Foundation Of Special And Inclusive Education

Process of Special Education

When a child is having trouble in school, it’s Important to find out why. The
child may have a disability. By law, schools must provide special help to
eligible children with disabilities. This action is called process special
education.

Pre-referral Intervention

• It is collaborative process designed to identify and address a student’s

academic or behavioral needs.

• Often, schools conduct a more systematic and formal prereferral

intervention called Response to Intervention (Rtl), multi-tiered approach used
in schools to identify and support students with learning and behavioral
needs.

PRE-REFERRAL PROCESS

- Taylor (2009) provided an assessment model that begins with a pre-

referral process.

Norm-referenced test - test to compare the performance of a child

against the performance of their peers.

Criterion referenced test - tests compare a child’s knowledge and skills

against a predetermined standard, cut score, and criterion.

What is Individualized Education Program?

- The IEP is a legal document that outlines the special education

services, accommodations, and supports that a student with a
disability will receive in school

Instructional Accommodations, Modifications, and Adaptations

• Teaching learners with disabilities requires educational adjustments in the

form of accommodations, modifications, and adaptations.

Accomodations - these are changes that the teachers do to allow learners

with disabilities to access the general education curriculum
Modification - involves altering the content, academic standards, or
curriculum by lowering the level of difficulty or complexity to aid the learning
of learners with disabilities.

Adaptation - is a more significant change in the content, process, products,

and learning environment compared to modification and accommodations.

Collaboration and Teaming - special education follows a collaborative

approach to planning and teaching. Collaboration can take in many forms:
coordination, consultation, and teaming.

Coordination – requires continuous communication and collaboration with

other stakeholders to ensure the correct and continuous implementation

Consultations - It happens when an IEP team member provides expertise to

the rest of the team.

Teaming – It is a more complex type of collaboration which requires the

group to work together for the benefit of learners with special needs.

Home-School Communication – Having established the critical role of

parents in a student’s developmental And academic progress and
achievement, it is essential that there is a close home and school
collaboration and communication.

1. Parent-Teacher Conferences – Parent-teacher conferences are face-

to-face meetings held between parents and teachers.
2. Written Communication – where teachers and parents write
homework assignments, the student’s behavior in the classroom, as
well as progress on program goals.
3. Digital Communication – parents and families are more able to
communicate through electronic and digital means such as email, text
messages, and social network messaging systems.
4. Home-School Contracts – contains an agreement between teachers
and parents regarding behavioral and/or academic goals for a student
with disability.
5. Other ways to involve parent – Parents also have strengths,
abilities, intuitive Knowledge, and the commitment to help their own
child. They become advocates of their own children. To maximize their
involvement, schools provide other opportunities such as parent
education training, workshops, and parent support groups.
 UNDERSTANDING LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY
SEEING
20/20 Vision - refers to an almost perfect vision. This means that within 20
feet the eye can normally see objects at distance.
Blindness - is the term used to describe an individual who cannot process
stimuli through the visual system.
Low Vision - means an individual primarily uses his/her own sense of sight
for learning.
Visual Acuity - refers to the clarity with which an individual sees, or the
level of detail that can be detected as certain distances.
Visual Impairment - refers to a condition where a person experiences
partial or complete loss of vision that cannot be fully corrected with glasses,
contact lenses, or medical treatment.
Under IDEA 2004 (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act), visual
impairment is defined as: “An impairment in vision that, even with
correction, adversely affects a child’s educational performance. The term
includes both partial sight and blindness.”
TYPES AND CAUSES
Refractive Errors – occur when the eye cannot properly bend (refract) light
onto the retina, leading to blurred vision.
Structural impairments - refer to physical abnormalities or damage in
the eye’s structure that affect vision.
Cortical Visual Impairments – This is caused by a damage on the part of
the brain that is responsible for interpreting visual information and known as
the most common cause of visual impairments.
CONDITIONS
ALBINISM – is a genetic condition characterized by a lack or reduction of
melanin, the pigment responsible for skin, hair, and eye color. Albinism is
caused by mutations in genes that affect melanin production.
AMBLYOPIA – Also known as “lazy eye”. Develops when there is poor
communication between the eye and the brain during early childhood.
ASTIGMATISM – is a common refractive error where the cornea or lens of
the eye has an irregular shape, preventing light from focusing properly on
the retina.
CATARACT – is a clouding of the lens of the eye, which leads to blurry or dim
vision.
COLOR DEFICIENCY OR COLOR BLINDNESS – is the inability or reduced
ability to distinguish certain colors.
Causes of Color Deficiency:
• Genetic (inherited) – most common cause, passed from parents.
• Eye Diseases – glaucoma, macular degeneration, and diabetic
retinopathy.
• Aging – natural decline in color perception over time.
• Medications & Chemicals – certain drugs (for heart disease or mental
health) and exposure to toxic chemicals.
CORTICAL VISUAL IMPAIRMENT (CVI) – Is a type of vision impairment
caused by damage to the brain’s visual processing areas rather than the
eyes themselves.
DIABETIC RETINOPATHY – It is a serious eye condition that affects people
with diabetes.
• Prolonged High Blood Sugar (Hyperglycemia) - Chronic high blood
sugar weakens the small blood vessels in the retina.
• High Blood Pressure (Hypertension) - Increased pressure in blood
vessels can accelerate retinal damage, making the condition worse.
GLAUCOMA – Abnormally high pressure within the eye caused by
disturbances or blockages of the fluids that normally circulate within the eye.
HYPEROPIA (Farsightedness) – Your eyes focus light rays and send the
image of what you’re looking at to your brain.
MYOPIA (Nearsightedness) – It is a common condition that’s usually
diagnosed before age 20. It affects your distance vision — you can see
objects that are near, but you have trouble viewing objects that are farther.
MACULAR DEGENERATION – is an eye disease that affects central vision.
NYSTAGMUS – rapid, involuntary, back-and-forth movement of the eyes
which make it difficult to focus to an object. Nystagmus can be horizontal,
vertical o rotary and can effect one or both eyes.
RETINITIS PIGMENTOSA (RP)- is a rare genetic disorder that causes
progressive vision loss due to the degeneration of photoreceptor cells (rods
and cones) in the retina.
RETINOPATHY OF PREMATURITY – (ROP) is when abnormal blood vessels
form in a baby’s retina. Babies born before 31 weeks or who weigh less than
3.3 pounds are most at risk.
STRABISMUS – also known as “crossed eyes” or “squint,” is a condition
where the eyes do not align properly. One eye may turn inward, outward,
upward, or downward while the other remains straight.
IDENTIFICATION & ASSESSMENT
Doctor or General Practitioner – conducts a preliminary visual
examination of the eyes; direct patients to the right medical specialists, such
as ophthalmologists and optometrists.
Ophthalmologists specializing in low vision – a medical professional
who diagnoses and treats eye problems, diseases, and injuries.
Optometrist in specializing low vision – prescribes corrective eyewear,
offers vision rehabilitation, and manufactures low-vision products.
Clinical Low-Vision Evaluation – determines whether optical devices,
including monocular telescopes and magnifiers, will be beneficial for a
person.
Functional Vision Assessment – offers a look at the manner in which a
child utilizes their existing visual abilities to engage with the visual
environment.
Learning Media Assessment – is conducted by a teacher of children with
visual impairments to establish the mode and format that the child will utilize
for reading and writing.

EDUCATIONAL APPROACH
BRAILLE – An essential writing system for the visually impaired. Braille is a
tactile writing system used by individuals who are blind or visually impaired.
TWO WAYS IN WHICH WE CAN WRITE BRAILLE
1. Manual Writing (Using a Slate and Stylus)
• A Braille slate is a flat, rectangular frame with raised cells for guiding
writing.
• A stylus is a pointed tool used to press dots into the paper.
2. Mechanical/Electronic Writing (Using a Braille Typewriter or
Embosser)
• Perkins Brailler – a mechanical device with six keys (one for each Braille
dot), a space bar, and backspace/line feed keys. It embosses Braille as the
user types.
• Braille Embosser – a computer-connected printer that prints Braille onto
paper from a digital file.
• Refreshable Braille Display – an electronic device that creates
temporary braille characters using movable pins.

DEVICES TO AID ACCESS TO PRINT MATERIALS

Braille watch - is used by touching the dial and noticing the embossments.
Both analog and digital versions are available.
Braille labeler - is a device used to create raised Braille text on adhesive
tape or labels, helping visually impaired individuals identify objects, books,
medicines, appliances, and more.
OPTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION (OCR) WITH SPEECH OUTPUT – Is
an assistive technology that scans printed or handwritten text, converts it
into digital text, and then reads it aloud using text-to-speech (TTS)
technology.
Talking calculator - is a specially designed device that speaks aloud
numbers, operations, and results.
Talking watch - is an assistive device that announces the time aloud at the
press of a button or at set intervals.
Computer with speech - output helps visually impaired individuals access
and interact with digital content.
JAWS (Job Access With Speech) - is one of the most widely used screen
readers for Windows computers.
DEVICES TO AID ORIENTATION AND MOBILITY
Monocular telescope - is a single-lens optical device that helps visually
impaired individuals magnify distant objects, making them easier to see.
Long cane - is an essential mobility aid that helps visually impaired
individuals navigate their surroundings safely and independently.
Visor or Sunglasses – Visors and specialized sunglasses help visually
impaired individuals by reducing glare, enhancing contrast, and protecting
the eyes from harmful light.
Flashlight - for the visually impaired is a specialized light source that
enhances contrast, reduces glare, and improves visibility in low-light
conditions.
Compass - helps visually impaired individuals with navigation and
orientation by providing directional guidance.
Tactile map - is a specially designed map that uses raised surfaces,
textures, and Braille.
GPS receiver - helps visually impaired individuals navigate outdoor
environments by providing audible directions.
OPTICAL DEVICES – Ophthalmologists and optometrists recommend the
use of optical devices for individuals with low vision either monocular or
binocular that specially made for them.
READING PRINT – For learners with low vision, they can still use their vision
for reading assisted by aids or the use of auditory and tactile senses.
There are three basic that the TVI can use to teach learners with low vision to
read; approach magnification, lenses, and large print.
1. Approach magnification is a simple technique where a person
moves closer to an object or text to make it appear larger and easier to
see.
2. Lenses play a crucial role in correcting vision impairments and
enhancing magnification for individuals with low vision
3. Large print refers to books, documents, and materials printed in
bigger font sizes to make reading easier for people with low vision or
visual impairments.

THE EXPANDED CORE CURRICULUM - is a set of specialized skills

designed to help students with blindness or low vision develop
independence, academic success, and essential life skills.
Assistive Technology (AT) - refers to devices, software, and tools that help
individuals with blindness or low vision access information, perform daily
tasks, and achieve independence.
Career Education - It is the key component of the Expanded Core
Curriculum (ECC) for individuals who are blind or have low vision.
Compensatory skills - are essential skills that help individuals with
blindness or low vision access information and participate in education, work,
and daily life.
Independent Living Skills - this encompasses the abilities needed to
effectively engage with the core curriculum
Orientation and Mobility - O&M instruction facilitates the orientation and
independent movement of learners, regardless of their age or motor abilities.
Recreation and Leisure - lack of vision limits one’s awareness of
recreational and leisure opportunities.
Self-Determination Skills - It encompasses various skills such as making
choices, making decisions, solving problems, advocating for oneself, being
assertive, and setting goals.
Sensory Efficiency Skills - this includes teaching individuals how to
effectively utilize their vision, hearing, touch, smell, and taste.
Social interaction skills - encompasses the ability to recognize and
interpret body language, gestures, facial expressions, and the concept of
personal space.
PLACEMENT OPTIONS
RESOURCE MODEL - In this placement, learners with VI spend some time of
the day in a resource room where they are taught with braille, OM skills,
and/or functional life skills
SPECIAL CLASSES AND SCHOOLS – Learners with VI spend their entire
learning in a special or separate class where they learn together with
learners with the same condition.

DEAF AND HARD HEARING IMPAIRMENT

Deafness – It means not being able to hear fully or at all. Some people are
born deaf, while others lose hearing later in life.
Hearing Impairness – means having trouble hearing sounds clearly. It can
be mild, moderate, or severe. Some people use hearing aids or sign
language to communicate.
Listing Assistive Device – are special tools that help people with hearing
problems hear sounds better. These devices make sounds louder and clearer.
Deaf Community – is a group of people who are deaf or hard of hearing and
share a common culture, language, and experiences. They often use sign
language to communicate and support each other.
Deaf (small “d”) - refers to the medical condition of not being able to hear.
It describes people with hearing loss who may not be involved in the Deaf
community.
Deaf (big “D”) - refers to a cultural identity. It describes people who are
part of the Deaf community, use sign language, and share Deaf culture and
experiences.
Hearing Impairments – means having trouble hearing sounds clearly. It
can be a little hearing loss or a lot.
2 MAIN CATEGORIES
1. Partial Hearing Loss – A person can hear some sounds but not clearly.
They may need hearing aids or people to speak louder.
2. Total Hearing Loss (Deafness) – A person cannot hear any sounds at
all. They may use sign language to communicate
Factors to considered as a member of Deaf Community;
a) being deaf
(b) using sign language as a means of communicating
(c) attending residential school for the deaf.
TYPES OF HEARING LOSS
1. Conductive Hearing Impairment - happens when sound cannot pass
through the outer or middle ear properly.
2. Sensorineural hearing impairment - happens when the inner ear or
hearing nerve is damaged.
3. Mixed hearing impairment - is when a person has both conductive and
sensorineural hearing loss.
CLASSIFICATION OF HEARING LOSS
1. Unilateral- hearing lost on the one side of the ear, it’s either left or
right.
2. Bilateral- both ear has hearing lost.
Hearing lost can be classified into onset in which it was acquired.;
1. Congenital- acquired at birth
Autosomal Recessive hearing loss – both parents may have recessive
genes that cause hearing loss and was passed down.
Autosomal Active hearing loss – one of the parent’s manifest to passed it
down.
2. Acquired – present after birth
Otitis Media – it is a middle ear infection that result hearing loss it is either
temporary or permanent.
Acute otitis media (A0M) - Is a rapid-onset infection that results in
inflammation, erythema, and accumulation of fluid in the middle car.
Otitis media with effusion (OME) – commonly referred to as glue car, is
the accumulation of fluid in the middle car without any accompanying
infection.
Chronic suppurative otitis media (CSOM) – a persistent infection of the
middle ear that can cause harm to the eardrum and small bones in the
middle ear.
Meningitis - which is inflammation of the meninges, the protective
membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord caused by, a virus,
bacteria, fungi, or parasite.
3. Pre-lingual – acquired before the development of spoken language.
4. Post-lingual – acquired after learning the spoken language.
Excessive exposure to noise - means being around very loud sounds for a
long time, which can harm hearing.
IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT
Hearing loss – is measured by the intensity of sound produced through
decibels (dB). Intensity - refers to the amount of energy a sound has over an
area, with higher intensity levels being louder.
The threshold of pain is reached at 120 db, and the zero-decibel level is
called the zero hearing-threshold level.
Frequency, expressed in hertz units, helps identify low and high sounds.
Pure-tone threshold audiometry - measures an individual’s ability to
hear specific pure tones, determining the type and severity of hearing loss
by identifying frequencies with difficulty hearing.

There are three main methods:

Manual audiometry, Automatic audiometry, and Computerized
audiometry.
Speech audiometry - is a set of audiometric tests that use speech as a
stimulus, assessing an individual’s ability to perceive and comprehend
spoken language
EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES
Hearing assistive technology (HAT), ranging from simple amplification to
sophisticated noise-reducing systems, significantly improves their ability to
hear and understand, promoting inclusion by providing equal access to
education.
Hearing Aid - the most common type of HAT is hearing aid. An ear-worn or
behind the-ear electronic gadget of compact size.
This device comes in different shapes and sizes that has four parts:
Microphone – to capture sound
Amplifier – to boost the signals
Speaker – (or receiver) to deliver the amplified sound into the ear
Battery – for power
TYPES OF HEARING AIDS
Behind-the-Ear (BTE) Hearing Aids:
Best for: Young children, all ages, and all degrees of hearing loss.
Pros: Durable, easy to maintain, adjustable as the child grows, compatible
with FM systems for classroom use
In-the-Ear (ITE) Hearing Aids:
Best for: Teens and older learners who prefer a less noticeable option.
Pros: Less noticeable than BTEs, easier to use than smaller aids.
In-the-Canal (ITC) and Completely-in-the-Canal (CIC) Hearing Aids:
Best for: Older learners who prioritize discretion.
Pros :Very discreet.
Cochlear implants are surgical devices that use both internal and external
components. Cochlear implants are sophisticated electronic devices that
provide a sense of sound to individuals with severe to profound hearing loss
who do not benefit significantly from hearing aids.
Assistive Listening Devices (ALDs) - are personal amplifiers designed to
enhance sound levels during person-to-person talks and small group
conversations.
Augmentative and Alternative Communication devices - offer
alternative means of communication who are unable to use spoken language
due to speech or hearing problems.
Alerting Devices - Alerting devices offer visual or tactile cues to enhance
safety and awareness for those with hearing impairments when significant
sounds or alerts occur.
Speech-to-Text Translation - computer software or applications that use
speech-to-text translation aids the learner with HI to visually access class
discussions and increase their understanding about the lesson.
Audio and video transcriptions - are a crucial part of assistive
technology, making multimedia content accessible to those who might
otherwise struggle to understand it.
TEACHING APPROACHES
• Oral Approach - the main focus is on the Oral/Aural approach to deaf
education. This approach excludes the use of sign language, speech
reading, or total communication.
Key elements of the Oral/Aural approach
• It utilizes the child’s remaining hearing abilities, often enhanced by
hearing aids or cochlear implants.
• It employs several methods to improve both hearing and speech
development. These methods include:
Auditory Training: This focuses on active listening and the acquisition of
knowledge through hearing.
Speechreading: This involves understanding speech by observing lip
movements, facial expressions, and body language.
Cued Speech - This uses hand signals to represent sounds (phonemes) in
the English language, supplementing speechreading to clarify sounds that
may be visually ambiguous. A diagram of cued speech hand positions is
included.
Amplification (using technology to increase sound volume).
Technological aids (various technological tools to support communication).
Verbal communication (the primary goal is to develop verbal
communication skills).
BICULTURAL-BILINGUAL APPROACH
While there are various versions of the bicultural-bilingual approach, the
majority of them consist of three key elements (Schirmer, 2001):
1.American Sign Language (ASL) is regarded as the principal language,
whereas English is regarded as the subordinate language.
2.Individuals who are hearing impaired play a significant part in the
advancement of the program and its educational framework.
PLACEMENT OPTIONS
Residential Schools - are special schools for deaf students where they live
and study. Teachers and students use sign language to communicate. These
schools help deaf students learn in a friendly and understanding
environment.
An inclusive classroom - is a regular school where deaf and hearing
students learn together.
Republic Act No. 6759, also known as the ‘White Cane Act,’ is a law in
the Philippines enacted to promote and protect the well-being of blind
individuals, declaring August 1 as White Cane Safety Day and empowering
government agencies to conduct education campaigns and enforce
compliance with the law.