1)What does sociologist do?

A sociologist studies human society, social behavior, and the ways in which
individuals interact within groups, institutions, and broader social structures. Their
work involves analyzing cultural norms, social patterns, and societal issues to
understand how societies function and evolve. Here are some key aspects of what
sociologists do:
 Research and Analysis:- Conduct surveys, interviews, and observations to
gather data.Analyze statistical data to identify trends and patterns.Study
social institutions like family, education, religion, and government.
 Specialized Topics:-Sociologists often focus on specific areas, such as:
Inequality and poverty,Race, ethnicity, and gender,Health, education, and
urban development,Crime and deviance
 Policy and Program Development:-Provide insights to shape public policies
and social programs.Collaborate with governments, NGOs, and businesses
to address social issues
 Teaching and Academia:-Many sociologists work as professors, educating
students about sociologicaltheories and research methods.Publish books and
academic articles to contribute to the field.
 Applied Sociology:-Work in industries like marketing, human resources, and
public relations, using their understanding of group dynamics to solve real-
world problems.In essence, sociologists seek to understand society’s
complexities and contribute to solutions for social challenges.
2)Define what is sociology? Discuss it subject matters with example
Sociology is the scientific study of human society, social relationships,
institutions, and culture. It examines how individuals and groups interact,
how societies are structured, and how social changes occur. Sociology seeks
to understand the underlying patterns of social behavior and the factors that
influence them.

Sociology has a broad scope, covering various aspects of social life. Its
subject matter can be grouped into the following areas:

 Social Institutions:-
Sociology examines the structures and functions of major social institutions
like family, education, religion, economy, and government.

Example: Studying how education systems contribute to social mobility or

perpetuate inequality.

 Social Groups and Relationships:-It analyzes how individuals form

groups, their roles within these groups, and how relationships evolve.

Example: Exploring peer group influence on adolescent behavior.

 Culture and Society:-Sociology studies cultural norms, values, beliefs,

and practices, and their impact on society.

Example: Investigating the role of cultural traditions in maintaining

community cohesion.

 Social Stratification and Inequality:-

It focuses on the distribution of resources, power, and opportunities, and the

resulting social hierarchies.

Example: Examining gender wage gaps in the workplace.

 Social Change and Development:-Sociologists study how societies

evolve over time due to technological, economic, and cultural shifts.

Example: Assessing the impact of the digital revolution on communication

and relationships.

 Social Problems:-Sociology investigates societal issues such as crime,

poverty, racism, and environmental challenges, aiming to find
solutions.

Example: Understanding the causes of homelessness in urban areas.

 Human Interaction and Behavior:-It explores how people interact with

each other and the effects of these interactions on individual and
collective behavior.

Example: Analyzing the influence of social media on self-esteem and mental

health.

3) Discuss the origin and development of sociology in the light of early

theorzision.

Sociology is the scientific study of society, including patterns of social relationships, social
interaction, and culture. The term sociology was first used by Frenchman Auguste Compte in
the 1830s when he proposed a synthetic science uniting all knowledge about human activity.[1] In
the academic world, sociology is considered one of the social sciences.
In sociology, development essentially refers to a process of social change,
which is planned and desired by a society. Development is a value-laden
concept. Social change refers to alterations that occur in the social structure
and social relations. It is a value-free or neutral concept.Development
sociology is the study of the causes and consequences of economic change
in society. The study of development has been one of the fundamental
aspects of sociology since the beginnings of the discipline.

Sociological theorizing refers to the broad and diverse field of study within
sociology that explores and analyzes social reality at different levels, from
micro to macro.

4) What is positivism? Critically discuss role of positivism in the development

of sociology.

Positivism is a philosophical school that holds that all genuine knowledge is

either true by definition or positive – meaning a posteriori facts derived by
reason and logic from sensory experience. Other ways of knowing, such as
intuition, introspection, or religious faith, are rejected or considered
meaninglessFor Comte, positivism is the belief that societies have their own
scientific principles and laws, just like physics or chemistry. Positivism
assumes there are truths about society that can be discovered through
scientific studies and that our understanding of society should be based on
actual data and evidence.Positivism is a philosophical school that holds that
all genuine knowledge is either true by definition or positive – meaning a
posteriori facts derived by reason and logic from sensory experience. Other
ways of knowing, such as intuition, introspection, or religious faith, are
rejected or considered meaningless.

Positivism is a sociological theory created by Auguste Comte and advocated

by Emile Durkheim. It laid the groundwork for the creation of sociology as a
field of academic study. It is a philosophy based upon the idea that scientific
evidence is the most reliable resource for understanding society.It helps give
validity and purpose to research. The point of Positivism is to uncover the
laws that govern human behaviour. It corresponds to the theory of truth.
Research is done by working with observable social reality.

5) Differentiate max theory of Dialectical materialism from weber’s theory of

capitalism .
Dialectical materialism, a philosophical approach to reality derived from the
writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. For Marx and Engels, materialism
meant that the material world, perceptible to the senses, has objective
reality independent of mind or spirit. They did not deny the reality of mental
or spiritual processes but affirmed that ideas could arise, therefore, only as
products and reflections of material conditions. Marx and Engels understood
materialism as the opposite of idealism, by which they meant any theory
that treats matter as dependent on mind or spirit, or mind or spirit as
capable of existing independently of matter. For them, the materialist and
idealist views were irreconcilably opposed throughout the historical
development of philosophy. They adopted a thoroughgoing materialist
approach, holding that any attempt to combine or reconcile materialism with
idealism must result in confusion and inconsistency.

The basic principle underlying mod”rn capitalism, according to Weber, is the

rational organisation of productive enterprises, which supply society with its
everyday wants. In this sub-section, we shall see what preconditions or
socio-economic milieu is necessary for the development of rational
capitalism.Capitalism as a “structural principle of the economy,” according to
Weber, can take different forms of the organization of labor and different
forms of enterprise: As a “capitalist slave-enterprise” in antiquity,24 as large-
scale industrial enterprise or rationalized rural-economic enterprise in
modernity.

6) Discuss Karl max class conflict and theory of alienation.

Class conflict in the current era consists of the proletariat and the
bourgeoisie. The proletariat is the class of those who sell their labor for
wages, i.e., workers. The bourgeoisie is the class of those who own the
means of production and can buy the labor power of others.Class conflict in
the current era consists of the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. The
proletariat is the class of those who sell their labor for wages, i.e., workers.
The bourgeoisie is the class of those who own the means of production and
can buy the labor power of others.Five stages of society as given by Marx
are: 1) Primitive-Communal System 2) Slavery 3) Feudalism 4) Capitalism 5)
Communism.

Alienation is the objective structure of experience and activity in capitalist

society. Capitalist society cannot exist without it. Capitalist society, in its very
essence, requires that people be placed into such a structure and, even
better, that they come to believe and accept that it is natural and justThe
four dimensions of alienation identified by Marx are alienation from: (1) the
product of labor, (2) the process of labor, (3) others, and (4) self.

In the broadest sense of the word, alienation is the process through which a
person becomes isolated from his or her own culture or society. From the
perspective of Karl Marx, alienation occurs when the worker is objectified and
separated from their human nature.

7) Write weber’s analysis of modernity in the context of Protestant ethics and

spirt of capitalism.

Max Weber’s analysis of modernity, as explored in The Protestant Ethic and

the Spirit of Capitalism (1905), is a profound examination of the relationship
between religion, economic systems, and societal transformation. His work
highlights how certain religious values contributed to the emergence and
consolidation of modern capitalist societies. Here’s a breakdown of his
argument:

The Protestant Ethic

1. Calvinist Theology and Predestination: Weber focuses on Calvinism, a

branch of Protestantism, which emphasizes the doctrine of
predestination. According to this belief, an individual’s salvation is
predetermined by God, creating anxiety about one’s spiritual status.
Calvinists sought signs of being among the “elect,” leading them to
engage in disciplined, industrious behavior.
2. Asceticism and Rational Conduct: Calvinist asceticism encouraged self-
discipline, hard work, and frugality as moral virtues. Luxuries and
excessive consumption were shunned. This ascetic ethic
unintentionally aligned with the principles of capital accumulation and
reinvestment, fostering economic growth.

Spirit of Capitalism

1. Ethos of Rationality and Efficiency: Weber identified a “spirit of

capitalism” characterized by systematic, disciplined, and rational
economic behavior. This ethos valued profit-making not for personal
indulgence but as an ethical calling or duty.
2. Transition from Traditionalism: Modern capitalism required a break from
traditional, agrarian economies rooted in family obligations and
communal ties. Protestant values, Weber argued, encouraged this shift
by promoting individual responsibility and rational organization of life,
aligning with capitalist demands.
Modernity and Rationalization

1. Rationalization as a Defining Feature of Modernity: Weber viewed

modernity as marked by increasing rationalization—the systematic
organization of social, economic, and political life based on efficiency
and logic. The Protestant ethic contributed to this by promoting
calculated, methodical approaches to work and life.
2. Iron Cage of Bureaucracy: While Protestant ethics facilitated the rise of
modern capitalism, Weber warned of its unintended consequence: the
“iron cage” of bureaucratic rationality. Modernity replaced spiritual
meaning with impersonal institutions and relentless pursuit of
efficiency, trapping individuals in a dehumanized system.

Significance in the Context of Modernity

Weber’s analysis connects religious transformation to economic and social

changes, showing how Protestantism shaped the ethos required for capitalist
modernity. He argued that while the Protestant ethic was crucial during
capitalism’s emergence, the religious motivations waned as rational
capitalism became self-sustaining.

In conclusion, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism offers a

nuanced understanding of how cultural values influence structural change.
For Weber, modernity is both an achievement of rational organization and a
potential source of existential alienation.

8) what is social fact according to that time(or)define social fact with

example.

In sociology, social facts are values, cultural norms, and social structures that
transcend the individual and can exercise social control. The French
sociologist Émile Durkheim defined the term, and argued that the discipline
of sociology should be understood as the empirical study of social facts.

A social fact consists of collective thoughts and shared expectations that

influence individual. Actions. Examples of social facts include social roles,
norms, laws, values, rituals, and customs. Violating social facts confirms their
existence because people who act against social facts are. Typically
sanctioned.It’s not a physical thing, but a concept that society generally
agrees upon. Examples of social facts include religion, currency, the nation-
state, morality, chivalry, and the family.

Types of Social Facts Durkheim Discussed

Durkheim differentiated social facts into two main types:

Material Social Facts

Material social facts are the physical or architectural elements of society,

including laws, customs, and institutions. They are palpable, and their
existence can be empirically verified.

Non-Material Social Facts

Non-material social facts, on the other hand, refer to abstract elements like
social currents, collective conscience, and societal norms. These are not
visible, yet their effects can be observed in the behavior of individuals.

OR

In short, social facts are social structures and cultural norms and values that
are external to, independent of, and coercive to individual actors. For e.g.
Religion is a social fact. Religion is a thing that must be studied
empirically.Social facts are the reason why people within a society seem to
choose to do the same basic things; e.g., where they live, what they eat, and
how they interact. The society they belong to shapes them to do these
things, continuing social facts.

Durkheim’s examples of social facts included social institutions such as

kinship and marriage, currency, language, religion, political organization, and
all societal institutions we must account for in everyday interactions with
other members of our societies. Deviating from the norms of such
institutions makes the individual unacceptable or misfit in the group.

Social facts include laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions,
rituals, and all the cultural rules that govern social life. All of these can be
considered as social facts

Short question
1)What is the subject matter of Sociology?
Sociology is the study of social life, social change, and the social
causes and consequences of human behavior. Sociologists
investigate the structure of groups, organizations, and societies,
and how people interact within these contexts.Sociology’s subject
matter is diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the family
to the state, from the divisions of race and social class to the
shared beliefs of a common culture, and from social stability to
radical change in whole societies.
2)What is Tocqueville’s idea of democracy?

In these works, Tocqueville explains the origins and character of modern life
in the “Christian universe,” which he believes is dominated by a single fact:
the “equality of conditions,” or democracy. Tocqueville understands
democracy not merely as self-government but as a comprehensive way of
life.Democracy appears not only as equality but as self-government that
presides over a democratic society or “social state.” The point of departure is
a certain

3)Write a short note on Saint Simon’s contribution to the emergency of

Sociology.

Saint-Simon proposed, as the precept of the new Christianity, that “The

whole of society ought to strive towards the amelioration of the moral and
physical existence of the poorest class; society ought to organize itself in the
way best adapted for attaining this end.”

4).What is Positivism and discuss its importance in Sociology.

Positivism is an approach to sociology, as well as philosophy, that relies on

empirical evidence, such as those found through experiments and statistics,
to reveal information about how society functions. Sociology should approach
research in the same way as the natural sciences. It should be objective and
logical.

5) Discuss positivism & laws of three stages by Auguste Comte.

Auguste Comte (1798-1857), a French philosopher, is considered the father

of positivism and sociology. His groundbreaking work laid the foundation for
modern sociology, philosophy of science, and the scientific method.

Positivism

Positivism is a philosophical approach that emphasizes the use of scientific

methods and observable data to understand the world. Comte argued that
knowledge should be derived from observation, experimentation, and the
formulation of laws, rather than from metaphysics, theology, or speculation.
Comte’s positivism has several key features:

1. *Observation*: Comte emphasized the importance of direct observation

and experience in gaining knowledge.

2. *Empiricism*: He argued that knowledge should be derived from sensory

experience and data, rather than from abstract reasoning or speculation.

3. *Scientific method*: Comte advocated for the use of the scientific method,
involving the formulation of hypotheses, testing, and verification.

4. *Rejection of metaphysics*: Comte rejected metaphysical explanations

and speculation, arguing that they were unverifiable and lacked empirical
support.

Laws of the Three Stages

Comte’s Laws of the Three Stages (Lois des Trois États) describe the
evolution of human knowledge and society through three distinct stages:

*1. Theological Stage (Fictitious or Abstract)*

In this initial stage, humans explain natural phenomena through supernatural

or divine forces. Knowledge is based on theology, mythology, and
speculation.

*2. Metaphysical Stage (Abstract or Speculative)*

During this stage, humans attempt to explain natural phenomena through

abstract concepts, such as essences, forms, or spirits. Knowledge is based on
philosophical speculation and abstract reasoning.

*3. Positive Stage (Scientific or Observational)*

In the final stage, humans rely on observation, experimentation, and

scientific methods to understand natural phenomena. Knowledge is based on
empirical evidence, laws, and verifiable data.
Comte believed that human knowledge and society progress through these
three stages, with each stage representing a more advanced and
sophisticated level of understanding.

Impact and Legacy

Comte’s positivism and Laws of the Three Stages have had a profound
impact on various fields:

1. *Sociology*: Comte is considered the founder of sociology, and his work

laid the groundwork for the development of modern sociology.

2. *Philosophy of science*: Comte’s positivism influenced the development of

the philosophy of science, emphasizing the importance of empirical evidence
and scientific methods.

3. *Scientific methodology*: Comte’s advocacy for the scientific method has

had a lasting impact on various scientific disciplines.

Overall, Comte’s work has shaped our understanding of knowledge, science,

and society, and his ideas continue to influence contemporary thought in
sociology, philosophy, and science.

6).How did French Revolution contributed to the emergence of Sociology?

Society was significantly impacted because of the changes in the French

Revolution. This revolution eliminated the social distinctions between the
feudal society and the people. The church’s power was taken away and
passed on to the hands of the people. For the first time, people felt like
citizens.

7)7.What is Industrial Revolution? Discuss its contribution to modernity.

The Industrial Revolution transformed economies that had been based on

agriculture and handicrafts into economies based on large-scale industry,
mechanized manufacturing, and the factory system. New machines, new
power sources, and new ways of organizing work made existing industries
more productive and efficient.