AP World History: Modern Cheatsheet (c.

1200 CE – Present)
Chronological Timeline (c. 1200 CE – Present)
• 1206 CE – Genghis Khan (r.1206–1227) unites Mongol tribes and begins conquests
across Eurasia, creating the largest contiguous empire.
• 1215 – Magna Carta (England): King John’s nobles force the signing of the Magna
Carta, limiting royal power and guaranteeing legal rights (early constitutionalism).
• 1258 – Fall of Baghdad: Mongols sack Baghdad, ending the Abbasid Caliphate (last
major Abbasid caliph killed).
• 1299 – Rise of Ottoman Empire: Osman I founds the Ottoman state; it later (1453)
conquers Constantinople and becomes a major Islamic empire.
• 1324 – Mansa Musa (Mali): Pilgrimage to Mecca by Mali’s emperor spreads
knowledge of West African wealth; Mali Empire dominates trans-Saharan trade.
• 1347–1351 – Black Death: Bubonic plague spreads along trade routes in Asia and
Europe, killing an estimated 30–50% of Europe’s population.
• 1368 – Fall of Yuan/Ming Dynasty (China): Overthrown Mongol Yuan replaced by
native Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), which revives Confucian traditions and builds the
Forbidden City.
• 1405–1433 – Zheng He’s Voyages (China): Ming admiral Zheng He leads seven
great maritime expeditions through the Indian Ocean, boosting trade (ends after his
death).
• 1453 – Ottoman Conquest of Constantinople: Mehmed II captures
Constantinople, ending the Byzantine Empire and turning it into Istanbul, the
Ottoman capital.
• 1453–1485 – Renaissance (Europe): Intellectual and artistic flowering begins in
Italy (e.g. Leonardo da Vinci, Machiavelli) and gradually spreads west.
• 1492 – Columbus & Columbian Exchange: Columbus’s voyage leads to sustained
European contact with Americas; Columbian Exchange of crops (corn, potatoes,
tobacco to Old World; wheat, horses to New World) and diseases (smallpox,
influenza devastate indigenous populations) begins.
• 1517 – Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther’s 95 Theses spark religious reform
and fragmentation of Catholic Europe; leads to wars and new Protestant states.
• 1526 – Mughal Empire founded: Babur establishes Mughal rule in India; later
emperors (e.g. Akbar, r.1556–1605) govern a wealthy, religiously diverse empire.
Akbar promotes tolerance (ends jizya tax on non-Muslims) and patronizes arts.
• 1543 – Scientific Revolution begins: Copernicus publishes heliocentric theory;
later Newton’s Principia (1687) formulates gravity and laws of motion, ushering
modern science.
• 1600 – East India Companies: British (1600) and Dutch (1602) charter companies
for Asian trade; both colonize and exploit Asia’s markets (Java, India, later China).
• 1603 – Tokugawa Shogunate (Japan): Tokugawa Ieyasu establishes centralized
shogunate in Edo (Tokyo); enforces isolation (sakoku) and rigid social order (until
1853).
• 1648 – Peace of Westphalia: End of Thirty Years’ War in Europe; principle of
sovereign states (Westphalian system) recognized – rulers hold authority within
borders.
• 1643–1715 – Louis XIV (France): “Sun King” rules as absolute monarch; builds
Versailles and centralizes power.
• 1688 – Glorious Revolution (England): Parliament overthrows King James II and
invites William & Mary to rule under a constitutional framework (Bill of Rights 1689).
• 1750–1850 – Industrial Revolution: Began in Britain with mechanization of textile
and steam power; transforms economies (mass production, urbanization), social
classes (bourgeoisie vs. proletariat) and the environment.
• 1765–1783 – American Revolution: Thirteen British colonies gain independence as
the United States (Declaration of Independence 1776); U.S. Constitution
establishes a republic.
• 1776 – Adam Smith publishes Wealth of Nations: Advocates free market
capitalism and critiques mercantilism.
• 1789–1799 – French Revolution: Radical political upheaval topples monarchy
(Louis XVI), leads to Republic and Napoleon; ideals of liberty, equality, fraternity
spread.
• 1791–1804 – Haitian Revolution: Enslaved Africans in French Saint-Domingue
revolt; by 1804 establish independent Haiti, ending slavery and colonialism in
western Hispaniola.
• 1798–1815 – Latin American Independence: Creole leaders (e.g. Simón Bolívar,
1783–1830) lead revolts against Spanish rule; most of Latin America becomes
independent republics. Bolívar is celebrated as “El Libertador” of S. America.
• 1806 – End of Holy Roman Empire: Following defeat by Napoleon, Francis II
dissolves the HRE, shifting to nation-states in Europe.
• 1853 – Commodore Perry opens Japan: US forces Japan to end isolation (Treaty of
Kanagawa); leads to modernization.
• 1857 – Indian Sepoy Mutiny: Broad but ultimately unsuccessful rebellion by Indian
soldiers against British rule; leads to direct Crown rule (British Raj).
• 1861 – Russian Serf Emancipation: Tsar Alexander II abolishes serfdom, freeing
millions of peasants.
• 1868 – Meiji Restoration (Japan): Shogunate falls; Emperor Meiji restores imperial
rule and rapidly industrializes/Westernizes Japan.
• 1870–1871 – German and Italian Unification: Otto von Bismarck unites German
states into an empire (1871) under Prussian king; Garibaldi and others unify Italy
under the House of Savoy.
• 1884–1885 – Berlin Conference: European powers divide Africa into colonies
(“Scramble for Africa”) with little regard for indigenous societies.
• 1914–1918 – World War I: Global war centered in Europe; collapse of empires
(Russian, Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, German) and millions of casualties.
• 1917 – Russian Revolution: Bolsheviks (Lenin) overthrow Tsarist regime; by 1922
found USSR, world’s first communist state.
• 1917 – Balfour Declaration: Britain endorses creation of Jewish homeland in
Palestine (later leads to Israel).
• 1918–1919 – Influenza Pandemic (“Spanish Flu”): Kills 50–100 million worldwide
(notable global event affecting all).
• 1920 – League of Nations formed: First attempt at multinational peacekeeping
organization (later fails to prevent WWII).
• 1929–1939 – Great Depression: Global economic crisis causes mass
unemployment and political instability (rise of extremist regimes).
• 1939–1945 – World War II: Worldwide conflict triggered by Nazi Germany and
Imperial Japan; Axis (Germany, Italy, Japan) vs. Allies. Holocaust: genocide of 6
million Jews (plus others) by Nazi Germany.
• 1945 – United Nations founded: Global body formed to promote peace after WWII;
replaces League of Nations.
• 1945 – Atomic Age: U.S. drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, ending
WWII in Pacific and ushering nuclear weapons era.
• 1947 – Indian and Pakistan Independence: End of British Raj; Mahatma Gandhi’s
nonviolent movement leads to independence of India and Pakistan (Partition
causes sectarian violence).
• 1947–1991 – Cold War: Global ideological/arms race conflict between the U.S.
(capitalist West) and USSR (communist East). Proxy wars fought (Korea, Vietnam),
nuclear arms buildup, space race.
• 1949 – People’s Republic of China: Mao Zedong proclaims Communist China after
civil war, founding the PRC.
• 1950s–1960s – Decolonization: Former colonies in Asia and Africa gain
independence (e.g. Ghana 1957, Algeria 1962); nonaligned movement emerges.
• 1950–1953 – Korean War: First major Cold War conflict, dividing Korea (North
communist, South capitalist).
• 1953 – DNA Structure Discovered: (Watson & Crick) launches modern
biotechnology (notable global science advance).
• 1957 – Sputnik: USSR launches first artificial satellite; start of space race.
• 1960 – “Year of Africa”: 17 African nations gain independence.
• 1962 – Cuban Missile Crisis: Near U.S.-Soviet nuclear confrontation over missiles
in Cuba.
• 1964–1975 – Vietnam War: US intervenes in Vietnam (domino theory of
communism); ends with communist victory.
• 1978 – Deng Xiaoping’s Reforms (China): Moves China toward market economy
(post-Mao).
• 1989 – Fall of Berlin Wall: Symbolic end of Cold War in Europe; Germany reunifies
soon after.
• 1991 – Soviet Union Collapses: 15 republics become independent; USA emerges
as sole superpower.
• 1994 – Rwandan Genocide: Ethnic violence in Rwanda leads to mass killings
(~800,000).
• 2001 – 9/11 Attacks: Terrorist attacks on U.S. (World Trade Center) spark global
“War on Terror.”
• 2011 – Arab Spring: Widespread pro-democracy uprisings in Middle East/N. Africa
leading to regime changes.
• 2010s–2020s – Globalization & Technology: Rapid spread of the Internet,
smartphones, and international trade; climate change emerges as a global
challenge.
Thematic Overview

Governance and Political Structures

• Empires & Dynasties: Large land-based empires continue (Ottoman, Safavid,

Mughal, Qing) alongside new colonial empires (British, French, Spanish from
1500s). Fall of dynastic rule by 20th century leads to nation-states.
• Ideologies: Monarchy (absolute and constitutional), colonial rule (European
empires), nationalism (19th–20th c.), communism (USSR, China), and democracy
(e.g. U.S., post-WWII Western Europe).
• Major Leaders: Akbar the Great (Mughal ruler, tolerant governance); Louis XIV
(absolute monarchy in France); Catherine the Great (expands and reforms Russian
empire); Napoleon Bonaparte (French general who spread revolutionary reforms
across Europe); Mao Zedong (founds Communist China, 1949); Nelson Mandela
(post-apartheid South Africa leader).
• Revolutions & Reforms: Enlightenment ideas (17th–18th c.) promote liberty and
rule of law; political revolutions (American, French, Russian, Chinese) overturn old
regimes; decolonization movements (post-1945) end imperial rule.
• International Organizations: Formation of the United Nations (1945) to mediate
global issues; NATO (1949) and Warsaw Pact (1955) as Cold War alliances; later
the EU (from 1957) and others foster cooperation.

Economic Systems and Change

• Pre-Industrial Trade: Mercantilism (1500s–1800s) dominates European empires

(colonies supply raw materials to mother countries).
• Industrialization: Transition to factory-based capitalism (mid-18th c. Britain, then
Europe/US/Asia). Innovations like the steam engine (1698) and cotton gin (1793)
massively increase production.
• Global Trade Networks: Growth of global economy via maritime trade (spice
trade, Atlantic trade). European joint-stock companies (East India Companies)
monopolize Asian trade. Plantations in Americas use slave labor, creating the
Atlantic slave trade.
• Ideological Alternatives: Marxism/Socialism emerges (Karl Marx publishes
Communist Manifesto, 1848) advocating workers’ rights and communal ownership.
Keynesian economics (mid-20th c.) influences welfare states.
 • Economic Liberalization: Late 20th century sees neoliberalism (free markets,
deregulation) and global institutions (IMF, World Bank, WTO) shaping economy.
• Notable Economists: Adam Smith (1776) promotes free markets; Karl Marx (1867)
critiques capitalism (Das Kapital); Keynes (1936) on managing economies;
Muhammad Yunus (late 20th c., microcredit).

Social Structures and Society

• Class and Hierarchy: Feudal systems (lords, serfs) give way to class divisions
(bourgeoisie vs. working class) during industrialization. Caste system persists in
India under British rule. Rigid social estates in Tokugawa Japan.
• Gender Roles: Patriarchy remains dominant, but sees challenges: Feminism
begins (Mary Wollstonecraft’s Vindication of the Rights of Woman, 1792; first
women’s rights convention at Seneca Falls, 1848). Women gain suffrage in many
countries by mid-20th century.
• Race and Ethnicity: Pseudoscientific racism justifies colonialism; apartheid
enforces racial segregation in South Africa (1948–1994). Struggles for civil rights and
decolonization (e.g. US Civil Rights Movement, African anti-colonial movements).
• Religion and Culture: Major faiths (Islam, Christianity, Buddhism) continue
spreading or reforming. Sikhism founded in 1469 (Punjab) blending
Hinduism/Islam; Protestantism fragments Christianity. Religious reform (Protestant
Reformation) and syncretism (Vodou, Santería, Sikhism).
• Cultural Exchange: Global diasporas mix cultures (Indian indentured workers in
Caribbean, African slaves in Americas). Literacy rises with printing press (1440);
worldwide education expands in 19th–20th c.

Technology and Innovation

• Early Advances: Chinese inventions (compass, gunpowder) spread to Europe by

1200s. The printing press (c.1440) revolutionizes knowledge dissemination.
• Scientific Revolution (16th–18th c.): Foundations of modern science (Copernicus,
Galileo, Newton) challenge traditional views.
• Industrial Technology: Steam power (James Watt late 18th c.), railroads,
telegraph, and mechanized agriculture transform societies. 19th c.: electricity,
internal combustion engine, antibiotics. Cotton gin (1793) drastically boosts U.S.
cotton production.
• 20th–21st C.: Automobiles, airplanes, and nuclear energy (1945 onward) change
war and travel. Computers and Internet (late 20th c.) create the Information Age.
 Green Revolution technologies (high-yield crops, fertilizers) massively increase food
output.
• Medical Advances: Vaccines (polio vaccine approved 1955), antibiotics (penicillin
1940s) dramatically reduce disease.
• Space Age: Space exploration (Sputnik 1957, Moon landing 1969) symbolizes
scientific progress during the Cold War.

Cultural Developments and Interactions

• Renaissance and Enlightenment: European Renaissance (14th–17th c.) revives

classical learning and arts. Enlightenment (18th c.) emphasizes reason and rights,
influencing revolutions.
• Art and Literature: Cultural flowering worldwide – e.g. Hindu Bhakti and Islamic
Sufi movements; Ghazal poetry in Persian/Urdu; Shakespeare (England, 16th–17th
c.); Mozart/Beethoven (Europe, 18th c.); post-colonial literature (Achebe, Tagore).
• World Religions: Islam spreads into Africa/Asia (Ottomans in Europe, Safavid Iran,
Mughals in India). Christianity expands (European missions, Americas). Religious
syncretism: Sikhism, Vodou, Candomblé form in colonial contexts. Globalization
spreads culture (Hollywood films, pop music, etc., by late 20th c.).
• Education & Ideology: Increased literacy; emergence of modern ideologies
(nationalism, socialism, feminism, environmentalism). UNESCO and international
cultural exchanges.
• Language and Identity: Colonial borders often disregard ethnic lines, leading to
tensions. English, Spanish, French become global languages. Movements preserve
local cultures vs. Westernization tensions (e.g. China’s Cultural Revolution, 1966–
1976).

Environment and Human-Environment Interaction

• Agriculture: Introduction of champa rice (Vietnam to China) boosts population

(Song/Ming dynasties)l. Terrace, irrigation, and plantation agriculture support
empires. Mita and forced labor exploited lands in Inca/Spanish Peru.
• Deforestation & Mining: European colonization and industrialization drive large-
scale deforestation (fuel, agriculture). 16th c. silver mining (Potosí) causes
environmental damage (deforestation, pollution).
• Disease Ecology: Columbian Exchange alters global ecosystems: New World crops
(maize, potatoes) improve global diets; Old World diseases (smallpox, measles) kill
up to 90% of indigenous peoples.
 • Industrial Impact: Burning coal/oil since Industrial Revolution emits greenhouse
gases. Urbanization creates pollution (e.g. London smog of 1952).
• 20th Century Environmentalism: Population growth (post-1945 “baby boom”)
strains resources. Green Revolution (1940s–60s) dramatically increases yields
(rice, wheat), staving off famine but using chemicals. Conservation movements
arise; Earth Day (1970) and climate talks highlight ecological concerns.
• Recent Challenges: Climate change, biodiversity loss, and sustainable
development become global issues (UN Sustainable Development Goals, Paris
Agreement).

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