Zurich Model United Nations

www.zumun.ch

United Nations Educational, Scientific

and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
Study Guide for Zurich Model United Nations
Written by Philipp Simons and Selma Steinhoff
April 14th to 17th 2016
Zurich, Switzerland

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Dear Delegates,

We are it is our utmost pleasure to welcome you to the second session of Zurich Model United Nations
(ZuMUN) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). We
are excited to meet all of you, and to spend 4 days of intense debate and great social events together
with you. During your time in Zürich, we will give our best to provide you with the best experience
possible.

Both topics of UNESCO – Cultural Heritage protection in war zones and equal education
opportunities for all genders – are of great significance for the global community. We are excited to
hear all of your input on these pressing issues, and hope that all of you will live the MUN spirit of
collaboration and dedication in order to reach a strong resolution on the topics.

We hope this study guide supports you in your research and preparation for the conference. However,
we strongly encourage you to go beyond the content of this guide – find out about your country’s
position and learn all you can about the issues at hand. The better prepared you are, the more fun you
will have in debating with your colleagues at ZuMUN!

All delegates are required to hand in a position paper by April 15, 2016. In case you want us to review
the papers, and give you feedback, we encourage you to send us your position papers well in advance
of this deadline. In this case, we will provide you with help and give you time to improve your
position papers before the deadline.

In case you have any questions about the conference, please do not hesitate to contact us at
unesco@zumun.ch.

We wish you all the best in your preparations and look forward to seeing you at the Conference!

Sincerely,

Philipp Simons

Selma Steinhoff

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Contents
Your Chairs ........................................................................................................................................4
Introduction to UNESCO ....................................................................................................................5
Topic A: Cultural Heritage protection in war zones .............................................................................6
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................6
Scope and Background of the Issue .................................................................................................7
Past actions .....................................................................................................................................9
Further Actions are Required ........................................................................................................ 12
Questions which a Resolution Should Address: ............................................................................. 13
Bibliography and Further Reading ................................................................................................. 13
Topic B: Equal education opportunities for all genders ...................................................................... 15
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 15
Global Progress ............................................................................................................................. 15
Overcoming Economic and Sociocultural Barriers......................................................................... 19
Policies to improve boys’ participation .......................................................................................... 21
Educational Regions ..................................................................................................................... 22
Questions to Consider ................................................................................................................... 27
Bibliography and Further Reading ................................................................................................. 28
Closing remarks ................................................................................................................................ 29

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Your Chairs
My name is Philipp and I am delighted to welcome you to UNESCO at
ZuMUN. It is an exceptional honor to serve as your chair at this conference.
I am a PhD student in Material Science at ETH Zürich, where I also did my
Bachelor’s in Physics and my Master’s in Energy Science and Technology.
My involvement with Model United Nations started in my first year of my
undergrad back in 2010, and has been a major part of my life ever since. I have attended many
conferences all over the world and held various positions on the board of ETH Model United Nations.
Model United Nations has been such a rewarding experience and really shaped my view of the world
we live in. It is amazing to meet people like you from all over the world who are highly motivated and
intelligent - and discuss the world’s most pressing issues with them! I am sure all of you feel the same
way and I am eager to hear all of your input and see you put your motivation and talent into action at
the conference. Beside MUN I am very interested in renewable energy sources and energy storage
systems. In my free time I like to go skiing, hiking or biking, and I am a great fan of Jazz music – both
listening and playing it myself on the electric guitar. I am looking forward to a fruitful debate in
UNESCO and I am eager to getting to know all of you!

My name is Selma and I am very excited to be chairing this committee together

with my amazing Co-Chair. I am currently studying Computer Science at ETH
Zürich. ETH is also where I first heard about MUN. During the past three years I
attended multiple national and international conferences and used our weekly
training sessions to further improve my negotiation skills. This will be my first
experience chairing at a Conference but rest assured that I will have got the
preparation needed to fulfill this task. When university allows time for it I enjoy
way too much coffee and pizza, meeting new people, and participating in a number of gym classes – to
balance out my rather unhealthy lifestyle. I am still an active member of the youth group in my
hometown and organize several events ranging from the yearly summer camp to weekly activities.
MUN was where I met some of my dearest friends and made unforgettable memories. I surely hope
this conference will not only fulfill but surpass your expectations and turn out to be a wonderful
experience for all of you!

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Introduction to UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization was created in 1945 as the
United Nations’ body with the aim to bolster international collaboration and secure peace on the basis
of “moral and intellectual solidarity”. UNESCO’s goals reach from providing education to all children
on earth, and fostering international scientific collaboration, to protecting cultural heritage, supporting
cultural diversity, and protecting freedom of expression. Just like the entire United Nations system,
UNESCO was created as a response to two devastating World Wars, with the aim to secure peace and
security on the basis of international collaboration. As of February 2016, UNESCO has 195 member
states and 10 associate members.

UNESCO has declared two overarching objectives: “peace” and “equitable and sustainable
development”. It has furthermore identified two global priorities in its actions: “Africa” and “gender
equality”. UNESCO aims to be a leader in its fields of competence, and has the goal and aspiration to
set the global agenda in all issues related to global educational, scientific and cultural matters.

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Topic A: Cultural Heritage protection in war zones

Introduction

The UNESCO World Heritage program seeks to protect cultural and natural sites which have
an outstanding value to humanity. The World Heritage program is governed by the
Convention concerning the Protection of the World Natural and Cultural Heritage (also
known as the World Heritage Convention), an international treaty which was adopted by the
General Conference of UNESCO in 1972. The Convention defines the kind of natural or
cultural sites which can be considered for inscription in the World Heritage List. It
furthermore defines the duties of States Parties to identify, protect and preserve such sites, and
stipulates how the World Heritage Fund is to be used for providing assistance. To date, 191
states have ratified the World Heritage Convention. It is important to note that the World
Heritage system is largely based on the responsibilities of State Parties, and on the
collaboration between the individual State Parties. In particular, State Parties are responsible
to protect and preserve the World Heritage sites within their territory, and to report upon the
state of those sites to the World Heritage Committee. The World Heritage Convention defines
two types of World Heritage: Cultural Heritage and Natural Heritage. As of February 2016,
there are 1031 sites listed in the World Heritage List, of which 802 are Cultural, 197 are
1
Natural and 32 are mixed Cultural and Natural Heritage sites.

In case a World Heritage site is threatened to lose the characteristics for which it was
inscribed into the World Heritage List, it can be added to the List of World Heritage in
Danger. State Parties of the World Heritage Convention can request that any site within their
territory be added to the List of World Heritage in Danger, or any private individual, non-
governmental organization or other group can draw the attention of the World Heritage
Committee to a site which might be in danger. There are various possible reasons for an

1
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/

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endangerment of site, for example armed conflicts or wars, earthquake, other natural disasters,
pollution, or an overload of tourist activity. The dangers for World Heritage are categorized in
two classes: “ascertained dangers”, which pose a specific and imminent threat, and “potential
dangers”, which pose a possibly negative or deleterious threat. When a site is enlisted as
endangered, this allows the World Heritage Committee to allocate immediate assistance from
the World Heritage Fund to the property, in order to protect the site from losing its
outstanding characteristics.

Scope and Background of the Issue

Among the many reasons to be listed as in danger, wars and armed conflicts are some of the
most critical threats to the preservation of Cultural Heritage. In recent years, several cases of
deliberate destruction of Cultural Heritage sites have caught the attention of the international
community, such as the destruction of mausolea and shrines in Timbuktu, Mali in 2012 by
Tuareg rebels2, or attacks on the ancient
fortified city of Hatra in Iraq by the
terrorist organization ISIL in 2015 3. In
both of these examples, Islamist terrorist
organizations carried out these deliberate
attacks for religious reasons, with the
goal to destroy cultural goods of
“idolatrous” nature. In addition they
aimed to openly provoke or mock the international community, and thereby demonstrating its
powerlessness in protecting the Cultural Heritage sites. Particularly in the cases of ISIL, this

2
http://www.timeslive.co.za/africa/2012/06/30/islamists-destroy-mali-world-heritage-sites
3
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-31779484

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served the purpose of propaganda, to attract new members who are impressed by an act off
defying the West. Another example of the destruction of Cultural Heritage during wars is the
destruction of Buddha of Bamiyan statues in Afghanistan by the Taliban in 2001 4. In addition,
the Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, a Natural Heritage site
renowned for its biodiversity and endangered species, has been regularly threatened by the
military clashes in the region. 5

However, deliberate attacks on Cultural Heritage sites

are not the only form in which these sites are
threatened or harmed by wars and armed conflicts. A
second form of such a severe threat is the illicit
trafficking of stolen artifacts from Cultural Heritage
sites. Terrorist organizations and criminal
organizations have discovered this lucrative source of
income, and have generated significant revenue by removing artifacts from Cultural Heritage
sites and selling them on the black market. This form of crime is fostered by the general
instability in many of these countries, where theft of artifacts cannot be efficiently prevented
by the police force, or because terrorist organizations control the regions in which the Cultural
Heritage sites lie.

In principle, the destruction of Cultural Heritage

sites can be viewed as a crime of war according to
the Rome Statute of the International Criminal

4
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/1326063/After-1700-years-Buddhas-fall-to-
Taliban-dynamite.html
5
http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/470/

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Court.6 In article 8.2.b.ix it is stated that “Intentionally directing attacks against buildings
dedicated to religion, education, art, science or charitable purposes, historic monuments” is a
war crime, which can be punished by the ICC. However, the Rome Statutes have not been
signed or ratified by many States (including the United States of America, the People’s
Republic of China, the Russian Federation, and several others), which heavily reduces the
significance of the provided definition. In addition, terrorist organizations such as the Islamic
State tend to not pay much attention to international law, making the provided definition
largely ineffective in many cases. Furthermore, the Geneva Convention also mentions the
destruction of Cultural Heritage as a crime of war.

Past actions

The basis for all international action against the destruction of cultural property was laid with
the Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict in
19547, already before the World Heritage Convention was signed. As of to date, 107 states
have signed this convention which attempts to solve many of the key challenges with respect
to the destruction of Cultural Heritage during armed conflicts. However, in light of recent
events, it was clear that this convention by itself did not prove effective in preventing the
destruction or illicit trafficking of Cultural Heritage.

Already in 1995, the UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects
was signed in Rome.8 This convention aims to facilitate the settlement of international claims
in respect to cultural objects. It was drafted upon the request of UNESCO, and is
complimentary to the 1970 UNESCO convention. According to UNIDROIT, “[the] purpose
of the Convention is not to enable or trigger a certain number of restitutions or returns [of

6
https://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/ADD16852-AEE9-4757-ABE7-
9CDC7CF02886/283503/RomeStatutEng1.pdf
7
http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=13637&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html
8
http://www.unidroit.org/instruments/cultural-property/1995-convention

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cultural objects] (of which perforce there will be relatively few) through the courts or by
private agreement, but to reduce illicit trafficking by gradually, but profoundly, changing the
conduct of the actors in the art market and of all buyers.” 9 Prior to the UNIDROIT
convention, there was no consistent international legal basis on how to settle claims on stolen
cultural objects.

The international community in general, and UNESCO in particular, have strongly

condemned the destruction of Cultural Heritage in Syria and Iraq in recent years. UNESCO
has rallied strong international support to protect the Cultural Heritage sites in Syria and Iraq,
which resulted in the adoption of Resolution 2199 by the Security Council on February 12,
2015. In this resolution, the Security Council unanimously condemns the destruction of
Cultural Heritage in Syria and Iraq, outlaws all trade of cultural goods originating in Syria or
Iraq to prevent illicit trafficking of such goods, and requests that UNESCO coordinates the
efforts in the domain of illicit trafficking, together with Interpol. Thus, UNESCO maintains
its key role in coordinating the fight against the destruction of Cultural Heritage. In addition
to the active lobbying for a strong and widely supported resolution on the issue, UNESCO
expanded its own efforts in fighting the destruction of Cultural Heritage sites during wars. For
example, it collaborates closely with experts from Iraq, Syria and many other countries, along
with intergovernmental and non-governmental partners including Interpol, the World
Customs Organization, museums, leading auction houses and national governments in
surrounding countries, to block black market trade of artifacts from Cultural Heritage sites.
By drying out the market for artifacts from Cultural Heritage sites, and therefore removing a
potential income source for terrorist organizations or organized crime, UNESCO hopes to
deter these groups from removing such artifacts from Cultural Heritage sites. In addition,

9
http://www.unidroit.org/overviecp/english

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UNESCO has launched the social media campaign #Unite4Heritage, which aims to raise
awareness of the international community to the threat of Cultural Heritage destruction.

Particularly in Syria, UNESCO has strengthened its efforts in surveilling the state of Cultural
Heritage sites threatened by ISIS and the Syrian civil war. UNESCO has been supported by
the United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR) with its UNOSAT
program, using satellite technology to assess the damage to World Heritage sites caused in the
Syrian civil war.10 In addition, UNESCO has established a regional observatory in Lebanon in
order to assess the state of Syria’s Cultural Heritage. 11

At the 38th General Conference of UNESCO in October 2015, UNESCO passed a resolution
on the “Reinforcement of UNESCO’s action for the protection of culture and the promotion
of cultural pluralism in the event of armed conflict”.12 With this resolution, UNESCO
expresses the clear goal to expand its collaboration with other UN bodies as well as other
related international organizations, in order to implement measures for rapid intervention in
the case of Cultural Heritage destruction.

In spirit of this increased collaboration, just recently, UNESCO has signed an agreement with
the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in order to undertake joint projects to
enhance the protection of cultural heritage in the event of armed conflict.13 UNESCO aims to
receive support from ICRC in collecting information from areas of difficult access. The
special status of the ICRC under the Geneva Convention, as well as its impartial nature within
the conflicts where it acts14, give the ICRC access to many regions which many other
humanitarian organizations cannot reach. This partnership might therefore prove particularly

10
http://www.unitar.org/unosat/chs-syria
11
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/media-services/single-
view/news/unesco_to_create_an_observatory_for_the_safeguarding_of_syrias_cultural_heritage/
12
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002433/243325e.pdf (page 41f)
13
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/media-services/single-
view/news/unesco_and_icrc_partner_on_the_protection_of_culture_heritage_in_the_event_of_armed_conflict
14
https://www.icrc.org/en/mandate-and-mission

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effective both in obtaining information on the status of World Heritage, as well as in raising
awareness for the protection of Cultural Heritage during armed conflicts.

All efforts taken by UNESCO share the common motto, that the destruction of Cultural
Heritage is not just a cultural crisis, but manifests and interconnected cultural, humanitarian
and security crisis. According to UNESCO, it should therefore be of the interest of all
humankind to support the protection of Cultural Heritage, and to bolster the collaboration of
organizations and agencies from many areas in order to achieve the highest effectiveness.

Further Actions are Required

Since the problem of Cultural Heritage destruction prevails despite the ongoing efforts
initiated by UNESCO, further actions are needed. It is particularly crucial that UNESCO
develops a solution which is backed by the entire international community, and which
includes sustainable and effective measures to prevent and efficiently respond to the
destruction of Cultural Heritage sites. It can be seen from the increasing frequency of
incidents where Cultural Heritage is damaged or destroyed, that the measures taken by
UNESCO and other UN bodies have not succeeded in preventing the destruction of Cultural
Heritage in warzones. Therefore the committee should consider carefully all actions already
taken, and come up with new ways in which Cultural Heritage can be protected during
conflicts and wars.

One particular issue which can be observed is that many actions are not backed by all
countries. This can be seen by the fact that many conventions related to the issue are not
signed or ratified by a large amount of states, despite their membership in UNESCO or their
ratification of the Cultural Heritage Convention.

Another trend can be seen from the events in recent years: the government of the State Party
in which a destruction of Cultural Heritage occurs does not have the resources to prevent
rebels from destroying Cultural Heritage. Particularly, those countries, such as Iraq, Syria or
Mali, are engaged in civil wars, in which one or both parties of the conflicts engage in
asymmetric warfare, with no respect for international laws governing war crimes, such as the
Rome Statute or the Geneva Convention. In Iraq, the government explicitly requested the

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support of the international community in condemning and preventing the destruction of

Cultural Heritage sites in its territory. It is therefore visible that in the case when a
government cannot follow its obligation to protect and preserve Cultural Heritage within its
territory, many of the previously described mechanisms and treaties become largely
ineffective. The committee should consider how Cultural Heritage in unstable regions can be
protected effectively, and how the system of treaties can be expanded such that it remains
effective even when the local government is unable to protect and preserve local Cultural
Heritage.

Questions which a Resolution Should Address:

- How can Cultural Heritage be protected efficiently? In which way can State Parties
prevent the forceful destruction of Cultural Heritage sites, and which forms of
international collaboration could support State Parties in case their individual
resources are not sufficient for an adequate protection of the sites in their territory?
- How can the present system of international law be more efficiently used to prevent
the destruction of Cultural Heritage sites, or in which way does it need to be expanded
to achieve adequate protection?
- How can the illicit trafficking of artifacts from Cultural Heritage sites be effectively
prevented, and how can individuals or organizations engaging in such illicit trafficking
be effectively prosecuted?
- Which resources does UNESCO need to build up, as the primary international body in
charge of the protection of Cultural Heritage, and which new forms of collaboration on
the international scale as well as between State and Non-State actors are required to
bolster the protection of Cultural Heritage?
- How can awareness be increased, or what else could be done, such that even during an
armed conflict or war, Cultural Heritage is respected by the war parties?

Bibliography and Further Reading

General information, news, etc. about the World Heritage program of UNESCO:

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http://whc.unesco.org/en/

Information about the ICC case on the destruction of Cultural Heritage in Mali
https://www.globalpolicy.org/home/163-general/52814-icc-opens-a-case-for-the-destruction-of-
cultural-heritage-in-mali.html

Information page of UNESCO on the illicit trafficking of cultural property, including recent actions
and press releases:
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/illicit-trafficking-of-cultural-property

Picture sources (in the order of appearance):

http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/.a/6a00d8341c630a53ef0176160d5cb5970c-pi

http://www.un.org/News/dh/photos/large/2014/December/12-03-2014Cultural_Heritage.jpg

http://www.patrimsf.org/projet/IMG/png/syria.png

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Topic B: Equal education opportunities for all genders

Introduction

Gender equality is a global priority for UNESCO and is inextricably linked to UNESCO’s
efforts to promote the right to education and support the achievement of the Education for All
(EFA) and broader development goals. Gender inequality in education takes many forms
depending on the context. Though gender inequality affects girls and boys, women and men
alike, girls and women are still more often disadvantaged. Among the obstacles in the way of
women’s and girls’ ability to exercise their right to participate in, complete and benefit from
education are poverty, geographical isolation, minority status, disability, early marriage and
pregnancy, gender-based violence, and traditional attitudes about the status and role of
women. Gender-based discrimination in education is both a cause and a consequence of
broader forms of gender inequality in society. To break the cycle, UNESCO is committed to
promoting gender equality in and through education systems. 15

Global Progress

Education is a fundamental human right and essential for the exercise of all other human
rights. It promotes individual freedom and empowerment and yields important development
benefits. Yet millions of children and adults remain deprived of educational opportunities. 16

In 2000, the Dakar Framework for Action and the UN Millennium Development Goals
directed the international community to eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary
education. In addition, the Dakar Framework laid out key strategies to achieve gender equality
by 2015.

15
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-international-agenda/gender-and-education/
16
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-international-agenda/right-to-education/

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Countries where gender gaps have been reversed underline the dynamic nature of achieving
gender parity. Careful analysis of these trends is needed to inform future policy.
Understanding the patterns behind gender differences in school enrolment is important,
particularly in countries still struggling to increase enrolment overall. Do children enter
school and then drop out? Do they fail to enroll in the first place?

A useful tool to measure gender inequality is The Gender Parity Index (GPI). A GPI below
0.97 denotes disparity at the expense of females while a GPI above 1.03 denotes disparity at
the expense of males. As the following map (World Atlas of Gender Equality in Education)

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suggests gender parity is achieved in two-thirds of countries at primary and/or secondary

level.
Primary Education

Since the World Education Forum in Dakar in 2000, uneven progress has been made towards
realizing gender parity in primary education. Although the target of reaching gender parity in
primary enrolment by 2005 was missed, trend projections made for the Education for All
(EFA) Global Monitoring Report indicate that 69% of countries with data will have achieved
it by 2015. Between 1999 and 2012, the number of countries with fewer than 90 girls enrolled
for every 100 boys fell from 33 to just 16. The following figure shows this uneven progress
by displaying the GPI of the primary gross enrolment ratio from selected countries in 1999

and 2012.

Using a measure of school completion – the primary attainment rate – that includes all school-
age children in a population rather than just those enrolled, gender disparity in completion of
primary schooling has often remained far wider among the poorest children than the richest.

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Despite overall progress in reducing gender disparity in primary attainment since 2000, the
poorest girls still face severe disadvantage in entering and completing primary education.

When enrolled, girls stand an equal or better chance than boys of continuing to the upper
grades of primary school: survival rates to grade 5 for girls have consistently been equal to or
higher than those of boys in many countries. Even in countries where girls are severely
disadvantaged at the point of initial intake, survival rates to grade 5 among enrolled children
generally show narrower gender gaps or none at all. 17

Secondary Education

Gender disparity is found in a greater number of countries in secondary education than it is in

primary. By 2012, 63% of countries with data had yet to achieve gender parity in secondary
enrolment. The numbers of countries with disparities at the expense of boys and of girls were
equal.

The picture varies by region. In sub-Saharan Africa and South and West Asia, girls continue
to be more disadvantaged in secondary enrolment. In South and West Asia, despite greater
progress, 93 girls on average were enrolled for every 100 boys in 2012. In Latin America and
the Caribbean, by contrast, a GPI of 1.07 in 2012, unchanged from 1999, reflects fewer boys
than girls enrolled in a majority of countries – on average, 93 boys for every 100 girls.

Overall, gender disparities are narrowing. But not every country can report positive
development. In Angola, the situation actually worsened, from 76 girls per 100 boys in 1999
to 65 in 2012. In Central African Republic and Chad, both recently affected by conflict,
approximately half as many girls as boys were enrolled in secondary school in 2012.

17
Education for All (EFA) Global Monitoring Report, 2000-2015: Achievements and Challenges
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002322/232205e.pdf

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Most disparity in lower secondary attainment in these countries is accounted for by initial
disparity in primary attainment. However, in poorer countries where girls have historically
been disadvantaged, gender disparity in lower secondary attainment remains a serious issue,
though progress has been made. In richer countries, a rise in disparity at the expense of boys
is observed, primarily as a result of increasing dropout among boys.

Overcoming Economic and Sociocultural Barriers

Education for All has identified tree key areas of action are: promoting positive values and
attitudes to girls’ education through community mobilization and advocacy campaigns,
providing incentives to offset school and opportunity costs, and tackling early marriage and
adolescent pregnancy.

Social and Cultural Norms and Practices

Entrenched discriminatory social norms and attitudes to wider gender equality negatively
affect demand for girls’ education and restrict the benefits of girls’ improved access to
education. These norms are reflected in practices such as early marriage, traditional seclusion
practices, the favoring of boys in families’ education investment and the gendered division of
household labor (OECD, 2012d). In many countries, for example, women and girls take on
the bulk of domestic work (Lyon et al., 2013), including collecting fuel wood, hauling water
and caring for younger siblings – all of which can limit children’s ability to attend school.
However, girls’ domestic work is nearly invisible, unlikely to be reached by child labor laws,
and receives little attention from policy-makers (UNESCO, 2008b). National advocacy and
community mobilization campaigns have been used as part of wider policy frameworks to
change parental attitudes and build a groundswell of support for girls’ education.

Reducing Costs of Schooling

Throughout the Education for All era, global attention has been directed towards redressing
gender disparities in enrolment and attainment by lowering school-related costs, which can
disproportionately affect girls. In countries with low female enrolment and completion,
strategies to increase parental demand through incentives have included targeted fee waivers

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and scholarships to offset direct school costs and cash stipends to reduce additional costs of
schooling to families.

Early Marriage and Adolescent Pregnancy

Early entry into marriage and pregnancy limits adolescent girls’ access to and continuation in
education. School attendance is often incompatible with the responsibilities and expectations
of marriage and motherhood in many cultures (Mensch et al., 2005). Decisions about
education, age of marriage and pregnancy can be a result of combined underlying factors,
such as poverty, discriminatory social norms and household composition, as well as
accessibility and quality of education provision (Psaki, 2015). Conflict and humanitarian
crises also exacerbate girls’ vulnerability to early marriage (Lemmon, 2014). International
human rights law forbids child marriage. However, progress towards eliminating child
marriage globally has been slow.

Pregnancy has been identified as a key driver of dropout and exclusion among female
secondary school students in sub-Saharan African countries. In Latin American countries, the
high rate of pregnancy among adolescents is a serious concern for public policy. Since the late
1990s, several sub-Saharan African countries have introduced policies supporting the
readmission of girls following the birth of a child (Makamare, 2014). But even where policies
exist, uptake is often limited, with education providers and communities unaware of re-entry
policies or unsupportive of girls’ return. In schools, stigma and discrimination against
pregnant girls and adolescent mothers are common (UNESCO, 2014b). Alternative education
can support out-of-school adolescent mothers. Non-formal second-chance programs in
Angola and Malawi have created opportunities for adolescent mothers to attend classes by
allowing them to bring their children with them (Jere, 2012; Save the Children, 2012)

Expanding and Improving School Infrastructure

The goals of gender parity and equality have also been both directly and indirectly supported
by policies to increase the availability and adequacy of school infrastructure. Increasing the
supply of schools, including girls-only schools, and improving school facilities can, in some

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contexts, have a disproportionate benefit for girls. Increased availability and accessibility o f
schools, as well as water and sanitation are strategies to improve girls’ attendance at school.

1. Reducing distances to school: Girls’ enrolment and attendance are particularly

sensitive to distances to school. This is especially true in contexts where parents are
concerned for girls’ security to and from school.
2. Improving water and sanitation facilities: The Dakar Framework for Action highlights
the provision of safe and separate sanitation facilities for girls as a key strategy in
improving school attendance for girls and promoting more equitable school
environments.
3. Stereotype-free textbooks: Inclusive textbooks and learning materials can open
students’ minds to other cultures and help teachers cultivate the values and skills for
learning to live together.

Policies to improve boys’ participation

The needs of millions of boys around the world are not adequately met by formal education
systems, a fact sometimes overlooked in light of the overall disproportionate disadvantage
girls continue to face. While girls remain less likely than boys to enter school in the first
place, in many countries boys are at higher risk of failing to progress and complete a cycle of
education.

Significant numbers of boys leave school early due to poverty and the obligation or desire to
work (Barker et al., 2012), often combined with late entry, poor performance and a
subsequent lack of interest in school, as well as factors such as ethnicity and other forms of
marginalization (Hunt, 2008; Jha et al., 2012).

Gender stereotyping and entrenched violence in schools compound the problem. Boys are
often perceived as tough and undisciplined, and consequently are more likely to experience
corporal punishment than girls.

High dropout rates among boys have broader repercussions for gender relations. Research
from the International Men and Gender Equality Survey, conducted in 2009 and 2010 in

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Brazil, Chile, Croatia, India, Mexico and Rwanda, found that men with less education
expressed discriminatory gender views, were more likely to be violent in the home and were
less likely to be involved in child care if they were fathers. Men with secondary education
demonstrated more gender-equitable attitudes and practices (Barker et al., 2011).

While attempting to redress disparities in access, scholarships and stipends may lead to other
forms of gender inequity. A primary education stipend program in Bangladesh had a negative
impact on grade progression for boys from poor households, who were ineligible to receive
the stipends available to girls at the secondary level (Baulch, 2011).

Educational Regions

Africa

Africa is a priority for UNESCO and education is key to the region’s development. While the
overall proportion of children who had never attended school fell, gender disparity remained
in most of these countries. The region remains the one that is furthest from the target of
gender parity. Of the 18 countries with fewer than 90 girls for every 100 boys enrolled in
primary education, 13 were in sub-Sharan Africa. The poorest girls continued to be most
likely never to have attended. In Niger and Guinea, approximately 70% of the poorest girls
had never attended school – notably higher than the share of the poorest boys – compared
with less than 20% of the richest boys. 18

In secondary education, there has barely been any progress in sub-Sahran Africa since 1999.
The proportion of female teachers is an important indicator of progress towards gender
equality. Yet, women made up 43% of primary teachers in sub-Saharan Africa in 2012 and
only 31% of secondary teachers. In Central African Republic, Chad, Guinea and Mali, which

18
Global Education Monitoring Report, Sub-Saharan Africa: Press release for the 2015 report,
https://en.unesco.org/gem-report/sites/gem-report/files/SSA_PR_en.pdf

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have severe gender disparities in education, less than 12% of secondary teachers were women
in 2012. Despite attempts to provide greater gender balance, bias in textbooks remains
pervasive in many countries.

A mapping exercise in 2010 by SNV, WaterAid and UNICEF found that only 11% of schools
surveyed met the minimum standards of 20 students per girls’ latrine and 25 per boys’ latrine;
52% of girls’ latrines lacked doors; and 92% of schools lacked functional handwashing
facilities.

School-related gender-based violence seriously undermines attempts to achieve gender

equality in education. Older male students take advantage of their position to abuse female
students. Teachers also commit sexual abuse and exploitation, often with impunity. In Sierra
Leone, male teachers had perpetrated almost one-third of reported cases of girls being forced
or coerced into sex in exchange for money, goods or grades. 19

Arab States

There has been a clear trend of reducing gender disparity in the primary gross enrolment ratio
for a majority of countries in this region, often starting from a point of severe disadvantage for
girls. Burundi was for example far from parity in 1999, with 79 girls enrolled for every 100
boys, but it had eliminated this gender gap by 2012.

But despite all the improvements over the past decade, the region remains one of the furthest
from the target of gender parity. In Yemen, the female gross enrolment ratio increased from
21% in 1999 to 35% in 2011, resulting in an improvement in the gender parity index from
0.37 to 0.63. In Iraq, not only has progress towards gender parity been slow, but poor, rural
girls have not benefited. Significant disparities in primary education remain in Djibouti and

19
Global Education Monitoring Report, Sub-Saharan Africa: Reginal factsheet – 2014 report,
https://en.unesco.org/gem-report/sites/gem-report/files/SSA_Factsheet_2014.pdf

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Sudan. Lebanon used to have parity in 1999, but doesn’t any longer. In Mauritania, boys are
now underrepresented in primary education enrolment.

There are still cases of extremely unequal enrolments and poverty deepens this gender
disparity. For example, the lower secondary completion rate was 58% for rich urban boys and
just 3% for poor rural girls in 2011. Conversely in Algeria, Oman, Palestine and Tunisia, the
situation for boys worsened from 1999, when they had achieved gender parity in secondary
education.

Safety remains an issue for girls’ schooling, particularly in areas of major instability and
insecurity and a lack of female teachers denies girls important role models. Despite attempts
to provide greater gender balance, bias in textbooks remains pervasive in many countries.

Subject choices can limit labor market opportunities. Female under-representation in scientific
fields exacerbates gender gaps in income, as workers in these fields earn significantly more
than counterparts in other fields.20 21 22

Asia and the Pacific

In general, most countries in the region achieved gender parity at all levels in 2012 except for
a few countries. There is a correlation between early marriage and the low educational
achievements of girls; early marriage puts young girls at a disadvantage because of the loss of
educational opportunity and at the same time, girls who are not allowed to go or stay in
schools are at risk of being prematurely married off. In South and West Asia, girls in rural

20
Global Education Monitoring Report, Arab States: Reginal factsheet – 2014 report, https://en.unesco.org/gem-
report/sites/gem-report/files/ArabStates_Factsheet_2014.pdf
21
Global Education Monitoring Report, Arab States: Press release for the 2015 report,
https://en.unesco.org/gem-report/sites/gem-report/files/Arab_StatesPR_en_rev.pdf
22
Global Education Monitoring Report, Arab States: Reginal overview - 2015 report,
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002325/232576E.pdf

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communities stay in school, on average, for as little as two years. Moreover, many girls in the
Asia-Pacific region are struggling to advance to post-basic education. Within the Asia region,
the gross enrolment ratio of girls in 2012 from primary through secondary to tertiary
education changes significantly by level; 112% at the primary level falls drastically to 72% at
the secondary level and to a mere 28% at the tertiary level. On the other hand, more boys are
dropping out in many middle and high income countries, particularly at the secondary level.
Countries such as Malaysia and Thailand now face the challenge of reducing gender
disparities in secondary education at the expense of boys. Boys also face substantial
disadvantages in Pacific countries, such as Fiji, Samoa and the Cook Islands. In the latter,
there are 120 girls enrolled for every 100 boys.23 Member States have made efforts to provide
equal opportunities for boys and girls to realize their potential. In some subject areas,
particularly mathematics and science at the secondary level, girls increasingly outperform or
catch up with boys. However, career opportunities for girls related to these fields have not
correspondingly increased. 24

Physical violence, including corporal punishment, also has gendered dimensions. In

Indonesia, 7% of boys aged 12–17 reported having been physically punished by a teacher in
the previous six months, compared with 9% of girls. In Thailand, research found 56% of
lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students had reported being bullied in the past month. 25

Central and Eastern Europe

Gender parity had been achieved at the primary school level in all countries except Latvia. In
secondary education, the region has moved slightly farther away from gender parity but still
register high levels. Gender disparity to the advantage of boys is most marked in Turkey and

23
Global Education Monitoring Report, East Asia and the Pacific: Regional factsheet – 2015 report,
https://en.unesco.org/gem-report/sites/gem-report/files/EAP_Factsheet_EN_v2.pdf
24
The Asia and Pacific Reginal Bureau’s Education Support Strategy 2014-2021
25
Global Education Monitoring Report, East Asia and the Pacific: Reginal overview - 2015 report,
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002328/232847E.pdf

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Bulgaria. In Countries such as the Czech Republic, Estonia and Ukraine, less boys than girls
were enrolled in 1999 but parity was reached by 2012. 26

Achieving gender equality in education requires also that students benefit from a gender-
sensitive learning environment. At primary and secondary level, women were still over-
represented in the teaching staff in most countries, but variations across countries were quite
striking.

Learning assessments highlight gender differences in subject performance. The OECD’s

Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) surveys, show a widening gap in
reading, with girls performing significantly better than boys in all locations surveyed largely
due to a decline in boys’ performance. Boys are heavily over-represented among those who
fail to show basic levels of reading literacy. The PISA 2012 results also show gender
differences in mathematics, with boys performing better than girls in the majority of
countries.

Lower achievement, negative aspirations and low career expectations may help explain the
continued under-representation of women enrolled in science and mathematics-related
subjects in post-secondary education, including subjects in great demand in the labor market
such as computing and engineering. 27

Latin America and the Caribbean

Among countries in the region, sixty percent have achieved gender parity in primary
education, but only twenty percent have reached it in secondary education. At the secondary
level, Latin America and the Caribbean is the only region where boys are at a significant

26
Global Education Monitoring Report, Central and Eastern Europe: Regional factsheet – 2010 report,
https://en.unesco.org/gem-report/sites/gem-report/files/191765e.pdf
27
Global Education Monitoring Report, Central and Eastern Europe: Regional overview – 2015 report,
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002333/233313E.pdf

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enrolment disadvantage relative to girls. 28 Poverty further deepens the gender disparities in
completing primary education, often at the expense of boys.

School-related gender-based violence seriously undermines attempts to achieve gender

equality in education. In Latin America and the Caribbean, studies have largely focused on
physical violence, including the spillover effects of gang violence in schools. Yet broad social
tolerance for family and community violence, especially against women, provides the social
context for sexual violence against girls by male students and teachers. A study concerning
female adolescent victims of sexual violence in Ecuador found that 37% of perpetrators were
teachers.29

Through regional conferences, Caribbean countries have been active in sharing strategies and
interventions such as mentoring, second-chance initiatives, training and community dialogue
that are aimed at responding to school dropout (World Bank and Commonwealth Secretariat,
2009).30

Questions to Consider

- What are factors that prevent children from receiving education in your country?
(Child labor, religion, poverty, traditional values which disadvantage certain genders)

- What progress has your counrty made in the past 15 years concerning the enrollment
at primary and secondary level? Does gender disparity in primary and secondary
education exist?

28
Global Education Monitoring Report, Central and Eastern Europe: Press release for the 2015 report,
https://en.unesco.org/gem-report/sites/gem-report/files/Latin_AmericaPR_en.pdf
29
Global Education Monitoring Report, Latin America: Regional overview – 2015 report,
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002325/232567E.pdf
30
Education for All (EFA) Global Monitoring Report, 2000-2015: Achievements and Challenges
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002322/232205e.pdf

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- Which programs, campaignes and policies have been successfully carried out in your
country? What were the outcomes? How can other countries profit from your
experiences?

- What programs are planned for the future? How do they relate to the new Sustainable
Development Goals?

- Consider non-formal education programs. Would such programs be benefitial in your

country? Is collaboration on local, national and international level possible?

- This study guide did not elaborate on the fact that in tertiary education some fields are
largely dominated by a single gender. How can this trend be counteracted (existing
entry barriers, missing role models, possible incentives, campaigns)?

Bibliography and Further Reading

 The Global Database on Right to Education provides further information on inclusive

education and gender equality for each country and mentions many courntry and
region specific programms. Available at: http://www.unesco.org/education/edurights/
 The World Atlas of Gender Equality in Education contains great graphical
representation of the different enrollment and gender trends for different education
levels and regions. Available at:
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002155/215522E.pdf
 All the data, being used for example in the World Atlas of Gender Equality for
Education, can be found on the website of the UNESCO Institute for Statistics.
Available at: http://data.ui, s.unesco.org/Index.aspx
 Be sure to take a look at the new Sustainable Development Goals, especially Goal 4
and 5, which can be found in the Draft outcome document of the United Nations
summit for the adoption of the post-2015 development agenda. Available at:
http://www.un.org/pga/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2015/08/120815_outcome-
document-of-Summit-for-adoption-of-the-post-2015-development-agenda.pdf
 The World Inequality Database on Education can be a helpful tool when it comes to
visualizing the statistics in your country and comparing them for example to the
neighboring counrties. Available at: http://www.education-inequalities.org/

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Closing remarks
This study guide is by no means exhaustive and merely serves as a starting point for your own
research on the topic. We encourage you to obtain comprehensive background knowledge on
both topics as well as your countries positions. Be aware that not all aspects of the topics are
tackled in this study guide, and that we very much welcome additional aspects to be dealt with
in potential resolutions. Be creative, be innovative, and be inquisitive!

Be aware that both topics have equal weight, and that your personal preference might not
match up with the agenda set by the committee. Therefore, we strongly encourage you to
prepare both topics equally well.

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