Colonialist Gazes

and Counternarratives
of Blackness

Building on the growing field of Afropean Studies, this interdisciplinary and

intermedial collection of essays proposes a dialogue on Afro‑Spanishness that is not
exclusively tied to immigration and that understands Blackness as a non‑essentialist,
heterogeneous and diasporic concept. Studying a variety of twentieth‑ and twenty‑
first‑century cultural products, some essays explore the resilience of the colonialist
paradigms and the circulation of racial ideologies and colonial memories that
promote national narratives of whitening. Others focus on Black self‑representation
and examine how Afro‑Spanish authors, artists, and activists destabilize colonial
gazes and constructions of national identity, propose decolonial views of Spain and
Europe’s literature and history, articulate Afro‑Diasporic knowledges, and envision
Afro‑descendance as an empowering tool.

Ana León‑Távora is Associate Professor of Spanish, Director of Modern Languages

and Director of Race and Ethnicity Studies at Salem College, North Carolina. She
has authored numerous peer‑reviewed articles and book chapters that examine is‑
sues of social and political power relations, racial, ethnic, and linguistic discrimina‑
tion in Spain, and women’s, gender, and sexuality studies. She is also the co‑editor
and co‑translator of the bilingual critical book and catalogue on contemporary
Cuban art authored by Linda Howe, Cuban Artists’ Books and Prints. Libros y
Grabados de Artistas Cubanos: 1998–2008 (2009).

Rosalía Cornejo‑Parriego is Professor of Hispanic Studies at the University of Ot‑

tawa, Canada. She is the author of Entre mujeres. Política de la amistad y el deseo
en la narrativa española contemporánea (2008) and the editor of two collections
of essays: Black USA and Spain. Shared Memories in the 20th Century (2021) and
Memoria colonial e inmigración. La negritud en la España posfranquista (2008).
In addition, she has co‑edited the special issue of Romance Notes “The Rosalía
Effect. Popular Music and Culture in Contemporary Spain” (with N. M. Murray,
2023) and Un hispanismo para el siglo XXI. Ensayos de crítica cultural (with A.
Villamandos, 2011). As part of her research project on women intellectuals in the
press during Spain’s Transition to democracy, she published Ana María Moix: Sem‑
blanzas e impertinencias (2016), an edition of Moix’s journalistic writings.
Colonialist Gazes
and Counternarratives
of Blackness
Afro‑Spanishness in 20th- and
21st‑Century Spain

Edited by Ana León‑Távora and

Rosalía Cornejo‑Parriego
First published 2024
by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
and by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2024 selection and editorial matter, Ana León‑Távora and Rosalía Cornejo‑Parriego;
individual chapters, the contributors
The right of Ana León‑Távora and Rosalía Cornejo‑Parriego to be identified as the authors
of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted
in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

ISBN: 9781032563497 (hbk)

ISBN: 9781032563503 (pbk)
ISBN: 9781003435051 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003435051
Typeset in Sabon
by codeMantra
To Jahdai, Pablo, and Rosita
To Alejandro, Andrea, and Leo
Contents

List of Figures ix
Notes on Contributors x
Acknowledgmentsxiv

Introduction: Black Spain in Afro‑Europe 1

ROSALÍA CORNEJO‑PARRIEGO AND ANA LEÓN‑TÁVORA

1 From Negrophilia to Necropolitics: Anti‑Black Racism

in Spanish Avant‑Garde Humor Magazines 21
ANA LEÓN‑TÁVORA

2 The Transnational Afropessimism of Francisco

Zamora Loboch 51
BALTASAR FRA‑MOLINERO

3 The Value of Color: Spain’s Equality Stamps Fiasco 72

JEFFREY K. COLEMAN

4 Using the Web to Educate Spain About Its Afro‑Identity:

Afroféminas 88
ESTHER M. ALARCÓN ARANA

5 Hidden Knowledges and Diasporic Positionings: The

Autobiographical and Testimonial Texts in Metamba
Miago: Relatos y saberes de mujeres afroespañolas 111
JULIA BORST

6 Un‑Whitening Late Francoist Spain: Knots of Memory

in Lucía Mbomío’s Las que se atrevieron 134
MARTIN REPINECZ
viii Contents

7 Decolonizing the History of Afro‑Spaniards:

Afrofeminismo. 50 años de lucha y activismo de mujeres
negras en España (1968–2018) by Abuy Nfubea 153
DOSINDA GARCÍA‑ALVITE

8 Mapping Black Women Through Art and Social Media:

The Case of Montserrat Anguiano 175
STEFANIA LICATA

9 From Below and from Within: Urban Peripheries in Lucía

Mbomío’s Barrionalismos 195
ROSALÍA CORNEJO‑PARRIEGO

10 An Inconclusive Conclusion: Autoethnography as a Model

for Epistemic Decolonization 216
ANA LEÓN‑TÁVORA

Index237
Figures

1.1 Image in Gutiérrez, 11 June 1927. Courtesy of BNE  27

1.2 Vignette in Buen Humor, 23 December 1928. Courtesy
of BNE28
1.3 Cover of Issue 392 of Buen Humor, 2 June 1929.
Courtesy of BNE30
1.4 Cover of issue of Buen Humor, 2 April 1922. Courtesy
of BNE31
1.5 Cartoon in Buen Humor, 26 December 1926. Courtesy
of BNE36
1.6 Cartoon in Gutiérrez, 9 July 1927. Courtesy of BNE37
1.7 Vignette from Gutiérrez, 14 April 1928. Courtesy of BNE38
1.8 Cover of Buen Humor, 6 February 1927. Courtesy of BNE39
1.9 Issue of Gutiérrez from 1927. Courtesy of BNE41
1.10 Advertisements in Buen Humor from 1927. Courtesy of BNE43
3.1 Equality Stamps. Minder, Raphael. “Spain Issued ‘Equality
Stamps’ in Skin Tones. The Darker Ones Were Worth Less” 73
3.2 Protest Stamps. “Correos Launches ‘Protest Stamps’,
Stamps Featuring the Voices of a Generation Against
Climate Change.” Correos, https://www.correos.com/en/
sala‑prensa/correos‑launches‑­protest‑stamps‑stamps‑featur
ing‑the‑voices‑of‑a‑generation‑against‑climate‑change/#76
5.1 Examples of the brief profiles (Ekoka 55; 117). Permission
granted by the author 118
5.2 Visual framework of the collection (Ekoka 15; 147).
Permission granted by the author 125
8.1 1789—Sara Baartman. Permission granted by the artist 180
8.2 Floral Afrika in primary colors—red (e‑Catalog).
Permission granted by the artist 181
8.3 Dones de la Nasa—Triptic [Nasa’s women—Triptych]:
from left to right, Dorothy Vaughan, Katherine Johnson,
and Mary Jackson. Permission granted by the artist 188
Notes on Contributors

Esther M. Alarcón Arana holds a PhD in Hispanic Studies from the Uni‑
versity of Pennsylvania. Her dissertation focused on personal and na‑
tional identities of displaced people in the Spanish‑speaking world. She
is currently Associate Professor of Spanish at Salve Regina University
in Newport, Rhode Island. Since starting this position, her research
focus has incorporated the study of women writers that defy patriar‑
chy and hegemonic narratives. Her publications include the follow‑
ing edited volumes, El reflejo de Medusa. Representaciones mediáticas
contemporáneas de mujeres (Advook, 2023) and Muerte y crisis en el
mundo hispano: respuestas culturales (Peter Lang, 2020), and the essays
“Re‑educar para la igualdad: una nueva Caperucita contra la violencia
de género en la España del siglo XXI,” published in La violencia de gé‑
nero en la España contemporánea (Fundación general de la Universidad
de Alcalá, 2020), and “Ni perdidos ni callados: la cultura participativa
como reapropiación de la agencia en En tierra extraña,” published in El
cine de la crisis (UOC, 2018).
Julia Borst holds a PhD in Romance Literary Studies from the Univer‑
sity of Hamburg and has received several academic awards, including
the 2021 Heinz Maier‑Leibnitz Prize, the 2019 Sibylle Kalkhof‑Rose
Academy Prize for the Humanities, and the 2023 Abioseh Porter Best
Essay Award, granted by the African Literature Association. She is cur‑
rently the principal investigator for the research project “The Spanish
Black Diaspora: Afro‑Spanish Literature of the 20th and 21st Cen‑
tury” (funded by the German Research Foundation DFG), as well as
the deputy director of the Institute of Postcolonial and Transcultural
Studies (INPUTS) and co‑founder of the research lab “Digital Dias‑
pora” within the interdisciplinary and collaborative research platform
Worlds of Contradiction at the University of Bremen. In 2023, she was
awarded an ERC Starting Grant for her project, “Afroeurope and Cy‑
berspace.” She is the author of a monograph on violence and trauma
 Notes on Contributors xi

in contemporary Haitian novels (Gewalt und Trauma im haitianischen

Gegenwartsroman. Narr, 2015) and other various articles in peer‑
reviewed journals such as The French Review, French Studies, The Jour‑
nal of Haitian Studies, Research in African Literatures, Open Cultural
Studies, and Tydskrif vir Letterkunde. She has also contributed several
articles on Equatorial Guinean literature to the German literature ency‑
clopedia Kindlers Literatur Lexikon and has co‑edited special issues of
the journals Research in African Literatures, EnterText, and the Journal
of Global Diaspora and Media.
Jeffrey K. Coleman is Associate Professor of Peninsular Studies in the De‑
partment of Spanish and Portuguese at Northwestern University. He has
published several articles on immigration, race, and national identity in
Spanish theatre and popular culture in Catalan Review, Symposium,
and Estreno, among other journals. His first book, The Necropolitical
Theater: Race and Immigration on the Contemporary Spanish Stage
(Northwestern University Press, 2020), explores how the intersections
of race and immigration manifest in Spanish theatre from 1991 to 2016.
He is also working on his next book project, tentatively titled España
Negra: The Consumption & Rejection of Blackness in Contemporary
Spain, which explores how Spanish media, popular culture, and litera‑
ture have portrayed and appropriated Blackness from the early twenti‑
eth century to the present. In addition, he is the co‑founder of TRECE
(Taller de Raza, Etnicidad y Ciudadanía en España), a research group
that actively theorizes and conceptualizes race in contemporary Spain.
Rosalía Cornejo‑Parriego is Professor of Hispanic Studies at the University
of Ottawa, Canada. She is the author of Entre mujeres. Política de la
amistad y el deseo en la narrativa española contemporánea (Biblioteca
Nueva, 2008) and the editor of the collections of essays, Black USA
and Spain. Shared Memories in the 20th Century (Routledge, 2021)
and Memoria colonial e inmigración. La negritud en la España posfran‑
quista (Bellaterra, 2008). In addition, she has co‑edited special issues
of Romance Notes (“The Rosalía Effect. Popular Music and Culture
in Contemporary Spain,” with N. M. Murray, 2023) and of Revista
Canadiense de Estudios Hispánicos (“Queer Space,” with K. Sibbald,
2011) and the collection of essays Un hispanismo para el siglo XXI. En‑
sayos de crítica cultural (with A. Villamandos, Biblioteca Nueva, 2011).
Her research project on women intellectuals in the press during Spain’s
Transition to Democracy was funded by the Social Sciences and Hu‑
manities Research Council of Canada. Part of that research resulted in
the edition of Ana María Moix’s journalistic writings, Ana María Moix:
Semblanzas e impertinencias (Laetoli, 2016). Furthermore, she is the
xii Notes on Contributors

former editor‑in‑chief of the Revista Canadiense de Estudios Hispánicos

and has published numerous book chapters and essays on gender and
race.
Baltasar Fra‑Molinero is Professor of Hispanic Studies, Latin American,
and Latinx Studies and a member of the Africana Program at Bates
College. His research focuses on the representation of people of Afri‑
can descent and the African Diaspora in Early Modern Spain and Latin
America, and on Equatorial Guinea’s literature. He is the author of
Black Bride of Christ: Chicaba, an African Nun in Eighteenth‑Century
Spain (with Sue E. Houchins, Vanderbilt UP, 2018) and La imagen de los
negros en el teatro del Siglo de Oro (Siglo XXI, 1995). He has co‑edited
with Benita Sampedro Vizcaya the unpublished poetry of Equatorial
Guinean writer Raquel Ilombe del Pozo Epita, Ceiba II (poesía inédita)
(Verbum, 2014), as well as a monographic issue dedicated to Equatorial
Guinea in Afro‑Hispanic Review (2009).
Dosinda García‑Alvite is Associate Professor of Spanish at Denison Uni‑
versity. Her teaching and research interests focus on migration, histori‑
cal memory, and gender as manifested in literature, film, and music of
contemporary Spain and its relations with Africa (especially Equato‑
rial Guinea) and Latin America. She has published over twenty book
chapters and articles on these topics in Hispania, Revista Iberoameri‑
cana, Bulletin of Spanish Studies, and Afro‑Hispanic Review, among
other journals, and in the collection of essays Trans‑afrohispanismos:
Puentes culturales críticos entre África, Latinaomérica y España (Ed.
Dorothy Odartey‑Wellington, Brill, 2018), Teaching the African Novel
(Ed. Gaurav Desai, MLA, 2009), and Memoria colonial e inmigración.
La negritud en la España posfranquista (Ed. Rosalía Cornejo‑Parriego,
Bellaterra, 2007).
Ana León‑Távora is Associate Professor of Spanish, Director of Modern
Languages, and Director of Race and Ethnicity Studies at Salem Col‑
lege. She holds a PhD in Philology from the Universidad de Sevilla,
Spain. Her eminently comparative research focuses on global aesthet‑
ics and politics, social and political power relations, racial, ethnic, and
linguistic discrimination, and gender studies. She is the co‑editor and
co‑translator of the bilingual catalogue on contemporary Cuban art
authored by Linda Howe, Cuban Artists’ Books and Prints. Libros y
Grabados de Artistas Cubanos: 1998–2008, and has published numer‑
ous articles and book chapters on literature and art as spaces for politi‑
cal and social debate. Her most recent publications include the book
chapter “Afectos y activismo estético en Ser mujer negra en España
de Desirée Bela‑Lobedde” in El reflejo de Medusa. Representaciones
 Notes on Contributors xiii

mediáticas contemporáneas de mujeres (Ed. Esther Alarcón Arana, Ad‑

vook, 2023), and the article on linguistic discrimination, cultural ap‑
propriation, and gender inequality in contemporary Spanish art titled
“Glotofobia, apropiación cultural y privación relativa,” within a special
issue of the academic journal Romance Notes (Eds. Michelle Murray
and Rosalía Cornejo‑Parriego).
Stefania Licata is Assistant Professor of Spanish at Converse University.
She holds a PhD in Hispanic Languages and Literature from SUNY
Stony Brook University. Her research focuses on migration and cultural
representations of Africa in Europe and vice versa during the twentieth
and twenty‑first centuries. Her interests, approached from an interdis‑
ciplinary and comparative perspective, include Afro‑Hispanic Postco‑
lonial Studies, Migration, Diaspora, and Mediterranean Studies. She
has published articles about Equatorial Guinea and Migration in the
Mediterranean and is part of the Grupo de Estudios Afro‑Hispánicos
based at the Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED)
in Madrid.
Martin Repinecz is Associate Professor and Director of Spanish at the
University of San Diego. He holds a PhD in Romance Studies from
Duke University. His research focuses on questions of race and colonial
memory in Francoist and contemporary Spain and the global Hispano‑
phone world. His research has been published (or is forthcoming) in the
Bulletin of Hispanic Studies, Revista de Estudios Hispánicos, Hispanic
Studies Review, Transmodernity, Bulletin of the Comediantes, and The
Postcolonialist. His book Volatile Whiteness: Race, Cinema, and Eu‑
ropeanization in Spain is forthcoming from the University of Toronto
Press.
Acknowledgments

First and foremost, we would like to express our gratitude to the contribu‑
tors for enthusiastically sharing their insights and expertise in this edited
collection. We are also immensely grateful to the editorial team at Rout‑
ledge for embracing this project. Additionally, we extend our thanks to the
anonymous readers who provided essential feedback and helped shape this
collection.
A special mention goes to May Morpaw and Kara Cybanski for their
invaluable assistance in revising the entire manuscript. We would also like
to acknowledge Salem College for granting Ana a sabbatical leave that al‑
lowed us to make significant advances in this project.
Above all, we want to express our deep appreciation to all the writers,
artists, and activists who have inspired us and are the true protagonists of
this book. You have challenged and compelled us to look at Spain’s culture
and history from new perspectives.
Lastly, we want to extend our deepest gratitude to our families on both
sides of the Atlantic for their unwavering support throughout this endeavor.
Introduction
Black Spain in Afro‑Europe

Rosalía Cornejo‑Parriego
and Ana León‑Távora

From April 3 to July 16, 2023, New York’s Metropolitan Museum of Art
(the Met) hosted the exhibition Juan de Pareja, Afro‑Hispanic Painter.
The New York Times greeted it with the headline, “A Familiar Face at the
Met, Now in His Own Light” (Farago). Indeed, Diego Velázquez’s portrait
of Pareja, his enslaved assistant, is well known, but less so his own con‑
tribution to the visual arts of the Spanish Baroque. At the exhibit, Pareja’s
religious paintings, including The Calling of St. Matthew, which features
his self‑portrait, are accompanied by some of Bartolomé Esteban Murillo’s
and Velázquez’s works to bear testimony to an Early Modern multiracial
Spain where slavery existed. Presiding the exhibit is the quote, “History
must restore what slavery took away,” extracted from collector, scholar,
and activist Arthur A. Schomburg’s 1925 article “The Negro Digs Up His
Past.” In fact, Schomburg’s search for Pareja frames the whole exhibit with
fragments of his articles situated next to several paintings. This dialogue
between Pareja and Schomburg is undoubtedly, above all, a tribute to the
artist, but also to Schomburg for his lifelong political project of recovery.
This Puerto Rican‑born intellectual dedicated his life to “digging up” the
contributions of Afro‑descendant people to their societies and to highlight‑
ing their role as producers of culture.1 Moved by a diasporic impetus, as
his article “In Quest of Juan de Pareja” (1927) reveals, he had particularly
African Americans in mind during his search and travels, wishing they
could see and be uplifted by the paintings of the Spanish artist.
If we begin this volume by referring to the Met exhibit on Juan de Pareja,
it is because it encapsulates several of the critical concepts and subjects that
appear in this collection of essays. First, the focus on Schomburg asserts
his desire to combat the historical amnesia that has led to the invisibility
of Blackness and its erasure from national histories and discourses. To that
end, he embarks on a pedagogical research journey to uncover the impact
of Afro‑descendants on the fabric of the nation and, consequently, use this
knowledge as a source of empowerment for racialized communities and
individuals. Furthermore, Schomburg’s frame of reference is the African

DOI: 10.4324/9781003435051-1
2 Rosalía Cornejo‑Parriego and Ana León‑Távora

Diaspora, a concept he explores across national borders and time. Equally

noteworthy is his focus on Black Europe, which has traditionally occupied
a marginal space within this Diaspora and has often been neglected in
Diaspora Studies, as contemporary scholars and activists have observed.
For Fatima El‑Tayeb, “It was black Europe’s heterogeneous composition,
its ambiguous relation to constitutive narratives of the African diaspora as
well as its complicated relation to and overlap with other communities of
colour that left black Europeans at the margin of diaspora studies” (Eu‑
ropean Others 50). Finally, Schomburg’s work adds another fundamental
aspect: it carves a space for Spain within the Black European Diaspora.2
If we fast forward, we see a parallelism between the early twentieth‑
century Puerto Rican traveler and the efforts of twentieth‑ and twenty‑first‑
century Black European intellectuals and artists. In Afropeans. Notes from
Black Europe, self‑proclaimed British flâneur Johny Pitts embarks on a
journey through different European cities in search of Afropea. Tired of
having his Europeanness questioned because of his Blackness—“My skin
had disguised my Europeanness” (4)—and of always living under the as‑
sumption that he is an immigrant and not a full citizen (1), he sets out
to explore Black Europe. This exploration aims to reclaim the “beauty
in black banality” (6)—often eclipsed by two polar narratives that focus
either on Black celebrities or Black ghettos—and his “ownership” of Eu‑
rope: “As a member of Europe’s black community, this Europe I speak of
is all part of my inheritance, too, and it was time to wander and celebrate
the continent like I owned it” (7; original emphasis).
In the same vein and decades earlier, German author May Ayim had
already co‑edited in 1986 a book on Afro‑German women, Farbe beken‑
nen. Afro‑Deutsche Frauen auf den Spuren ihrer Geschichte [Show‑
ing our Colors. Afro‑German Women Speak Out]. Furthermore, her
poem “Afro‑Deutsch” [Afro‑German] explores how she is perceived as
non‑belonging to Germany and expected to return, at some point, to an
imaginary African home (Crawley 74). More recently, the documentary
Mariannes Noires: Mosaïques Afropéennes (Dir. Mame‑Fatou Niang and
Kaytie Nielsen, 2016) concentrates on Afro‑French women who narrate
their defense mechanisms to face everyday racism, their efforts to rede‑
fine the national narrative that has erased colonial history—while ironi‑
cally, colonial stereotypes about racialized groups are alive and well—and
their denunciation of the precariousness of their belonging and citizenship
status. Likewise, although in the Italian context, Cristina Lombardi‑Diop
reflects in her preface to The Black Mediterranean: Bodies, Borders, and
Citizenship on what it means to be a Black Italian and a Black European
and poses the poignant question, “[W]hat is the place of blackness within
Italy and what happens when blackness and citizenship are considered mu‑
tually exclusive?” (5). In European Others. Queering Ethnicity in Postna‑
tional Europe, El‑Tayeb argues that the exclusion of racialized minorities
 Introduction: Black Spain in Afro-Europe 3

from the concept of citizenship is a consequence of “the ideology of ‘race‑

lessness,’” a process that denies the existence of “race” in Europe and
makes racial thinking and its effects invisible (xvii). This “colourblind‑
ness” means that “Europeans possessing the (visual) markers of Otherness
thus are eternal newcomers, forever suspended in time, forever ‘just arriv‑
ing,’ defined by a static foreignness overriding both individual experience
and historical facts” (European Others xxv). The “foreignness” of these
alleged newcomers and their erasure from Europe’s past have a profound
impact on present negotiations of belonging and understanding of Euro‑
pean citizenship (European Others 53).
All of the above concerns are also evident in works such as Reni
Eddo‑Lodge’s Why I’m No Longer Talking to White People About Race;
Emejulu Akwugo and Francesca Sobande’s To Exist is to Resist: Black
Feminism in Europe; Layla‑Roxanne Hill and Francesca Sobande’s Black
Oot Here. Black Lives in Scotland; Locating African European Studies:
Interventions, Intersections, Conversations (Ed. Felipe Espinoza Garrido
et al.); and El‑Tayeb’s Undeutsch. Die Konstruktion des Anderen in
der Postmigrantischen Gesellschaft. These texts point to a new field of
knowledge that comprises testimonial, creative, and scholarly works, but,
notwithstanding Schomburg’s pioneering vision of Spain as a significant
location within the Black Diaspora, with few exceptions, the experience of
Afro‑Spaniards has been notably absent from studies about contemporary
Black Europeans and Afro‑Europeanness.3 It is true, as Julia Borst and
Danae Gallo González contend, that an important factor to take into ac‑
count is the lack of homogeneity within the European territory and the fact
that Spain and Portugal “geographically represent Europe’s ‘borderland’
to Africa but also look back on a long history of migratory movements
between the African continent and the Iberian Peninsula” (288–99), which
often has not been acknowledged. Nor can we forget the geopolitical, eco‑
nomic, and cultural differences between the North and South of Europe
and the reality that Spain is located at the crossroads of the European
Union, the Mediterranean, and, due to its imperial past, the Atlantic com‑
munity.4 Despite these defining characteristics that might set the Iberian
Peninsula apart, it is undeniable that racialized Spaniards share many ex‑
periences with other Black European nationals. The goal of Colonialist
Gazes and Counternarratives of Blackness: Afro‑Spanishness in 20th and
21st-Century Spain is to participate and engage in this (Afro) European
dialogue about amnesia, belonging, and empowerment.

Studying Afro‑Spanishness
A remarkable number of studies have addressed Blackness in Spain
through a critical race studies lens. These studies have focused predomi‑
nantly on immigration, that is, the arrival of migrants beginning in the late
4 Rosalía Cornejo‑Parriego and Ana León‑Távora

1980s, especially after 1986, the year in which Spain joined the European
Union and became a migrant destination in contrast to the 1960s when
its citizens left for wealthier European nations such as Germany, Swit‑
zerland, and France (S. Bermúdez; Coleman; Cornejo‑Parriego, Memo‑
ria colonial; Murray; Vega‑Durán; Ugarte). There is also a growing area
of studies that explore the insertion of Blackness in the collective imagi‑
nary and the presence of Afro‑descendant people from Early Modern to
twentieth‑century pre‑immigration Spain (Cornejo‑Parriego, Black USA;
Fracchia; Fra‑Houchins and Fra‑Molinero; Jones; Martin‑Márquez; Mo‑
linero; Murray and Tsuchiya; Surwillo). This constitutes a direct challenge
to the ideology of racelessness and colorblindness mentioned before and
to the traditional belief—with critical repercussions in today’s Spain—that
Black existence and, therefore, the concept and problem of race, including
slavery, were only relevant in the colonies, not the Peninsula. Aside from
recent scholarship, initiatives such as the documentaries Gurumbé (2016)
and Cachita (2020) or Juan de Pareja’s Met exhibit represent steps toward
remedying Spain’s Afro‑amnesia or what Antumi Toasijé calls “de‑African‑
ization process” (349).
Focusing on the twentieth and twenty‑first centuries, our volume builds
on this budding field that acknowledges Blackness as an integral component
of the material and imaginary construction of Europe in general and Spain
in particular. Through an interdisciplinary and transmedial approach that
encompasses film, visual art, marketing, literature, autobiography, testi‑
mony, journalism, digital communities, and social media, our collection of
essays proposes a dialogue on Afro‑Spanishness that is not exclusively tied
to immigration and, furthermore, a dialogue that understands Blackness as
a non‑essentialist, heterogeneous, diverse, and diasporic notion. This will
allow us to trace a transnational network that connects Afro‑Spaniards to
Spain’s former colony of Equatorial Guinea and to critically explore the
links between Afro‑Spanishness and global projects such as the Black Di‑
aspora, Pan‑Africanism, and the Black Lives Matter movement.
Our essays demonstrate the resilience of colonialist paradigms and
explore how racial ideologies and colonial memories circulate, promot‑
ing national narratives of whitening. However, they also examine Black
self‑representation in a variety of cultural texts and products. They explore
how Black Spanish authors, artists, and activists destabilize colonial gazes,
propose decolonial views of Spain and Europe’s literature and history, ar‑
ticulate Afro‑diasporic knowledges, and envision Afro‑­descendance as an
affirmative and empowering tool. Furthermore, they analyze how female
Black grassroots activism, urban peripheries, and online communities be‑
come diasporic spaces that seek to un‑whiten and destabilize existing con‑
structions of national identity. As a result, readers will perceive in this
collection a combination of an Afro‑pessimistic perspective—due to the
 Introduction: Black Spain in Afro-Europe 5

resilience of colonialist paradigms and anti‑Black racism—and a celebra‑

tory view of Afro‑Spanishness stemming from the joy of self‑­representation
and agency, empowering humor, and the profoundly inspiring discov‑
ery of alternative archives that expand, enrich, and question hegemonic
knowledge.

Knowledge and Representation: Coloniality and Its Challenges

When we reflect on knowledge, we need to question its ontology (what
do we consider knowledge and what knowledge?), its roots (where does it
originate?), its motifs, and, more importantly, its agency: who is allowed
to know and who holds the power to decide what we should know? This
raises a final grammatical question: why “knowledge” in the singular form
and not in the plural?5 Indeed, as Michel Foucault argues, the relationship
knowledge/power is symbiotic, a mutually feeding collaboration, which
evidences that possessing a specific type of knowledge provides access to
power, but, moreover, that power prescribes knowledge.
Aside from Foucault, decolonial scholars have also discussed the inextri‑
cable relationship between knowledge and power and the role of the former
in the colonization process that places some nations and their epistemic
systems at the geopolitical center while displacing the colonized ones to the
peripheries. With the arrival of the capitalist economy and modernity in the
eighteenth century, Europe imposes a concept of knowledge based on “rea‑
son” and objectivity that abandons other forms of observation. This ra‑
tional knowledge dismisses “biographical locations” (Mignolo, “Epistemic”
160) and refuses tradition, creating the impression of a universal, neutral
perspective, or what Santiago Castro‑Gómez astutely labeled “zero‑point
hubris,” an “impartial and sterile form of observation” emerging from a
supposedly detached, abstract knower (Chapter 1).6 This epistemic system
discards other types of knowledge, claims that not all humans belong to the
same intellectual category, and, consequently, validates Western colonial
enterprises to gain access to new sources of wealth (Castro‑Gómez, Chapter
1). The ethnic and cognitive asymmetry gives way, according to Donna J.
Haraway, to a “culture of no culture” (qtd. in Mendieta 249), a knowledge
that is confronted against tradition and that steals from the histories/stories
that, as Eduardo Mendieta defends, make us “distinct as humans” (249).
The erasure of loci of enunciations (subjects), replaced by a universal eye
that transforms local history into a unifying global design, is the effect of
the establishment of a center of geopolitical power:

To the centrality of Spain, and later France, Holland, England, and the
United States within the world system, there corresponds the preten‑
sion of turning their own local history into the single and universal
6 Rosalía Cornejo‑Parriego and Ana León‑Távora

location for the articulation and production of knowledge. Knowledge

not ­produced in these power centers or the circuits they control is de‑
clared irrelevant and “pre‑scientific.” (Castro‑Gómez Chapter 1)

The devastating effects of modern colonialism are thus not only visible in
the physical appropriation of territories and bodies and the inequitable
distribution of wealth but also in the extermination of people’s histories
and the imprisonment of their minds (Fanon, The Wretched 49). As one of
the Equatoguinean characters in Lucía Asué Mbomío Rubio’s novel Hija
del camino [Daughter of the Path] (2019) puts it, “They didn’t come only
to take the natural resources, cocoa or wood. They told us that what we
considered religion was, in reality, superstition; that our languages were
dialects; that what we found beautiful was ugly; that our artistic works
were handicrafts” (303).7 This character confirms, in fact, Frantz Fanon’s
theories regarding the psychological and emotional consequences resulting
from the internalization of colonialist paradigms that will also lead to the
belief in the inferiority of the cultural products of the colonized subject
(Black Skin).8
While this Western sequestration of knowledge needs to be challenged,
Devika Chawla and Ahmet Atay concur with Fanon, who acknowledged in
A Dying Colonialism the impossibility of returning to a pure pre‑colonial
past (5). The choices left for a colonized person are to accept the humili‑
ation by the self‑proclaimed superior individuals or to assimilate, which
ultimately implies assuming their inferiority and playing by the colonizers’
rules (Mignolo, The Politics 333). Mignolo, however, introduces “border
thinking” as an alternative that involves “changing the terms of the con‑
versation and not just its content” (The Politics 332–33). Epistemic de‑
colonization entails a “reconstitution” of knowledge that overthrows the
hegemonic knowledge/power dynamics and views peripheries as valuable
alternative centers of information. As Chawla and Atay propose, it also
entails focusing on the experiences of non‑belonging and in‑betweenness
and “on hybrid experiences, practices, and identities that actively question,
critique, and challenge colonization” (5).
Decoloniality provides a framework to analyze not only the relationship
between the metropolis and its colonies but also the current status of ra‑
cialized minorities in former European colonial powers. If the knowledges
of the peripheries have been rejected as non‑knowledge, if their cultural
production and practices have been degraded, if the history of slavery and
colonialism has been forgotten, erased, or whitewashed, the construction
of counternarratives and the search for alternative Black archives to re‑
member the past critically becomes a pressing task for current transforma‑
tions (El‑Tayeb, European Others xxviii). It becomes urgent to “[u]ncover
a different history of race in Europe, one in which people of color appear
 Introduction: Black Spain in Afro-Europe 7

as insiders and agents” (xxxix). These archives are cultural and historical
repositories that become a source of empowerment, as Pitts notes upon the
discovery of the Black Archives in Amsterdam (135–38). Fully aware of
this, Afro‑Spanish activists and cultural producers have embarked on sig‑
nificant initiatives. For example, Tania Adam, the creator of Radio Africa
Magazine, leads the research project “España negra” and the promotion of
Black Iberian Studies. Digital communities such as Afroféminas (see Chap‑
ter 4), Negrxs Magazine, Conciencia Afro, and Sevilla Negra, as well as
the social media presence and works of activists like Moha Gerehou (Qué
hace un negro como tú en un sitio como este [2021]) and Rubén H. Ber‑
múdez (Y tú, ¿por qué eres negro? [2017]), aim to change dominant nar‑
ratives by “excavating,” to use Mbomío’s archeological terms, “the buried
history” (Hija 62).9 Among these initiatives, we must also include Yeison
F. García López’s presentation, “Madrid negro,” which took place at the
Prado Museum in Madrid on November 4, 2023. The poet fashioned him‑
self after Pareja’s portrait by Velázquez and imagined a poetic conversation
with Pareja, all while identifying himself as Afro‑madrileño and display‑
ing the Pan‑African flag featuring an image of the province of Madrid.
Not only does he aim to establish a connection between global and local
Afro‑descendance, but he also seeks to “darken” an institution that sym‑
bolizes Spanish identity. Additionally, he proposes transforming “Madrid
negro” into a laboratory that continues to generate memories and create
archives (@yeison.f.garcia.lopez). This enterprise, while arduous, is never‑
theless profoundly rewarding because, as Stuart Hall explains, the precise
moment of recognizing the existence of hidden histories epitomizes the
beginning of decolonization: “the speaking of a past which previously had
no language” (“The Local” 35).
Hegemonic knowledge is intrinsically associated with representation, as
Hall eloquently argues in The Spectacle of the Other. This connection is
further exemplified in Chapter 1 of this collection titled, “From Negro‑
philia to Necropolitics: Anti‑Black Racism in Spanish Avant‑Garde Humor
Magazines.” Focusing on a selection of cartoons, vignettes, short stories,
and references to the 1927 film El negro que tenía el alma blanca, Ana
León‑Távora studies several examples of anti‑Black racist graphic humor
in two prominent Spanish avant‑garde journals, Buen Humor (1921–1931)
and Gutiérrez (1927–1934). While born out of negrophilia—the obsession
with Black culture prevalent in the 1920s and 1930s European artistic
scene, primarily in Paris but also in other European cities—León‑Távora’s
close examination from the perspective of Achille Mbembe’s concept of
necropolitics reveals the pervasive connection between Spanish modernist
aesthetics and postcolonial politics. This analysis demonstrates that negro‑
philia ultimately constructs a necropolitical system where Black individu‑
als are treated as peripheral commodities of modernity, never as authentic
8 Rosalía Cornejo‑Parriego and Ana León‑Távora

agents within it. By studying these magazines’ degrading humor—with its

dehumanizing tropes and colonialist stereotypes and narratives—Chapter
1 provides a point of departure to examine both the persistence and sub‑
version of this “grammar of representation” (Hall, “The Spectacle” 251)
in the following essays.
Necropolitics is also evident in Baltasar Fra‑Molinero’s “The Transna‑
tional Afropessimism of Francisco Zamora Loboch.” Through the lens of
Afropessimism, Chapter 2 studies a selection of works by Zamora Loboch,
a journalist and writer born in 1948 in Equatorial Guinea but residing in
Spain since the 1960s. Beginning with his first essay, Cómo ser negro y no
morir en Aravaca (1994), Zamora Loboch depicts Blackness, according
to Fra‑Molinero, as a condition predestined to death in the world order
of white supremacy. The writer ironically dismantles Spain’s transhistori‑
cal construction of whiteness that has erased the memory of its involve‑
ment in slavery, the slave trade, and more recent colonial enterprises (e.g.
Equatorial Guinea). Furthermore, Cómo ser negro confirms the intrinsic
connection of power, knowledge, and representation by analyzing both the
“invisibility” of Black characters and their depictions by canonical authors
of Early Modern Spain.
Moreover, in his three novels, Fra‑Molinero confirms Zamora Loboch’s
Afropessimism. The right to constitute a national state by Black individu‑
als is the subject of ridicule in the author’s first novel, Conspiración en
el green (El informe Abayak) (2009), which explores the relationship be‑
tween the international oil industry, African exiles, and neocolonialism.
Black bodies, masculinities, and intellectual skills are trafficked transna‑
tionally in the world of sports in El caimán de Kaduna (2012). The colo‑
nial ontology of Blackness as non‑citizenship is essential to white utopias
in La república fantástica de Annobón (2017), a novel set during Spain’s
Second Republic (1931–1939), which, despite its progressive impulse, did
not envision a space for Black colonial subjects. As Fra‑Molinero argues,
Equatorial Guinea and Africa are always at risk of falling under the co‑
loniality of the European discourse of failure: failed states, societies, and
humanity. Nevertheless, despite their pessimism, Zamora Loboch’s works
create a space for memory as a counternarrative to colonial discourse and
white supremacy, as well as an ironic manual with survival strategies for
Black people in contemporary Spain.
Their undeniable multicultural, multiracial, and multiethnic societies
have led Western postcolonial nations to address issues such as racism,
integration, and belonging of racialized communities. They have seen,
however, numerous unsuccessful attempts. France, for example, has sys‑
tematically miscarried its integration efforts, as the recurring uprisings of
the banlieues (from 2005 to 2023) or its misguided focus on Muslim wom‑
en’s dress demonstrate (Cohen). Jeffrey K. Coleman’s essay “The Value
 Introduction: Black Spain in Afro-Europe 9

of Color: Spain’s Equality Stamps Fiasco” (Chapter 3) explores one such

attempt on Spanish soil. He captures the irony of a recent anti‑Black rac‑
ism initiative that backfired immensely by visually reinforcing the racial
hierarchies it aimed to dismantle. In 2021, Spain’s postal service, Correos,
launched a collection of four skin‑toned stamps, whose value decreased
as they darkened to reflect discriminatory racial inequality. Released pre‑
cisely on the first anniversary of George Floyd’s murder at the hands of
the police in the United States, the Equality Stamps generated widespread
criticism, and Correos swiftly ended the campaign without an apology.
For Coleman, the prompt deletion of the stamps from the official Correos
archive connotes an unwillingness to concede wrongdoing and eliminates
the need for an apology to the communities affected by this campaign.
Finally, he contends that the increasing value of the stamps in the resale
philatelic market lies not only in their scarcity but also in the surround‑
ing controversy, thus demonstrating that racism sells. Consequently, this
further denigrates Black Spaniards symbolically, as the funds generated
in this secondary market do not benefit the anti‑racism movement. While
many people worldwide were appalled by this campaign, for Coleman, it
constitutes “another unsuccessful attempt of the Spanish State to external‑
ize racism as ‘over there’ while inflicting epistemological violence upon its
racialized communities.” We are faced then with one more example of the
ideology of racelessness, which traditionally has asserted the nonexistence
of racial conflicts in Europe, situating them in the United States, a perspec‑
tive that becomes more and more difficult to defend.
As a result, current pedagogical practices adopted by different platforms
and initiatives have started to denounce and confront anti‑Black racism,
the annihilation and dehumanization of Black subjects—materially or
symbolically—and the resilience of colonialist imagery and thought exam‑
ined in the previous essays. The digital magazine Afroféminas has played
a highly significant role in this regard. In Chapter 4, “Educating Spain
about Its Afro‑Identity on the Web: Afroféminas,” Esther M. Alarcón
Arana examines a selection of articles in Afroféminas, proposing that the
magazine’s empowering antiracist activism and decolonial praxis chal‑
lenge both national identity and dominant white feminism. Its didactic
mission aims to dismantle the hegemonic concept of Spanishness and chal‑
lenge the Eurocentrism of Spain’s historiography and the representation of
Black individuals. It also questions white feminism for failing to include
racialized women on equal terms.10 Moreover, a final section, concentrat‑
ing on two discursive practices employed in these articles—dialogue and
storytelling—completes the analysis of Afroféminas’s goal to combat Afro‑
amnesia and acknowledge the existence of a significant Black Spain. While
the magazine includes Black academic voices like that of Antumi Toasijé,
it strongly supports personal stories as a legitimate source of knowledge,
10 Rosalía Cornejo‑Parriego and Ana León‑Távora

asserting the role of storytelling as a compelling narrative technique that

challenges the so‑called “scientific” history.
In Chapter 5, “Hidden Knowledges and Diasporic Positionings: The Au‑
tobiographical and Testimonial Texts in Metamba Miago: Relatos y saberes
de mujeres afroespañolas,” Julia Borst analyzes Metamba Miago (2019),
a collection of autobiographical and testimonial texts by Black women
self‑edited and coordinated by Deborah Ekoka Hernandis. Referring to
approaches that conceptualize literature as a potential archive of hidden
and marginalized knowledge, Borst studies how Afro‑descendance is imag‑
ined not simply as political resistance to the discourse of white supremacy.
For this critic, Metamba Miago displays specific knowledge about what it
means to be a racialized individual in Spain and how to redefine Blackness
from the perspective of the diasporic subject. These texts constitute em‑
powering narratives of self‑affirmation that refuse to define Blackness only
in opposition to whiteness and in relation to racism. For Borst, they offer
positive spaces of identification for Afro‑diasporic subjects and depict the
diversity of female Blackness as well as the transgenerational transfer of
knowledge.11 Echoing Minna Salami, Borst affirms that Metamba Miago is
also invested in discovering and producing a “language of joy.” Moreover,
Chapter 5 addresses the relation of these Afro‑descendant women to the
“shifting signifier of ‘home,’” which is often imagined as a metaphorical
more than geographical space of Afro‑diasporic belonging. The concept
of Diaspora, as we will further explore in the next section, emerges as a
dynamic space where diverse and multiple interpretations, affiliations, and
identifications convene.

Diaspora, European Pan‑Africanism, and Translocality

The previous essays demonstrate that, while Afro‑Spaniards wish to as‑
sert their national belonging, they do not ignore the transnational and di‑
asporic dimensions of their individual and collective identity. Like other
Afro‑Europeans, Afro‑Spaniards contest both their erasure from national
histories and from the European (non) memory of colonialism (El‑Tayeb,
European Others 78) and embrace their hybrid identities. This raises, for
El‑Tayeb, a very pertinent question: “How to theorize migrant and minor‑
ity populations as integral parts of national histories and contemporary
politics while at the same time recognizing their transnational compo‑
nents” (European Others 54).
The twentieth century witnessed Négritude, the Harlem Renaissance,
Black Power, and Pan‑Africanism, to name a few of the movements that in‑
spired a transnational community. The twenty‑first century has seen Black
Lives Matter become a global crusade, especially after the 2020 murder
of George Floyd, which mobilized Afro‑descendants of different national
 Introduction: Black Spain in Afro-Europe 11

origins, first to show their solidarity with African Americans and, second,
to condemn racist practices and provide visibility to discrimination in their
own countries. It is undeniable that African American history and its em‑
blematic leaders have played a fundamental role in the Black diasporic im‑
agination. However, many Afro‑Europeans currently advocate focusing on
their unique conditions and history, considering that, despite the common‑
alities, the US Black experience differs from the European one. Further‑
more, the evolving reality of post‑colonial African countries has reframed
the relationship of diasporic communities with their continent of origin
and, consequently, requires a revision of the concept of Pan‑Africanism.
Regarding the African American community, Karo Moret acknowledges
the indisputable and essential North American contribution to scholarship
about the racial struggles of Black Americans and Afro‑feminism. She la‑
ments, nevertheless, the lack of an equivalent intellectual reflection about
Afro‑diasporic subjects in other countries. Possessing only the US experi‑
ence as a framework obliterates the diversity and specificity of the Black
experience in other contexts (Gómez Santo Tomás). Similarly, Mbomío
praises African Americans’ achievements in terms of self‑representation,
but at the same time advises Black Spaniards to pivot to the already ex‑
tensive list of Black cultural production in Spain to “find” themselves
(“­Narrarse”). There is a prevailing sense that the United States has occu‑
pied a dominant position within the Black Diaspora and that it is time to
look toward other enclaves. In Pitt’s words, “I would have to look beyond
African America for answers about my situation as a black man in Europe
and orientate myself more confidently along an Afropean axis” (51).12
In addition, considering the crucial historical changes, Omar Dieng pro‑
poses a new version of Pan‑Africanism: Afro‑European Pan‑Africanism.13
For Dieng, Pan‑Africanism was originally invested in the liberation of Af‑
rica, which became the “symbol of success and failure for the entire black
race” (340). During the post‑independence period, however, it shifted its
focus to the continent, and “the inclusion of Afrodiasporic subjects became
irrelevant” (340). Moreover, with the departure from Europe of many Af‑
rican leaders, activism in Europe lost its strength (341). Ironically, this also
led to the belief that France and England had been “sites of black intel‑
lectuals’ collaborations rather than places of anti‑black racism as clearly
seen in the USA” (341). This confirms an already highlighted idea: the
Black “problem” was always located in the colonies, not the metropolis,
or, in more recent times, that “real” anti‑Black racism is exercised in North
America, not in Europe.
However, Dieng perceives an important change in Black diasporic
subjects. While a continuity with the original concept of Pan‑Africanism
persists, there are also relevant discontinuities that lead to his definition
of Afro‑European Pan‑Africanism as “a collective black consciousness
12 Rosalía Cornejo‑Parriego and Ana León‑Távora

in twenty‑first‑century Europe” (343). Focusing primarily on their con‑

dition as Black citizens, Afropeans are trying to define strategies of re‑
sistance (343) and demonstrate their “sense of agency and subversive
practices of Europeanness” (344). Dieng cites two significant organi‑
zations: the virtual activist communities established around Pitt’s The
Afropean and the French‑based Afro‑feminist collective Mwasi, which
created a “Pan‑Africanist journal to articulate an Afro‑feminist response
to racism in Europe and the global black world” (Dieng 347). To this,
we could add Germany’s Black Central Europe (founded by the Black
Central European Studies Network), whose initial statement clearly syn‑
thesizes Dieng’s tenets: “We bring you over 1000 years of Black history in
the German‑speaking lands and show you why it matters right now.” In
the case of Spain, we must emphasize once more the pedagogical labor of
Afroféminas and the research and archival work of Radio Africa Maga‑
zine. Their primary goal is to address coloniality from the perspective of
a non‑essentialist collective identity that connects with the global Black
Diaspora. Through their reconstruction of Black archives, they advocate
for changes in the dominant transhistorical and transcultural discourses
on Blackness that directly impact the real lives of Afro‑diasporic subjects
in twentieth‑ and twenty‑first‑century Spain.
Nevertheless, as Hall argues in “Cultural Identity and Diaspora,” the
Diaspora does not respond to a unified, unfragmented, single narrative.
It is rather heterogeneous since the Black experience intersects with spe‑
cific historical developments, class, gender, and geographical location. As
previously seen—we might recall Zamora Loboch’s works and the voices
in Metamba Miago—the Afro‑diasporic experience and connection with
the “homeland” are diverse. In the Spanish context, it is also important to
underline a generational difference. A first wave of writers born in Equato‑
rial Guinea who became exiles in Spain due to Francisco Macías Nguema’s
dictatorship (1968–1979) (Ugarte 24–25) have been heavily invested in
the colonial history and post‑independence challenges of their original
homeland and other African nations. Donato Ndongo’s Tinieblas de tu
memoria negra (1987), Los poderes de la tempestad (1997), and El metro
(2007), as well as Zamora Loboch’s novels examined in Chapter 2, are sig‑
nificant examples. Meanwhile, the younger generation of Afro‑Spaniards,
who were born in Spain or arrived at a very young age, tend to explore
their African roots to negotiate their own identity and belonging to Spain
and Europe. Desirée Bela‑Lobedde’s and Moha Gerehou’s autoethnogra‑
phies (see Chapter 10)—Ser mujer negra en España and Qué hace un negro
como tú en un sitio como este, respectively—Rubén Bermúdez’s personal
and historical search in his photobook Y tú, ¿por qué eres negro? (2017);
the documentary La puerta de no retorno (2011), in which film director
Santiago Zannou accompanies his father in his return to Benin after forty
 Introduction: Black Spain in Afro-Europe 13

years of absence; and Mbomío’s Las que se atrevieron (2017) and Hija del
camino, all these works hint at the links with an African “home” but as
a means of locating themselves within contemporary concepts of nation‑
hood, Spanishness, and Afro‑Spanishness.
In her first published book, Las que se atrevieron, Mbomío already be‑
gan to search for the ties between Spanishness and Blackness, as Martin
Repinecz argues in Chapter 6, “Un‑Whitening Late Francoist Spain: Knots
of Memory in Lucía Mombío’s Las que se atrevieron.” Her collection re‑
flects on the intersections of race, gender, and colonial memory, recounting
the stories of six interracial relationships between white Spanish women
and Black Equatorial Guinean men during late Francoism and the transi‑
tion to democracy. Repinecz argues that Las que se atrevieron not only
captures the intersection of sexual and racial politics but also explores
the tensions and contradictions between Francoist national narratives of
whitening, the memories of colonial violence in Equatorial Guinea, the
anxieties of racial mixing, and the lived experiences of interracial Spanish
families. For Repinecz, Mbomío’s text reflects the circulation of racial and
gendered paranoias between the colony and peninsular Spain that were
imagined as necessary to protect the nation’s precarious whiteness during
the period known as desarrollismo, given that “a small but visible post‑
colonial diaspora punctured the regime’s rhetoric of national ‘whitening’
and presaged the nation’s impending transformation into a multiethnic
society.” Nevertheless, Repinecz concludes that despite racism and misog‑
yny, Las que se atrevieron also presents some opportunities for transracial
solidarity.
Contrary to the previous essay, which establishes the inevitable diasporic
ties and circulation of colonial discourses and anxieties between Spain and
Equatorial Guinea, Dosinda García‑Alvite’s “Decolonizing the History of
Afro‑Spaniards: Afrofeminismo. 50 años de lucha y activismo de mujeres
negras en España (1968–2018) by Abuy Nfubea” (Chapter 7), studies the
diasporic circulation of decolonial discourses that point towards agency
and empowerment. In Afrofeminismo, community organizer and cultural
critic Abuy Nfubea traces a genealogy of Afro‑descendant women who
have fought for the survival of their communities in Spain, mainly in the
metropolitan areas of Madrid and Barcelona, through grassroots activism
and continuous political involvement. García‑Alvite argues that, against
the epistemic violence that erases the contributions of Afro‑diasporic
subjects to Spanish culture, Nfubea’s Afrofeminism constitutes a coun‑
ternarrative and an essential Black archive of female activism.14 In his ex‑
amination of this activism, Nfubea dialogues with the central tenets of
Afro‑centric Pan‑Africanism, Womanism, and Maroonism, expanding the
map of diasporic connections but, most importantly, the theoretical and
philosophical apparatus to promote a decolonial approach to being an
14 Rosalía Cornejo‑Parriego and Ana León‑Távora

Afro‑Spaniard. For Nfubea, the recovery of these stories of resistance is

essential for the empowerment of the younger generations.
In Chapter 8, “Mapping Black Women through Art and Social Media:
The Case of Montserrat Anguiano,” Stefania Licata analyzes the inter‑
disciplinary work of Afro‑Catalan Anguiano, who combines visual arts
with poetry. Licata’s analysis of Anguiano’s art explains how some art‑
ists have set out to reimagine racialized images and challenge hegemonic
knowledges.15 As demonstrated by Anguiano’s 2022 exhibits, Dona, Mu‑
jer, Women and Referent és nom de Dona, the Catalan artist creates within
a Pan‑African context that encompasses Africa, the Americas, and Spain.
Her art addresses the interplay of racial and gender politics, subverting the
colonial iconography of Black women and the African continent. Indeed,
contrary to dominant representations of the so‑called Dark Continent, An‑
guiano’s images depict a colorful and lively continent that reframes and
re‑envisions Africa as a joyful place. Furthermore, she performs a pictorial
reconstruction of an incomplete collective memory and genealogy of Black
women leaders across the diaspora. This genealogy and archive of cultural
referents and role models combine the affirmation of her identity as an
Afro‑Catalan woman with the desire to visually and poetically create a
virtual global community of Black women.
Amid this cartography that highlights Afropeans’ multiple positions, be
it through the concept of Pan‑Africanism, diaspora, or transnationality,
El‑Tayeb proposes the term “translocality.” In her discussion of the inter‑
section of urban and diasporic spaces, she observes that racialized minori‑
ties often do not find their place in national narratives and will strongly
identify with concrete cities or neighborhoods (European Others xxxvii).
In line with this observation, we can also better understand Pitt when he
confesses that during his European journey, he was searching “for an en‑
ergy beyond the love of the local and the aloof distance of the national and
the global. A liminal, translocal energy that ultimately provided commun‑
ion with a wider black European diaspora …” (16). There is an increasing
feeling that the language of nationality should be replaced with the lan‑
guage of (multi) locality (Selasi).
This constitutes the point of departure of “From Below and from Within:
Urban Peripheries in Lucía Mbomío’s Barrionalismos” (Chapter 9), where
Rosalía Cornejo‑Parriego analyzes Mbomío’s Barrionalismos, a column
that appeared in Spain’s leading national newspaper El País from 2018 to
2020. Facing constant suspicion about her citizenship status, an experi‑
ence suffered by other racialized minorities in Spain and Europe, Mbomío
claims a Madrid neighborhood as her own space of belonging.16 Barriona­
lismos, as Cornejo‑Parriego demonstrates, shares many features with other
journalistic and creative texts by Mbomío: the preservation of collective
 Introduction: Black Spain in Afro-Europe 15

memory, the urgency of self‑representation, the blend of global and local,

and the focus on diasporic communities. In her column, Mbomío confronts
the traditional hegemonic gaze on the barrio, depicting urban peripheries
as heterogeneous spaces where neighbors remember, exercise their agency,
and defy stereotypes. Moreover, she explores how, in the context of the
global health crisis (COVID‑19), barrios have faced additional discursive
challenges. Being fully aware of her multiple belongings, Barrionalismos
reflects Mbomío’s decision to talk about a space of local belonging from
the gendered and class perspective of a Spanish woman of African descent.

***
In recent years, the Spanish book market has witnessed almost a sort of
boom of first‑person testimonies written by Afro‑descendant authors.
Among the most recent are the previously‑mentioned ones by Bela‑Lobe‑
dde and Gerehou, Asaari Bibang’s Y a pesar de todo, aquí estoy [And
Here I Am, in Spite of Everything] (2021), Adriana Boho’s Ponte en mi
piel. Guía para combatir el racismo cotidiano [Put Yourself in My Skin.
A Guide to Combatting Everyday Racism] (2022), and Afropoderossa’s
España no es solo blanca [Spain Isn’t Only White] (2023). Considering this
proliferation, it is only fitting to conclude this volume by focusing on these
narratives that center the voices of Black authors and provide an insider’s
perspective, rather than allow others to tell their stories and experiences.
Moreover, they synthesize some of the fundamental issues addressed in
Colonialist Gazes and Counternarratives of Blackness: Afro‑Spanishness
in 20th and 21st-Century Spain.
In her essay “An Inconclusive Conclusion: Autoethnography as a Model
for Epistemic Decolonization” (Chapter 10), León‑Távora categorizes
these first‑person accounts as autoethnographies and explores the pivotal
role this genre plays in the decolonization of Eurocentric epistemology.
Recalling the indissoluble relationship between power and knowledge as
a colonial form of control, León‑Távora examines them as counternarra‑
tives that include pedagogical practices and strategies of resistance and
pose fundamental questions regarding the hegemonic concept of Span‑
ish nationhood. Finally, they confront Spain’s Afro‑amnesia, tackling,
León‑Távora argues, the power of non‑knowledge or ignorance as a selec‑
tive choice, which is, in the end, responsible for Spain’s colorblindness and
inability to acknowledge and accept its own racism.
While the experiences narrated might seem to confine Blackness in Spain
to an inescapable Afropessimism, these autoethnographies are also a for‑
midable affirmation of agency and empowerment. It is an empowerment
that stems from self‑representation, the challenge to the Eurocentric mo‑
nopoly of knowledge, and the use of humor. If we began with an essay that
16 Rosalía Cornejo‑Parriego and Ana León‑Távora

analyzed blatant examples of anti‑Black humor, in these first‑person ac‑

counts, humor becomes a survival strategy, a pedagogical tool to confront
racial hegemony, an invitation to non‑Black Spaniards to contemplate co‑
lonialist stereotypes from a Black person’s perspective, and, ultimately, a
call for shared anti‑racist activism.

Notes
1 His extraordinary collection lives on at the Schomburg Center for Research in
Black Culture (Harlem, New York City).
2 Although this is part of a complex ongoing debate, throughout this volume,
we capitalize “Black” and use lowercase for “white” to highlight the histori‑
cal discrimination of peoples of African descent. For more on this debate, see
Appiah.
3 The collection Locating African European Studies contains one essay by Borst,
“Voices from the Black Diaspora in Spain.” Pitts devotes chapters to differ‑
ent European cities, including Lisbon, but only mentions in passing Madrid’s
multicultural Lavapiés neighborhood (339–40). However, he does lament in
his introduction not including Spain’s capital in his travel book. Spain is also
missing in Michael McEachrane’s “Pan‑Africanism and the African Diaspora
in Europe” in the Routledge Handbook of Pan‑Africanism, edited by Reiland
Rabaka.
4 It would also be appropriate to incorporate Spain to the field of Mediterranean
Studies, a field that has begun to engage with race as demonstrated in The
Black Mediterranean (Eds. Proglio, Hawthorne et al.), a collection of essays
whose main focus is Italy. Lombardi‑Diop proposes the use of the Medite­
rraneo nero “as a diasporic framework” (5).
5 Here we expand on Walter Mignolo’s original questions: “Who and when, why
and where is knowledge generated” (“Epistemic” 160).
6 For Argentinian philosopher Enrique Dussel, European modernity was initi‑
ated already by the 1492 Spanish “discovery” of America, which gave birth
to a common European consciousness and the constitution of Europe as the
center, while the rest of the world was regarded as its periphery, in the dichot‑
omy of the modern, quasi‑divine European “I” versus the primitive “Other”
(qtd. in Ajari 26).
7 “Aquí no vinieron solo a llevarse las materias primas, el cacao o la madera.
Nos dijeron que lo que considerábamos que era una religión, en realidad era
superstición; que nuestras lenguas eran dialectos; que lo que encontrábamos
bello era feo; que nuestras manifestaciones artísticas eran artesanía.” All trans‑
lations are ours unless otherwise indicated.
8 Mbomío’s novel explores some of these effects and contradictions through the
Equatoguinean father of the protagonist. The father tries to instill the pride
of being fang, while simultaneously clarifying that he is not like the rest of his
people (55) and not teaching his language to his children (259; 292).
9 “Juntos exhumaron la historia enterrada y juntos recibieron el abrazo de una
realidad en la que las personas negras no eran eternas segundonas sino pro‑
tagonistas, héroes y heroínas.”
10 This position is very similar to the one held by the French collective Mwasi to
whom we will refer later. See Olea.
 Introduction: Black Spain in Afro-Europe 17

11 Afromayores [Afro‑seniors], a recent project sponsored by the cultural center

Espacio Afro, holds great significance in this regard. The most prominent ini‑
tiative thus far has been the inauguration of the photographic exhibit “Afro‑
mayores. Somos porque fueron” [Afro‑seniors. We are because they were] in
Alcorcón, in September 2023 (“Lesmas”).
12 Pitts notes an interesting difference: “US exports its blackness. Europe does
not” (48).
13 For more on revisions of Pan‑Africanism, see García‑Alvite’s essay (Chapter 7).
14 For another effort to create a Black Female Archive as a testimony to the intel‑
lectual and activist contributions to Black Internationalism and Black Europe,
see Florvil.
15 For more on location and identity of Black authors within the Spanish artistic
scene, see García’s Inapropiados e inapropiables (2018), which includes con‑
versations with artists such as poet Yeison F. García López, singer Nakany
Kanté, and actress Silvia Albert, author of the play No es país para negras [No
Country for Black Women] (2019).
16 As El‑Tayeb explains, “the majority of people of color currently living in Eu‑
rope are officially and unofficially defined as being part of a ‘migrant popula‑
tion,’ even when they were born there” (European Others 660).

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Mignolo, Walter D. . The Politics of Decolonial Investigation. Duke UP, 2021.
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Coloniality in Contemporary Spanish Culture. U of North Carolina P, 2018.
Murray, N. Michelle , and Akiko Tsuchiya , editors. Unsettling Colonialism. Gender and Race
in the Nineteenth-Century Global Hispanic World. SUNY P, 2019.
Olea, Andrea . “Afrofeministas: ‘Sabemos emanciparnos solas’.” Pikara Magazine, 6 Oct.
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0242ac110003.
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Selasi, Taiye . “Don’t Ask Me Where I Am from, Ask Me Where I Am a Local.” TED Talk, Oct.
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l.
Survillo, Lisa . Monsters by Trade: Slave Traffickers in Modern Spanish Literature and
Culture. Stanford UP, 2014.
Toasijé, Antumi . “The Africanity of Spain. Identity and Problematization.” Journal of Black
Studies, vol. 39, no. 3, 2009, pp. 348–355.
Ugarte, Michael . Africans in Europe. The Culture of Exile and Emigration from Equatorial
Guinea to Spain. U of Illinois P, 2010.
Vega-Durán, Raquel . Emigrant Dreams, Immigrant Borders: Migrants, Transnational
Encounters, and Identity in Spain. Bucknell UP, 2016.
@yeison.f.garcia.lopez . “Madrid Negro.” Instagram, 4 Nov. 2023 ,
https://www.instagram.com/p/CzQ41xcKOpU/?igshid=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==.

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The Transnational Afropessimism of Francisco Zamora Loboch

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The Value of Color

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Using the Web to Educate Spain About Its Afro-Identity

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