AP World History Unit 5 (1750–1900)

5.1 Enlightenment Ideas

• Key Concepts: Enlightenment (17th–18th c.) emphasized reason, natural rights,
and secular governance. Thinkers like John Locke argued that people have inherent
“natural rights” (life, liberty, property) and that governments exist by consent of the
governed. Montesquieu advocated separation of powers, and Rousseau
championed the social contract.
• Effects: Enlightenment ideals (liberty, equality, individual rights) became
cornerstones of modern democracies. These ideas inspired revolutions worldwide:
e.g. the U.S. Declaration of Independence echoed Locke’s rights, and France’s
Declaration of the Rights of Man drew on Enlightenment rhetoric. In general,
Enlightenment thought undermined absolute monarchy and encouraged
movements toward constitutional government.
• Examples: Voltaire criticized the Church and absolutism; Locke’s writings
influenced the American Revolution and inspired Latin American Creole elites;
Rousseau’s ideas helped shape French revolutionary ideology.

5.2 Nationalism and Revolutions (1750–1900)

• American Revolution (1776–1783): Driven by colonial resistance to British taxes
and trade restrictions. Patriots appealed to Enlightenment ideals of
self‑governance. The U.S. won independence and created a republic; its 1787
Constitution balanced power (federalism). Cause: Desire for autonomy and “no
taxation without representation”. Effect: Established a precedent for constitutional
democracy (though slavery remained legal).
• French Revolution (1789–1799): Caused by fiscal crisis (war debt, lavish
monarchy), food shortages, and social inequality. The Third Estate (commoners) led
a revolt (Storming of Bastille 1789) and overthrew the monarchy. Outcome:
Overthrew feudal structures, proclaimed rights of citizens, but descended into
terror and war. The Revolution spread nationalism across Europe and eventually led
to Napoleon’s rule.
• Haitian Revolution (1791–1804): Inspired by Enlightenment and French Revolution,
but led by enslaved Africans in Saint-Domingue. Unlike other revolutions, racial
 equality was central: leaders like Toussaint Louverture sought to abolish slavery
outright. Outcome: Haiti became independent (1804) as the first Black-led republic;
slavery was abolished there. European powers, however, largely ostracized Haiti.
• Latin American Revolutions (1808–1826): Creole elites in Spanish and Portuguese
colonies resented Bourbon Reforms (trade limits, loss of privileges). Enlightenment
ideas and the Napoleonic invasion of Spain triggered uprisings. Leaders like Simón
Bolívar and José de San Martín declared independence across South America.
Outcome: By 1826 most of Latin America was independent from Iberian rule,
though new nations often struggled with caudillos and economic dependency on
Europe.
• National Unification: 19th-century nationalism forged new states. For example,
the Italian Risorgimento united fragmented states into the Kingdom of Italy (1861. In
Germany, Prussia led unification in 1871. These movements were fueled by ethnic
nationalism and liberal ideas; they ended the old empires’ control (e.g. ending
Hapsburg dominance in Italy).

5.3 Industrialization Begins (1750–1850)

• Origins in Britain: Agricultural innovations (crop rotation, enclosure) freed labor
and boosted food supply. Britain’s abundant coal and iron and its capitalist
economy supported new industries. Starting around 1750, Britain mechanized
textile production – key inventions included the flying shuttle, spinning jenny, water
frame, and spinning mule. These machines vastly increased cloth output.
• Steam Power: James Watt’s improvements (1760s–1770s) made the steam engine
efficient for factories and mines. Steam no longer required waterpower sites, so
factories could be built anywhere. The steam engine model shown below was
repaired by Watt in 1764, illustrating early development of steam power.

James Watt’s 1764 model steam engine (University of Glasgow) – Watt’s separate
condenser greatly increased efficiency. Steam engines like this pumped water and
powered machines, revolutionizing industry.

• Industrial Growth: With mechanized production, Britain’s factories flooded

markets with goods. Entrepreneurs reinvested profits in factories and railroads.
Trade and urbanization expanded: by mid-19th c. Britain exported vast quantities of
cotton cloth and iron. (For instance, exports of wool, linen, and cotton had already
made up 12% of British trade by 1750.)
 • Key Result: Britain underwent an Industrial Revolution that transformed it from a
rural economy to a manufacturing powerhouse. This set the pattern (factory
system, wage labor) that other nations would follow.

5.4 Industrialization Spreads (1800–1900)

• Western Europe & North America: Within decades, industry appeared in Belgium
(rich in coal/iron), France (with skilled workers from Britain), and the German states
(especially after unification in 1871). The United States industrialized by mid-19th
c.: the U.S. had abundant land and resources, and waves of European immigrants
provided labor and capital. The Civil War (1861–65) slowed immigration, but
afterwards the U.S. boomed with railroads, steel, and factories.
• Other Regions: In Russia and Japan, industrialization was largely state-led. Japan’s
Meiji government (from 1868) built railroads, shipyards, and factories to modernize
after centuries of isolation. These reforms brought a constitution, universal
education, and an army, as well as rapid industrial growth. In Russia, Tsar Alexander
II abolished serfdom in 1861, freeing labor. The government expanded rail (e.g.
Trans-Siberian Railway, 1891–1904) to tap Siberian coal and iron; by 1900 Russia
was the world’s 4th-largest steel producer.
• Second Industrial Revolution: From the mid-19th century to WWI, new
technologies (Bessemer steel, electricity, chemicals, internal combustion engine)
further accelerated change. Steel-frame buildings and electric motors appeared;
chemical industries produced dyes and medicines; oil and electricity reshaped
transportation and lighting.

5.5 Technology in the Industrial Age

• Transportation: Steam-powered locomotives and ships shrank distances. The
Liverpool–Manchester Railway (opened 1830) proved trains could carry
passengers/goods cheaply and quickly. Railroads transformed economies: they
created jobs (workers, miners) and made it easy to move farm goods and factory
output. Steamships (e.g. Robert Fulton’s Clermont, 1807) replaced sailing ships,
enabling faster global trade and migration. Canals (like America’s Erie Canal, 1825)
and bridges also expanded.
• Communication: Electric telegraphy (Morse code) linked continents. In 1844
Samuel F. B. Morse sent the first long-distance message “What hath God wrought?”
from Washington to Baltimore. Within a decade, thousands of miles of telegraph
 lines crisscrossed the U.S., and submarine cables would soon link Europe and
America. Rapid communication aided business, news (faster than ships), and
military coordination.
• Other Inventions: The Industrial Age saw spinning and power looms, the assembly
line (later), and innovations like the telephone and light bulb (late 19th c.). These
technologies boosted productivity and connected peoples, laying groundwork for
the 20th century.

5.6 State-Led Industrialization

• Japan (Meiji Restoration): The 1868 Meiji reforms overthrew the Tokugawa
Shogunate and modernized Japan. The government built railroads and telegraph
lines, adopted Western education, and created a national army. State-owned
factories and shipyards jump-started industry. By 1900 Japan had become the most
industrialized Asian power (modern factories, warships, exports).
• Russia: After freeing serfs (1861), Russia embarked on limited reforms. The state
financed railroads (Trans-Siberian) and heavy industries to catch up. Legal changes
ended some noble privileges. However, lack of political reform and continued
autocracy meant modernization was slow; by 1900 Russia was still largely agrarian
apart from a few industrial cities.
• Ottoman Empire – Tanzimat Reforms (1839–1876): The Ottomans attempted
modernization to prevent decline. The Tanzimat edicts reformed taxes and legal
rights (equality before law) but had limited industrial impact. Railroads like the one
to Istanbul were built, and the Suez Canal (Egypt, 1869) passed under Ottoman
nominal control. Still, European powers dominated Ottoman finances.
• Egypt: Under Muhammad Ali (early 1800s), Egypt industrialized its cotton industry
and built canals. Later khedives took foreign loans to expand railroads and irrigation
for cotton. These projects initially prospered (e.g. during the American Civil War’s
cotton shortage), but debt led to British occupation (1882).
• Results: State-led efforts created new industrial centers in Asia and the Middle
East. These governments selectively adopted Western tech and institutions (e.g.
constitutions in Japan), blending traditional culture with industrial capitalism.

5.7 Economic Effects of Industrialization

• Global Market Integration: Industrial powers needed raw materials and markets.
Europe and the U.S. imported cotton, rubber, minerals, and food from colonies and
 less-developed regions. Many tropical colonies became mono‑economies (“cash-
crop” exports). For example, British capital financed cotton plantations in Egypt
and India. These lands were converted to cotton (especially during the U.S. Civil
War). When supply gluts or new sources emerged (U.S. cotton after 1865),
economies like Egypt’s collapsed under debt.
• “Banana Republics” and Dependency: Latin America, Southeast Asia, and parts
of Africa became exporters of one or two crops (sugar, coffee, rubber, etc.). Foreign
firms owned plantations; locals earned little. These regions were vulnerable: global
price drops or European crop competition led to economic crises. Very little
industrial investment occurred locally.
• Trade Policies: Britain pioneered free trade (repealed Corn Laws in 1846), signing
treaties (e.g. Cobden–Chevalier 1860 with France) that cut tariffs and created a
“golden age” of global trade. In contrast, newly industrializing nations like Germany
and the U.S. adopted protective tariffs later (1880s) to nurture their industries. This
free-trade vs. protectionism debate affected diplomatic relations and colonial
policies.
• Imperialism & Capital: Industrial capitalists pushed for overseas expansion.
Economist John A. Hobson argued that imperialism was driven by surplus capital
seeking investment outlets (since domestic demand was limited). Thus, industrial
nations competed for colonies rich in resources and cheap labor (the “new
imperialism” of late 1800s). The result was near-global European empires.
• Labor Migration: Cheap transportation (steamships, railroads) and colonies’
demand for labor led to mass migrations. Millions of Europeans (Irish, Italians,
Chinese) moved to Americas, Australia, and colonies. Indentured servitude arose
as “new slavery”: roughly 2 million Indians and Chinese signed five‑year contracts
to work in Caribbean, Fiji, Mauritius, South Africa, etc., under harsh conditions
(promised wages or land that rarely materialized). This labor system filled
plantations and mines after emancipation of slaves.

5.8 Responses to Industrialization

• Liberal Reforms: Some governments adopted reforms to stabilize society. Britain
passed Factory Acts limiting child labor and work hours (1830s–1870s) and
legalized labor unions (Trade Union Act 1871). Education expanded and some poor
relief was introduced.
• Labor Unions and Strikes: Urban workers organized for rights. Trade unions fought
for better wages and conditions. Strikes became more common (often turning
 violent, e.g. Peterloo Massacre 1819). These movements pressured governments to
address issues of poverty and working-class demands.
• Socialist Ideologies: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels (1848) wrote The Communist
Manifesto, blaming capitalism for class conflict. They declared the history of all
hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles and predicted that
proletariat (working class) would eventually overthrow the bourgeoisie. Their ideas
spread among intellectuals and later inspired socialist parties and revolutions (e.g.
Russian Bolsheviks).
• Other Ideologies: Utopian socialism (e.g. Robert Owen in Britain) experimented
with cooperative communities. Anarchists (e.g. Bakunin) agitated against all
government. Social Darwinism misused Darwin’s theories to justify laissez-faire
capitalism and imperialism. Some reformers like John Stuart Mill argued for gradual
political reforms (voting rights, utilitarian welfare).
• Revolts and Movements: The 1848 liberal revolutions across Europe (France,
Germany, Italy, Austria) were partly a reaction to industrial discontent and
nationalist aspirations. In Asia, movements like the Taiping Rebellion (China,
1850s–60s, influenced by Christian socialism) and indigenous anti-colonial
resistances also reflected discontent with old order, though most were crushed.

5.9 Society and the Industrial Age

• Urbanization: Factory jobs drew people to cities. Populations in industrial cities
(London, Manchester, New York, Tokyo) exploded. Overcrowding, sanitation crises,
and slums were common. Middle classes (bourgeoisie) grew wealthy as factory
owners and professionals. Working-class living conditions were often harsh,
prompting reform.
• Social Classes: A rigid social order began to shift. Aristocracies lost economic
dominance; industrial capitalists (bourgeoisie) rose. However, huge wealth gaps
persisted. The new middle class (managers, merchants, engineers) wielded
growing political influence. Workers (proletariat) often lived hand-to-mouth,
reinforcing class consciousness.
• Family and Gender: Industrial work altered family roles. Women entered factories
or worked as domestic servants, but suffrage and full equality remained unrealized.
In the West, early feminist leaders (e.g. Mary Wollstonecraft, Seneca Falls 1848)
demanded rights, but progress was slow. Patriarchal norms largely persisted (votes
for women came only in early 20th c. in most countries).
 • Culture & Thought: Literacy and newspapers spread new ideas. Mass education
was introduced to create skilled workers/civil servants. Charles Darwin’s Origin of
Species (1859) challenged traditional beliefs, indirectly affecting views on society
(Social Darwinism). Scientific advances improved medicine (vaccines, germ theory)
and hygiene in cities.
• Racism and Imperialism: Industrial-era societies often used theories of racial
hierarchy to justify empire. Despite ideas of liberty, Europeans routinely denied
rights to colonized peoples and racial minorities. For example, even after abolition,
segregation and disenfranchisement remained in colonies and the U.S. (e.g. Jim
Crow laws post-1865).

5.10 Continuity and Change in the Industrial Age

• Continuity: Political and social inequalities largely persisted. Monarchies and
empires remained powerful (Ottoman, Qing, Russian) until World War I. Patriarchy
and racial hierarchies continued: Women and non-Europeans remained politically
marginalized. Colonial exploitation intensified (though slave labor declined);
European domination of global trade and politics continued. In many societies,
traditional elites retained influence (e.g. landed aristocracy in Russia and Asia).
• Change: By 1900, the world economy was interconnected. Industrial capitalism
had reshaped nearly every continent: most nations had at least some factories and
steam-powered infrastructure. Nation-states and nationalism defined politics (e.g.
unified Germany/Italy vs. multinational empires). New ideologies (liberalism,
socialism, nationalism) had supplanted old Divine Right theories. Mass politics
emerged (workers’ parties, suffrage movements), sowing seeds for 20th-century
democracy and unrest. Technological and scientific advances had fundamentally
altered daily life (transport, communication, medicine).
• Global Shifts: Economic power shifted. Europe’s share of world manufacturing
grew enormously. Yet, by 1900, Japan joined the ranks of industrial powers,
challenging Western dominance in Asia. The Industrial Age laid the groundwork for
eventual challenges to the old world order: colonial subjects became politically
aware, and workers demanded rights. Though change was uneven, the era’s
transformations – industrial economies, urban society, and new political ideals –
set the stage for the modern world.