CHAPTER III

THE NORMS OF HUMAN ACTS

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. Explain the relationship between human acts and moral responsibility;
2. Differentiate between various types of laws;
3. Analyze the impact of circumstances on moral culpability;
4. Evaluate the role of intention in moral judgment; and
5. Students will be able to apply the role of conscience in decision making..
Human actions, the conscious and deliberate choices we make, shape not only our
individual lives but also the fabric of society. Understanding what makes an action morally
right or wrong is crucial for navigating the complexities of human existence. This chapter
delves into the norms that guide our moral decision-making, exploring the interplay between
three key elements: Law, Conscience, and the Determinants of Morality.

Lesson 1. Law
A. Definition
St. Thomas Aquinas, a prominent theologian and philosopher of the 13th century,
offers a comprehensive understanding of law, grounding it in reason and the pursuit of the
common good. He defines law as an "ordinance of reason for the common good, promulgated
by one who has care of the community." This definition highlights three crucial elements:
1. Ordinance of Reason: Law is not arbitrary or based on whim but rather grounded in reason.
It seeks to establish order and justice based on principles that can be rationally understood
and justified.
2. For the Common Good: Law aims to promote the well-being and flourishing of the entire
community, not just the interests of individuals or special groups. It seeks to create a just and
harmonious society where everyone can thrive.
3. Promulgated by One Who Has Care of the Community: Law is not simply a set of abstract
principles but must be made known and enforced by a legitimate authority who has
responsibility for the community's well-being. This authority could be a ruler, a government,
or any entity entrusted with upholding the common good.

B. The Four Types of Law

He also developed a comprehensive understanding of law, grounded in reason and
the pursuit of the common good. He identified four types of law, each with its own role in the
moral order:
1. Eternal Law

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This is the divine law that governs the universe and all creation. It represents God's eternal
wisdom and plan for the world. It is the ultimate source of all moral truth and the foundation
upon which all other laws are based. Eternal Law is not a set of written rules but an
overarching principle of order and goodness that permeates all of existence.
Example: The principle of "do good and avoid evil" is a fundamental aspect of Eternal Law.
It reflects the inherent order and goodness of creation, guiding all beings towards their proper
ends.
2. Natural Law
This is the participation of human beings in Eternal Law, accessible through reason. It is the
innate understanding of right and wrong that guides our actions towards what is good.
Natural Law is not a set of specific rules but rather a set of universal principles that are
embedded in our human nature.
Example: The inherent dignity of the human person is a principle of Natural Law. It
recognizes the intrinsic value of every individual, regardless of their background or
circumstances, and calls for respect and just treatment.
3. Human Law
This is the positive law created by human authorities to regulate society and promote the
common good. Human law should be grounded in natural law and reflect the principles of
eternal law. It provides specific rules and regulations for governing society, ensuring order
and justice.
Example: Traffic laws are a form of human law. They regulate the use of roads and vehicles,
ensuring safety and order for the common good.
4. Divine Law
This is the law revealed by God through scripture and tradition. It provides specific guidance
for living a virtuous life and attaining salvation. Divine Law complements natural law,
offering more specific instructions and guidance for living a life in accordance with God's
will.
Example: The Ten Commandments, found in the Bible, are considered a manifestation of
Divine Law. They provide specific moral guidelines for human behavior, such as "Thou shalt
not kill" and "Thou shalt not steal," reflecting God's will and guiding individuals towards a
life of holiness.
St. Thomas Aquinas's four types of law provide a comprehensive framework for
understanding the foundations of morality. Eternal Law serves as the ultimate source of moral
truth, Natural Law guides us through our inherent moral sense, Human Law provides the
specific rules for governing society, and Divine Law offers specific guidance for living a
virtuous life and attaining salvation. By recognizing the interplay of these laws, we can strive
to live in accordance with the moral order and contribute to a just and flourishing society.
C. Classification of Laws
Laws, the rules that govern our societies, can be classified in various ways to better
understand their nature, purpose, and application. Here's a breakdown of classifications based
on the criteria you provided:
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1. According to their Immediate Author
This classification focuses on the source or origin of the law. Here are the primary categories:
a) Divine Law: This law originates from a higher power, typically God, and is revealed
through scripture, divine revelation, or religious teachings. Examples include the Ten
Commandments, the teachings of prophets, and religious codes of conduct.
b) Natural Law: This law is inherent in human nature and is accessible through reason. It
reflects universal principles of morality and justice, such as the inherent dignity of the human
person, the right to life, and the pursuit of happiness.
c) Human Positive Law: This law is created by human authorities, such as legislatures,
courts, or administrative agencies. It consists of written rules, regulations, statutes, and legal
precedents that govern society. Examples include traffic laws, tax codes, and criminal
statutes.
Examples to show
Divine Law: The Ten Commandments, found in the Bible, are considered a manifestation of
Divine Law, originating from God and providing fundamental moral guidelines for human
behavior.
Natural Law: The inherent dignity of the human person is a principle of Natural Law,
recognizing the intrinsic value of every individual, regardless of their background or
circumstances. This principle informs laws against discrimination and promotes respect for
human rights.
Human Positive Law: Traffic laws, such as those regulating speed limits and traffic signals,
are examples of human positive law, created by human authorities to ensure safety and order
on public roads.
2. According to Duration
This classification considers the lifespan or time frame of the law's applicability:
a) Permanent Laws: These laws remain in effect indefinitely until they are explicitly
repealed or amended by a competent authority. Examples include constitutional provisions,
fundamental rights, and basic legal principles.
b) Temporary Laws: These laws have a specific duration, often tied to a particular event,
circumstance, or time period. They expire automatically upon the conclusion of that period.
Examples include emergency decrees, temporary tax measures, or laws related to specific
public health crises.
Examples to show
Permanent Laws: The 1987 Philippine Constitution, a foundational document outlining
fundamental rights and the structure of government, is a permanent law, intended to remain in
effect indefinitely, though it can be amended through a specific process.
Temporary Laws: Emergency decrees issued during a natural disaster, such as curfews or
price controls, are temporary laws designed to address specific circumstances and expire once
the emergency has passed.

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3. According to Manner of Promulgation
This classification focuses on how the law is made known to the public:
a) Expressly Promulgated Laws: These laws are formally declared and published in official
gazettes, legal journals, or other designated channels. They are clearly and explicitly
communicated to the public, leaving no room for ambiguity or misinterpretation.
b) Impliedly Promulgated Laws: These laws are not formally declared but are understood
and accepted as binding due to long-standing practices, customs, or traditions within a
community. They are often based on customary law or social norms that have evolved over
time.
Examples to show
Expressly Promulgated Laws: New tax regulations, published in official government gazettes,
are examples of expressly promulgated laws, clearly communicated to the public through
designated channels.
Impliedly Promulgated Laws: The tradition of tipping in restaurants, while not explicitly
mandated by law, is an example of an impliedly promulgated law, accepted as a social norm
and expectation.
4. According to Whether They Prescribe an Act or Forbid It
This classification distinguishes between laws that mandate or encourage certain
actions and those that prohibit or restrict them:
a) Prescriptive Laws: These laws establish rules, guidelines, or procedures that individuals
or entities must follow. They prescribe specific actions, behaviors, or practices that are
considered acceptable or required. Examples include laws requiring individuals to pay taxes,
laws governing business transactions, and laws regulating the use of public spaces.
b) Prohibitory Laws: These laws forbid or restrict certain actions, behaviors, or activities
that are deemed harmful, unethical, or illegal. They establish boundaries and penalties for
violating those restrictions. Examples include laws against murder, theft, assault, and drug
trafficking.
Examples to show
Prescriptive Laws: Laws requiring individuals to pay taxes or register their vehicles are
examples of prescriptive laws, establishing obligations or procedures that must be followed.
Prohibitory Laws: Laws against murder, theft, and assault are examples of prohibitory laws,
forbidding specific actions and establishing penalties for violating those restrictions.
5. According to the Effect of their Violation
This classification considers the consequences of breaking the law:
a) Penal Laws: These laws prescribe specific punishments or penalties for violating their
provisions. They aim to deter crime, protect society, and ensure justice for victims. Examples
include criminal statutes that impose fines, imprisonment, or community service for offenses.

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b) Civil Laws: These laws focus on resolving disputes between individuals or entities,
seeking compensation for harm or breach of contract. They aim to restore fairness and
balance between parties, rather than imposing criminal penalties. Examples include laws
governing contracts, property rights, and personal injury claims.
Examples to show
Penal Laws: Laws against drug trafficking, which carry severe penalties such as
imprisonment, are examples of penal laws, aiming to deter crime and punish offenders.
Civil Laws: Laws governing contract disputes, where individuals can sue for damages or
breach of agreement, are examples of civil laws, focused on resolving disputes and restoring
fairness between parties.

Exercises
Activity 1.Case Study Analysis
Direction: Analyze the case study, addressing the following questions for each:
How does this scenario relate to Eternal Law (the overarching principle of good and evil)?
What principles of Natural Law are relevant to the situation? Are any being violated?
What are the relevant aspects of Human Law (existing laws and regulations)? Do they align
with Natural Law?
How might Divine Law (religious teachings or moral principles) inform a decision in this
situation?
Based on your analysis, what would be the morally right course of action according to
Aquinas's framework? Justify your answer.
Scenario : A company is considering outsourcing its manufacturing to a country with lax
environmental regulations, allowing for lower production costs but causing significant
environmental damage.
Activity 2. Creating a Legal Code
Direction: Among the societal problem given below, select only one and design a short legal
code to address the assigned issue.
 Cyberbullying
 Environmental protection in a specific area
 Fair use of social media
 Food waste reduction

Lesson 2. Conscience

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 In ethics, conscience is often described as the inner voice that guides our moral
decisions. It's not a rigid set of rules but a complex, dynamic process that helps us discern
right from wrong and make choices in line with our values.
Here's a deeper look at conscience!
1. The Nature of Conscience:
Inner Voice: Conscience is often experienced as a feeling, a sense of right or wrong, a
prompting towards good or a warning against evil. It can be a strong feeling of guilt or
shame, a sense of peace or satisfaction, or simply a quiet inner judgment.
Not a Rule Book: Conscience is not a fixed set of rules or a pre-programmed moral code. It's
a process of discernment that involves reflection, reasoning, and the application of our values
to specific situations.
Influenced by Many Factors: Our conscience is shaped by our upbringing, experiences,
education, relationships, and cultural influences. It's not static but develops and evolves
throughout life.
2. The Role of Conscience in Ethics:
Moral Guide: Conscience plays a crucial role in ethical decision-making. It helps us identify
what is right and wrong in specific situations, prompting us to act according to our values.
Internal Judge: Conscience also acts as an internal judge, evaluating our actions and
prompting us to feel remorse or satisfaction based on our moral choices.
Basis for Moral Responsibility: Conscience is considered a key element of moral
responsibility, as it implies that we are capable of knowing right from wrong and making
choices based on that knowledge.
3. Challenges to Conscience:
Erroneous Conscience: Conscience can be misinformed or influenced by faulty reasoning,
biases, or incomplete information. This can lead to making morally wrong choices while
believing them to be right.
Weak Conscience: Conscience can be underdeveloped, lacking in moral clarity or strength.
This can make it difficult to discern right from wrong or to act on our convictions.
Ignorance: A lack of knowledge or understanding of moral principles can also lead to a
poorly formed conscience.
4. Developing a Well-Formed Conscience:
Reflection and Discernment: Regularly reflecting on our values, beliefs, and actions helps us
develop a more informed and sensitive conscience.
Seeking Guidance: Consulting with trusted mentors, religious leaders, or ethical experts can
provide valuable insights and perspectives.
Learning and Growing: Continuously seeking knowledge and understanding of ethical
principles and moral reasoning strengthens our conscience.

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 Forming a well-formed conscience is a lifelong journey of learning, reflection, and
engagement. It's a process of discerning our values, seeking guidance, and continually
striving to act in alignment with our understanding of right and wrong. By embracing this
ongoing process of moral growth, we can cultivate a conscience that guides us towards
ethical living and contributes to a more just and compassionate world.

Exercises
Activity 1. Reflection paper
Direction: Write a reflection paper about the topic conscience
Activity 2. How it Work
Direction: Write an instance/scenario where your conscience worked for you

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 Lesson 3. Determinants of Morality
The morality of an action is not simply determined by the act itself, but by a complex
interplay of factors. These factors, often called the "determinants of morality," are:
Object: The specific action itself, considered in its nature.
Intention: The purpose or goal the person has in mind when performing the action.
Circumstance: The surrounding factors that can influence the morality of the action.
Let's explore each of these determinants in detail, along with relevant ethical principles:
1. Object:
The object is the "what" of the action. It's the concrete act itself, independent of any
particular intention or circumstance. It's the core of the action, defining its nature.
Ethical Principle: The principle of intrinsic goodness or badness applies here. Some actions
are inherently good or bad, regardless of intention or circumstance. For example:
Good Object: Helping someone in need.
Bad Object: Stealing, lying, or killing.
2. Intention:
The intention is the "why" behind the action. It's the purpose or goal the person has
in mind when performing the act. Intention can significantly influence the morality of an
action.
Ethical Principle: The principle of double effect is relevant here. This principle states that if
an action has both good and bad consequences, it is morally permissible if the good effect is
intended and the bad effect is unintended, unavoidable, and not disproportionate to the good
effect. For example:
Good Intention: A doctor administers a strong painkiller to a terminally ill patient, knowing it
may shorten their life but intending to relieve their suffering.
Bad Intention: A person lies to a friend to protect their feelings, but their intention is to
manipulate them.
3. Circumstance:
Circumstances are the "who, where, when, and how" of the action. They are the
surrounding factors that can increase or decrease the moral gravity of an action.
Ethical Principle: The principle of proportionality is relevant here. This principle states that
the means used to achieve a good end should be proportionate to the end itself. For example:
Aggravating Circumstance: Stealing a small amount of money from a wealthy person is less
serious than stealing a large amount of money from a poor person.
Mitigating Circumstance: A person who steals food to feed their starving family may be
judged less harshly than someone who steals for personal gain.

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4. Ethical Principles in Action:
It's important to note that these determinants often interact and influence each other.
For example, an action with a good object can become morally wrong if the intention is bad
or if the circumstances are aggravating.
Example:
Object: Giving a gift.
Intention: To show appreciation or to manipulate someone.
Circumstance: The gift is given in a public setting or in private.
Depending on the intention and circumstance, giving a gift can be a morally good
action or a morally wrong action.
Understanding the determinants of morality helps us analyze the complexity of
human actions and make more informed ethical judgments. By considering the object,
intention, and circumstance, we can develop a more nuanced and responsible approach to
moral decision-making.

5. Exercises
Activity 1. Examine this
Direction: Examine the scenario and determine whether it is good or Evil.
Scenario: Juan Dela Cruz steals from a rich man to give the money to the poor and
needy in the streets.
Activity 2. The Principle
Direction: Explain the meaning of the quotation.
“ The End does not justify the means”

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 Chapter III Assessment Task
Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1) According to St. Thomas Aquinas, what is the primary purpose of law?
a) To enforce order and maintain social control.
b) To promote the well-being and flourishing of the community.
c) To reflect the will of God and ensure salvation.
d) To establish a system of punishments for wrongdoing.
2) Which of the following is NOT a key element of St. Thomas Aquinas's definition of law?
a) Ordinance of reason
b) For the common good
c) Promulgated by a legitimate authority
d) Based on divine revelation
3) Which type of law is considered the ultimate source of all moral truth?
a) Natural Law
b) Human Law
c) Eternal Law
d) Divine Law
4) What is the primary difference between Natural Law and Human Law?
a) Natural Law is based on reason, while Human Law is based on divine revelation.
b) Natural Law is universal and unchanging, while Human Law is specific to a particular
society.
c) Natural Law is concerned with individual morality, while Human Law is concerned
with social order.
d) Natural Law is enforced by God, while Human Law is enforced by human authorities.
5) Which of the following is an example of Divine Law?
a) The Constitution of the United States
b) The Ten Commandments
c) The laws of physics
d) The laws of economics
6) Laws that are formally declared and published in official channels are known as:
a) Impliedly promulgated laws
b) Expressly promulgated laws
c) Permanent laws
d) Temporary laws
7) Which type of law primarily aims to deter crime and protect society?
a) Civil laws
b) Penal laws
c) Prescriptive laws
d) Prohibitory laws
8) What is the primary function of conscience in ethical decision-making?
a) To provide a set of absolute moral rules.
b) To help us discern right from wrong in specific situations.
c) To ensure that we always make the most rational choice.
d) To eliminate all doubt and uncertainty about moral judgments.
9) Which of the following is NOT a factor that can influence the development of our
conscience?

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 a) Upbringing
b) Experiences
c) Genetic predisposition
d) Cultural influences
10) What is an erroneous conscience?
a) A conscience that is overly strict and judgmental.
b) A conscience that is unable to make moral judgments.
c) A conscience that is misinformed or influenced by faulty reasoning.
d) A conscience that is constantly changing and evolving
11) Which of the following is a key step in developing a well-formed conscience?
a) Avoiding all difficult moral decisions.
b) Relying solely on intuition and gut feelings.
c) Regularly reflecting on our values and actions.
d) Ignoring the opinions of others and following our own instincts
12) Which of the following is the "what" of an action, defining its nature?
a) Intention
b) Circumstance
c) Object
d) Consequence
13) The principle of intrinsic goodness or badness applies to which determinant of morality?
a) Intention
b) Circumstance
c) Object
d) Consequence
14) What is the "why" behind an action, influencing its morality?
a) Intention
b) Circumstance
c) Object
d) Consequence
15) The principle of double effect is relevant to which determinant of morality?
a) Intention
b) Circumstance
c) Object
d) Consequence
16) Which of the following is NOT a factor that can influence the moral gravity of an action?
a) The time of day
b) The location of the action
c) The social status of the people involved
d) The potential consequences of the action
17) The principle of proportionality is relevant to which determinant of morality?
a) Intention
b) Circumstance
c) Object
d) Consequence
18) Which of the following scenarios best illustrates the principle of double effect?
a) A doctor prescribes a medication that has both beneficial and harmful side effects.
b) A person lies to a friend to protect their feelings, even though it may hurt them in the
long run.
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 c) A company outsources its manufacturing to a country with lax environmental
regulations.
d) A person steals food to feed their starving family.
19) A company is considering outsourcing its manufacturing to a country with lax
environmental regulations. According to Aquinas's framework, which of the following
would be the most morally right course of action?
a) Outsourcing the manufacturing to reduce costs, regardless of the environmental
impact.
b) Refusing to outsource the manufacturing, even if it means higher costs.
c) Seeking ways to reduce the environmental impact of outsourcing, even if it means
higher costs.
d) Outsourcing the manufacturing but donating to environmental charities to offset the
damage.
20) Juan Dela Cruz steals from a rich man to give the money to the poor and needy in the
streets. According to the determinants of morality, is this action good or evil?
a) Good, because the intention is to help the poor.
b) Evil, because stealing is inherently wrong.
c) Good, because the circumstances justify the action.
d) Evil, because the end does not justify the means.
21) Which of the following is a key principle related to the concept of "the end does not
justify the means"?
a) The principle of double effect
b) The principle of proportionality
c) The principle of intrinsic goodness or badness
d) The principle of natural law
22) What is the relationship between conscience and law?
a) Conscience is always in conflict with law.
b) Conscience is a substitute for law.
c) Law is always a reflection of conscience.
d) Conscience can guide us in interpreting and applying the law.
23) When might a person's conscience conflict with the law?
a) When the law is unjust or immoral.
b) When the law is too strict and restrictive.
c) When the law is too lenient and permissive.
d) All of the above.
24) How can a well-formed conscience help us navigate complex legal situations?
a) By providing a clear set of rules to follow.
b) By helping us to understand the underlying principles of justice and fairness.
c) By ensuring that we always obey the law, regardless of our personal beliefs.
d) By allowing us to make decisions based on our own personal values, even if they
conflict with the law.
25) What is the relationship between human acts and moral responsibility?
a) Human acts are the sole determinant of moral responsibility.
b) Moral responsibility is independent of human acts.
c) Human acts are a necessary but not sufficient condition for moral responsibility.
d) Moral responsibility is only applicable to actions that are explicitly forbidden by law.
26) How can circumstances impact moral culpability?
a) Circumstances can never mitigate moral culpability.
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 b) Circumstances can always justify any action.
c) Circumstances can increase or decrease the moral gravity of an action.
d) Circumstances are irrelevant to moral responsibility.
27) Which of the following is an example of a mitigating circumstance that could reduce
moral culpability?
a) Acting out of malice or hatred.
b) Acting under duress or threat.
c) Acting with full knowledge and consent.
d) Acting for personal gain.
28) What is the key to making sound ethical judgments?
a) Following a rigid set of rules.
b) Relying on intuition and gut feelings.
c) Considering the object, intention, and circumstance of an action.
d) Avoiding all difficult moral decisions.
29) How can we apply the principles of morality to real-world situations?
a) By blindly following the law.
b) By relying solely on our own personal values.
c) By engaging in critical thinking and reflection.
d) By ignoring the consequences of our actions.
30) Which of the following is the most important aspect of ethical decision-making?
a) Achieving the desired outcome.
b) Avoiding any potential negative consequences.
c) Acting in accordance with our values and principles.
d) Following the rules and regulations of society

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