholera
• There are about 200 serotypes of Vibrio cholerae
but only 2 are actively known to be involved in
causing cholera

• 0:1 and 0:139 (there are known to cause

outbreaks)

• 0:1 cause majority of the disease

• 0:139 –first found in Bangladesh in 1992 ,it’s

confined to south-east Asia
• Vibrio are gram-negative meaning they have
thin peptidoglycan layer
• Highly motile curve rods
• Have a single polar flagellum
• Tolerate alkaline condition
• Tolerate high salt concentrations
• Sensitives to acidic mediums
• They are mesophiles(moderate temp 260C -350c)
• Cholera is transmitted by the fecal-oral route

• Due to sensitivity of vibrio to acids most die in the stomach

after exposure to the acids there thus larger numbers must be
ingested before enough can survive stomach passage to
establish on infection

• Surviving virulent organisms may adhere to the small intestinal

epithelium by means of pili

• The organism multiply on epithelial cells and secrete the

potent enterotoxin also called “choleragen”

• Pili are thin protein tubes origin

• The toxin’s protein molecule has 2 part A and B fragment

• The B fragment has no toxicity but binds the a to specific receptors on

the Epithelial cells

• The a fragment is the toxin part

• Its target is a regulatory substance called G-protein

• The G-protein activates an enzymatic process which result in a rise in

AMP levels

• High cAMP levels course massive secretion of electrolytes (Na ,K,CL)

and water in the intestine which comes out as the water stool.
• Non-specific defense ,gastric acids ,mucus
secretion and intestinal motility

• Disease results in specific immunity :Involving

primarily secretory immunoglobulin (IGA)as well as
(IGA) antibodies against vibrio
• Cholera is endemic is area with San italic

• Fecally contamined water is the most

common source of cholera

• Food such as crab and vegetable

• Water diarhoe

• Rice water stools

• Vomiting

• Muscle crumps

• Thirsty

• Dry mouths
Candidiasis is a fungi infection caused by the overgrowth of a type of yeast
called “candida” usually “ ”
This growth can be by certain medicines and health problems
This fungal infection can usually affect areas such

❖Skin

❖Genitals

❖Throat

❖Blood
❖Candidiasis can affect various areas of the body, including the skin, genitals,
throat, and even the bloodstream. When it affects the skin, it often appears as
a red, itchy rash with small pustules or blisters. In the genital area, it can cause
symptoms such as itching, burning, and abnormal discharge. Oral candidiasis,
also known as thrush, is characterized by white patches on the tongue, inner
cheeks, or throat. In rare cases, Candida can enter the bloodstream and cause
a serious infection called “candidemia”, which can be life-threatening.
• All kinds of yeast infections tend to develop in areas of the body where
conditions are favourable to reproduce easily

• Fungus and yeast thrives in most conditions damp “folds” of the body (areas
where one sweats a lot) are usually more prone to infections
They include
❖Mouth and throat
❖Genitals
❖Armpits
❖Anal area
• Candidiasis, also known as a yeast infection, can occur in various areas of
the body. In addition to the navel and nails, other areas that can be
affected by candidiasis include:-

❖ Mouth and throat

❖Genitals (vagina or penis)
❖ Skin folds (such as under the breasts or in the groin area)
❖Esophagus (in people with weakened immune systems)
❖Bloodstream (in people with weakened immune systems)

• It is important to note that candidiasis can occur in any area of the body
where there is warm, moist skin and the conditions are favorable for the
growth of yeast. If you suspect that you have candidiasis, it is important to
see a healthcare provider for proper diagnosis and treatment.
• Navel (Belly button)

• Finger nails and toes nails in between finger and tose

• etc
• The name candida was proposed by Berkout it’s a latin word “toga
candida” meaning White robe
• Albicans is also from a Latin word “albicare” meaning whiten or “albico”
becoming white
• These names refers to the generally white appearance of candida species
when culture
• They are generally present in healthy human , frequently part of human
body’s normal flora
• Certain medications and health challenges causes this micro organism to
overgrow causing this infection.
• Candida requires moisture for growth notably on the skin
• Yeast infections (it when it out growth )
• The microorganism you are referring to is Candida, a type of yeast. Candida
is commonly present in the human body as part of the normal flora,
particularly in the gastrointestinal tract, mouth, and genital area. However,
certain factors can disrupt the balance of microorganisms, leading to an
overgrowth of
• Some medications, such as antibiotics, can kill off beneficial bacteria that
normally keep Candida in check, allowing it to multiply and cause an
infection. Additionally, certain health challenges, such as a weakened
immune system or hormonal changes, can make individuals more
susceptible to Candida overgrowth. Candida and causing an infection.
• Moisture is a key factor for the growth of Candida, especially on the skin.
Warm and moist areas, such as the folds of the skin, provide an ideal
environment for Candida to thrive. This can lead to various types of yeast
infections, such as
• vaginal yeast infections
• oral thrush,
• diaper rash in infants.
• Candidiasis occurring in the mouth or throat is called “ oral Candida or
thrush.
• It affects the throat and oesophagus as well
• Healthy individuals don’t usually get thrush .It is most often seen in
• infants
• Elderly
• Diabetics
• Antibiotictal
• Oral candidiasis, also known as oral thrush, is a fungal infection caused by the
overgrowth of Candida albicans in the mouth and throat. It can also affect the
throat and oesophagus. While healthy individuals can develop oral thrush, it is
most commonly seen in , the , , and
.

• The condition is characterized by the presence of creamy white lesions on the

tongue, inner cheeks, and roof of the mouth, which may cause discomfort and
difficulty swallowing. Treatment typically involves antifungal medications such as
clotrimazole or nystatin oral suspensions. It's important for individuals with oral
thrush to seek medical advice for proper diagnosis and treatment.
❖White spots inside the mouth and on tongue

❖Redness or discomfort in the mouth area

❖Sore throat and difficulty swallowing

❖White patches on the inner cheeks ,tongue ,roof of the mouth , and throat,

❖Redness or soreness

❖Cotton-like feeling in the mouth

❖Loss of taste

❖Cracking and redness at the corners of the mouth

❖Symptoms of candidiasis in the oesophagus usually including pain when swallowing and
difficulty swallowing
• Based on the symptoms you provided, it appears that you may be
experiencing oral thrush, which is a common fungal infection caused by
Candida albicans. The symptoms of oral thrush can includes
• 1. White spots inside the mouth and on the tongue: These are creamy white
patches that may resemble cottage cheese and can be easily scraped off.
• 2. Redness or discomfort in the mouth area: The affected areas may appear
red and inflamed, causing discomfort or pain.3. Sore throat and difficulty
swallowing: The presence of thrush in the throat can lead to a sore throat
and make swallowing painful or difficult.
• 4. White patches on the inner cheeks, tongue, roof of the mouth, and throat:
These patches may vary in size and can spread to different areas of the
mouth.
• 5. Redness or soreness: The affected areas may be red and tender to touch.
• 6. Cotton-like feeling in the mouth: Some people may experience a cotton-
like sensation or dryness in the mouth.
• 7. Loss of taste: Thrush can affect the taste buds, leading to a temporary loss
of taste or altered taste perception.
• 8. Cracking and redness at the corners of the mouth: This symptom is known
as angular cheilitis and is commonly associated with oral thrush.
People who are at higher risk for getting candidiasis in the mouth and throat
including babies (1 mouth of age )
And people with at least one of these factors
Wear denture
Having diabeties
Having Cancer
• Yes, you are correct. People who are at higher risk for developing candidiasis in
the mouth and throat include:

• 1. Infants, especially those under one month of age, have an immature

immune system, making them more susceptible to infections such as candidiasis.

• 2. : Dentures can create an environment that

promotes the growth of Candida, leading to an increased risk of developing oral
candidiasis. Denture wearers should ensure proper hygiene and cleaning of their
dentures to minimize the risk.
• 3. High blood sugar levels in individuals with diabetes can
weaken the immune system, making them more prone to infections, including
oral candidiasis.
• 4. : Cancer and its treatments, such as chemotherapy
and radiation therapy, can weaken the immune system, making cancer patients
more susceptible to infections, including candidiasis.
• It's important for individuals in these high-risk groups to maintain good oral
hygiene, follow any prescribed treatments, and consult with their healthcare
provider if they suspect they have candidiasis or any other oral health concerns.
• Anti fungal medicine to kill the yeast (Fluconazole ,Clotrimazole ,Miconazole
or nystalin )
• Use of mouth wash
• Pill to swallow
• Genital violet can be used for thrush in babies
• It seems that you are referring to the treatment for thrush, which is a fungal
infection caused by Candida yeast. The treatment options you mentioned are
correct.
• Antifungal medications such as Fluconazole, Clotrimazole, Miconazole, or
Nystatin can be used to kill the yeast. These medications can be applied
topically or taken orally, depending on the severity of the infection.

• Mouthwash containing antifungal agents such as chlorhexidine can also be

used to treat thrush in the mouth.

• In severe cases, a pill may be prescribed to swallow.

• For thrush in babies, gentian violet can be used as a topical treatment.
• However, it is important to consult a healthcare provider before using any
medication or treatment for thrush, especially in infants.
• Candidiasis occurring in the genitals is termed “vaginal yeast infection”
• This is mostly common in women
• It is mostly caused by the external use of douche or detergents or internal
disturbance of the vaginal flora eg Lactobacillus resulting in the overgrowth
of candida cells
• Vaginal yeast infections, also known as , are indeed
common in women. They can be caused by a variety of factors, including
the use of certain detergents, douches, or other irritants, as well as internal
disturbances in the vaginal flora, such as a decrease in the number of
beneficial bacteria like Lactobacillus.
 : The use of broad-spectrum antibiotics can disrupt the natural
balance of microorganisms in the vagina. Antibiotics can kill off the beneficial
bacteria, such as Lactobacillus, that help keep Candida in check, allowing it to
multiply and cause an infection.
: Hormonal fluctuations during the menstrual cycle,
pregnancy, or menopause can alter the vaginal environment, making it more
conducive to the growth of Candida.
: A weakened immune system due to factors like
HIV/AIDS, diabetes, or certain medications (such as corticosteroids or
immunosuppressants) can increase the risk of developing vaginal candidiasis.
: High blood sugar levels in individuals with uncontrolled
diabetes can create an environment that promotes the growth of yeast.

Although not considered a sexually transmitted infection, sexual

activity can sometimes contribute to the development of vaginal candidiasis. It
can introduce more yeast into the vaginal area or disrupt the natural balance
of microorganisms.
 : Wearing tight-fitting or non-breathable
clothing, particularly synthetic materials, can create a warm and moist
environment that favours the growth of yeast.

: Inadequate genital hygiene, such as excessive washing, using

harsh soaps, or douching, can disrupt the natural balance of microorganisms
in the vagina and increase the risk of infection.

It's important to note that while these factors can increase the likelihood of
developing vaginal candidiasis, not everyone who experiences these factors
will necessarily develop an infection. Each individual's susceptibility to yeast
overgrowth can vary. If you suspect you have a vaginal yeast infection, it is
recommended to consult a healthcare provider for an accurate diagnosis
and appropriate treatment.
• A vaginal yeast infection that is a fungal infection that causes irritation ,
discharge and itchiness of the vagina and the valva(tissues vaginal opening)
• Also known as vaginal candidiasis
Symptom can range from mild to moderate and include

❖General itching and irritation in the vaginal area

❖Burning Sensation

❖Redness and swelling of the vulva

❖Vaginal pain and soreness

❖Thick white “cheese-like “ odour-free vaginal discharge

❖Painful sexual intercourse

❖Watery vaginal dischargers

❖Less commonly the penis may be affected resulting in itchiness ,soreness at

head of the penis

❖Red rash on penis ,burning on tip of penis

❖Unpleasant odour
• Fluconazole is used in the treatment of first time infection

• Probiotics may be suggest to people with frequent yeast infection

• Avoid douching
• Do not use feminine deodorant or deodorant pads or tampons
• Wear underwear made from cotton
• When the candida yeast get into your bloodstream, it can spread to other
parts of the body (cns,kidney,liver,muscle,bones,joints risk factors
• Weakened immune system
• Previous infection goes untreated
• mediccal
• Fungal infection of the skin and nails
• Often cause a red itchy rash to form
❖Tight clothing

❖Poor hygiene

❖Infrequent undergarment change

❖Excessive use of anibiotics

Cause by roundworms, it's the most common type of round worm infection

Common in area where food and drinking water aren’t safe and exposed to
human fecal matter
Symptoms on individual differ depending on where the roundworms are in
your body
Ascariasis is an infection of the small intestine caused by “Ascaris
Lumbricoides” A type of roundworm
Round worms are “ type of parasitic worms
Most common form of worm
Ascaris, hookworm(Ancylosto ma duodenale )and whipworm(Trichuris
trichiura)
Are known a soil-transmitted helminths parasitic worms)
These infections are among the most common infections worldwide and
affect the poorest and most
✓Transmission is by eggs passed in the faeces of infected person

✓Adult worms live in the intestine and produce thousands of eggs each these

✓Eggs contaminate the soil

✓Egg attached to vegetable

• Adult worms live in the lumen of small intestine female produce over 200000
• Eggs per day which are passes with faeces
• After infective eggs are swallowed the larvae hatch
• Larvae mature further in lungs (10-14 days ) penetrate the alveolar walls,
ascend the bronchial tree to the throat and are swallowed
• Upon reaching the small intestine they develop into adult worms
• Adult worms can live 1-2years
• Lack of modern ,hygiene and sanitation infrastructure
• Use of human faeces for fertilizer
• Exposure to an outdoor environment where dust are ingested
• One might not notice symptom
• Coughing
• Wheezing or shortness of breath
• Vomiting round worms
❖INTESTINE

❖Nausea

❖Vomiting

❖Irregular stool

❖Abdominal pain
• People with large infestation suffer from fatigue ,fever and weight loss
• Nutritional effects soil-transmitted helminths impair the nutritional status of the
people they infect in multiple ways

• The worms feed on host tissues including blood which leads to a loss of /iron
and protein
• The worms increase malabsorption of nutrients in addition roundworm may
compete for vitamin a in the intestine
• Loss of appetite
• Nutrition impairment cause significantly impact on growth and physical
development
❖C.T Scan

❖Ultrasound
• HIV, which stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus, is a virus that attacks
the immune system, specifically the CD4 cells (also known as T cells) that
help the body fight off infections. If left untreated, HIV can lead to a
condition called AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome), which is the
final stage of HIV infection.
 : Occurs shortly after exposure to the virus. Symptoms may
resemble flu-like illness, including fever, fatigue, sore throat, swollen lymph
nodes, and rash. However, some individuals may not experience any
symptoms during this stage.
(Clinical Latency): This stage can last for many years with
few or no symptoms. HIV is still active and replicating, but the immune system
manages to control the virus to some extent.
If left untreated, HIV infection
progresses to AIDS when the immune system is severely compromised. Criteria
for an AIDS diagnosis include having a CD4 count below 200 cells/mm³ or the
occurrence of an AIDS-defining illness.
 HIV is transmitted through specific bodily fluids, including blood, semen,
vaginal fluids, and breast milk. Common modes of transmission include
unprotected sexual intercourse (both anal and vaginal), sharing needles or
syringes contaminated with infected blood, and from mother to child during
pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding.
• Once inside the body, HIV targets CD4 cells (T-cells), which are crucial for the
immune system. The virus binds to CD4 receptors and a co-receptor (usually
CCR5 or CXCR4) on the surface of these cells, allowing it to enter and infect
them.
• HIV replicates inside the host cell, producing new viral particles that can
infect other CD4 cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells.
• HIV is primarily transmitted through certain body fluids, such as blood, semen,
vaginal fluids, and breast milk. The most common modes of transmission
include
❖ unprotected sexual intercourse,
❖sharing needles or syringes,
❖and from an HIV-positive mother to her child during pregnancy,
❖Childbirth,
❖ or breastfeeding

• It is important to note that HIV cannot be transmitted through casual contact,

such as hugging, shaking hands, or sharing utensils. It is also not spread through
air, water, or insect bites.
• Early symptoms of HIV infection may include
symptoms such as
❑fever,
❑fatigue,
❑sore throat,
❑swollen lymph nodes,
❑rash.
• However, these symptoms can be easily overlooked or
mistaken for other illnesses. It is crucial to get tested for HIV
if you suspect exposure or engage in high-risk behaviours.
• Symptoms of Chronic HIV Infection (Clinical Latency):
Many individuals may remain asymptomatic during this stage.
• Some may experience persistent swollen lymph nodes.
• As the immune system weakens,

❑ recurrent respiratory infections (e.g., pneumonia)

❑ oral thrush or candidiasis
❑ chronic diarrhoea
❑ weight loss
❑ skin rashes or lesions
❑ night sweats
❑ fatigue
 : People with AIDS are highly susceptible to a range of
infections that would not typically cause illness in individuals with healthy
immune systems. These include:
• Tuberculosis (TB)
• Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP)
• Cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis
• Toxoplasmosis
• Cryptococcal meningitis
• Candidiasis of the esophagus, trachea, bronchi, or lungs

Certain cancers, known as AIDS-related cancers, including Kaposi's sarcoma,

non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and invasive cervical cancer
 :

❑HIV can be diagnosed through blood tests that detect antibodies to the
virus (ELISA or rapid antibody tests) or by detecting viral RNA or DNA (PCR
tests).

❑Testing is recommended for individuals at higher risk of infection, including

those who engage in unprotected sex, share needles, or have had a sexual
partner diagnosed with HIV..
 is the primary treatment for HIV infection. ART
consists of a combination of drugs that suppress viral replication, preserve
immune function, and reduce the risk of HIV transmission.

include safe sex practices, needle exchange

programs, pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), and post-exposure prophylaxis
(PEP) for individuals at risk of HIV infection.
• HIV/AIDS remains a significant global health challenge, with approximately
38 million people living with HIV worldwide.
• Sub-Saharan Africa is disproportionately affected, with nearly two-thirds of all
people living with HIV residing in the region.
• Stigma and discrimination against people living with HIV/AIDS continue to be
significant barriers to prevention, testing, and treatment.
• Prevention is key in combating HIV. It is important to practice safe sex by
using condoms, get tested regularly for HIV and other sexually transmitted
infections, and avoid sharing needles or other drug paraphernalia.
Additionally, there are preventive measures available, such as pre-exposure
prophylaxis (PrEP) for individuals at high risk of HIV infection.

• It is essential to raise awareness about HIV, combat stigma and

discrimination associated with the virus, and promote education and access
to testing, treatment, and prevention methods to effectively address the
global HIV/AIDS epidemic.