UNIT 1 CONCEPT OF EMOTION*

Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Nature and Characteristics of Emotions
1.4 Components of Emotions
1.5 Types of Emotions
1.6 Relationship between Emotions, Thinking and Behaviour
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Key Words
1.9 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
1.10 Unit End Questions
1.11 Answers to Unit End Questions
1.12 References
1.13 Suggested Readings

1.1 INTRODUCTION
One of the most important and fundamental aspects of the human experience is
our capacity to experience emotions. Without this, our existence would be uni-
dimensional and nowhere as rich and vibrant as it is. We experience joy and
pleasure when we achieve something, become sad when we lose, or get angry
or frustrated when things don’t turn out the way we want it. But what exactly is
this emotion, what does it consist of, how does it affect our thinking and other
aspects of our life? Defining emotions and agreeing upon a framework to understand
them is a challenging task. Complex concepts such as these lie somewhere at the
intersection of philosophy, psychology and neuroscience. Thus, there are numerous
theories and frameworks within which emotions can be understood. In this Unit,
we will focus on principles that are accepted across disciplines and are based on
current evidence from the scientific community.

1.2 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
 understand and describe the concept of emotion;
 explain the components that comprise emotion;
 list the different kinds of emotions;
 understand the linkage and relationship between emotion, thought and
behaviour.

*Nitasha Singh Borah , Ph.D. Scholar, Discipline of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi 9
Introduction to Emotional
Intelligence (EI) 1.3 NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
EMOTIONS
What is an emotion? It appears too simplistic to the common people to define it.
Common emotions experienced are joy, happiness, anger, sadness, jealousy, love
and so on. We eat good food and feel contented. We see a good movie and feel
happy. We spend time with loved ones and feel loved. We lose a game and feel
sad.
Visualize yourself in the following situations:
 You have been standing in line to collect your admission form for over two
hours. Your turn is finally about to arrive after two others ahead of you when
the form disbursing staff member announces his lunch break and closes the
window.

 You are waiting backstage to begin your presentation to an auditorium full

of students and teachers.
 You are on your way to meet a very close friend after a gap of three years
during which they were living and studying abroad.

 Your favourite cricket or football team wins the world cup.

The above examples may serve as powerful reminders of intense emotions that
you might have experienced routinely. In fact, looking back on your day as you
read this Unit, you may be able to recognise that how you might have felt when
the day began, is different from how you are feeling now. By the time you finish
reading this, your emotion might have changed again. So what are these powerful,
shifting states?
Emotion is a complex chain of loosely connected events that begins with a stimulus
and includes feelings, psychological changes, impulses to action and specific goal-
directed behaviour (Plutchik, 2001).
Woodworth (1945) defines emotion as a stirred-up state of an organism that
appears as feelings to the individual himself and as a disturbed muscular and
glandular activity to an external observer.
Morris (1979) states that emotion is a complex affective experience that
involves diffuse physiological changes and can be expressed overtly in
characteristic behavior patterns.
Thus, emotions are experienced in response to a particular internal or external
event. A response of this kind involves physical arousal in the body- heart rate,
blood pressure, perspiration, release of hormones etc. Secondly, a motivation to
take action is activated- seeking things and activities that provide pleasure and
avoiding those that give rise to pain or unpleasantness. Thirdly, emotions arise out
of our sensations, perceptions and thoughts related to objects, persons and
situations. It depends on how do we perceive something, think about it and
interpret it. Fourthly, emotions vary in their intensity, for example, happiness can
be experienced as pleasant and contented at the lower end of the continuum
whereas excited and thrilled at the higher end of the continuum. Similarly being
irritated and upset are the milder forms of anger whereas furious and enraged are
high intensity anger feelings.
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Emotions can be desirable or undesirable to an individual, depending on whether Concept of Emotion
the said event is perceived as ‘positive’ or ‘negative’ or performs an adaptive
function for an individual. They are responsible for driving a range of human
behaviours such as attacking, fleeing, self- defence, forming relationships,
reproducing etc. However, some of these functions may translate into negative
consequences such as ‘freezing’ on stage, intense expressions of anger, unwarranted
aggression etc. Regardless of whether the consequences are positive or negative,
emotions create significant impact when they arise and adapting to our environment
demands that we understand and express emotions appropriately.

Emotions are not the same as feelings, even though we may use both the terms
similarly. The term feeling is used to refer to a person’s private emotional experience
or self- perception of a specific emotion. When an event occurs, one first responds
automatically at a physical level even without awareness (emotion) and then registers
or evaluates this (feeling). For example, when one sees a snake nearby, their
heartbeat, breathing, perspiration (physiological arousal) might increase immediately,
causing the action of running away. Only later might one realise that the feeling
they experienced was fear. Feelings are created by emotions. Thus, although we
may use the terms emotion and feeling interchangeably in our daily lives, they
differ considerably from each other.

Another related concept is mood. While emotions last for short periods of time
and arise in response to a particular event, moods are of lower intensity, generally
last for longer periods of time, even days and may not necessarily be associated
with a certain, immediate event or cause. While emotions are directed at something
or someone (e.g. you are angry at your brother or you are frustrated about
waiting in line), moods can arise for no apparent reason, such as waking up
irritable one morning without anything unpleasant having occurred the previous
day. Nevertheless, moods are important because they too influence our actions.
For example, wanting to socialise more with friends when in a good mood and
avoiding social situations when feeling low over the weekend.

1.3.1 Functions of Emotions

Emotions matter. They provide information to us and serve certain purpose. They
became part of the human experience and have continued to remain so because
of the functions they perform. Each function is associated with a certain utility or
role.

Intrapersonal functions: This domain refers to the functions that emotions serve
within individuals. They help one guide behaviour and make decisions, so that we
can survive as well as function as human beings. For instance, they inform us
when to fight and when to leave a dangerous situation. Feeling respect for oneself
encourages one to care and look after oneself. Happiness promotes creative
thinking and expands our focus to allow new ideas and small details to be noticed
(Fredrickson & Losada, 2005). Even mild sadness contributes to more realistic
thinking and improves judgment by encouraging us to scan information more
carefully and thoroughly (Kalat, 2017)

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Introduction to Emotional Interpersonal functions: These functions are performed by emotions between
Intelligence (EI)
individuals. The act of expressing emotions serves as an indication or signal to
others about how one might feel about them or the relationship, what one’s
intentions might be and what one’s needs might be. Displaying a positive facial
expression such as a smile usually encourages other people to approach us.
Showing sadness may stimulate others to show empathy or sympathy. Emotional
expression is thus an important communication and relationship management tool.
In fact, as early as 1872, Darwin identified that emotional communication aids the
survival of the human species by enabling the reading of signs of impending
aggression in others or warning others of a threat by displaying fear (Nolen-
Hoeksema et al., 2009).
Social and cultural functions: This dimension has to do with how emotions
contribute to the construction and maintenance of societies and cultures. Emotions
such as trust often act as a social glue that keeps groups together. Cohesive
groups in turn form societies and evolve their own distinct cultures. On their part,
cultural codes inform individuals and groups about specific display rules that exist
for emotional expression. For example, men are often conditioned to only display
certain emotions such as anger and aggression, while showing “softer” emotions
such as sadness is discouraged in eastern cultures. Certain work places are driven
by unspoken rules about whether certain emotions such as affection are appropriate
for display in work related contexts.
Self Assessment Questions 1
1. Define emotion.
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2. What is the difference between emotion, feeling and mood?
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3. What are the interpersonal functions of emotions?
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1.4 COMPONENTS OF EMOTIONS

Emotions can be viewed as having five components.
1. Affective: also referred to as a conscious, subjective feeling. Individuals
monitor their internal, felt states and recognise what they are feeling.
2. Cognitive: involves describing or assigning meaning to the emotion. Thus,
12 thinking about a feeling is very different from the actual feeling. Individuals
 try to understand the reason behind why something is happening and try to Concept of Emotion
judge how an event might impact them.
3. Physiologic: bodily reactions such as palms sweating upon feeling anxious.
4. Motivational: Going toward or away from an action or person. This
component is also referred to as action tendencies, which refers to
specific actions that the individual takes that may be voluntary or
involuntary. For example, moving one’s hand away from a hot pan is
an involuntary action, while going on an early morning run despite
feeling tired is a voluntary action. Each emotion may be associated with
a particular action tendency. Some of these are presented in Table 1.1
(Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2009).
Table 1.1: Emotions and their Associated Action Tendencies
EMOTION ACTION TENDENCY
Anger Attack
Fear Escape
Disgust Expel
Guilt Make amends
Shame Disappear
Sadness Withdraw
Joy Play
Interest Explore

5. Expressive: Displaying emotions through facial expressions such as smiling,

crying, frowning or body movements such as throwing a vase when angry to
communicate emotions to others.
The interaction of these components explains how emotions work. Consider the
following scenario:
Jhanvi’s boss shouts at her in response to a recent report that she submitted
to him, which he says contained several errors and was not satisfactory. This
can be labelled as an experience for her. As he shouts, Jhanvi can feel that
the palms of her hands are becoming sweaty, her heartbeat becomes quicker
and she can feel a sinking sensation in her stomach. This is the
physiological reaction to the stimulus that she has just experienced. She
also finds herself thinking “What if I lose my job?”, “He is humiliating me
in front of others” or “ My work is not valued”. Jhanvi is now responding
cognitively. As her face turns red and her eyes tear up to express her
distress, we see the expressive component in play. Simultaneously, she might
recognise that she is feeling shame and anxiety as affect, giving rise to the
motivation or action urge to walk out of the office and run to the restroom
where she might have privacy to experience these emotions and compose
herself.
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Introduction to Emotional With practice, you can become quite aware of these components as you encounter
Intelligence (EI)
situations, especially those that give rise to intense emotions within you. You can
try the following exercise to develop this skill.
Exercise 1
Step 1: Identify a situation in which you felt an intense emotion. Where were you,
what happened, who said or did what.
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Step 2: What sensations or changes did you notice in your body? In which parts
of your body did they occur?
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Step 3: What thoughts went through your mind? How did you explain what was
happening to yourself? Did you make any predictions about what would happen
next or in the future?
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Step 4: What was the name of the feeling that you experienced? Was there more
than one feeling? List all of them here.
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Step 5: If someone were to observe you in this situation, how would they describe
your facial expressions and body movements?
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Step 6: What did you do or say in response?
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14 ..................................................................................................................
 Concept of Emotion
1.5 TYPES OF EMOTIONS
Emotions are also commonly classified as primary and secondary. Primary emotions
are those that are basic and universal in the sense that they are “hard- wired”,
automatic and experienced in all cultures and social contexts. They are thought to
have evolved so as to aid our survival as a species. Robert Plutchik (2003)
identified eight of these- fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, anticipation, joy
and trust and represented them in the form of a colour wheel. Each of these
emotions vary in intensity and show up as layers. For example, the primary
emotion of fear may be called apprehension when it is at a very low intensity and
terror when it is at its highest intensity. The core emotion remains the same i.e.
fear.
Combinations and layers of primary emotions may give rise to more complex
emotions. These are called secondary emotions and may be culture specific.
These are represented in Fig. 1.1 below.

Fig 1.1: Plutchik’s Emotion Wheel

(Source: Wikicommons)
The colour families in the figure indicate similar emotions. Darker shades indicate
greater intensity. The spaces between emotions indicate combined emotions that
emergence from the merging of primary emotions. In the above representation,
contempt can be a combination of anger and disgust. Optimism can be seen as
the combination of serenity and interest. In addition, some emotions can exist as
opposites of each other: sadness is the opposite of joy, trust and disgust lie at
15
Introduction to Emotional opposing ends, as do fear and anger. The wheel above indicates that different
Intelligence (EI) emotion words can be used to express different intensities of the same family of
emotions. The emotions in the central circle of the wheel are at the highest level
of intensity; rage, vigilance, ecstasy, admiration, terror, amazement, grief, and
loathing. As one moves outwards in the wheel, the emotional intensity decreases-
anger is less intense than rage and annoyance is even milder.
Emotions do not remain static and can transition or evolve into others over time.
For example, one may be angry about a fight with a close family member at first.
Over a day, this can turn into sadness, even if nothing seemingly changes in the
situation.
You can practice identifying and labeling emotions through the following exercise.
Exercise 2:
Refer to Step 4 in Exercise 1. Using the colour wheel in Fig. 1.1, try and see if
you can find your emotion in the wheel. Maybe you find that another emotion
name fits your experienced feelings better than the one you originally selected.
i) What is the colour of your emotion?
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ii) Is it a primary emotion or a combination of others?
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iii) Are there any new words that you can find in the wheel that you may not
have used before?
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Self Assessment Questions 2
1. Distinguish between primary and secondary emotions.
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16 ............................................................................................................
2. Which component of emotions determines judgments, predictions and analysis Concept of Emotion
of thoughts?
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3. How does culture impact emotional expression?
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1.6 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMOTIONS,

THINKING AND BEHAVIOUR
Recall a recent time when you were feeling happy and content. What was
your view of the world during the time you were in this mood? Now try and
remember a time when you were feeling upset and angry at something. How
did you view the world during this time? It is likely that your perception of
the world (including the people in it) was different during both these phases
and influenced by whichever emotions were dominant at the time. Chances
are that you also behaved differently towards other people as a consequence.
Emotions, thinking and behaviour are inextricably linked. The relationship
between them can best be explained through contemporary models of emotion.
Referring to Fig. 1.2 below, one’s thoughts or interpretation of a situation
has a significant impact on the emotion one feels (Strongman, 2003). Imagine
that your friend suddenly shouts at you. This is an emotional stimulus and
encountering it may make you interpret or judge the outburst as “my friend
is angry with me” or “my friend is rude”. Depending on what you think
about the stimulus, you will experience a feeling. Subsequently, some form
of adaptive behaviour will follow. If your interpretation of the situation is
that is your friend is angry with you, you might feel confused and ask them
why they are angry. If you think that your friend is being rude, you might
experience anger and shout back at them too and thus your behaviour may
look very different.

Thoughts

Behaviour Emotions

Fig. 1.2: Relationship between Thoughts, Emotions and Behaviour 17

Introduction to Emotional This process of assigning meaning to an event and our reaction to it is called
Intelligence (EI) appraisal. A cognitive appraisal is, therefore an evaluation or interpretation of the
personal meaning of certain circumstances that results in an emotion (Nolen-
Hoeksema et al., 2009). Specific appraisals usually give rise to particular emotions
and influence their intensity and quality as well. For example, an appraisal of “I
desire something that someone else has”, goes along with the emotion of envy. “I
have been treated well by another” creates the experience of gratitude. Table 1.2
below presents a summary of some other appraisals and the emotions they create
(Coon et al., 2010).
Table 1.2: Appraisals and Emotions they give rise to
EMOTION APPRAISAL

Anger You have been slighted or demeaned

Anxiety You feel threatened

Sadness You have experienced a loss

Guilt You have broken a moral rule

Happiness You are moving toward a desired goal

Love You desire affection from another person

Hope You fear the worst but yearn for better

Compassion You are moved by someone’s suffering

Pride You are linked with a valued object or

accomplishment.

According to Gross (2001) and Deutschendorf (2009), changing one’s interpretation

of an event can prevent the experience of feeling drained and guard against
overwhelming emotions. For instance, in the above example, by changing your
appraisal to “she doesn’t mean it”, you could easily brush- off her behaviour and
get on with your day. Appraisals, therefore, have the power to impact our reactions
to the daily experiences of emotions, especially those that are unpleasant and
stressful. By changing our own appraisals, we may be able to protect ourselves
from stress and promote our well- being, even if we cannot control external
situations or other people. In addition, because of differences in how a situation
or event may be appraised, the same situation may give rise to different behaviour
on the part of individuals. Infact, the same person may also react differently to the
same situation at different times.
However, it is important to keep in mind that while emotions have the potential
to energise us to act, whether action is actually taken depends on more than just
emotions. Situational context, the object at which emotion is directed, anticipation
and judgment of possible consequences of actions and past experiences, culture
and gender all determine behavior (Baumeister, Vohs, DeWall, & Zhang, 2007).
For example, people from western cultures feel comfortable expressing anger
more openly than those from eastern cultures, where showing anger in the presence
of others is regarded in a more negative light because of the importance assigned
18
to maintenance of relationships (Coon et al., 2010). Gender differences Concept of Emotion
notwithstanding, men and women may be similar in their subjective experiences
of emotions but express them very differently due to the differences in how they
are conditioned to show their emotions (Fischer, 2000). Women are generally
more comfortable showing vulnerability through the expression of sadness while
men are raised not to cry easily and instead are more accepting and expressive
of anger and aggression.

1.7 LET US SUM UP

Emotions are complex states that are difficult to define but also fundamental to our
experiences. Without their existence, our individual, interpersonal and cultural
existence would be meaningless. Emotional complexity arises out of multiple
components that comprise emotional experience- subjective feelings, interpretations,
physiological/ bodily changes, action tendencies and expression. As human beings,
we share certain basic or primary emotions, while more complex, secondary
emotions may be learnt and expressed as combinations of primary emotions.
While emotions may ready us for action, they do not directly cause behaviour.
How we think about an emotional event determines which emotion is felt, what
action is taken and how the emotion is eventually expressed. These dynamics add
considerable richness to our individual and social lives and allow us to adapt to
situational demands. Understanding and changing our appraisal of an experience
can empower us to change our reactions and gain better control of our emotions.

1.8 KEY WORDS

Emotion : Emotion is a complex chain of loosely connected
events that begins with a stimulus and includes
feelings, psychological changes, impulses to
action and specific goal- directed behaviour
(Plutchik, 2001).
Feelings : The term feeling is used to refer to a person’s
private emotional experience or self- perception
of a specific emotion.
Moods : Moods are of lower intensity, generally last for
longer periods of time, even days and may not
necessarily be associated with a certain,
immediate event or cause.
Primary Emotions : Primary emotions are those that are basic and
universal in the sense that they are “hard- wired”,
automatic and experienced in all cultures and
social contexts.
Secondary Emotions : Combinations and layers of primary emotions
may give rise to more complex emotions. These
are called secondary emotions and may be
culture specific.

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Introduction to Emotional
Intelligence (EI) 1.9 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT
QUESTIONS
Self Assessment Questions 1
1. Emotion is defined as a complex chain of loosely connected events that
begins with a stimulus and includes feelings, psychological changes,
impulses to action and specific goal- directed behaviour (Plutchik, 2001).
2. Emotion Feeling Mood
Instant physical response Conscious awareness Can occur without
to a stimulus without of an emotion that an external
awareness arises in response to stimulus
a stimulus
Brief in duration Brief in duration Lasts over a
long period of time;
sometimes days
3. When emotions serve the purpose of communication between persons and
contribute to the initiation and management of relationships with others, they
are performing an interpersonal function. Emotional expressions provide vital
information about how one might feel towards another or what one intends
to do with reference to another person. For example, an expression of
disgust signals others to withdraw or stay away, while a smile is often
considered a social invitation.
Self Assessment Questions 2
1. Primary emotions are instinctive and universal among human beings. They
are also limited in number. Researchers have identified eight primary emotions:
fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, anticipation, joy and trust. In contrast,
secondary emotions are learned and may not be shared across different
cultures or societies. They are formed by combining at least two primary
emotions. Unlike the very limited range of primary emotions, secondary
emotions are many. Plutchik identified as many as 24 secondary emotions
formed by mixing primary emotions.
2. Cognitive component of emotions determines judgments, predictions and
analysis of thoughts because it involves the process of assigning meaning to
an experienced emotion.
3. Culture exerts an impact on emotion expression by defining display rules
about which emotions are considered appropriate to be expressed in different
contexts and the manner in which they are to be expressed. For example,
eastern cultures encourage free expression of aggressive emotions such as
anger in men and label them as strong, to the exclusion of emotions such as
sadness. Similarly, crying may be considered weak and unmanly. Individualistic
societies such as western cultures value ambition and ruthlessness and associate
it with achievement, while collectivistic cultures value trust and consideration
for the group or community and may drive behaviour by reinforcing sacrifices
for others.

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 Concept of Emotion
1.10 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1. What are the different components of emotions? Explain with the help of an
example.
2. Differentiate between primary and secondary emotions.
3. Explain the relationship between emotions, thoughts and behavior.
4. What is cognitive appraisal? How is it useful?
5. In your opinion, are emotions disruptive or useful? Justify your answer.

1.11 ANSWERS TO UNIT END QUESTIONS

1. Emotions have five main components:
Affective: subjective feelings
Cognitive: interpretation or thinking
Physiologic: bodily arousal
Motivational: capacity of emotions to direct one to or away from some
action
Expressive: displaying emotions through facial expressions or body
language.
2. PRIMARY EMOTIONS SECONDARY EMOTIONS
Basic, independent units Made up of two or more
primary emotions
Hard- wired and universal Not universal but culturally influenced
3. Emotions, thoughts and behaviour are connected to each other. When a
situational event occurs, individuals interpret or evaluate the situation
to make sense of it. This occurs in the form of thoughts. The kind of
thoughts one has about a situation, may determine what one feels or
experiences as an emotion. The felt emotion, in turn, has the potential to give
rise to some form of action directed towards the situation. This cycle may
continue with one’s reaction giving rise to further thoughts and emotions and
so on.
4. Cognitive appraisal refers to evaluation or interpretation of information received
about a particular environmental situation or state of the body. Appraisals are
useful because they enable us to make sense of our environment (especially
emotion producing events) and internal states. Specific emotions arise as a
result of specific appraisals. They also influence the intensity and quality of
emotions as well. It therefore follows that emotions can be changed by
altering our appraisals as well.
5. In and of themselves, emotions are neither entirely disruptive nor entirely
useful. The utility of emotions is determined by how an individual may
use them as important sources of information or become perturbed by
them because of his/ her own difficulties in managing or using them.
For example, fear has the useful function of alerting us to potential danger 21
Introduction to Emotional so that we may act to protect ourselves. However, when it arises when there
Intelligence (EI) is no real threat in the environment or is extremely intense when the threat
is very small in comparison, an inability to manage it may lead to adverse
consequences. For example, a fear of public speaking or group presentations
may lead to extensive preparations and indirectly lead to improvement in
performance quality but paralysing fear and an inability to manage it may also
hinder academic success or career growth.

1.12 REFERENCES
Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., DeWall, C. N., & Zhang, L. (2007). How
emotion shapes behavior: Feedback, anticipation, and reflection, rather than
direct causation. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11, 167–203.
Deutschendorf, H. (2009). The other kind of smart: Simple ways to boost
your emotional intelligence for greater personal effectiveness and success.
New York: AMACOM.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Losada, M. F. (2005). Positive affect and the complex
dynamics of human flourishing. American Psychologist, 60, 678–686. (12).
Gross, J. J. (2001). Emotion regulation in adulthood: Timing is everything.
Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10(6), 214–219.
Kalat, J.W. (2017). Introduction to psychology. (11e.). Boston, MA: Cengage
Learning.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Fredrickson, B., Loftus, G. and Wagenaar, W.
(2009). Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology. 15th ed. Hampshire:
Cengage Learning EMEA.
Plutchik, R. (2001). The nature of emotions. American Scientist, 89, 344-
350.
Plutchik, R. (2003). Emotions and life. Washington, DC: American
Psychological Assocation.
Strongman, K. T. (2003). The psychology of emotion: From everyday life to
theory (5th ed.). New York: Wiley.

1.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

 Coon, D., Mitterer, J.O., Talbot, S., Vanchella, C. M. (2010). Introduction
to psychology: gateways to mind and behavior. Belmont, Calif. :
Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
 Johnston, E., & Olson, L. (2015). The feeling brain: The biology and
psychology of emotions. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company.
 Morris, Charles G. (1979). Psychology: An Introduction. Prentice-Hall.
 Strongman, K. T. (2003). The psychology of emotion: From everyday
life to theory (5th ed.). New York: Wiley.
 Woodworth, R.S. (1945). Psychology. London: Methuen

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