INDIA The Gupta Dynasty (320-467 B.C.

) was the next great

political power. During this time, Hinduism reached full
1. Literary Periods. The Indus Valley civilization flowering and was evident in culture and arts.
flourished in northern India between 2500 and 1500
B.C. The Aryans, a group of nomadic warriors and
herders, were the earliest known migrants into India. Mahabharata, traditionally ascribed to the sage Vyasa,
They brought with them a well-developed language consists of a mass of legendary and didactic material
and literature and a set of religious beliefs. that tells of the struggle for supremacy between two
groups of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas set
a. Vedic Period (1500 B.C. –500 B.C.). This period is sometime 3102 BC. The poem is made up of almost
named for the Vedas, a set of hymns that formed the 100,000 couplets divided into 18 parvans or sections.
cornerstone of Aryan culture. Hindus consider the It is an exposition on dharma (codes of conduct),
Vedas, which were transmitted orally by priests, to be including the proper conduct of a king, of a warrior, of
the most sacred of all literature for they believe these a man living in times of calamity, and of a person
to have been revealed to humans directly by the gods. seeking to attain emancipation from rebirth

The Rigveda which has come to mean “hymns of

supreme sacred knowledge,” is the foremost collection The Bhagavad Gita (The Blessed Lord’s Song) is one of
or Samhita made up of 1,028 hymns. The oldest of the the greatest and most beautiful of the Hindu scriptures.
Vedas, it contains strong, energetic, non-speculative It is regarded by the Hindus in somewhat the same way
hymns, often comparable to the psalms in the Old as the Gospels are by Christians. It forms part of Book
Testament. The Hindus regard these hymns as divinely IV and is written in the form of a dialogue between the
inspired or ‘heard’ directly from the gods. warrior Prince Arjuna and his friend and charioteer,
Krishna, who is also an earthly incarnation of the god
The Song of Creation Vishnu.
Then was not non-existent nor existent: there was no
realm of air, no sky beyond it From the Bhagavad

Gita Arjuna: Krishna, what defines a man/ deep in

What covered it, and where? And what gave shelter?
contemplation whose insight/ and thought are
Was water there? unfathomable depth of water?
sure? How would he speak? / How would he sit? How
would he move?
Death was not then, nor was there aught immortal, no
sign was there, the day's and night's divider. Lord Krishna: When he gives up desires in his mind,/ is
content with the self within himself,/ then he is said to
That one thing, breathless, breathed by its own nature: be a man/ whose insight is sure, Arjuna.When suffering
apart from it was nothing whatsoever. does not disturb his mind,/ when his craving for
pleasures has vanished,/ when attraction, fear, and
Darkness there was: at first concealed in darkness, this anger are gone,/ he is called a sage whose thought is
All was indiscriminated chaos. sure.

All that existed then wax void and formless: by the The Ramayana was composed in Sanskrit, probably not
great power of warmth was born that unit. before 300 BC, by the poet Valmiki and consists of
some 24,000 couplets divided into seven books. It
b. Epic and Buddhist Age (500 B.C. – A.D.). The period reflects the Hindu values and forms of social
of composition of the two great epics, Mahabharata organization, the theory of karma, the ideals of
and the Ramayana. This time was also the growth of wifehood, and feelings about caste, honor and
later Vedic literature, new Sanskrit literature, and promises. The poem describes the royal birth of Rama,
Buddhist literature in Pali. The Dhammapada was also his tutelage under the sage Visvamitra, and his success
probably composed during this period. The Maurya in bending Siva’s mighty bow, thus winning Sita, the
Empire (322-230 B.C.) ruled by Ashoka promoted daughter of King Janaka, for his wife. After Rama is
Buddhism and preached goodness, nonviolence, and banished from his position as heir by an intrigue, he
‘righteousness’ although this period was known for retreats to the forest with his wife and his half-brother,
warfare and iron-fisted rule. Laksmana. There Ravana, the demon-king of Lanka,
carries off Sita, who resolutely rejects his attentions.
After numerous adventures Rama slays Ravana and Sakuntala, a Sanskrit drama by Kalidasa, tells of the
rescues Sita. When they return to his kingdom, love between Sakuntala and King Dushyanta. What
however, Rama learns that the people question the begins as a physical attraction for both of them
queen’s chastity, and he banishes her to the forest becomes spiritual in the end as their love endures and
where she gives birth to Rama’s two sons. The family surpasses all difficulties. King Dushyanta is a noble and
is reunited when the sons come of age, but Sita, after pious king who upholds his duties above personal
again protesting her innocence, asks to be received by desire. Sakuntala, on the other hand, is a young girl
the earth, which swallows her up. who matures beautifully because of her kindness,
courage, and strength of will. After a period of
From the Ramayana: “Brother’s Faithfulness” suffering, the two are eventually reunited. Emotion or
rasa dominates every scene in Sanskrit drama. These
If my elder and his lady to the pathless forests
emotions vary from love to anger, heroism to
wend, Armed with bow and ample quiver Lakshman cowardice, joy to terror and allows the audience to take
will on them attend,Where the wild deer range the part in the play and be one with the characters.
forest and the lordly tuskers roam, And the bird of
gorgeous plumage nestles in its jungle home, Dearer Excerpt from Sakuntala:
far to me those woodlands where perennial bliss
prevails!Grant me then thy sweet permission, - faithful King. You are too modest. I feel honoured by the
to thy glorious star, Lakshman, shall not wait and tarry mere sight of you.
when his Rama wanders far,Grant me then thy loving Shakuntala. Anusuya, my foot is cut on a sharp blade
mandate, - Lakshman hath no wish to stay, None shall of grass, and my dress is caught on an amaranth
bar the faithful younger when the elder leads the way! twig. Wait for me while I loosen it. (She casts a
c. Classical Period (A.D. – 1000 A.D.). The main literary lingering glance at the king and goes out with her two
language of northern India during this period was friends.)
Sanskrit, in contrast with the Dravidian languages of
King. (sighing). They are gone. And I must go. The
southern India. Sanskrit, which means ‘perfect speech’
sight of Shakuntala has made me dread the return to
is considered a sacred language, the language spoken
the city. I will make my men camp at a distance from
by the gods and goddesses. As such, Sanskrit was seen
the pious grove. But I cannot turn my own thoughts
as the only appropriate language for the noblest
from Shakuntala. It is my body leaves my love, not I;/
literary works. Poetry and drama peaked during this
period. Beast fables such as the Panchatantra were My body moves away, but not my mind; For back to her
popular and often used by religious teachers to struggling fancies fly/ Like silken banners borne
illustrate moral points. against the wind. (Exit.)

The Little Clay Cart (Mrcchakatika) is attributed to

The Panchatantra is a collection of Indian beast fables Shudraka, a king. The characters in this play include a
originally written in Sanskrit. In Europe, the work was Brahman merchant who has lost his money through
known under the title The Fables of Bidpai after the liberality, a rich courtesan in love with a poor young
narrator, and Indian sage named Bidpai, (called man, much description of resplendent palaces, and
Vidyapati in Sanskrit). It is intended as a textbook of both comic and tragic or near-tragic emotional
artha (worldly wisdom); the aphorisms tend to glorify situations.
shrewdness and cleverness more than helping of
others. The original text is a mixture of Sanskrit prose
and stanzas of verse, with the stories contained within PROLOGUE (Benediction upon the audience)
one of five frame stories. The introduction, which acts
as an enclosing frame for the entire work, attributes the May His, may Shiva's meditation be
stories to a learned Brahman named Vishnusarman,
Your strong defense; on the Great Self thinks he,
who used the form of animal fables to instruct the
three dull-witted sons of a king. Knowing full well the world's vacuity.

From the Panchatantra: “Right-Mind and Wrong- And again:

Mind” May Shiva's neck shield you from every harm,
The good and bad of given schemes/ wise thought must That seems a threatening thunder-cloud, whereon,
first reveal: the stupid heron saw his chicks/ provide a
mongoose meal. Bright as the lightning-flash, lies Gauri's arm.
d. Medieval and Modern Age (A.D. 1000 – present). Because Mother had to fight against the old standards,
Persian influence on literature was considerable during and because she was brought up to believe in them, she
this period. Persian was the court language of the has an emotional understanding of them which my
Moslem rulers. In the 18th century India was directly sister I will never have. Brought up in Europe and
under the British Crown and remained so until its educated in preparatory and public schools in England,
Independence in 1947. British influence was strong we felt that the conventions were not only retrogressive
and modern-day Indians are primarily educated in and socially crippling to the country but also a little
English. Many have been brought into the world of ridiculous.
Western learning at the expense of learning about their
own culture. 2. Religions. Indian creativity is evident in religion as
the country is the birthplace of two important faiths:
Hinduism, the dominant religion, and Buddhism, which
Gitanjali: Song Offerings was originally published in ironically became extinct in India but spread
India in 1910 and its translation followed in 1912. In throughout Asia.
these prose translations, Rabindranath Tagore uses
imagery from nature to express the themes of love and a. Hinduism, literally “the belief of the people of India,”
the internal conflict between spiritual longings and is the predominant faith of India and of no other
earthly desires. nation. The Hindus are deeply absorbed with God and
the creation of the universe.

Moment’s Indulgence The Purusarthas are the three ends of man: dharma –
virtue, duty, righteousness, moral law; artha – wealth;
I ask for a moment's indulgence to sit by thy side.The and kama – love or pleasure. A fourth end is moksha –
works that I have in hand I will finish afterwards. Away the renunciation of duty, wealth and love in order to
from the sight of thy face my heart knows no rest nor seek spiritual perfection. It is achieved after the release
respite,and my work becomes an endless toil in a from samsara, the cycle of births and deaths. The
shoreless sea of toil. Hindus believe that all reality is one and spiritual, and
The Taj Mahal, a poem by Sahir Ludhianvi, is about the that each individual soul is identical with this reality
mausoleum in North India built by the Mogul emperor and shares its characteristics: pure being, intelligence,
and bliss. Everything that seems to divide the soul from
Shah Jahan for his wife Mumtaz-iMahal. The façade of
this reality is maya or illusion.
this grandiose structure is made of white marble and is
surrounded by water gardens, gateways, and walks.
Life is viewed as an upward development through four
The tomb at the center of the dome stands on a square
stages of effort called the four asramas: a) the student
block with towers at each corner. The construction of
stage – applies to the rite of initiation into the study of
the building took twenty years to complete involving
the Vedas; b) the householder stage – marries and
some 20, 000 workers.
fulfills the duties as head of the family where he begets
sons and earns a living; c) the stage of the forest
Excerpt from the Taj Mahal dweller – departs from home and renounces the social
world; and d) ascetic – stops performing any of the
Do dead king’s tombs delight you? If so, look into your rituals or social duties of life in the world and devotes
own dark home. In this world, countless people have time for reflection and meditation.
loved. Who says their passions weren’t true? They just
couldn’t afford a public display like this. Kama refers to one of the proper pursuits of man in his
role as householder, that of pleasure and love. The
Kama-sutra is a classic textbook on erotics and other
On Learning to be an Indian an essay by Santha Rama forms of pleasure and love, which is attributed to the
Rau illustrates the telling effects of colonization on the sage Vatsyayana.
lives of the people particularly the younger generation.
The writer humorously narrates the conflicts that arise The Hindus regard Purusha, the Universal Spirit, as the
between her grandmother's traditional Indian values soul and original source of the universe. As the
and the author’s own British upbringing. universal soul, Purusha is the life-giving principle in all
animated beings. As a personified human being,
Purusha's body is the source of all creation.
The four Varnas serve as the theoretical basis for the The Buddhist truth states that bad actions and bad
organization of the Hindu society. These were thought feelings such as selfishness, greed, hostility, hate are
to have been created from Purusha’s body: evil not because they harm others but because of their
- The Brahman (priest) was Purusha’s mouth. Their negative influence on the mental state of the doer. It is
duty is to perform sacrifices, to study and to teach in this sense that evil returns to punish the doer
the Vedas, and to guard the rules of dharma.
Because of their sacred work, they are supreme in The Dhammapada (Way of Truth) is an anthology of
purity and rank. basic Buddhist teaching in a simple aphoristic style.
- The Ksatriyas (warriors) are the arms. From this class One of the best-known books of the Pali Buddhist
arose the kings who are the protectors of society. canon, it contains 423 stanzas arranged in 26 chapters.
- The Vaisyas (peasants) are the thighs. They live by These verses are compared with the Letters of St. Paul
trading, herding, and farming. in the Bible or that of Christ’s Sermon on the Mount.
- The Sudras (serfs) are the feet. They engage in
handicrafts and manual occupation and they are to 3. Major Writers
serve meekly the three classes above them. They are
strictly forbidden to mate with persons of a higher a. Kalidasa a Sanskrit poet and dramatist is probably
varna. the greatest Indian writer of all time. As with most
classical Indian authors, little is known about Kalidasa’s
The Upanishads form a highly sophisticated person or his historical relationships. His poems
commentary on the religious thought suggested by the suggest that he was a Brahman (priest). Many works
poetic hymns of the Rigveda. The name implies, are traditionally ascribed to the poet, but scholars have
according to some traditions, ‘sitting at the feet of the identified only six as genuine.
teacher.’ The most important philosophical doctrine is
the concept of a single supreme being, the Brahman,
and knowledge is directed toward reunion with it by b. Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941). The son of a
the human soul, the Atman or Self. The nature of Great Sage, Tagore is a Bengali poet and mystic who
eternal life is discussed and such themes as the won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913. Tagore
transmigration of souls and causality in creation. managed his father's estates and lived in close contact
with the villagers. His sympathy for their poverty and
b. Buddhism originated in India in the 6th century B.C. backwardness was later reflected in his works. The
This religion is based on the teachings of Siddhartha death of his wife and two children brought him years of
Gautama, called Buddha, or the ‘Enlightened One.’ sadness but this also inspired some of his best poetry.
Much of Buddha’s teaching is focused on self- Tagore is also a gifted composer and a painter.
awareness and self-development in order to attain
nirvana or enlightenment. c. Prem Chand pseudonym of Dhanpat Rai Srivastava
(1880-1936). Indian author of numerous novels and
According to Buddhist beliefs, human beings are bound short stories in Hindi and Urdu who pioneered in
to the wheel of life which is a continual cycle of birth, adapting Indian themes to Western literary styles. He
death, and suffering. This cycle is an effect of karma in worked as a teacher before joining Mahatma Gandhi’s
which a person’s present life and experiences are the anticolonial Noncooperation Movement.
result of past thoughts and actions, and these present • Sevasadana (House of Service). His first major
thoughts and actions likewise create those of the novel deals with the problems of prostitution
future. The Buddhist scriptures uphold the Four Noble and moral corruption among the Indian middle
Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. The Four Noble class.
Truths are: 1) life is suffering; 2) the cause of suffering • Manasarovar (The Holy Lake). A collection of
is desire; 3) the removal of desire is the removal of 250 or so short stories which contains most of
suffering; and 4) the Noble Eightfold Path leads to the Prem Chand’s best works.
end of suffering. The Noble Eightfold Path consists of: • Godan (The Gift of a Cow). This last novel was
1) right understanding; 2) right thought; 3) right Prem Chand’s masterpiece and it deals with his
speech; 4) right action; 5) right means of livelihood; 6) favorite theme – the hard and unrewarding life
right effort; 7) right concentration; and 8) right of the village peasant.
meditation.
d. Kamala Markandaya (1924). Her works concern the • Fire on the Mountain. This work was
struggles of contemporary Indians with conflicting criticized as relying too heavily on imagery
Eastern and Western values. A Brahman, she studied at the expense of plot and
at Madras University then settled in England and characterization, but it was praised for its
married an Englishman. In her fiction, Western values poetic symbolism and use of sounds. This
typically are viewed as modern and materialistic, and won for her the Royal Society of
Indian values as spiritual and traditional. Literature’s Winifred Holtby Memorial
• Nectar in a Sieve. Her first novel and most Prize.
popular work is about an Indian peasant’s
narrative of her difficult life. g. Vir Singh (1872-1957). A Sikh writer and theologian,
he wrote at a time when Sikh religion and politics and
e. R. K. Narayan (1906). One of the finest Indian the Punjabi language were under heavy attack by the
authors of his generation writing in English. He briefly English and Hindus. He extolled Sikh courage,
worked as a teacher before deciding to devote himself philosophy, and ideals, earning respect for the Punjabi
full-time to writing. All of Narayan’s works are set in language as a literary vehicle.
the fictitious South Indian town of Malgudi. They • Kalghi Dhar Chamatkar. This novel is
typically portray the peculiarities of human about the life of the 17th century guru
relationships and the ironies of Indian daily life, in Gobind Singh.
which modern urban existence clashes with ancient • Other novels on Sikh philosophy and
tradition. His style is graceful, marked by genial humor, martial excellence include Sundri
elegance, and simplicity. (1898) and Bijai Singh (1899).

• Swami and Friends. His first novel is an h. Arundhati Roy. A young female writer whose first
episodic narrative recounting the book The God of Small Things won for her a Booker
adventures of a group of schoolboys. Prize.
• Novels: The English Teacher (1945),
Waiting for the Mahatma (1955), The
Guide (1958), The Man-Eater of Malgudi
(1961), The Vendor of Sweets (1967), A
Tiger for Malgudi (1983), and The World of
Nagaraj (1990).
• Collection of Short Stories: Lawley Road
(1956), A Horse and Two Goats and Other
Stories (1970), Under the Banyan Tree and
Other Stories (1985), and Grandmother’s
Tale (1992).

f. Anita Desai (1937). An English-language Indian

novelist and author of children’s books, she is
considered India’s premier imagist writer. She excelled
in evoking character and mood through visual images.
Most of her works reflect Desei’s tragic view of life.

• Cry, the Peacock. Her first novel addresses

the theme of the suppression and
oppression of Indian women.
• Clear Light of Day. Considered the
author’s most successful work, this is a
highly evocative portrait of two sisters
caught in the lassitude of Indian life. This
was shortlisted for the 1980 Booker Prize.