GOVEEXMEXT OE INDIA

DEPARTMEJ^T OF ARCHAEOLOCIA
CENTRAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL
LIBRARY

Call No.
 GLORIES OF INDIA
ON

Indian Culture and Civilization

Bij

MAHaMAHOPaDHYaYA Dr. PRASANNA KUxMAR

ACHARYA, L E. S.(RTD.)
B. A. (ffofwws), M. A. {Calcutta), Ph. D. (LEIDEN), D. Lit. (London),
Ex-Principal Rishilad College, Handcar', lately Processor of Sanskrit,
Head of four Oriental Departments and twice Dean, Faculty
of Ai'ts, University if Allahabad ',
Author of the Seven
Volumes of the Manasara Series, A Suiiimary of
Manasara, Elements of Hindu Culture and Sanskrit
Civilization, Chatanya Period and Brahman

Community, and over CJO Articles

and sn. oiler Volumes

Published bn

Jay Shankar Brothers lie CCA

OW Bairana, Allahabad
 SECOND REVISED AND ENLARGED EDlIION
FIRST PRINT. MAY, 1953.

Quilt letter full cloth

bound Rs. 15, £ 1-1 {U.K.l
$ iU.S.A.)

CEN R A L
' 1 A f? c t A fj' •

-iAL
"
l.i 3i^ \ 1

U
,
a**".

Acij.

Dhc^j V'E'
Call . .0. J. .. ^

“ The duty of
a Conservative is the courage to
defend the past so far as it is
living and likely to
live. We proud of our inheritance but
are
not
content with it. We want to add to it and make
It still more glorious and more wide ” spread.

CJN'Vi-
HLAl
41 .

Ae>'

PaiSTED AT DIKSHIT PBESS,

AU.AHAtin
obtainable from all BOTKBfllfrs
or from the Pl-BLISHER.
44, THORRH.LL road,
ALLAHABAD, ,RD,.,
 CONTENTS Page
INTRODUCTION — Culture and Civilization ex-
plained, outline of the subject-
matter, Acknowledgment ... v-xxiv
CHAP. I — Family life of Sacraments and
Sacrifices (Feast of the Dea l and
Ct ods j ... 1

Chap. II —Economic of material progress

life
—division of labour castes, food,
:

clothes and ornaments, dwelling

house and furnitures, production of
raw materials: Agriculture and
Mineralogy, Manufacture of goods:
Industries, Distribution of wealth :

Trade and Commerce, Currency

and Origin of Writing... ... 51

CHAP. Ill — Political

life of State Sovereignty
and Individual Liberty, sources of
power, machinery of government,
royal revenues, courts of justice,
cognizable offences and laws of
punishment ... ... 106
Chap. IV — Moral and Spiritual life based on
faith in Cod and belief in immor-
tality of soul, systems of Philoso-
phy and forms of Keligion ... 143
Chap. V — Basic Arts— Architecture, Sculpture
and Painting ... ... 167

Chap. VI —Practical Sciences-(Sastras) on

Medicine and Surgery, Chemistry,
Physics, Astronomy, Mathematics,
Eugenics, Arts (§ilpa). Political
Economy, Moral and Civil Laws... 351

CHAP. VII— Original Creative Literatures — in

Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit .... 3b8

Index ... ... ..• 430

Bibliography — Complete with lists ol critics

and admirers ... .... 4.55

Appendices — Political Freedom vs. Cultural

lA
Freedom, Views and Keviews, etc.
 i>LAXES
Page of Text
PLATE I — Restored elevation of Sun temple
at Konarak (Frontispiece) ... 171

PLATE II— Top Barabudur

: ... 171, 191, 219-222
Bottom Greco-Buddhist image
;

of Buddha from Lahir Bahlol... 209-210

PLATE III —Top Devi Bhavani

: Temple,
Bhatgaon, Nepal ... 176
Bottom. Interior of : Cave temple
at Karle ... ... 169

Plate IV — Top: Angkarvat temple (exterior

corridor),Cambodia .... 190-191
Bottom Shwe Dagon Pagcda,
:

Square temple, at Rangoon ... 188

PLATE V—Top: Temple of Svayambhunatb,

Khatmandu, Nepal ... ... 176
Bottom Pitakat Talk, sacred
:

Library, Pagan, Burma .... 189

PLATE VI— Top : Buddha’s encounter with the

elephant, Nalagiri, Amaravati ... 208, 21.5
Bottom : Sculptures from Isura-
munia, Anuradhapuram, Ceylon 217, 21b

Plate VII— Top Stupa at Amaravati

: 201, 213-215
Bottom .laina temple, Sonagarh,
:

in Bundelkhand ... ... 169

PLAIE VIII— Front elevation of Swastika

Bhawau built at Allahabad (1936-
1939) to demonstrate the direc-
tions of Manasara Vastu-b'astra .... 271-274
 INTRO DUCTI OS
Etymologically the term culture is equivalent to
cultivation. The Sanskrit term, Samsicriti, is more
significant and implies refinement. The purpose of
cultivation is also refinement of the natural condition' of
the ground. By the various processes of cultivation the
impu rities of the soil are removed, the stone pieces and
metaTic dust are separated, and the overgrowths anl
weeds are uprooted. Then the pure soil is watered and
manured in order to turn it into such a condition that
when seeds are properly sown there will grow the desired
crops, plants and flowers according to its full capacity.
The capacities both mental and physical of human
beings have been similarly developed. As the soil in all
places does not require all the various processes of cultiva-
tion for its preparation to grow crops, similarly the
children of all families do not need the initial stages of
refinement which is inherent in them. Thus culture
primarily aims at the refinement of natural intelligence
and capacities to its fullest growing power. It is
revealed in the individual and social responsibilities and
obligations spontaneously. It leads to such actions of
individual and group uplifts as are associated with the
sphere and field of domestic, social, political, artistic,
scientific, literary and religious work.
As a distinguished writer (Editor, Britain To-day,
no. 84) puts it ‘we may think of culture in terms
of literature or art, or social philosophy, or science, or
morality, or religious scrupulosity. We
may think of it
as a way of living, or a standard of behaviour, or the
ideal implicit in the conduct required in the relationship
between citizen and citizen, man and man, state and
state. But from whatever viewpoixrt we may consider
it, it must always include (what Matthew Arnold
described as) “disinterested endeavour to learn and
propagate the best that is known and thought in the
World, and thus to establish a current of fresh and true
ideas”. Just as the world is divided into nations and
races, so it is divided into types of culture, each having
its distinctive character, its esprit, its talent, its tone,
as recognizable in a nation as in an individual. We
m;!,y speak of Homan culture in their conception of law,
VI INTRODUCTION

Grecian culture in their conception of freedom of thought,

‘Hindu culture in their religious conception of love and
charity’. Again we speak of Bengali, Tamil or Gujarati
culture, or of Irish or Scottish culture, emphasizing
certain special feature of each, and in each case we
think of something distinctive and individual, or we
may speak more broadly of British culture, and more
broadly still of European culture, and Western and
Eastern culture, and finally of ‘modern culture, which is
co-extensive with civilization’.
Civilization is equivalent tc Sanskrit Sabhijatu which
means the sociableness or the fitness to live in a society
(aabha) rather than individually without the privilege of
and obligation to other members of a society, big or small.
The term ‘civilization’ comes from the verb ‘to civilize’
which is derived from the adjective ‘civil’ that is histori-
cally connected with the ‘city’ avherein more various
people than in a homogeneous village have to live in
peace and prosperity. The term ‘civil’ as opposed to
military, ecclesiastical or political, implies the associa-
tion of people of a non-denominational character having
the refinement of city-bred people. The inhabitants of
a city are generally more refined, better educated and
better organized than the people living in country side
in small groups and hamlets. This original distincfion
came to acquire a broader scope later on. The more
advanced people who were endowed with a better
intellectual culture, regarded themselves civilized in order
to distinguish them from those who do not enjoy these
facilities. Thus civilization stands for a high degree of
intellectual culture, elevated moral notions, and a desire
for material comforts. It includes material progress,
commercial and industrial developments, social liberty
and political advance. Thus it aims at maknig man
happier, nobler, and better off than he is. It is charac-
terised by the success in the conquest of other people as
well as nature, the ainnihilation of time ani space, the
expoitation cf new regions on earth and such other
progress. It results in the elevation of a man or people
by organized effort. Thus the ancient Greeks and
Homans used to regard all others as uncivilized. Simi-
larly the Aryan conquerors of India segregated the
original inhabitants as aborigines. On the same basis
the modern Europeans and Americans consider the
Asians and the peoples of other countries and islands
 INTRODUCTION Vll

less civilized, if not altogether uncivilized. On that

ground alone they consider themselves justified in colo-
nization for the ostensive purpose of civilizing others
concealing the cleverly organized exploitation.

Thus in ordinary use the terms ‘culture’ and ‘civili-

zation’ have lost their distinction. In fact in general
vocabulary they are found used almost as synonyms.
But for an accurate and precise estimate of the culture
and of the civilization of a race or nation it is necessary
to recognize the\r fundamental distinction.

As has been explained above culture would refer to

the conditions of the mental progress while civilization
should result in physical deed and material progress. The
former would be associated with innate conscience and
the latter with action. It is common knowledge that an
individual may think and feel a problem quite rationally
and may act in an irrational manner. This discrepancy
is due to various reasons. The most obvious one is
that thinkers and workers belong to two different grouis.
Legislators and executive offtcers have different funo
tions to do. The field of work, how’ever, would remain
common for both. Therefore in judging the cultural
condition and the state of civilization of a people the
affairs concerning their family, their society, their trade
and commerce, their politics, their religion, their arts and
sciences, and their literature have to be examined. In his
Discovery of India Ft. .Tawaharlal Nehru has recognized
this distinction when he says that ‘culture develops into
a rich civilization flow'ering out in philosophy, literature,
drama, art, science and mathematics’. Thu ^sculture is
synonymous with racral progress, and civilization
corresponds to material progress. Civilization is out-
ward active form and resultant of the inward concep-
tion of culture. Culture or moral conception is expressed
in civilization or material progress. The condition of
culture and the state of civilization in an individual as
well as in a group are not, however, stationary. They
change from age to age and from place to place, ami
frustrate an attempt at generalization. But the
historians have classified the condition of culture
and the state of civilization, the humanity as a whole
has undergone in the well defined periods of its progress
without, however, any precise specification of time and
place, into primitive, medieval, and ideal states.
viii lniroduction:

In the primitive state the individuals and their

instinctive groupings like animal herds are correctly
defined as ‘grossly selfish, absolutely callous and abnor-
mally cruel’. Selfishness consists in regarding one’s own
self ani ignoring others altogether. When one is grossly
selfish he is unable to think of even his own parents
or children. By instinctive impulse, however, the
mother animal remains attached to the child during
pregnancy and a short time after birth. But the mutual
natural obligation and acquaintance disappear as soon as
the child is capable of standing on its own legs. There-
after the mother and child may even Icill each other for
some selfish motive. Thus the gross selfishess which was
originally an inactive state of the mind results into a
positive action. The callousness is a state of the mind
in which one develops a sort of unfeelingness like the
hardened skin losing the power of sensation. Thus it
results in any sort of cruelty. Cruelty lies in a disposi-
tion of the min which renders one ineapoble of imagin-
i

ing or recalling the pain of sufferings inflicted upon

others. This disposition also results in a positive action
in inflicting pains upon others and in deriving a sort of
pleasure thereby. These characteristics, primarily
indicating the mental conditions of the primitive man,
led to the actual activities by which the primitive
society is recognized. It was pastoral in character but
organized agriculture and industry were unknown.
Hunting and fishing by which the livelihood was earned
were the chief occupations. There were no laws regula-
ting the instinctive union of man and woman. Supre-
macy of cutoms prevailed in all matters. Patriarchal
notion predominated. Personal property and rights
were absent, might being the only right which was
under stood and flowed both by the strong and the weak.
Thus the individuals submitted to the family heads ;

they submitted to the tribal head and the latter to the

head of the race. This verges to the modern political
organization coerced into the party system of govern-
ment whereby the individual members are prevented to
think or act freely. Sense of morality and religion was
absent. A feeling of obligation to immediate forefathers
which even the neolithic men expressed in the sepulchres
built in memory of deceased parent, was unknown to
the primitives. Th ey oppear, however, better off than
 INTRODUCTION IX

the palaeolithic men in manual skill and use of metals

and fire.

In the medieval society on the other hand religion

became the supreme concern of life. It is not traceable
how this reaction came about. But the man became
intensely religious in every sphere of life. Marriages
were performed for facilitating the performance of
religious rites. Children were begotten to continue the
ancestral worship. Food was first sacrific'^d to gods and
then eaten for preservanon of life. A_il resources were
applied in erecting colossal churches an i temple-^. Crusades
were led. and w'ars to prop igar? a particular religion be-
came sacred duties of king' and n verfiil rulers. In the
.:!

name ot religion all sons of cruelties v/ere practis'^d. Men

and animals were slinghtered to propitiate dei'ies.
Children were sacrificed. The chasnty of wrrnen was sold
to the imaginary 'leities and the immor'’ pripsts. The
I

church became all powerful. Monasteries and convents

were established to coerce men, women and widows to
live unnatural life. The priesthood became too
domineering. Their directions had to be followed by the
agriculturists and the traders as well as by the rulers
and kings as they oecarne God’s earthly representatives.
The economic and political serfdom took the place of
the primitive slavery. The class and caste systems were
developed. The constitution of chivalry was, however,
introduced to protect the weak and to respect women.
But agriculture, commerce, and industry were not given
sufficient scope to develop. Politics proper were neglected.
Kings were the sole owner of the land ; feudal chiefs
held charge in return for services. Thus there was no
good government and order in the society. Those who
retained the primitive selfishness took advantage of
this disorder and built up strong states to exploit
others.

A reference has to be made to the modern society in

passing by way of understanding an ideal society. While
inregard t j the primitiveandthe medieval conditionsthero
is a common feature noticeable 'dl over the world, there
is no suchgeneral uniformit\ in the outlook and activities
of the modern societies. It is only in a vague manner
assumed that in modern advanced societies there is no
room for the primitive lack of consideration for
individuals and the medieval lack of discipline. Thus
X INTEODTJCTION

the present aim is to combine the sovereignty of the

state with the liberty of the individuals. A mere policy
has been set up to ensure for the individuals, races,
nations, and states four freedoms, viz. freedom of
thought, freedom of speech, freedom from fear and
warit of food and clothes, and freedom of religion.
Obviously these are contradictory ideals. Unless it
is assumed that there is a uniformity in human culture
and human civilization these elements of freedom cannot
fit well together. If all peoples of the world do not
think in the same way no freedom of thought can be
ensured for all. The Christian missionary, the fascism,
the socialism, the communism, the totalitarianism, etc.,
will impose its own ideals upon others. It will suppress
others by force if they speak against it. It will starve
others by economic blockade. It cannot allow human
sacrifice, for instance, in the name of religion. In the
name of personal freedom if you do not care for the
chastity and sacredness of union between sexes
there would be no difference between man and beast.
If in the name of free trade and commerce you
rob, exploit and starve others you are as selfish, as
callous, and as cruel as the primitives. If you allow
free practice of various religious customs your own
faith or fanaticism cannot prosper. And if all peoples
living side by side are allowed to have their own freedom
of thought and action there can be no society. The
free animals of the jungles have never prospered. The
survival of the fittest is an inconvenient truth. Thus
the modernism results in materialism in place of
spiritualism of the medieval and fatalism of the
primitive age. The scientific discoveries and the
inductive and experiTn;.ntal method, devoid of a sound
faith in the continuance of the present life, have been
rendering this modern materialism intractable. For,
the mania for progress means the destruction of the
weak and survival of the fittest at the cost of others.
The anMchronisin in the modern outlook is obvious.
There is a sharp an i reasonable difference ofopiniun
regarding the ideal condition of culture and civilization.
There is no consensus of the ideal as well as the means
by which an agreed ideal may be aimed at. The
parliamentary form of government has proved a failure
in combining the sovereignty of the state with the liberty
of the individuals. This system can never ensure for all
 INTRODUCTION XL

the free^loin of thought, speech and action, and the free lom
from fear and vvantof food and clothes. An experiment is
being made by the communists to replace this unsucjess-
ful system by providing equal opportunities to all to
develop and denying special facilities to the privileged
few. The anachronism of this system lies in the fact that
the organized might, of a people may only enforce the
equalization of inherited or accumulated wealth but it
cannot equalize the God’s gift and inborn qualities of
individuals by merely providing equal opportunities to
all the members oi a locality. You can provide necessary
food, clothes, residence either directly or through salary
to all irrespective of their services to the society and
their callings aiad professions ; you can never educate
them all in the same or similar schools. But despite all
these factors and elements of equalization the inborn
aptitude, if not the unknown destiny, may lift up one
brother or sister and Urag down the other. Thus a
problem has arisen regarding a man’s relation to his
society. The question is whether it should be deter-
mined ‘by his right and not by his services’. According
to one ideal ‘all a man should demand is a fair field and
no favour, so that he can count on rising to the level to
which his abilities and his attainments entitle him’.
According to the other ideal it is assumed that ’a man
has a right to a comfortable living in virtue of his mere
existence and without regard to any return he may
make to the society with the corollaries that the majority
have a right to commandeer unusual ability and exact
special service from it, and that no man may receive
more than a fixed maximum reward. There can, how-
ever, be no question as to which of these two ideals is
‘more stimulating to the development of intelligence,
or more acceptable to plain self-respect’.

The Hindu civilization has ascribed this discrepancy

between man and man born and brought up without
partiality to the destiny or the consequences of one’s
own action in some previous birth. This destiny, it is
further assumed, can be altered only by the Almighty
God if He is propitiated by our worship and prayer
and good deeds. In any case an individual can build
up a better destiny for the future by doing better in the
present birth. The Sanskrit culture has been founded
upon such a belief. This philosophy of life has the
advantage of offering an explanation of the otherwise
sii INTRODUCTION

o>>scure contradictionsand incongruities of human life.

disadvantages
It reconciles the individual to his personal
and inferiority complex. But it encourages all to
improve their lot by personal efforts and to build up a
better future. Thus it transcend? the primitive fatalism
and ensures the social uiscipline which was lacking in
medieval time and which is aimed at by the modern
society. It has, further, assumed the ideal and original
equality of all human beings inheriting the progeny of
the same God despite their class and caste differences,
and it has prescribed for the achievement of equalization
in the fulness of time, and to endeavour in accordance
with the laws formulated by the seers tc suit the inequality
of individuals at birth and their group needs. The apparent
partialities in domestic, social, commercial, political and
moral and spiritual laws are intended to provide greater
facilities to improve through the limitation of one’s
birth. There appears ti. have been no organized policy
to^exploit and keep suppressed the inferior groups as
is being practised ruthlessly by the modern civiliaztion.
In fact if there is a real parental honesty in providing
a restricted scope for gradual and steady development
the children improve quicker rather than in getting the
greater scope which is suitable for the adult. A subaltern
would be a better commander-in-chief of an army if
he gradually rises in rank. A wmman would be a better
judge of a children court if she learns her own duties
as mother and is initiated to the principles of laws.
The Hindu legislators recognized these facts and
formulated their laws for economic security of the family,
community, society, and lor agriculture, industry, trade
and comnierce, ikr kings and rulers, and for moral and
spiritual advancement. The aim of this small treatise is
a rational and impartial examination of these laws and
natural conclusions therefrom regarding our inherent
culture and civilization. Herein an honest effort has been
made ‘to be quite certain of our data, to present the
monumental record exactly as it now exists and to
interpret it faithfully and literally’.
The rational interpretation of the data discussed
in the chapters of this volume may justify the logical
conclusions concerning the moral and material progress
the Hindus made for the first time in the world. It
should be clear that from the remotest past India has
been understood as a geographical unit. The daily
utterance in one breath by all Indians of the famous
 INTRODUCTION xiii

seven rivers covering the whole of India, viz., Ganga,

Yamuna, Godavari, Saras vati, Narmada, Sindhu (Indus)
and Eaveri, and of the seven sacred cities, viz.,
Ayodhya, Mathura, Maya (Hardwar), Kasi (Banaras),
Kanchi (Oonjevaram), Avantika (Ujjain) and Dvaravati
(Dwarka) reminds the people of their fundamental
unity in India.
Thecodification of marriage laws, which distin-
guish men from beasts, was first made in Sanskrit
treatises. It is clear therefrom that the grown up
young men and girls could choose their partners and
marry with the consent of their parents. There was
healthy freedom for the women. Girls were educated
like the boys. They had the rights of sharing with
their husbands all religious and social functions.^
Ghosha, Aputi, Lopainudra, Visvabara and others are
credited with the composition of Vedic hymns. Gargi
and Maitreyi took part in philosophical discussions
publicly with their learned husband, the sage ^ainavalkya.
The family life was well organized. The obligation and
privileges of husband and wife were of high order. The
sacraments were predominantly the parental duties
towards the children until the latter were married and
settled in life to carry out the domestic duties, upon
which the stability and progress of the whole society
depended. Thdreafter having finished all responsibilities
and service to the society one could reside in the
quietness of the forest to reflect on spiritual truths in
solitude, and lastly prepare for a peaceful death by un-
interrupted contemplation of God through complete
remunication of all worldly affairs.

^ The preliminary report of the U.N. Secretary-General on

the Status of Women in Family Law covers such subjects as

marriage, divorce, personal relations between spouses and between
parents and ctiildren. It includes such information as the following:
Legal Age for Marriage : In many countries, the legal age
for marriage is as low as 14 for men and 12 for women. Among
them are Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Bcuador, Southern
Rhod esia, Ireland (fur Catholics) and Australia and New Zealand.
In Costa Rica the age for both parties is 15, while in Nicaragua
it is 15 for men and 14 for women. The highest legal ages
reported are 21 for men and 18 for women. These obtain in
such cold countries as Denmark and S.veden and in some states of
the United States.
Divorce and Leparatioii ; Here the report cites many widely
differing practices. For example, in South Africa, a divorced
xiv INTRODUCTION
The material progress made in India regarding
the fundamental needs of a civilized life in respect
of food, clothes and ornaments, and dwelling houses
and furniture was unique. Even from the period of
—
Mahenjodaro (B. G. 3250 2750) and especially in the
—
Vedic period (B. G. 2500 100‘>) almost all the modern
processes of agriculture and mineralogy for the
production of raw materials were well understood and
scientifically put into practice- These raw materials
were converted into consumers’ goods by organized
labour and capital. The industrial progress of the
Hindus was not a mean achievement.

The
science of medicine ani surgery was first
made in India, and the western world, even including
Greece, borrowed many of our discoveries in these
sciences as well as in geometry, algebra, arithmetic.

wife oanclaim no alimony even when she is the innocent

party. Ln Sweden, on the other hand, the husband must pay his
divorced wife and her children an allowance, unless she has
her own income or is capable of earning her own living.
In Great Britain and Northern Ireland, women may petition
for separation and divorce on more grounds than those available
to men. But in Iran a man may divorce his wife ‘on whatever
grounds he chooses,’ whereas a woman may take action only in
the case of insanity or impotence.

The survey cites several countries where women enjoy

marital equality. Among these are the USSR where ‘both
spouses have equal status in their p*rsonal relations, including
choice of residence’ C'zeohoslovakia, Poland and Roumania, where
;

‘any incapacity attached to married women has been abolished’;

and Yugoslavia, which ‘has established full equality of husband
and wife. The wife has the right to choose which family
—
name she wants to use after marriage her own or that of her
husband’. The report deals with the legal relationship between
parents and their legitimate and illegitimate children. These,
it finds, differ sharply in the two categories. ‘Most legal systems
recognize more readily the relationship of the (illegitimate) child
to his mother and, apparently in the interest of the legitimate
child, are reluctant to do the same in the father’s case. In some
countries, even if the father wishes to acknowledge his relationship
with the child, the mother’s consent is necessary and she retains
her rights over the child’. In Sweden, a divorced wife may be
compelled by law to pay her former husband an allowance if he is
in need and unable to work. In the Soviet Union, the institution
of betrothal does not exist. In Brazil married women, as long as
the marital tie exists, are placed with respect to legal capacity on
the same footing as minors.
 INTRODUCTION XV

astronomy and chemistry. The professional healers

of diseases are mentioned in the Eigveda. A section
of the Atharvaveda is named as Ayurveda (science of
healing). King Asoka (3rd century B.O.) built for the
first time in the world hospitals for men and animals.
Charaka and Susruta of the 4th century B. 0. mentioned
numerous treatises and authors of medicine and surgery.
Medical science was properly taught at the University
of Taxila where physicians from various countries
used to assemble. Decisions of all those medical
associations were recorded by Charaka. Anatomy and
embriology were taught. All kinds of diseases and
their cure by medicine and surgery have been thoroughly
dealt with. Chemical analysis of organic and inorganic
things developed. Preparation of colours is also discus-
sed. The progress made in medical treatment is
remarkable. The Rigveda (1-1-16) mentions the use of
an iron leg as a substitute for the limb lost in a battle.
The Mahabharata refers to antidotes for the snake-bite
of king Parikshita (Adi Parva, Chap. 42), and surgical
appliances to treat the wounds of Bhishma (Bhishma
Parva, Chap. 121, verses 5745-5750). The Bhojapra-
bandha refers to anaesthetic by inhalation before
surgical operations. Asoka’s Bock Inscription (Edict 11)
refers to manufacture of medicines and hospitals for
men and beasts. Accounts of Fa Hian and Hiuen Tsiang
as given in Beal’s Buddhist Records of the Western
World (Vol. I pp, 165, cS, 214 ; Vol. II. pp. 1^3, 303) also
.

mention charitable Institutions such as hospitals,

dispensaries and Punyas'ada (charity houses). The ancient
tradition continues this day ard the Hindu system of
medicine is still being practised with wonderful success
in curing some diseases. ‘Anatomy and surgery began to
decline during the Buddhist period and were lost during
the Muslim rule.’ Of the two of our great medical authori-
ties, Charaka and Susruta, the latter who was a surgeon
of great repute, says (Sutra-sthana, chap xii) that ‘of
all cutting instruments and their substitutes, caustics
(on vegetable alkalies) are the most important
because by means of them deep and superficial incisions
and scarifications may be made and derangement of the
three humours (air. bile and phlegm) may be rectified,’
but ‘‘with regard to surgical treatment, actual cautery
issuperior to caustics, because the diseases treated^ with
the actual cautery do not reappear and because it can
Xvi INTRODUCTION

cure diseases incurable by medicines, instrunents and

caustics.” Buddha, however, prohibited the use of
lancet for treatment of fistula-in-ano and the use of
clj sters also although he allowed the surgical treatment
of birds by knife (Mahavagga, vi, 14-4-o), The instruments
are classified under several heads, viz., Yantra (blunt ins-
truments), Swastika (cruciform), Sandarnsa (pincher like).
Tala (pick-lock-like), Nadi (tubular), Salaka (rod shaped',
Upay antra (accessory), SaHras (sharp), and Anu-sastras
(substitutes for sharp instruments).. The blunt instruments
are subdivited into 101 varieties and the sharp into 20
kinds by Susruta. Harita mentions 10 blunt, 10 sharp and
4 Prabandhas necessary for the operations of extraction
of arrows and other foreign bodies. Vagbhata TI mentions
116 blunts and 06 sharp instruments. For treatments
of elephants, Palakapya mentions teu varieties of sharp
instruments.
Hospital buildings and equipments are fully
described in the Charaka Samhita (1. XV. and XII. v. 45).
The building must be sorongand spacious, well ventilated,
surrounding scenery being pleasing but free from
draughts and smoke and dust, nor exposed to glare and
the sun. There must be additional grounds for privy,
bath-room and kitchen. Susruta (l.xix) directs
specially built rooms for surgical patients operated
upon for diseases like inflammatory swelling, wounds,
etc., which should be situated in healthy locality free
from draughts and the svm the bed should be soft,
;

spacious and well arranged and properly furnished and

comfortable. The patient should have dear friends
whose sweet company and wor Is may relieve the pain and
cheer up by pleasant stories. Charaka describes similarly
the lying-in-room in wooded grounds of auspicious
colour, taste and smell. There should be provided ‘for
the pregnant woman sufficif nt clothes, liniments and
covers which should be frequently changed, washed and
disinfected. The nursing roouL for the newly barn
child should be spacious, beautiful, full of light, well
ventilated but free from draughts, beasts of prey,
animals with fungs, mice and insects. The beddings,
seats and covers should be comfortable according to
the season. The child’s bed, covers and sheets should
be soft, light, pure and scented, and free from sweat,
dirt, worms and bugs, an! urine and faeces. The soiled
coverings should be well washed, and beddings well
 INTRODUCTION xvii

purified with steam and thoroughly dried up. A variety

of toys to please the child should be at hand and be
coloured, light, musical, beautiful and must not be
sharp, pointed or of such slope and size as may be put
into the child’s mouth or may terrify (Oharaka, iv,
viii). The servants and nurses should, in all cases of
patients, be good, virtuous, pure, foni, clever, generous,
well trained for nursing, skilful, able to cock diets,
administer a bath, trained in raising and moving the
patient, dexterous in bed-making, managing, ani com-
pounding medicines, and not unwilling in cleaning wounis,
and touching urine, blood, and soil,’ etc. Dispensaries are
stated by Susruta (I. xxxvii) to be built in a clean locality
and the ‘medicines should be kept in burnt earthen pots
arranged on planks supported by stakes or pins, and in
piecesof cloth, wooden pots and3aiiku(ki!aka'’. Physicians
‘should collect and classify medicines, and with them
prepare external applications, infusions, oils, ghee, and
syrups’. Medicines should be used singly and also in com-
binations according to the nature of the disease and the
extent of the derangement of the humours (I. xxxviii).
Medicines of special scientific interest are the
anaesthetics used to produce insensibility to pain. Both
Oharaka and Suhmta mention the use of wine to produce
insensibility before an operation. SiOruta says (1. xvii)
that ‘the patient who has been fed dees not faint,
and he who is rendered intoxioited does not feel the
pain of an operation’. The inhaling of fumes of burning
the Indian hemp as an anaesthetic was also in vogue.
Before a cranial operation performed on king Bhoja
(about 927 A. D.) he was rendered unconscious by a
drug signifioantdy called Samraohini (producer ofuucons-
ciousness) and he regained consciousness after the
operation by the use of an-cther drug c idle i Sanjivaui
(restorer of life).
Our achievements in surgery and medicines alike
were unique. It is well known the medical treatises
tiiat
of Oharaka, Susruta and Madh iva were translated into
Arabic (8th century A.D.). “The modern medical
science of the West is principally based on the Grecian
system as preserved in the books of the Arabian
authors and so in lirectly depen Is for some particular.s
at least upon the Indian system.”
Aryabhaua (.5th century A. D.) for the first time
discovered the distinction between day and night caused
XVI 11 INTRODUCTION

by the rotation of the earth. Bhaskaracharya (12th

century) discovered the centre of gravity causing the
fall of heavy things towards the earth long before
Newton (17th century) found it in Europe. The relation
between the sun and the moon and the earth, and other
planets and the stars, the causes of eclipses and the
ebb tide and flow tide were also discovered first in
India. Arithmetic and Algebra are chiefly the first
discoveries of the Hindu Mathematicians. The numbers
1 to 9 and the zero (s'enya) were discovered here and
spread to Arabia and European countries. Aryabhatta,
Bhaskaracharya, and Brahmagupta solved such problems
of Algebra as came to be known in Europe not
before the 17th and 18th centuries. Baudhayana and
Apastamba (Ind century, B. C.) dealt with geometrical
theorems and showed how to draw a square equal
to a triangle, and a circle equal in area of a square.
In trigonometry the Hindus discovered the sine, co-sine,
and versed sine long before it was found out in Europe
in the 16th century by Briggs. Bhaskaracharya explained
the method to find the length of sides of equilateral and
equiangular figures of 3, 4, 3, 6, 7, S and 9 sides drawn
within a circle in comparison with its diameter,
In architecture, sculpture, and painting India
reached for the first time a place of honour in the
whole world. The city, buildings, and tanks, etc., of
Mahenjodaro (3250 B. 0.) are unique in the science
of building. The Kailasa temple at Ellora is a real
wonder of the world. Mount Abu presents unique
construction in white marble. No colossal single
structure like Bara-Budur (Bhildhara or mountain)
exists anywhere else in the world. Sanchi gate exhibits
a unique achievement. The arts of Karle cave can
hardly be seen any where else. The iron pillar
near Delhi has proved what the Hindus could do even
in metal. Colossal images of .Jina and Buddha are
indeed bold construction. Sculptures of the Gupta age,
carving all objects and ideas, have no parallel anywhere
else. Technical perfection and artistic achievements
of the Ajanta cave paintings (of 600 A. D.) could be
attempted in Italy after SOO years in 1400 A. D.
Indian made goods were also exported to Insulindia
comprising China, Japan, Cambodia, Java, Sum.atra,
Siam, Burma, Ceylon and other islands. Indian
 —

IJSTRODUCTION XIX

exports penetrated to Serindia of central A.sia also.

There were ample facilities for transport by land routes
and sea routes From the Yedic time the knowledge of
writing and use of coins as medium of exchange were in
vogue. Thus the celonization of Hindus advanced butthere
was no policy of exploitation. Hinduism and Buddhism
thus spread far and wi le. Kings like Ohanlragupta
and Asoki of the Maurya Jynasiiy, and Sirnudragipca
and Uhandragupta 11 of the Hupta dynasty built up an
all India empire. But all of them maintained the
sovereignty of the state harmoniousl/ along with the
liberty of the individuals. Kven in the Vedic time
there were representative assembly and councils wnose
majority votes were binding upon the ruler. Gonfidera-
tion of independent states was extant during the times
of the Buddha, the Ramiyaua, and the IHahibhirata.
There has been no country in the world whose ruler
declared the policy of his administration in words of
immortal significance— df I oppress and exploit the
subjects may I be deprived of all the fruits of my good
deads in this life, next life, and descendants.’ There
was no prince like Buddha in any other country who
renounced the kingdom, young wife and newiy born
• son in order to seek remedy to prevent the miseries
of want and privation, an i death and infirmity of the
subjects. Tnere was no king like Asoka wno gave up
the idea of conquest after seeing tue miseries of tne
people of Kalinga resulting from the bloody war.
In spiritualism and philosophical ideal India still
continues to be the leader of world tnougnt. No where
else one can find such noble attitude as the following :

‘God is the only and same destination for all of different

tastes, and ways and means as all the rivers aim to
reach the same ocean (rachiniiii vaichitryad rijn kutila
nanupathayusham nriaa ii eko gamyas tvam asi payasam
araava ivaj. No where else in the world the spiritual
teacher has asked the disciples to follow only those
of his own qualities which are really good, not others
(yani asmakam sucharita.ii tini tvaya upasyani na
itariui) and to do only those which are blameless (yani
anavadyani karmani tani sevitavyani na itarani). No
—
philosopher like Bataujali ever declared 'one can attain
salvation through the prayer of his own choice (yatha-
bhimata dhyaiiaiva). Kapila the author of the Siiiikhya
system, though atheist, yet was esteemed as God. No
XX INTRODUCTION

where else one can find an instance like that of the

Buddha having been included as one of the incarnations
of G-od though he had opposed the oi thodox Vedic religion.
In literature the achivements of the Hindus were
the highest and the earliest. No literature like the
Vedas (B. C. ^oCO-lOOO) developed anywhere in the
world. The Brahmana class of Vedic literature gave
rise to the Upanishads which contain unique philo-
sophical thoughts, and what is known as the limbs of
the A"eda, riz., phonology (Hksha), laws of sacrifices,
domestic life and political administration, lexicons,
rules of metres, astronomy, and grammar. These
helped a quick development of the classical literature.
One of the epics, the Mahabharata of 1,00,000 verses is
eight times of Homer’s two epics (Illiad and Odesy)
put together. The Raniayana gave rise to the poetic
literature of Asvaghosha, Kalidasa, Bharavi, Magha and
many others. Bhasa wrote a series of plays in the
4th centurj.- B. 0. which reached the highest develop-
ment in the dramas of Kalidasa and his successors.
There are numerous novels, and story books and lyrical
poems. There are treatises on dramaturgy, poetics,
Kamasistra, A'astusastra, Arthasastra and Dharmasastra.
Bali and Prakrit literature of the Buddhists and
Jainas are also varied and extensive.
Such a unique development in literature, science
and arts was possible owing to the extraordinary
facilities for learning and teaching of all the known
subjects. The universities at Taxila, Ujjain, Amaravati,
Nalanda, Kashi, Kanchi, ATkramasila, Madura, Vallabhi,
and other places were well organized and well equipped
institutions. The Chinese pilgrim scholar, Hiuen-
Tsiang, has recorded that at Nalanda University lO.OOd
students were provided with residence, beddings, clothes,
food, ar.d free medical treatment in addition to books
and teaching. Is there any such University anywhere
in the inoiern world which is so proud of its develop-
ment over the past.
This brief outline may help in indicating the secret
of so much success inHindu life uf the past. It is true
t.iat Hindu life was essentially religious but at the
Siine Dime it was active. Tire Vedas taught us to
pefinfin tna prescribed duties like well trained soldiers,
idle laitn and belief in ^lol and in the immortality
ui auui iiiUs developed, i'he eifioacy of one’s effort
 INTRODUCTION xxi

was thus instilled in our mind. Action and thought, and

optimism developed side by’ side. The inequalities
between man and man, and between man and woman did
not upset the equilibrium of Hindu society. This may
follow from the interpretation attempted in the chapters
of this volume.

As we have commenced our journey towards our

own government we should not ignore our long past.
self
Pandit Nehru has truly declared that “the past is ever
with us, and all that we are and that we have comes
from the past. We are its products and we live
immersed in it. Not to understand and feel it as some-
thing living with us is not to understand the present.
To combine it with the present and extend it to the
future, to break from it where it cannot be united, to
make all this the pulsating and vibrating material for
—
thought and action that is life. All the long past of the
individual, even of the race, has prepared the back
ground for that psychological moment of action. All
the racial memories, influences of heredity and environ-
ment and training, subconscious urges, thoughts and
dreams and actions from infancy and childhood onwards,
in their curious and tremendous mix-up inevitably
drive to that new action which again becomes yet
another factor in influencing the future’’. It is true
that the past is ‘unaffected by the storms and upheavals
of the present’, but ‘it maintains its dignity and repose
and tempts the troubled spirit and tortured mind to seek
shelter in its vaulted catacombs. There is peace and
security and one may even sense a spiritual quality.
With the past, the present and the future are inextricably
intertwined. It is to the benefit of those to recall past
history who have got a past which makes us proud and
hopeful for the future’. (Discovery of India, pp. d, 10).
About the antiquity of Indian civilization no discu-
ssion is required. In human history no civilization can
claim a greater antiquity than the civilization that
developed on the banks of the Nile, the Tigris and the
Euphrates, and the Indus and the Ganges. The Egyptian
calender commencing in 4211 B. G. indicates the starting
point of the Egyptian civilisation at 5010 B. G- according
to Gordon Childer, and at 9100 B. G. according to the New
Light on the most ancient East (p. 12-13). Of the
cultural periods of Mesopotamia, Vir the Obeid, Uruli
ixii INTRODUCTION

Jemdih Nasr, the earliest is dated at about 3000 B. C.

The beginning of Indian civilisation can be safely dated
between B. C. 5000 and 6000. “Herein indeed was laid
down the foundationof our domestic, economic,
political and
spiritual life. Here took place for the first
time the cultivation of plants, the domestication of
animals, the invention of the ploughs and the wheel,
the development of pottery anl metallurgy, the advent
of writing, the making of textile and other factors of
civilisation. The city and village life developed side by
side. Every material thing invented since could
disappear from the world” as stated by Peaniman in his
Origin of Civilisation “but the good life would still be
possible” (Antiquity, June, 1915, p. 96).
Our past achievements are truly the Glories of
India, and culture and civilization as interpreted here
will justify the title and plan of the present volume.
It may also be claimed that no other single extant
vohtme will supply a more compact ani correct survey of
the subjects in such a small space. It has developed out
of the writer’s booklet Elemnts of Hindu culture ani
Sanskrit civilization published in an incomplete form in
1939 hurriedly owing to the outbreak of World War II.
In this new andenlarged volumeafullchapteri.VIl)isaided
containing a short survey of the Indian literature in
Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit, which is the main source of
information for the earlier chapters. This survey
is mainly based on the standard and elaborate histories of
literature by A. A. Hacdonell, A. B. Keith, AI. Wmtrnitz
and Dr, B, G. Law, to wnom I take this opportunity
to acknowledge my gratitude. Gnapter V, dealing
with the Basic Arts of Architecture, Sculpture and
Painting, is based largely on the archaeological descrip-
tion of the three great authorities, viz. James Fergusson,
Professor J. Ph. Vogel and Mr. Perci Brown te whom
the writer’s indebtedness is gratefully acknowledged.
Chapter tV on practical sciences of medicine, surgery,
chemistry, astronomy and ra£i,thematics, etc., has been
enriched by a reference to the notable contributions in
Bengali by the scientist-politician Dr. P. C. Ghosh. I
have also quoted certain thoughtful extracts from the
Discovert] of India by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and from
the Homo Sapiens by the Alost Hon’ble the Alarquis of
Zetland. I expect these references and quotations will
inspire the readers as much as they have dune the writer
 INTRODUCTION XXlll

An apology has, however, to be added with regret

for various defects with which no other among numerous
works of the writer has been published. The printer’s
devil has done havoc to such an extent that no useful
list of the errors was possible to be made. The press
which was supplied with paper and an advance for
new types when it undertook the work on May 24, 1949,
lingered on for three years. During the first two years
pages 1-120 only were indifferently printed, of which the
proofs were corrected by Shri K. B. Banerji who in
disgust gave up the job thereafter. When the writer
himself took up the proof-correction from page 121,
it became clear that the press was not equipped for the
work. The problem for the writer then arose whether
the press should be changed or he should await with
patience, and the fruits of his strenuous labour for years
should be made available, even with all such defects,
to the public who had evinced a keen interest in its
first already exhausted edition and also in the portions
of this revised and enlarged edition published from time
to time in several widely read magazines. Friends and
admirers insisted by pointing out the fact that readers
of several Indian daily papers are used to getting
acquainted with the contents despite printing defects,
much like a species of swans sucking milk out of a
quantity of water mixed with genuine milk, which is
a common spectacle among the milk-men as well as all
other adulterants of food materials in our present India
of absolute freedom. With this expectation this
unfortunate publication is reluctantly released from its
imprisonment in the press as a long awaited promising
child despite all its enforced deformities. Should it,
however, be received with an indulgence at our
educational institutions also where such subjects should
be compulsorily taught and freely discussed if under
the spell of secularism India, like Turkey of the past,
is not destined to lose its identity in the world
civilization and become -completely denationalized. If
the mere cost of its publication at which this volume is
priced be realised quickly a better print in English and a
Hindi version may, however, come out before long.
Ihave to acknowledge with gratitude the assistance
from several friends andsympathizers. But for the tactful
manipulation by a distinguished pupil friend, Shri S.N.
M. Tripathi, M.A., I. A. S., who was fortunately for me
xxiv INTRODUCTION

and many others posted here for a short period as the

District Magistrate, and without the useful advice I receiv-
ed from a senior advocate of Allahabad High Court,
Shri P. M. Yarma, M.A., LL.B., and from a distinguished
journalist fiiend, the late lamented E. Saigal, I might
have been involved in the meshes of a prolonged litiga-
tion. Shri Madan Mohan Nagar, M. A., a pupil-friend and
the crirator of Lucknow Provincial Museum, supplied
photographs for illustrations of Chapter VI on
Basic Arts, which he himself revised. Professor K. A.
SubrahmaniyaTyer M.A., of Lucknow University, gave me
the benefit of his vast learning inrevisingChapter VII on
the history of literature in Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit.
The learned librarian, Shri B. N. Banerji, M.A., corrected
the typed script, and assisted his brother Shri K-B. Banerji
in correcting the proofs of the first IdO pages. The former
is a life long pupil friend, and the latter is also conversant
with Sanskrit texts on which our sacraments and sa crifices
(Chapter I) are based. They spared no pains in assisting
me even in my dealing with the press, xlnother
successful pupil, Shri Kashinath Dikshit, M.A., I. P.,
read for his own examinations the typed copy and put
in the diacritical marks. Shri Ram Sliankar Dwivedi,
M.A., and Shri Jai Prakash Srivastava, M.A., two most
devoted pupil friends, readily took all sorts of troubles
in bringing out this volume. Another pupil, Shri Rama
Datta Shukla, and his learned father Pandit Devi
Datta Shukla, who recommended the Press, and Raj Vaidya
ShriSakticharan Roy who is immensely interested in the
preservation of our Sanatana Dharrna, tried in vain to
expedite the printing but have earned my gratitude.
Another young friend, Shri Narendra Saigal, B. A., the
proprietor of the Karmayogi Press, gave me the benefit of
his expert knowledge of publication of books in these
difficult days of scarcity and high prices of all materials.
Similarly Shri H. P. Ghosh, tha manager of the Indian
Press, Ltd., assistei me readily by printing the plates and
the jacket, and making arrangeraei t for the binding.
I shall ever remain grateful to all these friends.

SWASTIKA BHAWAN
ALLAHABAD P. K. ACHARYA
May 19, 1962
 Plate 11

Barabudiir in Java
 Cf; AFTER I

FAMILY LIIP: OF SACRAMENTS AND

SACRIFICES
Marriage

The sexes instiiic’cively unite. This natural and

necessary union among inen and women is known as
marriage when it is legalised in some recognised form.
Thus normally no querstion of disunion or disagreement,
no squabble of divorce should even arise if the union is
correcTy formed. The consummate sex-union, known
as sriiigai’a in Sanskrit, in which the mighty spirit of
divine love bursts all bonds and bounds of physico-sensual
life, stands forth in all its glory and transforms life to its
sweetest immortal essence.
Thus in Hindu mythology che natural conjugality
of the self created Svayarabhuva and Satariipa (lit, of
hundred beautiful forms) coming into existence as a
couple illustrates a general principle of life. Similarly
Sivitri is an integral emanation of Brahma and their
union is natural. Sviha represents the inner igneous
power of Agni (tire god) and so they are a permanent
pair, Vu’uai is the liquid flowing force springing up
from the ocean depths of the heart of ohe presiding deity
Varuia of the ocean, and so they are found in an eternal
wedlock. Vaytivi is the female form assumed by the
sweet and soothing power of breez e that resides in the
tempestuous power of the wind as the wind god syu V
uitites with V iyAvi. Manmatha (lit churned from the
mind) is the divinity of love in its sensuous aspects and
he is mated with Rati, the feminine spirit of sweet and
serene enjoyment. The Pr^ipatis or the fathers and
ancestors of all beings have all their feminine counter,
parts of life, hnoly fitted in unto their nature, character
and disposition. Thus Mar, chi is united with Kal?,
Atri with Annsriyt, Angiras wv.h Sraddha, Piuastya
with Havirbhu, Pula ha with Gati, Kratu with Kriys
Bhrigu with K/hyiti, Vasishtha with Arundhati, and
Atharvi with Sinti, Kityapa begot on Aditi. Indra
and other gods brougnt forth by ten other consorts differ-
ent lines of progeny. Indra got Sachi as his queem
^
 .

INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

Daksb.a Prajapati got Prasuti for his wife by whom he

got twensy-seven stars as his daughters.
‘The creator or active god lives alife of love and
bean y. and
Pits life loveliness are not abstract ideas,
'ihe philosophers only relegate Him to an empty abstrac-
tion of power and wisdom, justice and truth. This is
also the Christian conception of an asexual life of the
Hivine Being with the shining CGmipany of sexless
attendants, angels, arch angels, seraphs, cherubs, throne,
virtues, powers, domiratiors determined by the monastic
ideas of religion' ‘
At the root of the grov\t: of a family is the union
between the male and the female. By a nalural instinct,
the sexes unite and expard. Thereby the continuity of
race or species is maiihained. By a great irgenuity of
the creator this instinctive union is associated w ith a
unique sexual pleasure and mental happiness. It also •

ensures the fullest growth and self realization of the

males and females through their children.
The degree of cultural progress in this union of
sexes depends upon the amount of resporsibility freely
recognised by the father and the mother towards each
other as well as towards the children born of such union
o counteract the possibility of shirking this free recogni-
Hon and assumption of responsibility as also to regularise
Jhe ui.ion marriage-la w's were made by all civilized socie-
ties, These law^s may be mere customs as among the pri-
_

^mi ives whose motive was selfish and the method was the
might as right. The marriage-laws in medieval society
were intended to advance the religious bias and ignored
the social discipline and the individual and material good.
The advanced modern societies by way of combining
individual liberty with the social discipline have form,
ulaised contradictory laws. The contradictions are due
to ignoring the natural Ij^ws whereby the females suffer
in bearing the child and getting old quicker and also ignor-
ing the moral and spiritual good in addition to social
discipline which accrues from uot only sexual purity but
an all round and everlasting chastity. Thus the marriage-
laws may aim at mere personal and sensual satisfaction
nr irarely social good and national advantages, or at a
spiritual progress w'hich is facilitated when the male

^ Vide ‘Sex in celestAl life’ by E. ha Kaly.'n Kalpataru,

V <>1, XII, Xo, 4, April, 1940 pp. 418-23.
 FAMILY LIFE OF SACRAMENTS AND SACRIFICES 3

and the female unite in a complete unit and reach the

fullest human growth and the salvation.

Such a marriage is considered as a sacrament

(saihskara, refinement) among the Hindus, Among
lit,

the Muslims, Christians and other sects marriage is

treated as a contract and as such it is to be registered
for a recognition and protection by the state laws of
the land. In such a contractual union man and woman
are much like the partivn- of a joint business firm and
have the option of separatirig under certain circumstances.
The Hindu marriage being a spiritual union of man and
woman needs no registration and permits of no separa-
tion, The union is not only life long but it is assumed
to last even after one’s death. Ajiother fundamental
feature of the Hindu marriage is that the nuptial ceremo-
nies bind a man and a woman into a complete being of
which one half is man and the other half woman. ^ This
romantic ideal is physicallv represented in the Ardha-
N^riswara image of God Siva and P:-rvatn Such a
complete unity develops in modern successful marriage
also. But from the view point of culture there can be
no higher ideal of marriage than what is aimed at by
the Hindu system.
All the eight forms of Hi'adu ma,rriage, which
incidentally cover all the p-.^ssible form‘i of union between
sexes, are not spiritual in outlook and at ’uhe outset. But
even the base ones of these forms are ultimately Inmed
into sanctified union. And thereby tlie social discipline
and order are maintained and the s])irkiial development
is re-assured. The illustrations of snne of these foi ms
are met with in the Vedic.-Epic and Buddbini literatiire
but the regular codification of marriage-k.w;'. were made
later by the class of literature kr.own a.s Griliya Sutra
and Snidti. Marriage-laws were compiled by irw rw rs.
They were not mere agreements like tlie presei u laws
formulated by the common or majority com-erd of \he
people’s representatives. Nor were they dictawd by the
autocratic monarchs. They, however, evuice tu.e irdrc-
tive method, fruit of deep thlr.kii.g an free ni -.v.s ..t n.
I

1 In Brihtvi ranysk-?. Upani/ad God i? fr. d to have d.v.e.ec h n

two portions which bee me the bride and
self into t’ne br.de^rooru ci •

Sa imeva atmanam dvidh\ ap;tayat

Tat patischa patm cha abhavat
4 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

The individual good, and

social order, political discipline
spiritual perfection vere the aimed at.
results
The Laws of Manu (III 27-34) and others have
thoroughly described the eight forms of Hindu marriagf'
in an order of preference. The first one is called Bithma
which primarily and expressly a,ims at the achievement
of Brahman or God, that is, salvation through the per-
formance of householder’s duties. This may be translat-
ed as spiritual. “The gift of a marriageable daughter
with suitable dowries is made to a learned man of good
conduct whom the father or guardian invites”. The
union of Siva and Parvatl, which is cited as an illustra-
tion, shows, however, that the bride herself underwent
severe penances in order to secure the affection and com-
panionship of the learned God. The instance of Arun-
dhati and Vasishtha. also indicates a mutual desire of the
bride and the groom for an intellectual companionship
in addition to partnership of hous<r^holder 's duties. It is
therefore considered as a,n ideal form for all-
in the next, Daiva or divine, form of marriage “the
gift of a daughter who has been decked with ornaments
is made to a priest who duly officiates in a sacrifice
during the course of its performance”. The competent
priest of ancient times was considered as the most promis-
ir^ man of the society having proved his attainments
and character by the successful pt-rforinance of priestly
duties, which was the most noble and lucrative profes-
sion in ancient societies. Such a groom would be the
first choice of the bride and her parents
at any time.
Such union promises intellectual companionship, econo-
mic freed<)m and an arisxucratit' social status. This may
be illustrated by the marriage of Olivuvana and Richika
and of Inlra and Indr.nl. Tlie latter instance will show
its royal cjiaracter. If iiu extra emphasis is given to
t je ])ii 0 Sjiy profossion which is os jidoh os o.r.v othor
noble and learned profession this form would look like
a modern aristrocratic connection.
Tne Arsha or sagely form derives its significance
irom llishi (sage) M ho is usually reluctant to undertake
w.''dVck and vants to remain free
TO toi.Lowills ii,tedec-:,ua.l pursnhs. He is respected for
IllsDrain 'power and ch.aracier and is expected to
beget
imeuemual cliildren wiio are an asset of the society
Lhiis both the onde and her parents
desire to have such
a brnlegi-.iom. The decision of such a
groom to enter
 family life of sacraments and sacrifices 5

into the matrimonial connection is implied by the con-

dition of this form. “The parents of the bride grive away
xheir daughter to a sage after receiving from the bride-
groom, for the fulfilment of the sacred law, a cow and a
bull, or two pairs”. It is clear ihax the cattle given by
the groom is not the sale-price of the bride it merely :

indicates that the sagely groom has decided to live a

householder’s life and earn his livelihood by agriculiural
pursuits. The cattle given to the bride’s parents serves
both as security and surety. Even if no children are
born of such union the sagely temper and the coi'igenial
companionship are ensured. The marriage of the sage
Agastya and Lopamudr may be cited as an illustration.
:

This is an ordinary middle class marriage and has no

spiritual bias in it.

The fourth commendable form is significantly called

Manupha (human) or Prajapatya which expressly aims
at children (praja). In contrast to the spiritual, divine,
and sagely forms this is the ordinary human union of
man and woman solemnized with the express injunc-
tion “May both of you perform together your duties”.
^
Its main purpose is indicated by its title of prajapatya
which implies that the husband and wife should unite
for the purpose of giving birth to children. There is
_

an instinctive desire of sexes, the fulfilment of which is

emphasized by this form. It also reveals the funda-
mental nature of Hindu and other marriages, viz., a wife
is to be secured to beget a son (or a daughter) in order
to perpetuate the householder’s duties of offering oblations
to the manes, feeding the dependants, guests and the
needy beings, and thereby maintain the society and its
institutions h These four forms are stated to be the
normal and laudable ones. Mann praises (III 37-42) these
forms by saying that the son born of the first form libe-
rates from sin ten ancestors, ten descendants and himself
as the twenty-first the soix of the second form saves
;

seven ancestors and seven descendants the son of the ;

third form three in the ascending and three in the decend-

ing lines and the son of the fourth form six in either
;

line. The children of these four forms are stated to be

“endowed with the qualities of beauty and goodness,
possessing wealth and fame, obtaining as many enjoy-
ments as they desire and being most righteous they will

1 Putrarthe kinyate bhiry i putrah pindaprayojakali

6 INDIAN CULTUBE AND CIVILIZATION

live a hundred years”. Thus the laudable marriages are

to be judged not only by personal comfort, convenience
and happiness of the husband and wife but also by the
fruits.
The remaining four are the special forms allowed
but notpreferred owing to the special circumstances
and human weaknesses. The object was to keep up the
social order, discipline and equilibrium. But the children
of these blamable marriages are stated to be “cruel and
speakers of untruth, who hiire the Veda and the sacred
law”.
The fifth form is Asura or undivine. Accordirg to
this form a bridegroom receives a grown up maiden after
having given, according to his own will, as much wealth
as he can afford to the kinsmen and the bride herself.
It implies a sort of elopment and money is paid in settle-
ment of the anger of the bride’s people and the security
of the bride herself. It may be illustrated by the marriage
of Pcipdu and Madrl of the Mah-^bh rata fame.
The Gandharva is the love or romantic form. It
is the voluntary union of a maiden and her lover like
the Gandharvas who indulge in sexual connection when-
ever they fall in love. They have no patience to await
the sanction of the society. The sexual intercourse
which is its only purpose takes place before any rites
are observed. It is, however, recognised by the society
after the usual rixes are performed in order to maintain
sexual purity, social peace, and individual harmony.
The marriage of Sakuntab: and Dushyanta may be cited
as an illustration.
The Bikshasa or heroic form implies the forcible
abduction of a maiden from her home, while she cries
out and weeps after her kinsmen have been slain. The
society recognised this highhandedness in order to offer
facilities to a hero to accept the abducted maiden as his
lawfully married wife after going throigh the usual
ceremonies. This form is illustrated by the abduction
of Subhadri by' Arjuna, and of Rvxkmini by Kjishpa.
These marriages proved happy and successful. This is
perhaps the reason for the continuance of its formal
character in the modern marriage procession of the bride-
groom which in some places looks like a military expedi-
tioncomposed of dummy forces and martial music.
The Paisacha or devilish form is the mere molesta-
 B’AMILY LIFE OF SACRAMENTS ANO SACRIFICES 7

tion of a girl by stealth when she is in sleep, intoxicated,

or in an unbalanced state of intellect. The union of
Usha and_ Pradyumna may be cited as an illustration.
This and Asura (undivine) forms were considered unlawful
even in Manu’s time (III 25). The readiness, however, of
the state to recognise such outrage as marriage after due
performance of usual rites implies the sagacity of the
society, because the object was to maintain the sexual
purity and social discipline.
These eight forms, it should be noted, display
various principles. The first four commendable forms
are parent-made alliances but they imply mutual consent.
They should be considered as adult marriage for, other,
wise, the injunctions and conditions lose their signifi-
cance altogether. There is hardly any trace of medieval
fanaticism about them. They are modern in their
dignified outlook and suit the temperament of the mem-
bers of a civilized society. Of the remaining four Asura
and Paistcha were considered unlawful even in ancient
time. The principle of the former appears to be purchase,
but that is fictitious, because the purchase money is re-
turned by the bride’s parents to her husband. The latter
is brutal violation of the modesty of a girl. Both these
clearly imply adult alliance, because unless the girl is
sufficiently grown up there would be no inducement to
elopment or violation by force. The other two forms,
the Gandharva (romantic) and Bakshasa (heroic) are
similarly adult union. In the former the immediate
purpose is sexual intercourse. In the latter also if the
girl be not sufficiently grown up there will be hardly any
inducement for abduction and consequent fight. These
inferences are in apparent contradiction to the lower ages
of marriage prescribed. It seems, however, that the
lower limit was fixed to suit the special condition of local
application. We shall see later that sacramental rites
of the Brdnma form even shows that the bride
attained puberty before marriage. The marriage
rites are common for all the forms of marriage. As a
sacrament the ceremonies commence with the invocation
of God's mercy and ancestral blessings by means of
prayer and service (iriddha) known as the abliyudayika
(progressive) ai\d end with a concluding sacrifice called
Kusapdikq. The intermediate ceremonies comprise the
kanyadana (handing over the bride), pai.dgraharia
(acceptance of the bride’s hands), as'mtrohaoa (ascending
8 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

together the syiiibolic stone of firmness), and sapta-padi

(waikir^ together seven steps). The marriage rites
which are illustrated under the Brihma (spiritual) form
are common to all the other forms. As a sacrament the
nuplial ceremonies, after the negotiation ends at the
mutual consent, commence with an initial sacrifice called
kuiaadik in some text, which according to other texts
1

is performed at the conclusion only. The object is to

pray for the blessiirgs of gods for the success of the
marriage. The first ceremony, as it continues now, is
the n.ndimukha service (sraddha) which is performed
separately by the fathers of the bride atrd the bridegroom
by way of invoking ancestral blessings. The third
ceremony consists in giving a hygienic bath to the bride-
groom and the bride w'ith powdered turmeric and other
fragrant things and is known as gatra-haridra (besmear-
ii:^ the body with turmeric powder). The primary object
of this bath is to generate a sex desire in the bride and
the bridegroom. In this connection a significant prayer
is made co the god of love (kamadeva) by the relation of
the bride ‘your name is love (kama) but your real epithet
is lust (mada), may your intoxication (sura, lit, wine)
bring the bridegroom to the bride, because bride is the
source of the fire of sexual desire and the fire is actually
produced by the sex connection’.’ It is Wther stated
that the female sex organ has been created as honey
(to altraCd bees of lover) and that it is the second mouth
of the creator with this the bride overpowers the man
:

and brings under control and lords over everybody^. She

is asked to satisfy the sex desire of her husband'^.

The bridegroom himself after accepting the hands

of the bride says that the object of giving and accepting
the bride is to satisfy the mutual sex desire (kama) and
he promises to carry out that object*.

1 Kuna Veda te n.ima made iiaiinsL Pannnay.' mum sura ts

abViavat param dra janm ,gne tap ninuitosi svaha.
Z Lnauia upa'^tiia uiadhuiii sariisrijrum
praj ipater mukh un et .d dvitiyam
tena pumsobhibh '.vasi sarvan vaU.u vasinyasi
rajfa svaha.
3 Agnim kravy.dain krinvan guhjnd.i strinim up stham
ri^dayah pur.in.is ten jyam i.kvinvan
strai -rifigaiii tVAStram tvayi tad dadhatu sviha
4 Ka idain ka«m ad.t kamah k inaya
i

adit kaino data kiinah pratigrahita k iinah

saraudram avi^at k mena tva pratigrihnaini kamaitat te.
 FAMILY LIFE OF SACRAMENTS AND SACRIFICES 9

The next ceremony which is the chief one, is

known as sampradaiia (or kanyadana) and consists in
completely handing over the hride to the bridegroom.
This custom is common among the Christians and the
Muslims also, and implies that the bride herself
cannot make her over to the man even of her own
choice in a sacramethal form of marriage. In the
absence of die bride’s father some one else has to hand
her over. According to the Hindu custom the father
formally and respectfully receives the bridegroom and
asks his^ consent to choose him formally as bridegroom
and asks whether he agrees to perform the duties of the
husband of his daughter. The bridegroom formally and
publicly assumes the responsibility. He is enjoined to
protect and maintain the bride, to appreciate her merits
and to forgive her short-comings’. Thereafter the gift
is made by mentioning the names of the fore-fathers of
both sides so that there may arise no troubles regarding
the identity of the bride and the bridegroom. Along
with the bride are given dowries consisting of food,
water, beddings, cattle, gold and jewels, and landed
property’*. Then the hands of the bride and bridegroom
are tied together and the ends of their nuptial garments
are also knotted firmly. This indicates the unification
of the bride and bridegroom both physically and as
partners. And the union is prayed to be as firm and
successful as between Indra and Indrini, Vibh.ivasu and
Svaha, Soma and Rohiyi, Naia and Damayanti,
Vaisravana and Bhadra, Vasishtha and Arundhati, Gauri
and Sankara and lastly as between Haraya^ia and Laksh-
mi. Each of these illustrious unions has a special noble
feature, all of which are invoked here.
Thus after accepting the bride the bridegroom
takes her from the marriage pandal to the inner abode
(pradhana gfiba)'”. Therein the nuptial fire for joint

1 Padyadibhir abhyarchya varatveiia bhavautaiii vriue. Yathi

yihitam vara.karma kuru. Yatha ji'Kinaiii karavani.
Durvani pushpani phalaachaiva vastram tainbulaiii eva cha
Ebhih kanya maya datt.i rakshajunii po<haiia'h kuru
Asyali kany.iy.i do'^li ih kslK.ntavya-guuistu gr.dryjh
2 Bhumiiii annau'i jalaiii ^ayy.iui gohirany.idikaiu yautukaiu
janiatre dadyat.
3 It should be lu the husb utd’s house, because according to
custom prevalent among some people the ceremonies at bride’s house
end here. But usual custom is to perform several other ceremonies
2
 ;

10 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

sacrifice (samyojaka-agni) is kindled and established.

Around this fire the first promises and agreements be-
tween the husband and wife are made. As a token of
maintenance throughout the life the husband clothes
the wife with two pieces of garment, one for the lower
body and the other for the upper. And addressing her
respectfully says “Oh, honoured lady, live here happily a
hundred years, be glorious and while living enjoy wealth
and ple'uty do not you be separated from me, stay on
;

here and enjoy universal life (i.e. peace and prosperity)

you prosper in this bouse with dear children and be
mindful of performing the household duties.'^”

The next ceremony is known as sapta-padi (walking

together seven steps). As they proceed step by step
round the sacrificdal fire the husband prays to god for
the companionship and co-operation of the wife in gain-
ing at the first step fulfilment of all desires, at the second
strength, at the third performance of household duties
(the fire sacrifices), at the fourth complete union and
identity of purpose (lit. fidendship), a" the fifth cattle, at
the sixth wealth, and at the seventh the seven fruits of
sacrifices.

Thereafter addressing the bride the husband sums

up his promises towards the wife “Oh, beloved you be my
comrade itt achieving the se\'en objects (of married life).
I promise to become your friend, no other women shall
break our union (friendship), and our friendship be the
source of all happiness.*”

at the bride’s place,

Tliu^ description shows L, ter that it took place
in her fathers house beiore tne bride was taken in a car to her
husband’s house.

1 ftatancha jiva saradali suvarchchj,

Vasunichmye vibhrijisi jivan
mi viyoshtani
Ihaiva stvani
Visvam ayor vyasnutam
Iha pr yani prajaya te samriddhyatam
Asmin grihe gurhapatyaya jagrihi.
2 The siindar arepromises
made in Christian form of
marriage also, cf The
priest ask- the bridegroom and the bride
:

(a) “Wdt thou love her, Ciinfort her and forsaking others keep thee
only unto ner ?” “X will,” says the bridegroom, (b) “Wilt tbou have
this man ? Wilt thou obey him and serve him, love, honour and
keep nmi in -^icknes'^ and in health “[ will,” says the bride.
 FAMILY LIFE OF SACRAMENTS AND SACRIFICES 11

Then addressing the visitors and friends he says “All

of you together look at this my most auspicious (suman-
gali) wife, pray for her great fortune (saubhaj'ya) before
you depart.’’ He also invokes all the Gods. “May gods
purify our hearts, may che gods of water, air and creation,
unite our two hearts into one (samdadhatu ekikarocu).
That is, lee \is become one by our elements, nature and
wisdom. Thus the Hindu wife is not mere sahakarmi
(colleague or parener in rearing up children) but she is
.

sahadharmini (co-worker) bearii'.g che most dignified

title of PatiiT, so called because of her unavoidable asso-
ciation in the performance of all sacrificial rites. In the
absence of Sita, for instance, Rama Chandra had to get
carved a lifedike image in gold of his consort in order
to perform the horse sacrifice.
After the prayers and promises for the unification
of the heart, a physical unificacion is demonstrated by
the ceremony known as the papigraha?a (accepting the
hands). The husband affectionately clasps wixh his both
palms the hands of the bride and makes six other pro-
mises. “As the gods have kindly given me you for the
(completion of) household life, I catch hold of your hands
as a matter of great forcune stay on with me till old age.’’
;

(i. e. death aepa.rates us). “Oh my bride always look ac me

with kind eyes (akrura, lit. noc cruel), be other than

hurting your husband (apatighutin ), be pleasant to our
members of the family and catole, be of pleasant mind and
well balanced power (suvarchas), give birth to heroic
children, never miscarry (jivasu), perform che five daily
sacrifices (devakimt pa’,'icha.-mah>yaj,r.bhi-rata), cause
happiness to us and do good to aid biped, (relacions) aicd
quadruped (cattle) of our family”. “May the Ci’eacor give
us (the benefit of) children till old age, may Aryam endow
^

our descendants with great qualities. Oh bride che gods of

all good have given me you, therefore you come into your
husband’s family and do good to the biped and quadruped
members of the family”. Then the wife demands “may
my husband facilitate my entry into his family so that
I can settle there happily and peacefully and without
having any enemy to face.”^ Agreeing to this and being
supported by the wife, who keeps standir^ touching his
right shoulder, the husband prays to the Gods for six
items of blessing for her. “May fire bring her children

1. Fra me pati ya nah panthih kalpatim

Siva arishta patilokam gameyam
12 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

(praja),may Varuna protect them from death so that she

may not have to weep for the illness of her children”.
“May she perform (jointly with me) the daily sacrifice
to the nuptial fire, may her children remain alive and
obedient till her old age, may she be never of empty lap
(asQnya-npastha without having children on the lap)>
may she enjoy the happiness of having grand-children,”
“May the sky god (dyanh) protect your back, Vayu and
Asvinau your thighs,* the creator sun your children of
the lap (who live on breast-feeding, stanandhaya) upto
the age of their putting on clothes, thereafter Brihaspati
and Visvedeva protect {i.e. give intelligence to) them”.
“May in yonr house never rise the cry of wailing the ;

sorrowful weeping women, other than you, be in enemy’s

house, even if you have to weep may not be it of heart-
rending sort, may you adorn the husband’s family
having your husband alive, and seeing your children
happy and prosperous”. “Oh my beloved, I shall remove
barrenness from you, children’s death from you, your
death, and all misfortunes from you, and shall transfer
them like a ('weatheredy garland to the enemy”. And
lastly “Oh god of death, may death be away from us, may.
freedom from (untimely) death be ours, may death-god
give us freedom from fear. Oh death, you go elsewhere, I
say this personally to you, do not take away our children
and grand children, do not kill our heroic people”. These
.
are stated to be the six ajya offerings to the fire god
made jointly by the husband and wife.
The next ceremony is known as as'marohaga or
ascending the stone. The wife takes her arms over the
shoulders of the husband and the palms are joined to-
gether before they ascend upon a stone. The ceremony
implies the firm establishment like stone in married life
and the joint strength to overcome one’s enemy Then
the wife frees her palms and body from those of her
husband and independently prays to the fire god “may :

my hvxsband live a hundred years, may my relations

of husband be prosperous in wealth and children”.® Then
the husband prays “may the god never separate my
:

1 This probably implies that the wife should keep fit to bear
children.
2 Im-?,tn abmanam uroha ahna iva tvarii
sthira bhava dvishantam apavadhasva
m.aoha tvarii dvishatarh adhah.
3 Me patih satarii varshani jlvatu
edhantarii jnatayo mama.
 FAMILY LIFE OF SACEAMENTS AND SACRIFICES 13

wife from my family.”^ “Oh Indra, be pleased to make

this bride bear me good children and be loving to her
husband and bring forth ten children' and the husband
as the eleventh”. “Be you the queen of my house ruling
over your father-in-law, mother-in-law, sisters-in-law,
and brothers-iu-law.” Give your heart to my under-
taking (vrata), may your heart follow mine {i.e. may we
feel, think and act in the same way), listen to my words
wholeheartedly and willingly (eka-manas), may the god
of wisdom induce you to be mindful of my interests
(madartha)”.
The nexc ceremony is known as the Uttara-vivSha
(second marriage) which consists in performing a
sacrifice and making six other prayers. “May by my
final offerings to the fire god (purnahuti) be removed (lit

1 Ha imam devo Aryaraa preto munchatu

inamutah.
2 ThL tallies wonderfully with Russia’spopulation drive.
The Soviet government have placed motherhood in the forefront
of the national life. Increased premiums are being paid for child,
bearing starting with the third child. Confinement vacations from
Work are increased to eleven weeks. Food rations are doubled
during the last three months of pregnancy and first four months of
nursing. The duty and honour of motherhood is spot.lighted by
creation of “Motherhood Medal” for mothers having five or six
children. An order of “Maternity Glory” has been created for
mothers with seven, eight or nine children, and an order of "Mother
Heroine” for mothers with ten or more children.
On the other hand not merely childless people will be required
to pay special taxes amounting to six per cent of their income but
parents wUth only one child avill be called upon to contribute one
and half per cent of their income and parents with two children one
per cent This will account for the directive of the Hindu legislators
regarding sons and successors of as many as thirteen or fourteen
kinds ei?., son begotten on wives of different c .stes, on widow, adopted
—the legitimate son of the body, the son begotten on a wife, the
son adopted, the son made, the son se -retly born of unknown father,
the son cast off (deserted by real parents), the son of an
unmarried damsel, the son received with the wife, the sou bought,
the son begotten on a re,married woman, the son self -given and
the son of a sudra female (Manu, IX, 159—160). The importance
of the son in the past and in the present time is almost the similar.
“Through a son he (father) conquers the worlds, through a son’s
son he obtains immortality, but through his s m’s grandson he gains
the World of the sun. Between a son’s son and the son of a
d .ughter there exists in this world no difference for even the son of
;

a daughter saves him in the next world like the son’s son”. (Manu
IX, 137, 139).
14 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

sec rig’bi, --amayanii) bribe’s defects (shore comings) in

the eye-brows, sockets, mouth, in the hair of the head,
in the eye- sigh c. In the shedding of tears, in the conduct
and character n'lda), in. the talk, in the smile, in the
brightness (woka) of tl\e teeth, in the hands, in the feet ;

in the chighs, in the sex organ, in the knees, in the

joints; and b.\ whaiever other un'lesiriible and terrible
(ghora) thing;- in all your limb.s -all be removed”'.

'rhereaiterthe bride and bridegroom get up and go

out and look at the star in tdie sky, and cbe bride declares
by mentloitin.g her name as the wife of her husband by
name, ‘‘Oh, the Dhruva (fixed) star,- as yon are fixed up,
I am in the like manner permanently settled down to my
husband’s family Oh, Arnndhati, like yourself, I have
;

become attached in body, mind, and words to my

hus1)aud 1 am as fixed up to my husband’s family as the
;

sky (dyauh), the earth, the whole universe, and all these
mountains,” Tins ceremony concludes with the good
-

wishes oi the Vmshand for a fidl life of the wife. The

next ceremony consists in. introducing the bride to the
regular home life. Fir.-u the husban.d and then the
wife partake of sini])'!c unexciting food (anna) as in the
course of student life (Ijrahmacharya) for three days and
nighes and sleep togecher on the ground as ir.dicated in
the conce])tion ceremony wbic'li is referrerl to below.
In the enurse of this feeding ceremony like the
clothing one referred to al>ove the husband says, “Now
I join you with me lyv •‘he fetter of food which is the
chain of bfe and soul u'.c. which keeps the body and the
sotil tcge'iher), as I have already tied your miitd and
heart by t he true kno. of marriage let your heart he
;

mina airl my 'in art yours; t'tms as food is the bond of

life I hindy('U .lierehy",
T’ttereaker 'ity ascending a car che couple go to
(heir own home. The bride is irurodneed to the family
member.-;. T'hereai ler on the fourth day the couple

1 la oert!iin laudtirn lainiUt-s wht-t-o the betrotiiai is performed

at the pre.pubercy ^tage, th'-; -econd marriage is performed within
sixteen day< after the first appearance of puberty and this ceremony
finally c insoUd .te? the union,
2 For all pra iical purposes the heavenly luminaries, the
mountains and the universe appear to the onlookers as fixed
earth, the
up, although astronomically th^se bodies move in accordance with
certain regularity.
 FAMILY LIFE OF SACRAMENTS AND SACRIFICRS 15

way of physical
perforin a sacriftce (ohaturthi-lioma) by
purification. Thereafter they begin to live as husband
and wife in the same bed but without touchirg each
other, an described under the conception ceremony
(garbhidh .na) below until they mutually decide to
cohabit and beget a child.
These ceremonies with sligiu charges here and
there still prevail over the couuiry and among all
all
communities and sect-; of the Hindus. But there are
local and sectional differences, no. with regard to the
basic custom, but with regard to parriciilars. Thus a
general induction is possible regarding the cultural values
of these ceremonie;-.- and th-? advanced state of civiliza-
tion indicated by them.
Under the forms of marriage i; has been puin.tetl
out that both the luide and bridegroom attained the age
of majority before th.^y were married. This conclusion
is further supported by tlie various ceremonies of the
pre-nuptial bath and the po.st-n.ujiGial prohibition of
sexual relatioit. The rules of abstention (bi alimaoharya)
which are to be olrserved at least for the first four nights
after the marriage and the period of student life
extending to ahoiic twenty-fi.ve years for the boys and
seventeen or eighteen for tlie girls lend fuitlier support
to this point.
The next point of importance to note is that the
ideal Hindu form, like all other civilized forms, is still a
parent made alliance hut not without some consent from
the bride. The myth of purchasing the bride under the
arsha and the nsura forms is entirely fictitious because
the so-called purchase money is returned to the bride-
groom in the former case and to the bride in the latter.
Another point of interest to note is that even in the
spiritual form the primary object of marriage is to set
up a domestic life, to satisfy natural sex instinct, to
beget children, to provide facilities, comfort and con-
venience not only of the couple but also of all other
members of the joint family. The nuptial vows freely-
made by the husband and the wife, and both expressed and
implied promises to stick to each other, nofas tlie master
and the slave, but as Mends and equal partners clearly
indicate the high cultural value and the material benefits
of Hindu marriage In normal ease there was no need
to provide for divorce and sepai'ation, but for abnormal
cases of impotency and desertion by the husband and
l6 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

the barrenness and other defects in the wife suitable

provisions were made to meet the situation without
injuring the social discipline and the national and
spiritual ideals^.
SACRAMENT8
The sacramental nature of marriage is clear from
the nupital ceremonies described above. The other com-
monest sacraments follow directly from married life.
These vary in number but they are observed in all coun-
tries and by all civilized races. Baptism of the Chris-
tians, circumcision of the Muslims and initiation of the
Hindus are well known and imply the same idea of the
formal admission of the child to the particular com-
munity and the creed. But the Hindu system looks to
the pre-natal and post-natal care of the child, its educa-
tion and settlement to householder’s duties after marri-
age. Thus the system begins with marriage and should
end in marriage. Counted from this point of view they
are popularly known as dasa-samskaras (ten chief sacra-
ments) and comprise vivaha (marriage), garbhsdhana
(conception), simantonnayana (parting or up-brushing of
hair of wife’s head by way of formal announcement of
motherhood), pumsavana (special ceremonies to regu-
late the sex of the child to be born), jatakarman (rites
observed on birth to ensure health, long life and good
character of the child), nama-karapa (naming the child),
anna-prasana (first feeding of solid food), chaula-karana
(tonsure or first hair cut), upanayana (initiation, lit.
sending to school), veda-vratas (vows of learning) other-
wise known as brahmachaiya (student's career), and
samavartana (home-return after completion of study) and
settling down to householder’s life after marriage (vivaha).
The leading schools of legislators do not, however,
agree with regard to the number of sacraments and
sacrifices. The schools of Gautama, Angirasa and
1 Nashte mrite pravrajite klive cha p p.'.tau.
'

Gautama Aiigirasa AAalayan

Sacraments and School School
School I

Sacrifices
Grihya Sutra Grihya scitra (Kalpascitrai

1. Garbhadhjiia 1 1 1
2. Purfisavana 1 1 1
 FAMILY LIFE OF SACRAMENTS AND SACRIFICES 17

Asvalayana differ regarding the total number men-

tioned in their texts The treatises of Gautama and
Aiigirasa belong to the Grihya-satra class whose busi-
ness is to deal with sacraments only, and should not
encroach vipon the field of the Srautasutras which
deal with sacrifices. The treatise of Abvakyana is
classed under Kalpa-sutra which combines the function
of the Gfihya sutra and Srantasutra and may therefore
refer to both sacraments and sacrifices. The list of Gau-
tama rightly excludes Vishriu-bali and Nishkramana as
sacraments. The four Veda-Vratas which are performed
by a student in his teacher’s hoiise and form the com-
bined duties of the student life (Brahma-charya) should
also be excluded from the list of sacraments for which the
father is responsible. Thus the sacraments proper are
ten iit number (dasa-samskara) which are traditionally
known even to day. The rest of all the three lists
are sacrifices only. Of these sacrifices numbering
twenty -six, nine, aitd nine in the three lists respectively,
Mahayajnas numbering five in Gaiitama, but unaccount-
ably one in both Angirasa and AsYakyana are but a
summary of the householder’s duties of the five
daily sacrifices The first one ( Brahmayajna ) is the
recitation of the Gayatri hymn and as such it is not a

3. Simantoiinayana...
4. Jatakarman
5 Nama-Karana
6. Vishnubali
?, N ishkramana
8 Annapr.isana
9, Chaula (da) Karaaa
or Karnavedha ...

10. . Upanayan".
11. Vedavrata
12. Samjvartana
13. Viv'ha

14. Mali.iyajnas
15, Parvaiia sraddha ..

Itj Havir yajua

17 Soma yajfia
18. Pakayajna

3
18 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

sacrifice proper which ho s to be done for the benefit of

others than the The remaining foui‘, :i-<. Devayajiia
self.
for Gods, PitTyaj a for (deceased) parents and other
relations, Manushya yaj'a for the benefii of the fellow
members of the and the Bh_tayaj'a for the
socdety,
benefit of the lower beings like animals, birds and
insec cs, are ii'i point .>1 fact detailed under Parvana,
Havis, Soma, and Paka sacrifices But the Pai’vana
is only one of the varield.es of P ka yajms only

Thus there is good deal (fi confusion in the

a,

treatises themseh'e'-, for t:\e renn.val of which an effort

hasbeen made iit (lie follow irg page-.
From mere enumeration of the ;-acj-ament?> it should
be clear that they are the demonstration of the respon-
sibilities of married life. The parents who fail to
perform the sacraments concerning the cbild are called
by Manu and others as mere begetter (janaka) and are
likened to amimals who beget children for sexual satisfac-
tion only. Unless the.se responsihilities are duly carried out
the parenthood, which is to be honoured by the child as
equivalent to heaven, religion and sacred duty^ is not
established. Apart from th.e economic principle of
give-and-take involved in the observance of sacraments,
Manu has referred to their hygienic and spiritual value :

‘the holy rites prescribed by the Veda and the ceremony

on conception and other sacro-ments sanctify the body
and purify from sin in this ili'e and after death (II 26).
‘By the study of Veda, by vows, ])y burnt oblations, by
the recitation of the sacred texts, by the acquisition of
the threefold sacred science, by offering to the Gods,
seers and manes, by t'de procreation of sons®, by the
great sacrifices, and by these sacred (h'auta ) rites this
human body is made fit for union with God (Brahman)’
(II 28).

1 Pit; svargah piti dh.u-mah pit, hi p.iratnaru tapah

Pitari pritim ,
panne pnyante .sarvadevatili
2 Spe.’ification son^ a-^ impUed by Piin'isa^ana =i,crament
of
does not exclude the daughters. Jf mu makes the point clear :

“This whole serie.s of cereinonie.s must be performed for females also

in order to sanctify the body at the pvip.-rtme md in the proper
order... The nuptial ceremony is sthel to be the Ved c se. -raraent for
women and to be equal to the imt at.on, serving the husband
equivalent to the residence in the hom-e of the teacher, and the
household dutie.s the .«nne is the d ulv w.ipshui of the sacred fire ”
(Law.s of Manu II, 66. 67),
 FAMILY LIFE OP SACRAMENTS AND SACRIFICES 19

A
brief eluoiclation of the ceremonies is necessary
in order to under stanl the value of these sacraments so
far as they concern the personal good, social discipline,
economic fairne:-s, natioiaal stability, and moral and
spiritual outlook. In order to avoid repetition, which
occurs in all the texts, duties of the stiulent life and of
householder’s life will be discussed separately under the
category of four asramas (stages) iiz., Brahmacharya,
Garhasthya, Vanaprastha, and Sannyasa. And as the
details of the marricoge have already been referred to
above the sacraments commencirg with che conception
of the child (garbh’uh na) and its prenatal and post natal
care ending at the initiation, (upanayana) need an eluci-
dation here. Garblr dh ra is impi’egnation (Manu, II, 16,
26, 14'1). The essential rites performed in ibis connec-
tion clearly show chat normally tlie sexual connection
between the husband and wife does not take place
immediately followirg the marriage ceremony, “It is
the duty of the bridegroom if he wants to cohirbit his
wife for a child to perform a sacrifice." This is the post-
nuptial sacrifice known as Kushaiuiika to be performed
according to rule on che fourth day after the puberty
preceding the conception and is, therefore, called the
fourth day function (chaturthi-karaiia)b This sacrifice
concludes with a prayer by the husband dhata garbhain :

dadhitu te (may the creator enable you to conceive),

desiring “a good progeny in genera)’’, a son and a learned
daughter as one of the texts, expressly mentions
(Brihad Upanisliad 0, 4, IT).
The next rite consi''ts in the removal of the
udumbara staff from the impiial lied, w'hieh is placed
between the husband and wife in order to prevent
physical contact until they decide to col\al)it. Before
the actual action takes plae-e a furtber rite is ol)served.
That includes s]nl]ikling of the juice of some plant
(adhyanda) or grass (durva) which fs stated to help in
the progeny. It probably excites the desire for iutereonrsi'
and may have some medical effect.

This sacrament clearly indicates that there was no

primitive selfishness, crneltv or callousness, and. uiere

1 The present dtiypra.c K-e is te perform this sacrifice

on the same day or the dtv foil iwina: the lUirriaee. Thm ^-ets tiu'
couple at liberty and provide-^ privacy and ^a\es them from
unnecessary ex^tosure.
20 INDIAN CULTUftE AND CIVILIZAIION

merital right was not enforced. Nor was there any

medieval religious bias involved. Care for mutual con-
sent and equal degree of satisfaction implies the modern
state of civilization. But the ancient custom transcends
modern development because in addition to sexual
pleasure the idea of the progeny was not lost sight of
and the child to be born was not an unwanted and un-
avoidable one. At the same time the birth control was
ingineously achieved by the observance of prohibition
for several days in the month.
The Putnsavana literally iinplies the desire for a
male child. This is in continuation of the preceding
conception ceremony. This sa,crament is performed
optionally between the third and fourth month of the-
pregnancy when the sex of the foetus takes a definite
shape. This is specifically performed to recure a male
child and need not be undertaken if one is equally happy
to get a son or a daughter. The leading text (Bfihad-
aranyaka-upanishad) gives a detailed account of the
sacrament for getting a son of which the advantages
are described in another sacred text (Aitareya Brah-
maoa, VII. 13). In these and other texts “different pro-
cesses were prescribed for having a son or daughter
with particular qualities”. Asvalayaiia (in his Grihya-
sQtra) describes the three fold rites, some of which are
religious, some magical and some purely medical.
They include the initial sacrifice (hojiia) which aims
at getting god’s blessings. Similar intention is implied
by going round the sacrificial fire (agni-pradakshina).
The wearing of garlands (maladhai’aipa) and the putting
of tortoise gall on the lap of the would-be mother
(kurmapitha) might have some magical effect. Drink-
ing of curds (dadhi-pra;)ana), injection through the nose
(nasta-vidhi), touching of the belly (spariana) and the
fruit bath (phala-siiana) are obviously the medical
devices. Further a faith-cure is adopted by the cere-
monies which include the practice of placing barley
gTains on the hands of the wife and the declaration by
the husband that this is the male organ, that is the
testicles etc. of the child to be born and to be constantly
thought of by the wife.*
1 The modern snedical "iotence lia-^ so for failed to prescribe
remedy to regulate the sex of the child to be born and we are sceptic
about the ancient prescriptions and have no patience to make an
experiment and further develop the ancie'nt scientific methods in the
light of the modern medical discoveries.
 Family life of sacraments and sacrifices 21

The next sacrament, Simanta-unnayana, literally

means the upbrushing of the hair of the head of the
mother. This is done by way of a formal declaration of
the pregnancy. The hairbrnshing is applicable during
the first pregnancy only. Another similar ceremony
is performed when the bride is taken home after mar-
riage and the husband loosens the knot of the maiden
hair (Asvalayana, 1, 7, 18).
The main purpose of this sacrament is, however,
indicated by its other desigiration, Panchamrita, five
nectar, or more generally sadha-bhakshana which means
the fulfilment (lit. eating) of the desires of a pregnant
woman. This is generally performed in the fifth or
sixth month of pregnancy when the foetus takes
shape. The ceremonies include, in addition to the
parting of the hair which is the simanta-unnayana
proper, physical decoration, music, and eating of
desired objects in company of friends. The lute
playing and singing of heroic songs (vina gsyana)
supply the craving for cheerful mind. The putting of
the wreath of udumbara flowers (of which the plant was
originally fixed in the nuptial bed to prevent physical
contact) round the wife’s neck is indicative of the
physical decoration with clothes and ornaments also,
which is a natural craving of women. It also indicates
the unrestricted company of the husband, which is also
an instinctive desire of women. The sipping of water is
similarly indicative of eating all nice things especially
those which an expectant mother wants to taste. Last-
ly the looking at the images reflected in water and to
declare by the wife to the husband, T see sons, cattle,
aiid long life of my husband’ imply the perfect mental
satisfaction.
The fulfilment of the expectant mothers desires
from the time when child takes its physical and mental
shape medically prevents the physical deformities and
the mental deficiencies of the child to be born. Most of
the defects are inherited. The ancient texts offer a
probable explanation. In this matter an experiment
whenever possible can do oirly good and no harm.
The post natal care commences with the sacrament
known as Jata-karman, the ceremonies performed on the
birth of the child. All the texts agree in the main purpose
of these ceremonies, ii., the greeting of the child by the
t

fadier and the transferring of personal iiffluence and

12 INDIAN 'culture AND CIVILIZATION

giving a ])dt or secret name, adopting measures

to keep
off evils to which the
child is ])rone to, feeding the child
and prayer for long life and good health at the end of
the preliminary sacrifice. The greeting for transfer-
rence of personal influence consisting in touching the
child's body^, smelling on the head to prevent bad luck",
breathing on the child in order to create brain
(medhajanana)^ and reciting prayer for the prosperity of
the child b The practice of giving a pet name still
continues but formerly it was kept between the parents
only. The measures adopeed to keep off evils include a
bath of the child which is a usual and hygeinic practice
and does cercainly keep off the evil of bad health tying ;

a gold band round the child’s right wrist, the medical

or magical iivcention is to make the child a piece of
solid gold (hiranyam ahmtain bhava) so that no base
metal can affect it. The next two measures which
appear to have some magical effect include the holding
of a pot of water over the head of the child and whisper-
ing over rhe ground and the mother to remove evil eye
from bad persons, ghosts, demons etc. The father had
hardly anything to do with the next ceremony of giving
the first feed to the child with honey, clarified butter
and mother's breast (stana-pratidaiia) which even now-
a-days are considered to be the best food for the newly
born child.
The i)i.':iyei’s furm part of rhe initial sacrifice
performed i'v tbt- faiher. Tlii- sacrifice is significantly
cailod aynshva. (tiiat which gives long life) and made to
the fire go(l and sylvan deities for the long life of the

1 The tran^fei'eiice of por.'on.i,! Ltifluence by touch is recog-

nised in p.ct< like lovei-h on the Ups, friend’s handshake,
devotee’s prau ina (obeisance) to the teacher by touching the feet of
the 1 tier by the f<»rehead of the former, preceptor’s touch by hands
on the disciple’s body, etc.
3 The act of smelling consists minlialing to draw into the
lung- all tlie imparities, herein called bad luck, with which the child
in .y be born. The spirit of s;teritiGe on tlie part (tf the father for the
goMil of the child can hardly be nobler than this.

3 The breathing i- an exactly .ippo-.te action of snielling

By this the father mtends to tr .nsfer to the child everything
"" good Tn
him e-pecially the brahi power as it is speciftcally stated.
_4 The last re-ort of the father for the go-td of the child L- to
pray for God’s blessings and mercy.
 .

FAMTT.Y LIFE OF SACRAMENTS AND SACRIFICES 23

child^- It is also addres^se;! to the sxin-ji’od, the goddess

of learning and the twin god- A A'iu '.o generate hraiu
in the child and known as irie<lh;ija.nana (creating of
brain) as in the ceremony of hreatixing over the child
referred to above.'- And rxltiina/cely the prayers specify
the following injxxnctioix for the physical and in-
tellectxxal perfection of the child. “Be a stone from
limb to limb”. “Sxxck long life, suck old age”. "Grow
with Ixxstre of fire (Agai)”. And xxltimately the destiny
is invoked. “May the deities of day, xxight, fortnight,
month, season, year, old age and death take charge of
the child”.
This brief accoxxxxt of the birrlx-cereniouies supplies
eixoxxgh xnaterials to enable one io judge for Ixiiuself ilxe
amount of interest the f tther u>ed to take for the welfare
of the child. Everything possible appears to have been
done not xxnder aixy compulsion but readily aixd will-
iixgly. It was
not dxte to the mere iixstixrctive love
for the child. It. was neither dxxe to th? economic
selfish motive of the primitive father in rearing up a
child chicken for the Christmcis dinner. Nor is it
actxxated by the desire of the medieval father to keep
alive a son in order to perform the oblations in the
absence of which the forefathers suffer. It was
obviously dxie to conciousness and recognition by a
highly cultxxred mind of the responsibility of the father
in bringing to life a fixtxire citizen. The sacrifices and
pleasxxre iixvolved in bringing xxp a good citizen amount
to the discharge of the debt which a civilized man
readily owns and owes to the society, to the nation and
to the state under whose ])rotection he himself has
prospered. And sxxch a nobility on the part of the
father is adequately repaid in time by the child to
whom the father is the only object of adoration.'’
1 The hymns include ‘Agniir ..yushyaih
Sa Vanaspatibhir yu<shyani
,

tend tv.i, yushy.i

Ayu«hm nta, n karonn
;

'2
Medh ini tve devah savit
Medh ini devi =ara«vati
Medh ni tve a-'viuau devau
Adhattaiiipu'hkara srajau.
3 Pit svar-ah pit dharm.al, etc. p
i
note 1. Compare “The
18,
teacher (.ch rya) is ten times more venerable tlmr.
teacher (up ihy.y,) the father a tamdred timer more than the
'

”
‘h- dSier
24 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

The birth ceremonies are a real sacrament which

purifies both the begetterand the begotten n respect of
i

both mental culture and the external civilization. To

what extent this noble ideal is reached by the in-
dividual member of the modern society is a matter tor
individual searching of one’s heart and action. The state
laws to protect the child from callous neglect of the
parents give evidence to the discreditable character
of the modern society. But no laws can enforce the
noble feelings of the ancient father.
The next sacrament is known as the ISfma-karapa or
naming of the child. The pet name given at birth is secret
one for the use of parents only but that is now-a-days
;

used by friends also as a token of affection. The proper

name is selected on the basis of the name of a sage,
deity, or forefather. There are different rules for
selecting names for the male child and the female child.
Under the intluenoe of the foreign domination, es-
pecially over the degenerated imitators, the old national
principles have been given up and we see the hybrid
combination in our names as in Tqbal Naravana,
Ivy-latf, etc.
The ceremonies include the initial sacrifice (homa),
naming proper (iiaina-karaca), tying of a gold band
round probably the left wrist (hiranya-bandhana) be-
cause the right wrist has already been similarly tied
at the birth time, and the similar repetition of touching
{abliinuir.'^hdna) and smelling (avaghrina) for the similar
purposes of transferring personal influence and remov-
ing bad luck of the child.
There appears, however, no personal purification
in this sacrament of naming. This shows more a
communal interest to retain one’s own national princi-
ple in the matter of giving a name although a rose
may equally be fragrant under any other name.
The next sacrament is Nishkramana or bringing the
child out of the nursery. This ceremony is timed at the
third or fourth month after the birth. The object is
TO get the child intiarluced and accustomed to the
mild light from the nnton and strong glare from the
tropical sun. This is a necessary precaution and
obviously hygienic, because the sudden exposure of the
child to the dazzling sun’s glare after its residence in
the darkness of the mother’s womb is likely to injure,
incurably in many cases, the eye-sight of the child,’
 FAMILY LIFE OF SACRAMENTS AND SACRIFICES 25
The imperfection and the weakness of the eye-sight
is a national loss and is mostly due to the negligence of
this early precaution.
The actual ceremonies are brief and simple. They _

consist in the usual initial sacrifice (homa), bringing

out the child to the moon first and then to the sun, and
finally making prayers to the moon god and the sun
god to keep the eye-sight of the child in a perfect
condition. After ail such pre-cautions for the preserva-
tion of the eye-sight, the sacrament of Anna-prasana
or feeding of the solid food is performed in order to
look after the teeth of the child. It is performed at
about the sixth or eighth month after the birth, just
before the teething period. The ceremonies include the
ancestral worship (abhyudayika-&fiaddha), the usual
sacrifice (homa) and prayers, and touching to the gums
of the child the dishes cooked with curds, honey,
clarified butter, rice, fish, and flesh of partridge and goat.
To these dishes the child is made accustomed to as it
grows in age.
The teeth are a more important organ than even
the eye-sight. Most of the internal and organic
diseases are ascribed by the modern science to the
defective teeth. Even the eye-sight itself is stated to be
affected by tooth-diseases. The modern practices,
particularly of the western variety, begin to spoil
the teeth before one goes beyond teens. Between
forty and fifty many have to take recourse to the
artificial teeth. In Eastern countries, specially among
those who continue to follow our ancient custom, there
is a large percentage of people who retain the healthy
teeth even at the age of eighty. The importance of this
sacrament can hardly be exaggerated.
The next sacrament is concerned with measures
to protect and enlarge the brain of the child, for which
merely god’s blessings were invoked at the^ birth
ceremony. This sacrament is known as chula or
chaula-karana or tonsure. The operation consists in the
cutting of the child’s hair on the head for the first time
and arranging them in locks called here chud^-karana.
The chuda is the tuft of hair which is left on the head
when the rest of it is cut.’‘ The practice is seen elsewhere

1 The school of Vasishtha kept the tuft on the right side

4
26 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

also. Only the free born Romans could wear uncut

hair, so also the aristocratic Lords of the British
society. Similar customs are prevalent among the
Slavonic peoples of south Europe and the Indo-Germanic
Aryans.
Thepi’eservation of the uncut hair in tufts or
in whole mass might have been due to the intention of
leaving the growing skull undisturbed so that the brain
inside may enlarge to its fullest growth. The common
practice prevalent among all the aristocratic and brainy
people of the world will warrant such a theory. But
owing to an exaggerated notion of mod.ern superiority
over the ancient, the present civilization has no patience
to examine the wisdom of the past. The tonsure
ceremonies of the Hindus or Indo-x\ryans will, however,
clearly show the precautions adopted in ancient India
to leave the growing brain undisturbed.
The ceremonies comprise a preliminary oblation,
mixing of hot and cold w-ater, rubbing of tepid
water over the head, smearing of butter on the hair to
be cut, putting of sharp kusa grass on the hair, pressing
of the razor on the hair and then cutting the hair and
bathing after the haircut. The wiping of the razor and
putting of the cut hair into cowdung are the two
subsequent functions.
If our reasonable surmise be correct the great
importance of this sacrament can easily be realised.
After the ocular and dental treatment the intellectual
treatment completes the necessary precautions for the
physical and the intellectual well-being of the child.
This will further vindicate the cultural level and the
civilized condition of the Hindus in the matter of bring-
ing up a child.
After the building up of a healthy constitution and
sharp intellect, attention is devoted to the education of
the child in an atmosphere of quiet simplicity and
affectionate discipline. For this purpose the sacrament
of upanayana or bringing the child to a selected teacher
is adopted. As this sacrament takes place along with
the ceremony of putting on the child by the father

and of Atri and Ka^yapa on both sides. The decendants of Angiras

kept five tufts. But the school of Bhrigu kept no tuft and clean
shaved the head.
 FAMILY LIFE OF SACRAMENTS AND SACRIFICES 27

uhe yajnopavita or the “sacred chord of the free man”

and furnishing it with the student’s outfit and uniform,
ri^, vastra (clothes comprising under garment and scarf),
ajina (skin cover), dapda (staff implying self protec-
tion equipments) and mekhala (girdle) implying strength
the upanayana is, otherwise, known as only the sacred
thread ceremony. This wms a common practice among
the other ancient sects also. The Parsees put on sacred
shirt, the Buddhists on yellow cover, and the Christians
on white robe. The Hindus adopted the “thread gar-
ment” probably owing to the hot climate and desire to
prevent the rise of a sense of luxury as stated in one of
the texts (Samskara Ratnamala, pp 189, 190), According
to another older text, the laws of Harita, women also
could take a similar course of study with the
accomplishment of the same ceremonies.

The ceremonies
of the upanayana proper include
asiali-purana the joint palm in the form of cup
(filling
with water by way of showing the child’s desire to
initiation), asniarohapa (ascending a piece of stone to
show the firm stand and determination), dadhipras'ana
(eating of curd in order to clear up the mind), hasta-
grahana or upanayana (bringing the child’s hand to
the teacher), paridana (giving over the child by parents)
and svikarana (the mutual acceptation by the pupil and
admission by the teacher). The other ceremonies form
part of the student’s vow of learning' and have
been inadvertently mixed up with the upanayana which
should end at handing over the child to the teacher.

This brings the child to his second birth (dvijatva).

At this birth the famous Savitri verse upon which the
twice-born (Brahmana) have to meditate daily,'^ is
considered to be the mother and the Acharya (teacher) is
the father (Manu, II. 170). This really implies that
henceforward the responsibilities of shaping a career
are transferred from the begetters to the student him-
self and to the teacher under whose charge the child is
placed. Thus with the upanayana or initiation end the
ten principal sacraments for which the parents are
directly responsible.

1 They are referred to under the Brahmacharya.

2 Rig Veda III, 62,10.
 ^

28 INDIAN CULTUEE AND CIVILIZATION

ASRAMAS
STUDENT-LIFE
The career of a student (brahmacharin) is the
first of the four stages into which the whole living
period of a hundred years is divided. The studentship
commences immediately after the upanayana or initia-
tion at the age of eight to twelve years according to
the capacity of the child to get the benefit of the
residence at a boarding school. The minimum period of
study is stated to be twelve years but it may extend to
'
forty-eight years and ma.y cover the whole life. Usually,
however, the sam?vvartana or home-returning takes
place at about the twenty-fifth year, the next twenty-
five years being allotted to the householder’s life (garhas-
thya), the third twenty-five years to the selfless national
service (vanaprastha), and the last twenty-five years
to the detached renunciation (sannyasa).
The ceremonies following the paridana (handing
over of the child to the teacher) comprise the nama-
prichha (asking the name of the child by the teacher
by way of an introduction^, aditya-darsAna (showing
the sun by way of an ideal of knowledge which is implied
in the Savitri verse), and agni-pradakshina (going toge-
ther round the sacrificial fire by way of a fellowship).
Thereafter commences the teaching proper beginning
with the ceremonies of Brahmacharya-upade&A (precepts
of student’s life), Savitri (teaching of the chief hymn
on which the student is to meditate daily), and samidh-
adhana (teaching the performance of daily sacrifice by
the student himself).
Before the precepts are delivered the teacher ties
the girdle (mekhala) round the waist of the pupil and
hands over the staff (danda) to him. These articles of
student’s uniform complete the initiation ceremony.
Thereafter the teacher addresses the pupil and explains
to him the general rules of studentship. The student
takes the oath by sipping water and promises ‘not to
sleep at day time, to remain obedient to the teacher
to study regularly (A, 1, 22, 2 S. 2, 4, 5 P. 2, 3, 2; Ka.’
; ;

2, 4), to lay firewood on the fire, that is, to perform the

daily sacrifice (B. 2, 5, 45 Bh. 1, 9), and to earn his
;

livelihood during the course of his study.’

1 The concluding item of the upanayana ceremony consists

in begging, after the father has given during the course of the
 FAMILY LIFE OF SACEAMENTS AND SACRIFICES 29

Further elucidation of the rules ot conduct

prescribed by all the leading texts are classified under
the Veda-vratas (vows of acquiring knowledge) which,
as has already been pointed out, are counted as a
separate sacrament by all the three leading schools
of Gautama, Aflgiras and Asvalayana. The Veda-vrata
it should be noted, is almost synonymous with Brahma-
charya. The vow (vrata) is equavalent to charyi
(conduct'. And Veda (knowledge) is Brahman (God)
when of all knowledge the chief one is to know god.
This is considered to be the ultimate aim (purushartha)
of all knowledge although the material advantages of
gaining knowledge of all sciences and arts were always
oniphasised by Hindu legislators as will be shown by
fhe courses of study followed and the varieties of litera -
ture which still exist.

These vows are specified by the school of Gautama

under four categories which combine all the general
rules of conduct to be observed by a student. The first
vow is on the strict observance of celebacy and sexual
chastity both in thought and in action. Thus all things
that are likely to excite the mind or body are avoided.
Although under certain circumstance sports, music and
dancing, etc., of boys and girls together at the University
stage as shown in the curriculum of the Nalanda
University were permitted, it was, however, avoided
at the earlier school stage. Anointing including the
sue of perfume, powder, lipstick, etc., were similarly
prohibited
The second vow of simplicity in food and clothes
isa further precaution to turn up a really educated and
unsophisticated member of the society. Students of all
ranks had to put on the same uniform a,nd take the
same food. This practice at the most impressionable
age generated a sense of equality, fraternity

ceremonies all things necessary for a student including clothes,

umbrella, shoes, etc. According to most of the texts (e.g A 1, 22, 6)
the student begs to meet the cost of his education. Friends and rela-
tions also make similar gifts (in money or kind at this ceremony
B. 2, 5, 48). Besides the State provides sufficient grants for the
maintenance of one.teacher homeschools to which the occasional
visitors also make liberal grants. Thus only in very exceptional
cases the students have to earn their livelihood by professional begging.
This initial injunction by the teacher is intended as a safeguard to
the teacher.
30 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

and independence. So the snobbery resulting in superior-

ity complex was not imbibed from the class-room as is
unfortunately the case in our modern system.
The third vow of perfect obedience to the teacher
used to give rise to another trait of our character
whereby a perfeci; discipline in the society could be
maintained. Those who are not properly trained to
obey can never learn to rule properly. This obedience,
however, is not equivalent to slavery. Free discussion
in order to remove difficulties was allowed between the
teacher and the pupil. In fact the system of debate
nowhere better developed than among the Sanskrit
scholars. This obedience was intended to avoid the
spirit of impertinence. In fact the devoted Hindu
students submit to the teacher’s view as an authority in
itself requiring no further reasoning.

The fourth is the chief vow of acquiring knowledge.

The process is twofold and includes self exertion and
seeking of god’s mercy. The prayer falls under two
heads, the performance of the daily sacrifice and medi-
tation upon the Sivitri hymn. When a log of wood
soaked in clarified butter is put into the blazing fire and
the flame appears before the eyes the devotee prays
thus : “I have thrown a samidh (log of wood) into the
jita-vedas (that which creates knowledge, fire) increase
with that, Oh Agni (fire, intelligence) as we increase with
Brahman (knowledge, God) I smear myself with lustre
; ;

may the fire put intelligence into me, progeny into me,
and lustre in me”. Ho higher prayer for a seeker of
knowledge is conceivable. The Savitri hymn itself ex-
presses the similar idea in a broader form: “May my
powers of understanding be expanded, I pray for that
excellent enlightening glory of the all-creating sun-
God”.^ In other words the student prays for that kind
of light as coming from the sun removes all darkness
of the world . The real object of our general education
is indeed to acquiie through the study of arts or science,
or both, the power of understanding and enlightenment
in all matters.
As has been already pointed out, the first
twenty-five years of one’s average life of a hundred

1 Savitur varenyo bhargo devasya dhinaahi dhiyo yo nali pra-

cbodayat (Rigved. Ili, 62, 10)
 FAMILY LIFE OF SACRAMENTS AND SACRIFICES 31

years are devoted to the education and study. It is laid

down in several texts and the custom still continues that
the education commences in the sixth year of the child
with the ceremony of learning alphabets both in reading
and writing with a piece of chalk. This primary edu-
cation is carried out at home for a period of three or
four years. At the age of eight or nine years the child
is sent out for the minimum period of twelve years.
Thus at the age of about twenty years the secondary
education is completed. Thereafter a period of five
years is spent at the University for higher study and
in acquiring professional skill not only in priestcraft
but also in ijrofessions like medicine and surgery.
Those who intend to prosecute further study and research
may continue till the forty-eighth year. But one
must marry before the appearance of grey hair gene-
rally after the age of forty-eight.
Incidentally a brief reference may be made to the
courses of study at the primary, secondary, and univer-
sity stages.^ Generally after learning the alphabet at
home boys were introduced at primary school to Sabda-
vidya ( learning of words ) which literally means
phonology and implies mainly grammar. The object
Was to impress at the outset upon the boy’s mind “the
idea of scientific method, order, principle and system of
rule.’’ Through the study of grammar, the inevfitable
cramming of the rules of grammar, however, might have
injured the raw brain and created a distaste for study.
But the ancients contrary to the fourth vow of student-
ship to understand things laid greater importance to
memorising than to understanding of all subjects.'*
After acquiring the necessary knowledge of language
and literature following the study of grammar one
had to study the Hetuvidya or logic which develops the
reasoning faculty, and Silpavidya or science of arts

1 There appears to have been some 84,000 primary schools at

the time of Kin^ Asoka (vide Bauddhapitha by S. Barua p. ix). There
were big secondary colleges at Bodh.Gay.i, Sanchi, Bharhut, Sravasti
Kausambi, Sarnath, Mathura, Nasika, mar.ivati, Nagarjunikunda,
Jagayyaketa, Kanchipura, Kaneripeta, Madura and other places.
There were wellknown universities of Taxila in the north.west
Valabhi in Gujarat in the west, Nalanda and Vikramasila in
Bihar, and Odantapun, Jagaddala, Somapuri and Vikramasila in
Bengal.
Avrittih sarva.sastranam bodh^dapi gariyasi.
32 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

and crafts which inculcates in students an aesthetic

sense and practical skill in construction regarding
symmetry, proportion, and beauty. After this general
education students were taught some professional and
technical subjects like the Ayurveda or chikitsa-vidya
(medicine and surgery), astronomy, mathematics, Astra-
vidya (archery) or Dhanurveda (bowmanship), Smritisas-
tras, Arthabsstras, etc. The usual number of Vidyas
(subjects of learning) were fourteen including the four
Vedas (scriptures), aagas (sikshT, kalpa, nirukta,
chhandas, jyotisha and grammar), dharraa (rules of
conduct) mimamsa (oheology), tarka or nyiya ( logic )
and pur pas (history and mythology). Although theo-
logy was a compulsory subject even at the university
stage the adhyatma vidya (philosophy or science of uni-
versal soul for the attainment of the supreme knowledge)
could be taken up only by a fevv specially endowed
with necessary inclination and attainments.'
‘Physical exercises were included in the carriculam
not merely to provide diversion from serious study but
with an express object of keeping the body and mind
of the scholar fit^.

1 Mr. H. D. Sankalia in his ‘University of Nalndi’ has drawn

up a time table from the ancient texts. At the primary stage boys
learnt alphabets at the age of 6 years, elementary grammar and Siddha
composition at 8, scitras of P. nini at 10, books on three Khilas including
details of grammar and composition at 13, “laws of the universe and
regulations of gods and men” including elementary sciences, history,
and mythology at 15, “Composition in verse and orose” at 16, for four
years logic, metaphysics, Vedas, Vedingas, at 20 specialization in one
of the professional vidy..s like medicine etc. and at 23 for two years
some research work and art of writing and new approach to a subject.
2 A list of games from the chullavagga (1, 13, 2) has been
quoted which includes besides dancing with ladies, “games
with eight pieces and ten pieces, tossmg up, hopping over diagrams
formed on the ground, and removing substance from a heap
without shaking the remamder games of dice and trapball
; ;

sketching rude figures, tossing balls, blowing trumpets, having

matches at ploughing wicb. niini'c ploughs, tmkling, farming, mimic
windmills, shooting marbles with fingers, guessing measures, having
chariot races and archery matches, guessing other people s thoughts
and mimicking other people’s acts, elephan.triding, horse.riding,
carriage driving and swordmanship ; to run to and fro in front of
horses and in front of carriages, to exhibit signs of anger, to wring
hands and to wrestle, and to box with fists ;
and spreading out robes
as a stage and inviting girls saying ‘here you may dance, sister and
greeting her with applause”.
 —

FAMILY LIFE OF SACRAMENTS AND SACRIFICES 33

The aim of education was “to unfold the capacities

of the student through proper means in order to make
his life full of meaning for him as well as for the
society’’^ The vows of Brahmacharya laid the founda-
tion of all round education, material, mental and moral.
The results of the curriculum are shown by the wide
range of extant literature in Sanskrit, P^li, and Prakrit",
and an all round progress made by the Hindus in their
social, political, and moral life to which references are
made in the following chapters.
The Samavartana (home-return) is considered as a
separate sacrament. The onh ceremony referred to is,
however, merely a bath. It corresponds to the present
day convocation ceremony. But the hath seems to pro-
vide an opportunity for pilgrimage or sight-seeing
which aims at offering an opportunity to gain an
experience of men and things Thus well equipped the
students return home and marry at their own responsi-
bility as is clearly shown by the forms of marriage
referred to above.

House'.iold life in ancestral home

The second Asrama or period of life covering the age

from twenty-six to fifty years is known as G.U’hasthya
(householder’s life) It commences with the marriage
shortly after the home-return (samavartana) alter the
completion of study and travel as pointed out above. The
young graduate marries according to his own choice. The
four normal forms of marriage, as already explained,
satisfy the ideal and requirements of the bachelors of
all inclination which must have developed during tiie
course of their study and travel. Whichever form
spiritual (brahma), divine (daiva), sagely (srsha) or
human (manusha) - one chooses in getting a partner of
his household life, he is required to perform jointly with
his wife certain periodical social and public duties in
addition to the private and personal duties towards
husband and wife and towards the children. The duties
other than the personal ones are significantly called

1. For further elucidation see the writers’ article ‘universities

of India’ Allahabad University Studies 1935-6, pp. 51.61, Twentieth
century, July, 1935, Modern lieview, .August 1935, pp. 209.210).
2. See Para I, p, 28,

5
34 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

sacrifices (yajiias) of various kinds. Those which are

performed in a small scale as a daily routine are known
as five common (hit great) sacrifices ; the other done
occasionally are known as paka, parvana,Havis and Soma.
On the basis of the special objects of offering the sncri-
ficos are classified as Anna-yaj'ia, Soma-yajea and
Pasu-yajna where the chief objects of offeriiig are
respectively grains (anna), wine (soma) and flesh (pasu).
Thus the combined duties of Householder are the sacra-
ments and the sacrifices.
The' parental duties towards the children have been
elaborated under the pre-natal and post-natal sacraments
commencing with the conception (garbhadhana) and end-
ing at the initiation (upanayana). The other conjugal
duties are elaborated under the marriage ceremonies
(vivaha). The members of the family for whose main-
tenance, comfort and convenience the head of the family
is responsible include, in addition to the wife and
children as Kautilya has specified (Arthasastra Book II,
Chap. I, 48) mother, father, minor brothers, unmarried
sisters, widowed and helpless girls. The wives and
children of the helpless brother and sisters as also
servants are considered as members of a joint family.
The conditions of living in a joint families are fourfold.
The members of these seveial family forming one joint
family are required to live in the same abode or pre-
mises, to partake of the food cooked in the same kitchen,
to share the common property and to profess the same
faith and religion. On behalf of the m embers the head
of the family accepts and despatches invitation, con-
ducts law-suits, and performs all other duties of a solici-
tor. He has to be obeyed by all the members and in
return for that he must be strictly impartial. He is
compelled to resign if he fails in his duties and obliga-
tions. Similarly an undesirable member may be turned
out of the family. His wife acts on his behalf in looking
after the female members and household duties. The
head of the family is also the owner of the family pro-
perty. But the individual memhers can possess not
only cattle,_ weapons and jewels, hut even land. Each
father forming the joint family has the right to distri-
bute his goods among his children, and land in parti-
cular may be distributed differently in successive
generations. The growth of the apparently cumbrous
system of a combination of several families was
 FAMILY LIFE OF SACRAMENTS AND SCARIFiCES 35

necessitated by the exigency of the Aryan migration

and settlement in India. The mutual safety and security
of the early settlers were well provided by the assemblage
of a number of homogeneous families with a clear
understanding and advantages. The benefits of living
in a large famiy include the safety and security of all
the members. For the good of a single member the
whole family fights against an enemy, a disease or
disability. This system further generated the habit of
accommodating oneself for the common weal and
peacefully gave rise to the benevolent monarchical
system in the field of economics, politics and religion.
The system of joint family indicates clearly the germ of
the individual liberty under the sovereignty of the head
of a state, which is the chief aim of the modern civilized
form of government. The generous cultural condition
of the mind is also clearly indicated by this system.
The smaller selfishness, not exactly of the primitive
type, involved in the system of single family consisting
of husband, wife and unmarried children, began to make
its appearance along with the expansion of the society
and the firmly established system of government and
mostly in imitation of the foreign custom with certain
obvious advantages of personal enjoyment of a conple.

SACRIFICES
The social and public duties of the householder*
come under two categories, daily and occasional. They
are described under four groups of sacrifices (yajna) in
the true sense of the term.

The group of five comprises the Brahma-yajna,

first
Deva-yajfia, Pitri-yajna, Manushya-yajria, and Bhata-
yajtia. The first of these is a mere prayer made by the
recitation of the Savitri hymn which is designated here
by the generic epithet of brahma which means the vedic
hymn. The savitri hymn to which one is first initiated
at the initiation (upanayana) sacrament and on which
one has to meditate during the whole course of the
student life is continued to the househo'd life. As
has already been explained it provides one with the

1. Adhyapana ii brahma.yajnah pitri.yajnastu tarpanaiii Homo

devo bahir bhuto nri.yajnu’tithi-pujanarfi.
'6i? INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

strength of mind which naturally follows fro n seeking

god’s mercy to get the enlightening excellent lustre of
the all-creating sun god and the power of intelligence
and understanding for the successful performance of
a house-holder’s responsible duties of various kinds.
Next tothis highest creator, the gods who are
the manifestations of the various aspects of the
creator are prayed by making the offering of melted
butter t^> the fire, the carrier of oblations. This offering
is made jointly by the husband and wife as long as
they are alive and able to keep alive the nuptial fire.
When one of the couple dies this nuptial fire is used
in burning the dead body. The romantic idea of joint
daily duty of a married couple can hardly be better
demonstrated. The details of this deva-yajna or sacrifices
to god are elaborated under the Paka, Havis and Soma
sacrifices.

The Pitri-Yajnas are the oblations (tarpana) of

water and offering of cooked and uncooked food made
daily to the manes or spirits of the deceased ancestors.
This an instance of the habit of ancestral worship.
is
One who cannot discharge one’s debt to his parents by
remembering and invoking them in this manner can
hardly think of the creator of everything. In fact the
faith in God starts from such practice of parental
worship. Besides the performance of the daily oblation
a significantly called tarpana or the deed which gives,
pleasure (to the forefathers) includes various kinds of
b'raddhas or gifts m ade to the manes, the priests, and the
needy out of sraddha or esteem for the deceased ancestors
on the death, daily, moirthly, annually, and on special
occasions. The details of these sacrifices are elaborated
especially under Paka-yajnas
The householder is enjoined, as a purification,^ to
perform the funeral ceremony o^ the parents and family
members. The antyesh(i (lit. the last sacrifice) is
performed at the time of burning the dead body.
Thereafter the period of funeral impurities
until
(asaucha over on the tenth day after death in case
is
of BiMhmanas, the fifteenth day in case of Ksbatriyas,
the twentieth day in case of Vaisyas, and the thirtieth

1. The f uneral rites are not reckoned as sacrament by the school

oi’ Gaut ana
 ii’AMlLY LIFE OF SAORAMENTS AND SACRIFICES 3?

day in Gas3 of sudras, a daily oblation is made. The

process consists in an offering from bamboo vessels
which are kept standitig in a river or a pond close to
the funeral pyre and filled with milk and water. Along
with this daily oblation offering is also made to the
spirit of the dead (preta) of sanctified rice-balls known as
poraka pinda (food that fills up). This is aimed at
joining up (puraka) a sort of limbs like the arms, legs,
head, etc., to the limbless and floating (vayubhuta)
spirit in order to transform it into a mano or fatlier
(pitri). Until the disintegrated spirit assumes the
position of mane it is' not entitled to share the offerings
made periodically and on special occasions to the
forefathers. Those for whom these funeral ceremonies
(antyeshti) are not duly performed remain as floating
and evil spirits (preta) and haunt the blood relations
(sapindas) whose duty and privilege are to give shelter
to the dead and inherit his earthly property in return.
Thus the funeral rite “ feeds the ghost and prevents it
from dying again or dissolving.” The physical conti-
nuity of the soul after the death and decay of the body
is maintained in this way in Hindu belief.
After this antyeshti the first regular service
(sraddha) done for the dead is known as ekoddishta
which takes place on the eleventh day in case of
Brahmaipas, sixteenth day in case of Kshattriyas,
twenty-first duy in case of Vaisyas, and thirty-first
day in case s'udras. During the first year after
death similar services are performed at the interval
of a fortnight (pakshik a sraddha) or a month (mssika-
sraddha), or two months (dvai-mjsika) or three months
(traimasika). At the end of the first year a
special service is performed which is known as sapindi-
karaca (joining up the spirits). Until this is performed
an individual spirit cannot enter into the family of the
blood relations (sapinda) of the manes (pitri). This
family group of manes is entitled to share the service
made to any member by the relations left behind. These
services are funeral rites proper. Thereafter annual
services (vatsarika bhaddha) are performed on the
anniversary of the death. As a year of the mortal is
equal to a day of the immortal, the spirits get the daily
offerings in this way.
These special occasional services are of two varie-
ties. The parvaya-A'iiddhas are performed at the time
of parvana or special occasion srich as pilgrimage, eclipse
r58 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

etc. The other group is known as kamya (desired),

abhyudayika (prosperous) and vriddhi (progressive) and
are performed on the occasion of sorre joyous ceremony
such as marriage and post-natal sacraments.
The invocation of the ancestors along with prayers
for god’s mercy imply a noble state of cultural belief and
a civilized form of gratitude to those who do not for-
mally make demand for the discharge of one’s debt.
The fourth of the householder’s daily sacrifice is
known asManusha-yajfia (charity towards human
beings). This is the daily hospitality to be shown to
guests other than the relations who form the joint
family. These guests are generally Brahmapa travellers
(parivrajaka), Buddhist monks (sramanas), Jaina mendi-
cants (ajivikas) and such other religion-seekers and
helpless beggars who do not earn for their own mainte-
nance. Thus the individual families of house-holders
served as a sort of alms houses and charitable homes
and relieved the state of the responsibility of making
separate provision for such people. It is emphasised
that all the four asramas (students, householders, retired
people and mendicants) could exist because of these daily
sacrifices of the householders they are like air without
;

which no creature can sustain life. ^ No easier solution

of the problem of feeding the un-earning people can be
thought of. The institution of dharmasala (charitable
homes) appears to have grown out of foreign imitation
by the well-to-do people. But this does not exonerate
the house-holder, rich or poor, from the duty of showing
hospitality to mankind as a daily routine work. Thus
at the Paka, Havis and Soma sacrifices the feeding of
the invited and uninvited guests and hospitality towards
mankind is invariably an essential function of which
further details will be found under those sacrifices.
The last of the great five sacrifices is known as
Bhiita-yajrta (charity towards animals, birds, and insects).
The object is to offer food daily to all created beings
including cows, bulls, tame birds, ants and insects.”

1. Yath.i vjyuiii saiiii^'ritya vartante sarve janlavah.

Tatha grihastham asritya vartante sarve asTamai.i.
2, These five sacrifices Brahma, Deva,^Pitri, Manushya, and
Bhuta— are otherwise known respectively as Ahuta, Huta, Prahuta,
Brahma.huta and Prasita (Manu, III. 73) ; elsewhere they are called
Vaisvadeva, Hoina, Balikarinan, Nitya.sraddha, and Atithi.bhojana,
 FAMILY LIFE OF SACRAMENTS AND SACRIFICES 39

Along with all the Taka, Havis and Soma sacrifices this
function is also observed.

The house-holderis expected to respect life wherever

it maybe and to assist in the continuance of god’s
creation. The philosophical idea involved in this cus-
tom is praiseworthy. But it does not offer any solution
of the problem that the stronger life lives on the weaker
ones. If the life in animals, birds, and insects has to be
respected why the life in plants and vegetation on which
even the vegetarian have to live should be neglected.
The scientists have shown that plants have not only
life but also sensation like the animals. The system,
however, seems to provide an easy means to avoid
cruelty to animals. It indicates the natural compassion
of a cultured mind and the generous act of the civilized
people.

There are three other sets of sacrifices (yajfias)

included in the lists quoted above, which are performed
by the householder periodically andonspec'al occasions.
According to the school of Gautama, Aegirasa, and
Asvalsyana the first group, known as Paka yajfia com-
prise seven varieties. The other two sets, namely,
Hat'ir-yajitas and Soma-yajiias, are excluded by the two
later schools but are included in the list by Gautama
and described under seven varieties each. The Paka-
yajrtas are properly the offering of the cooked (paka)
food to the manes and as such would be an extension
or elaboration of pitri-yajiia which is one of the five
great daily sacrifices prescribed for the house-holder.
The Havir-yajfias are the offering of melted butter (havis)
to the fire for the gods. As such it would be an
elaboration of the deva-yajna which is also one of the
five great sacrifices performed by the house-holder
daily as a compulsory duty. he Soma-yajnas are the
1

great festivities to be hel by the rich people only, once

I

or twice and not more than thrice during the whole of

the house-holders’ career of twenty-five years. At this
festivity intoxicant juice of soma plant, which is a
kind of wine, was freely offered and drunk both by the

Paraiskara (Grihyasutra, VI, 1, 4, 1) explains huta as the sacrifice

in the morning and evening, shuta as pilgrimage to holy places,
prahuta as feeding birds of sacrified food, and pras'ita as feeding
Brahmanas, Asvelavana, G. S II, 3) explaias huta as parvana shaddha,
prahuta as recitation of vedas, br^hmahuta as feeding of the guest,
40 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

and the uninvited visitors. The giving

invited guests
of aims and feeding of the poor and the lower being
forms part of all tlie sacrifices. Thus the Maiiusha-
yajya and Bhuta-yajaas are more elaborately performed
along with the Paka, Havis, and Soma sacrifices.
Paka-yafias or offerings not only of cooked (pika) food,
but also of husked rice, cakes, etc. as well as clarified
butter and even flesh are sacrificed to the fire.^ These
are offered both to the manes (pitfi) as well as to the
gods (deva); The seven varieties of this sacrifice are
konwn as Sraddha or lupdadana. The Ashtaka which
is performed on the eighth day of the black fortnight
of the months of Pausha (January’' and February),
Magha (February-March) and Phalguna (March- April)
Par van a at every full and new moon day Sravani at :

the full moon of Sravana (July and August) and the

offerings specially made to snakes which become pre-
valent at that time, and also to the fire (agni) AhVayuji ;

on the full moon day of Asvina (September and October)

herein offerings of cooked food are made to god Siva
under the names Paspupati, Siva, Sankara and Pristaka ;

Agralnyairl or Nava-yajna on the full moon day of the

month of the year, Marga sirsha (November-December) ;

herein offerings of milk and new rice is made to the gods

Indra, Agni and others and chaitrl on the full moon
;

day of chaitra (March- )pril) herein offerings are ;

made to the god Vishnu, Brahmauas and relations

(sapiniias) are specially fed on this occasion.^ Three
more sacrifices are added to this list which are known
as sits for offerings to the ploughed furrow (sita) Indra ;

on full moon day of Bhadrapada (August and September)

is specially invoked Sulagava or Isnnabali on the full
:

moon of Marga-sirsha (November and December)

wherein the flesh of ox (gava) and cooked rice are offered
to the god Tsana (Siva) ^

1. The fire is collectively knuwn as grihya because the house,

holder kindled it at the tune of marriage at the bride’s house and
transferred permanently to his own house for his dally sacrifice.
The four vanefies of this agni (fire) known as avasthya (estab-
lished,) aup.isana (for prayer), ^ud laukika (customary) or smnria
(traditional'.
2. Gautama VITI, 19 ;Asv. 1 Para 11, 14 Gobbil, IIT,
; ;

1, 1.23 ;
Hank. iv. b") ;
Dhar 11, 1 Ap. XVIII, 5,12.
;

3. Vaik iv, 3, Gobh, IV, 4, 27 Para. II 5, Baudhayana

:

G, siitra 11, 7,
 FAMILY LIFh] OF SACRAMENTS AND SACRIFICES 41

The group of the seven or ten Paka sacrifices

first
importance to the householder and is invari-
is of special
ably performed by all Hindus even at present. Another
reason for its performance is that the succession to
ancestral property depends on the performance of the
occasional service (fi’addha) to the forefathers. These
services (bh-addha) rather than sacrifices are described
under two sets known significantly as Asrumukha-
(mourning) on the sad occasion of death as well as
periodically and Nandimukha (rejoicing) on the happy
occasion of marriage, first feeding of the child (anna-
prasana) and initiation (upanayana), etc.

The first of mourning services (u’addha) is known

as anyesbti or the last service performed at the time of
burning the dead body. he second known as ekoddishta
I

is peidV-rmed after a period of mourning or the

funeral impurities lasting ten days for Brahmanas,
fourteen for Kshatriyas, twenty for Vaisyas, and thirty
for Sadr as. The third is called masika (monthly) because
it is performed on the day of death every month for
the first year only. The foiirth funeral service is known
as sapindikarana which is performed on the first anni-
versary of the death in order to bring to the family
of the manes (pitri) the spirit of the one who died a
year ago ;
without this one has to remain excommuni.
cated.

These funeral rites “feed the ghost and prevents it

from dying again or dissolving. The offerings made
secure for the dead non-redeath (amrita)”. Thus for
the “cult to be kept un for ever” the fifth variety known
as Vatsarika sraddha or annual service is performed
on the anniversary of death. For this essential work
a male descendant is necessary for all Hindu fathers.
Thus in the absence of a naturally born son the Hindu
father was provided to have one of ihe thirteen or
fourteen kinds of male descendants as specified above.

The rejoicing services (nandimukha) are variously

called as kamya (invoking blessings of ancestors^
abhyudayika (for prosperity), and vriddhi (for progress).
For achieving success (knma) in household life for
instance the Kamya service may fittingly be performed
at the time of the marriage. Similarly for the progress

6
42 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

of the child the Vriddhi service may be performed

at the time of the first feeding (annapraiana) of
the child- And at the commencement of the student
career the Abhyudayika service may be preformed. All
these services, it should be noted, are preformed by the
parents of the bride and bridegroom, the husband of the
bride, and the father of the child to be fed or educated.
That IS, the persons for whose benefit the ancestors are
invoked do not perform these services themselves.
Havir-yajnas are offerings consisting of clarified
butter, milk, grain, liquor and flesh collectively called
havis ;
they are made to the fire ' for the gods. These
sacrifices are, thus, the elaboration of Deva-yajna
mentioned along with the five dailv sacrifices (pancha-
mahayajnas). But they have three aspects which are
classified under three categories. It is Ishii when
the sacrifice is preformed jointly by the householder and
his wife together with four priests^ for good (ishti)
of the family. It is Palu when an animal (paiu) is
sacrificed and
;
Soma when the offerings consist chiefly
in liquor (soma). There are seven varieties of the
Havir-yajiias. The first one is known as Agnyadheya
which consists in establishing of the three sacred fires
and takes two to three days in collecting the fire wood
(arapi), kindling the fire by rubbing, and establishing the
fires and finally making the offerings to the gods for the
good (ish;i) of the family. The second is known as
Agnihotra which the householder and his wife has to
perform daily twice, in the morning and evening, by
making offerings to the fire already permanently
established.® The third is called Darsa-purnamsa as it is
performed at the new moon (darsa) and the full moon
(puma-misa). Offerings of cake (purodasa) are made to
Angi and Soma, and also known as Pinda-pitri because
on those occasions offerings of powdered rice ball (pinda)
are made to the manes (pitri) it covers two days for the
;

purformance of the chief function and the minor rites of

feeding Brshmanas etc. This is thus the elaboration of
the Pitfi-yajna of the Pancha-maha-yajna group.

1 Thefire is known as G.irhapatya, Ahavamya and Dakshina.

2. Adhvaryu, Agn idhara, Hotri, and Brahma.
3. The authorities do not include this under Ishti, Pasu or
Soma, as is considered a compulsory da ly duty. But it may be
considered an ishti without the assistance of the extra priest.
 FAMILY LIFE OF SACRAMENTS AND SACRIFICES 43

The fourth is known as Chaturmasya because it is

performed at the fourth month on the full moon day of
Phalguna (February & March), Ashadha (June & July),
and Kartika (Oct.-Nov.X At this sacrifice special
offering of purodafe'a or cake (baked on eight potsherds) is
made to the firegod Agni, of charu or milk rice to the
plant god Soma, of cake (baked on twelve potsherds) to
the Sun god Savitri, of milk-rice to the goddess of speech,
Sarasvati, and of ground rice to the god of cultivation,
Pushan. This is of the ishti type. Ix can also be of
Pas'u and Soma type when flesh and wine form the
special offerings.
The fifth is known as .4grahayana as it is performed
at the commencement of the simmer solstice (21st,
June) and winter solstice (21st. December) with the
seasonal rice, barley and fruits, etc. It is ishti as it is
done for the good of the family at these periods.
The sixth is known as the Pasu-bandha because at
this sacrifice an animal (pasu), generally a goat, is killed,
either at the sacrificial site (agni-somiya) or outside
(nirudha). The offerings of flesh is .specially made by
six priests to the gods Agni, Soma and otheis. It is per-
formed at the new and the full moon once or twice a year.
The seventh is known as Sautramani. Herein
also the offerings of milk, rice, etc., and flesh (pas'u),
wine (sura) are made to the gods, AsVinau, Indra, and
Sarasvati by the six priests. Thus it also covers the
three aspects of ishti, pasu, and soma. As many as
five animals are killed at Sorna fornt of this sacrifice.
Soma-yajfias are gi’eat festivities, so called, because
the distinctive feature was the distribution of wine
(soma) to the visitors. The other common features are
the sacrifice of animals, chanting of musical hymns, and
saying of prayers in chorus. These are performed at
the end of the year (Manu, iv. 22) but not more than
thrice in one’s lifetime. These are forbidden for those
who are not rich enough. It is expressly laid down
(Manu XI, 7.10) that “he ivho may possess a supply of
food sufficient to maintain those dependant on him
during three years or more than that is w'orthy to drink
(distribute) the soma juice. But a twice born^ who

1 It is only Brahmanas especially the Kshatriyas who can

perform these costly sacrifices of which the Rijasuya and A.sVamedha
^re limited only to the kings.
44 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

nevertheless drinks tne soma juice does not derive any

benefit from that act. If an opulent man is liberal
towards strangers, while his family lives in distress, that
counterfeit virtue will first make him taste the sweets
of fame, but afterwards make him swallow the poison
(of punishment in hell). If a man does anything for the
sake of his happiness in another world, to the detriment
of those whom hr- is bound to maintain, that produces
evil results for him, both while he lives and when he
is dead.”
The Devayajnaof the Patcha-mahayajna group is
elaborated here. It has seven usual varieties and two
or three special ones. The first one is known as Agnish-
toma because the firegod (Arni) is specially invoked. In
it sixteen priests officiate, one animal is killed, twelve
chants and twelve invocations (stoma, praise) are made.
The second one is known as Atyagnishtoma because
in it one addition (ati) is made
to every item excepting
the priests. Thus there are thirteen chants, thirteen
invocations and three animals are killed, and there are
usual sixteen priests.
The third one is known as Ukthy a because invoca-
tion or praise (uktha) of the god Agni is emphasised
here- In it also sixteen priests take part, two animals
are killed, fifteen chants aiid fifteen invocations are made.
The fourth one is known as Shodasin because the
sixteen (sbodasa) priests, sixteen chants and sixteen
invocations are emphasised here. In it three animals
are killed. It lasts for a day
The fifth one is called Viijapeya because its purpose
is to demonstrate one's strength Ivajas). Here also the
sixteen usual priests officiate. There are seventeen
chants, seventeen invocations and sacrifice of seventeen
animals for the god Prajipati (creator). It also lasts
for seventeen days. And seventeen cups of wine (soma)
are given to each guest. It is performed in autumn by
a Brahman a or Kshatriya for overlordship.
The sixth one is called Atiratra because it ends at
late at night (atiratra), generally at the dead of night,
thus covering a day and night. In it the sixteen priests
make twenty-nine chants, twenty-nine invocations and
kill four animals of which the fourth is a sheep.
The seventh is known as Aptoryama which may
emphasise a whole day and night festivity for the purpose
 FAMILY LIFE OF SACRAMEI>IT3 AND SACRIFICES 45

of gaining (apta) one’s desired name and fame. Thus

it is other Ause known as Jyotis'iuoma because the in-
vocation (stoma) is made here for one’s glory (jyotis).
In it the sixteen priests make thirty-tliree chants,
thirty-thi'03 invocation and kill four animals. Accord-
ing to certain authorities the gradually increasing
figures, 13, 13, 15, 16, 17, 39, and 33 also imply that each,
guest was presented with gold, cloth, ring, seat, etc.,
each item numbering as many as these figures imply.
In all these festivities visitors were entertained
sumptuously with food and drink.
In addition to these seven soma sacrifices there are
at least two more great and special sacrifices combining
ishti, p_asu and soma. They were performed by the
great xxshatriya kings Rahasuya is the great sacrifice
which was performed at the coronation of a king. It
extends over two years and commences in spring. The
ordinary offerings, killing of animals, anl distribution
of wine (soma) are the usual function. The primary
obiect is to celebrate one’s paramount power. The
subordinate kings who have been conquered have to
present themselves and make presents and homage by
way of showing their subordination. The ordinary
festivities like dice-playing, eating, drinking, etc ,
are
observed. Presents are also made to the priests and
guests.
Asvauiedha or the horse sacrifice is the most
celebrated one. It also commences in spring and lasts for
a year. Ig also combines ishd offeriiigs, flesh (pasu) and
wine (soma). Its main object is to establish snzeraiiity
over the conquered and formally nncouqumed kings. A
horse was let loose followed by an army lo wander abrut
for a year and whoever did not acknowledge the
.

suzerainty had to op mse the horse and fight the army

until defeated. This particular horse wat sometimes
not immolated but kept bound during the ceremony.
In latter times its efficacy was so exaggerated that a
hundred sued sacrifices entitled the sacrificer to displace
Indr a (king of gods) from the dominion of svarga
(heaven). Kings who engaged in it had to spend
'^normous sums in gifts to the Brihmanas and guests’.

,1 ‘For turther details o' FJea. Havis and Soma sacrifices see
the Srauta sntras of Katy.iyaiia, Atlvalayana, Baudhfiyana, .^pastamba)
Gautama, S inkliyayana and Gobhila, and tlie Aitareya Brchmana.
46 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

The luxuries involved in all these soma sacrifices

are further indicated by a common ceremony known as
agni-chayana (gathering of sacrificial fires). It refers
to the construction of fire-altars. This construction of
the altars seems to have been based on sound scientific
principles and was probably che beginning of the sikhara
(spherical dome) of the later Hindu temples Of the
five fold daily offerings of a householder three (Brahma,
Deva, Pitri) refer to the supernatural forms of life and
two (man and lower creatures' to the forms of life which
we can see with our eyes. The reality of the former of
these two groups of life can be understood by ordinary
intellect through a process of reasoning. ‘They fall out
of the horizon of human knowledge when the men of
modern science and philosophy reveal the whole life and
existence with their telescopes, microscopes and other
apparatus’. But in India of the past they have been
known ‘to the inner intelligence, perceived by the super
sense developed by subtilization and sublimation of the
natural senses’. It appears that this idea was recorded in
scriptures elsewhere also as Sir Oliver Lodge records the
strange communication of Raymond Madame H. P.
Blavatsky of Russia who founded the Theosophical
Society also revealed to the world of thinking men ‘that
the upper layers of the aero etheral sky and the regions
beyond them are all populated by communities of
mysterious persons who live on higher planes of con-
sciousness and possess far greater capacities of thought
and action and who are not subject to evils and ailments
of miserable living’. 1 he ancient Indian seers, sages and
saints knew their superhuman orders of beings and held
communication with them, sought their influences and
worshipped the beneficial ones among them for power
and purification.

According to these authorities the divinities, deities

and spiritsare not imaginary beings. The gods and
goddesses we hear and talk of are ‘real, veritable, living
beings, persons possessing powers of all degrees,
individualized forces, natural, supernatural and celestial.’
But they have got many differences and distinction
among them, of nature, character, position, function,
occupation and dwelling. One group is free and divine’
being independent of all forces and in perfect harmony
with the Highest, Of the other group of divinities one
 ‘

FAMILY LIFE OF SACRAMENTS SACRIFICES 47

sub-class ‘administer the governments (like executive

officer of the god Almighty) of the worlds of nature, of
men and animals. The portfolios of Providence respon-
sible for the management of the affairs of the world are
held by Indra, Siirya (sun), / gni (fire), Varuna (water.god)
Kubera (god of wealth), Marut (air) and many others.
The Prajapatis (creators or progenitors) including the ten
sages like Marichi, Atri, Daksha and others possess the
rights and privileges of living in the various heavens
though not taking particular parts in the world-adminis-
tration. The demigods like Gandharvas, Kinnaras and
others differing from the Gods in the ways of life and
faculties and functions form the celestial artist classes.
The Jiva or embodied spirits who are subject to Karma
and undergo rebirth for mthe fourth category and are
the presiding and ruling deities of the various kinds of
terrestrial, super-terrestrial and sub-terrestrial indivi-
dual lives.’

There a different category of ‘preter-natural

is
creatures that are gross, grotesque and grim and even
gruesome, known as ghosts and goblins and evil spirits
in general that haunt sepulchres, cemeteries and other
places, dolorous and dreadful. There are also stated to
be realities of disagreeable hyper-physical life forming
a dark department of the weird world of nature.’

There are many kinds of other rare natural beings

‘some of whom as known are fairies, flights of whom
are to be found in every country, differing in forms and
characteristics of life in different countries as held by
the Theosophists.’ There are thus ‘natural beings of
exquisite structural composition including the sylphs
that dwell in the atmosphere like invisible birds, the
salamanders that live in the flaming fire, the nymphs
and naiads that have their homes in brooks and
fountains the hamadryads that find their dwellings in
insides of trees, the gnomes that move freely in rocky
strata of earth.’

‘The super-human, super-terrestrial, and super sen-

suous beings are not necessarily super-uatuaal. In fact
‘the denial of superhuman beings should go side by side

1. Vide Divinities Deities and Spirits, Kalyana Kalpataru,

October, 1945, pp. 306. 311.
4^ INDIAN CULTURE AND OlV ILi.Z VTlON

with the denial of the Divine Heing (God). It is unten-

able to accept the idea of a supreme Deify and to reject
the ideas of super-natural forms of h:e.’ Thus those
who believe in the existence of God have to assume the
existence of superhuman beings who t'^anscend the
human limitation. Upon this faith is founded the whole
system or the sacraments, sacrifices, and ritual of the
Hindus All our sacramental rites are intimately
associated with libations and sacrificial offerings which
are made to all superhuman beings including Agni, Vayu;
Indra, Varuna Brahma, Vishnu
;
Siva of later ages
; ;

Gandharva, Kinnara ;
Manes; and even Bhutas and
Pretas.

Those whose enjoyment is aimed at by the various

rites include the spirits not only of one's forefathers of all
past ages but also those of others of all lands as well as
the gods, sages, saints.

The questions however, arise "how do the Manes, for

instance, receive in another world the oblation and
offerings of rice, etc, made in rhis world and how do
they derive satisfaction from suc'n offerings and suffer
privation in the absence of them for which the God
rewards and punishes their surviving descendants.
Again, in the event of the human soul, which survives
the death of the human body, being liberated or being
transmigrated into a new being in a' new species how
the offerings of articles of food, clothes, ornaments,
furniture, etc., fit for only human use can benefit the
manes or spirits.

Any attempt at answering such questions could be

only a compilation and elucidation of intelligent and
logical direction received from the scriptures wherein,
however, a direct explanation is missing. Thus it is
stated in the Visluiu-puriua II xv, 16) that “w'hatever
food is offered by a man of faith referring to the name

1. Om ibrahma bhuvan lok.! dev,, r«hi muni iiKinavah

I

Tr.pyantu pitarab ,rve lUitri mit imahadayali

Atita-kula.k'jUnj m sapta.dvipa.nivasinmi
Maya dattena toyena tripyantu bhuvana trayaiii
Atm'idi.‘tamb.'..paryantair murtimadbhis char icharaili
Nritya gitl-,dyanekarha;h prithak rithag up.isitah
 FAMILY LIFE OP SACRAMENTS AND SACRIFICES 49

and patronymics (name and gotra) of the ancestors

reaches the latter in the form of food which is appro-
priate to them. ^ It merely means that there is a sort
of exchange bank which converts the sum deposited in
this world for the use of those who are in another world.
Thus if the departed soul takes re-birth as a goat for
instance the offerings of fruits may be converted into
grass which the goat requires. On the other hand if
the soul is permanently liberated and has become unified
with God it requires no further nourishment from its
surviving descendants as stated to be the case when the
iraddha (offerings) is performed at Brahma Kapali
at Badrinatha and elsewhere which ensures salvation
of the forefathers. As, however, it is difficult to be
sure of the final liberation of a departed soul it is
customary to continue to make the offerings on specified
occasions during one’s own life time. Like offerings
the prayer for salvation of the departed souls also
benefit them. ‘Through the mechanism of the Radio
words uttered thousands of miles away are immediately
brought to our hearing. Similarly every single action
done concerning the departed souls reaches them imme-
diately in the form of eternal waves and brings them
pleasure or pain as the case may be.
When a powerful government of a ruler in this
world can take charge of the gift made by any one for
the benefit of his dependant in a distant land where the
mode of life is different, there is nothing superstitious
or fantastic to think that the all powerful ruler of the
universe with a perfect machinery of government cannot
properly distribute the gifts we make in the names of
various beings which reside in spaces beyond the scope
of our limited vision. The same analogy may also
enable us to follow the line of argument regard-
ing the seemingly unaccountable punishments from
the blue sky. If a person fails or neglects to maintain
his dependants according to his means the government
of the land punishes the defaulter. In the same way
it is not unreasonable to think that the all-seeing and
Almighty God takes the defaulter to task for the failure
of his duties towards his ancestors whose descendance
and property one enjoys through inheritance. And it

1 Sraddha— samanvitair dat.taiii pitrebhyo nama-gotratah

Yad-aharastu te jatas tad aharatvam etitat.
7
50 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

also cannot escape the notice o^’ the all pervading God
whose ancestors are in need of the offerings from their
surviving descendants. Thus no distortion of evidence
or pleading can have any effect in the Court of God’s
perfect justice. Similarly if the plea of ignorance on
the part of an individual defaulter proves to be valid
the God’s penalty is inflicted upon the state whose
business it is to educate the members of the society
in the spiritual laws formulated in various scriptures
by the seers in different civilizations. Any disagree-
ment or conflict of these laws ca,nuot be accepted as an
argument or the reason for not following any system
in which one has developed his own faith. According
to the faithful the atheist are outlaws and have to face
all the miseries in this and the next worlds.

The whole Hindu systetn of culture has developed

from the faith in the Almighty and all-active God
possessing a perfect machinery of administration. It
is also based upon a faith in the migration of the
human souls to salvation or rebirth into some other
species until the unification with the God is achieved.
Thus after a well regulated and perfectly disciplined
and fully trained life of Brahmachari one enjoys all
possible happiness of householder’s life until he reaches
the age of retirement in forest by way of preparing for
natural renunciation and peaceful death which is
inevitable for all living beings.
The altars where upon the big sacrifices were
performed could be constructed in ten different shapes.
The first one is called chaturaha-syena-chit, so called
because it resembles the form of a falcon (syena) and
the bricks out of which it is composed are all square
shaped (chaturah’a). The second is kankachit, in the
shape of a heron (kanka) which is same as &Vena-chit
except the two additional feet. The third, alaja-chit,
is the same as the syena-chit with the additional wings.
The 'fourth is praugachit which is an equilateral triangle.
The fifth is ubhayatali-prauga-chit which is made up
oftwo such triangles joined at their bases. The sixth
is ratha-chakra-chit which is in the form of a wheel
(chakra) a massive wheel without spokes and a wheel
with sixteen spokes. The seventh is dropa-chit which
is like a vessel or tube (drona) square or circular.
The eighth is parichayya-chit which has a circular
(parichayya) outline and is equal to the ratha-chakra
 FAMILY LIFE OF SACRAMENTS AND SACRIFICES 51

chit differing in the arrangement of bricks which are

to be placed in six concentric circles. The ninth,
samnhya.chit, is circular (samuhya) in shape and made
of loose earth and bricks. And the tenth is kiirma-chit
which resembles a tortoise (kurma) and is of a triangu-
lar or circular shape. ^
Every one of these altars was constructed of five
layers of bricks, which together came up to the Height
of the knee in some cases ten or fifteen layers, and
;

proportionate increase in the height of the altar were

prescribed. Every layer in its turn was to consist of
two hundred bricks, so that tlie whole agni (altar)
contained a thousand the first, third, fifth layers were
;

divided into two hundred parts in exactly the same

manner a different division was adopted for the second
;

and the fourh, so that one brick was never laid upon
another of the same size and form.-

RETIRED LIFE IN FOREST

The time of retirement from ordinary household
duties has been fixed at any time after the age of fifty
years.® This indefiniteness is due to several conditions
to be fulfilled before retirement. One of these conditions
is personal and depends upon the strength one retains
after the age of fifty years. Generally one is to retire
at the commencement of the old age, which naturally
varies with different individuals. The sign of old age
is, however, indicated. It is stated by Mann (VI. 2)
that one should retire when one sees his skin becoming
wrinkled and hair turning gray. KaiRilya (Arthasastra
Book 11, Chapt. I, 4, 8) lays down a more precise sign of
old age when he says “ whoever has passed the age of
copulation may become an ascetic after distributing

1 For further det .ils see the writer’s Indian Architecture

(1927) p. 7.8, and for illustrations his encyclopedia of Hindu il.rchitec,
ture. Sub.voce and plates enclosed therewith.
2 These are first enumerated in the Taittiriya saihhit.i
(Y. 4. 11). Constructional details are supplied by the sulva sotras which
are supplements to the Kalp .sutra of Baudhiyana and Apastamba.
The details of Paiia, Havis and Sonm sacrifices are gathered
from the ^rauta sutras of Katy yana, Asvalayana, Baudhayana,
Apastmba, Gautama, S.nkh.yana, and Gobhila and Aitareya
Brahmana,
3. PanchasL firdhvaih vanarii vrajet.
 h

52 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

the properties of his own acquisition.” Manu (VI. 1),

however, overrules this text when he says that “a twice
born may dwell in the forest taking a firm resolution
and keeping his organs in subjection.”
The other candition concerns the family and the
continuance of the domestic duties towards the family
deities, deceased ancestors and living relations, and
the society at large. Thus one is not free to retire until
he “ sees the son of his son.” This means that before
retirement one should have a son settled down to take
the burden of the householders duties which must be
carried on for the benefit of the family and the society.
KauTlya provides punishments for the delinquent who
shirk this responsibility and run away from domestic
troubles. Thus it is stated (Arthasastra, Bk. II Chap.
II, 48) when, “ without making provision for the main-
tenance of his wife and sons any person embraces
asceticism he shall be punished”

At this third part of a man’s natural term of life

in the forest he does not abandon all attachment to
worldly objects (Manu, VI. 33). He merely retires from
‘the village or town to the forestand reside there duly
controlling his senses’. ‘But he takes with him the
sacred (nuptial) fire and the implements required for (the
fire) domestic sacrifices.’ He has to offer those
five great sacrifices with various kinds of pure food
fit for ascetics such as herbs, roots, and fruits
(ibid VI, 4, .5) only the simplicity demarcates the forester
frotn the householder. Thus being free from the pangs
of passion and sexual desires one can live and think
coolly and dispassionately for the individual, social,
political, and spiritual good. The extensive literature
in Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit which we still possess
have originated from this class of thinkers. They
were, therefore, highly respected and generously patro-
nized by the state as well as by the individual visitor.
In fact the practice still continues for the common
householders to go out on pilgrimage with the main
purpose of payiug respects to these ascetics and gaining
instruction and blessing fram them. The kings and

1 The state could stop the retirement because the retired

persons, like pensioners of the present day, had to depend on
the
state for protection and maintenance.
 E'AMILY LIFE OF SACSAMENTS AND SACRIFICES 53

rulers also used to visit them

for the identical purposes.
On special occasions these ascetics could he persuaded
to come down to the village and the king’s palace.

retirement one’s wife may accompany him

At
to the forest or remain in the family to look after her
sons and family. This option indicates the Hindu’s
love for individual liberty and personal inclination which
is the chief ideal of the modern civilization. This
liberty slackens the marriage tie and wedlock when
there in no more sexual desire left a woman is free to
transfer from the husband her attachment towards the
children. But in cases of the most successful marriages
-the mental attraction for the husband’s company remains
unabated even in the absence of physical attachment.
A forest dweller who, however, retires with his
devoted wife practises in order the four kinds of asceti-
cisms. At the first stage they are known as auduinbara.
The significance of this term is derived from the
observance of celebacy by placing the Udnmbara plant
in the nuptial bed to prevent physical contact between
the husband and wife. At the first stage of asceticism
the same practice was re-introduced. The ascetic
couple lived not so much as husband and wife, but more
as loving friends and comrades.
At the second stage of
ascetic progress they were
known as vairinchi. This title appears to have from
the great asceticism of Siva one of whose name is
Virinchi. Siva as an ideal ascetic (yogin) is well known
throughout Sanskrit literature. The ideal at the record
stage is to live and practice austerity as Siva did despite
his married life.
At the third stage the ideal for- the retired couple
is tobecome Balakhilya “ a class of divine personages
of the size of a thumb and produced from the creator’s
body,” who are able “to precede sun’s chariot.” This
indicates probably the freedom from physical and mental
vanity and the ability to absorb and disseminate light
like the small rays from the sun.

At the fourth and last stage the couple is known

as phenapa which literally means those who live on
foam or froth from the boiled rice. It probably implies
the detachment from even food and the disability of the
advanced age to pull on any longer. Ascetically it may
54 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

indicate the distraction from ah worldly attachment

even between the husband and wife.
One who retires leaving behind his partner of the
household life practises in order the seven forms of
asceticism. At the first stage he is called Kala-sikha
because he puts on a blue tuft which xhe epithet implies.
At the second he is udda,ndaka as he carries a staff
(danda) as a distinguishing mark- At the third stage he
is ahna-kutta becaus3 he resides on stone (a-iima). At the
fourth be is danta-ulukhaJika as he then practises
penance by resting his teeth (danta) on a mortar
(ulukhala). At the fifth stage he is unchehha vrithika
because he roams about as beggar with a bowel in
hand At the sixth stage he is bailavasin because then
he does not beg for his livelihood and lives on the fruit
and leaf of the bela tree which grows in plenty in
the forest. At the last and the seventh stage he is
pancha-agni-madhya-sayina as giving up all efforts even
for fresh fruits and leaves he practises severe penance
by lying between ‘five blazing fires’ as Parvati used
to do to gain the love of god Siva.
The ascetics practising such penances are often
met with even at the present time. In whichever of
these twelve positions the forest-dwellers are found, all
of them are required to follow* a common mode of life.
They clothe themselves in bark or skin, let their hair
and nails grow, eat simple food, sleep on earth, and
perform the five-fold daily sacrifices at the nitial stage
i

especially w-hen they are accompanied by their wives

(Mann VI, 94 ;
Gautam III, 26-36 ;
Baudhayana
II, 11, 15).
It may appear hard for a modern retired man to
assume such austere asceticism instead of enjoying on
the w*ell earned rest and illness. The ancient system
however, served two good purposes. First, it kept up
the health of the retired man owing to achieve life
and simple habit and freedom from worldly troubles.
Secondly, the society got the benefit of his exx)erience
and dispassionate thinking. Lastly, the ascetic practises
prepared the recluse for the complete renunciation of
the world, took place at the fourth state of one’s normal
life. In the growing family w'henever retired people
linger on till death there is always a sort of embarras-
ment for all. The Hindu custom devised a satisfactory
means to get over this inevitable difficulty.
 FAMILY LIFE OF SACRAMENTS AND SACRIFICES 55

The custom shows a great foresight. Its cultural

value and civilized feature are obvious.
LIFE OF COMPLETE RENUNCIATION (SANNYiSA)
This is the fourth part of the normal term of a
hundred years. It commences after the age of sevonty-
five years by when the ascetic practices of th-e retired
life in forest are completed. These practices help one in
loosening gradually without repentance, the knots of
household life. Thus the last stage comes off easi ly.
It is thus known as sannyasa or renunciation. At this
stage connection with human beings is entirely shunned
(nyasa). “No recluse of this type shall find entrance
int ) the villages of the kingdom ” (Kautilya Bk. II,
chap. I. 48). At the time of entering this stage the
ascetic performs a small sacrifice (ishti) to the creator
(Prajapati) in which whatever property of tlm forester
is left is given away as the sacrificial fee (Yish. 96,
1; Compare Baudhayana 1117, and thus abandons
(sannyasa) all worldly concerns.

On the assumption of this life the hair, nails and

beard of the ascetic of the forest life are clipped. He
carries an alms-bowl, a staff and a water pot. He
continually wanders about, controlling himsfelf and
not hunting any creature (Manu VI 52) without home
or property (saaniyasin Vas X. 6) he roams about as a
religious beggar (bhikshu). By way of restraining the
physica.1 needs even he becomes yati (restrainer). He
eats only what is given to him voluntarily, yet irever
any meat or sweets. He wears a loin-cloth only of bark
or skin or nothing and moves about nude. lie sleeps
on earth. He does not talk to anybody and meditates in
silence (mauni).

’By the restraint of the senses, by the destruction

of love and hatred and by the abstention from injuring
the creatures he becomes fit to think over this body as a
temporary dwelling, composed of five elements, where the
bones are the beams, which is held together by tendons
instead of cords, where the flesh and blood are the
mortar, which is thatched with the skin, which is foul-
smelling filled with urine and ordure, infested by old
age and sorrow, the rest of disease harassed by pain,
gloomy with passion, and perishable. (Manu VI. 52.
76-77).
56 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

The mental restraint of the yati requires an

unruffled temper and philosophical equanimity. He
wishes neither for death nor for long life. He does not
trouble himself to see whether some body is hacking
off his hand with an axe of sprinkling sandal powder on
him. Thus gradully shaking off all mundane propensities
he lastly goes into exile and roams about alone as a
parivrajaka (traveller) when by the disposition of his
heart he becomes indifferent to all objects, he obtains
eternal happiness both in this world and after death
(Manu VT, 80). Thus he is finally dissolved in the Univer-
sal soul.
This physical and mental renunciation is very
helpful in facing the inevitable death peacefully. Whe-
ther or not we cultivate a faith in salvation or freedom
from re-birth we all desire to meet the end happily.
The face of the dead or of the dying which is the mirror
of the mind, shows unmistakably how one has met his
end. In most cases such a face is a picture of horror
reflecting the pang of the departed life. In no other
civilization, ancient or modern, any conscious effort
appears to have been made to meet the end peacefully.
The device of the Hindus has however, its obvious short
coming of dying both physically and mentally before
the actual death. But the great advantage of the Hindu
system cannot be overlooked. The renunciation attain-
ed unconsciously through all these ascetic practices
keeps the body and mind unruffled and is not, therefore,
equivalent to dying before death. Besides, this active
habit suitable food saves one from infirmities of old age
and disease to a large extent. From this point of view
the cultural importance and the civilized device of the
sacrament of renunciation may be understood and
appreciated.
 Chapter II

ECONOMIC LIFE OF MATERIAL PROGRESS

Marriage between persons originating Iron, the
same human or divine ancestor {gotra) was prohibited
by the Hindu Custom, probably because the children
born of the same blood as of brother and sister proved
to be weak both physically and intellectually. And
the primary object of marriage being to beget children
the mixture of blood from two different ancestors of
the husband and wife became necessary.. This necessity
will account for the marriage between different castes
known as both amiloma between male of higher caste
and female of lower caste and pratiloma in a reverse
order. Thus there can\e a collection of families grouped
together by matrimonial connection As the success of
marriage depends upon the homogeneous nature of the
couple experience found it advantagecus to prefer
matrimonial connection between families of common
occupation, equal economic status and professing the
same form of religious faith and belief, and following
the same professional calling. The grouping of such
people is known as community. The combination of
communities in a territorial unit came to be knrwn as
the tribe. x\nd when the tribes combine for economic
reasons there comes the society at large. The society
is turned into a nation fcr political cohesion.’

Among the Indo-Aryan society, despite The homo-

geneity of race language and religion, with the expansion
of territory and population, the simple organisation of
the domestic life, where the head of the family could be
the warrior, cultivator and priest, became impracticable.
However the members of the same family could also
follow different professions as stated in a hymn (R.v.
IX, 112,3) “Behold I am a composer of hymns, my
:

father is a physician, my mother grinds corn on stone.

We are all engaged in different occupations.” But the
society being more complex the communal vocations
tended to become hereditary. The population being
spread over wider tracts of territory the necessity arose
for something in the nature of a standing army to keep
peace and order, and to repel sudden attacks by the
8
5b INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

aborigines. The agricultural and industrial part of the

population was thus left to folhw their pursuits without
interruption Meanwhile the religious ceremonial was
increasing in complexity ; its success was growing more
dependent on coiject performance, while the preserva-
tion of ancient hymns was becoming more urgent. The
priests had, therefore, to devote all their time and
energies to carrying out of their religious duties and the
handing down of the sacred tradition in their families.
The warriors naturally became the leaders of the
society, the rulers and kings as well as the nobles. But
the priests, because of his intellectual powers, became
the King’s counsellers, judges, and prophets or dictators
And working men as ploughers, traders, builders or
road-makers became the producers of wealth and carried
on trade, commerce and industries, “These three divi-
sions we can clearly perceive even in the early hymns
of the Rigveda.’’^

The principle involved in this division of labour

gave rise to other divisions also. The land of the five
—
rivers ^Indus (together with its tributaries the Jhelum,
Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej). Sarasvati near
Kurukshetra and Thanesvar, Ganges (li v. IV. 45, 81 etc.),
Jamuna (R.v, V 52, 17), and Brahmaputra (E.v. 62, 17)—
was the earliest home of the Aryan settlers in India.
The five lands (pancha kshiti) are clearly alluded to
(R.v. V, 1 , 79 ; 129, 3; VI, 46, 7), The settlers along the
five rivers gradually formed themselves into five tribes,
. Mention is. also made of five peoples (pancha-jana,
R.v. VI, 11,4; VI. 61, 11; VII. 32, 32 ; IX, 66, 32 etc.)
and of five cultivators (pancha-krish, R.v. II, 2, 10 ;

IV. 33, 10)

“It was these five tribes of simple, bold and enter-
prisiirg Indians, living by agriculture and by pasture
on the fertile banks of the Indus and its tributaries
which have spread their civilization from the Himalayas

1. Maxmuller, ‘India what can it teach us’ 1899

pp. 95.96 note
2. “Mention is often made in the Rigveda of Sapta-s indhavah
(s^even rivers) wh.ch i.s synonymous with the country inhabited by
the Aroyan Indians In the Ayesta also Hapta-Hindu
occurs to mean
only th it part of Indian territory which lay in eastern
Kabulistan,
comprising Kabul, Saraswati and the five rivers
of thfi Pnniih
(Macdonell, History of Sanskrit Literature, P.141)
 ECONOMIC LIFE OF MATEKIAL PBOGRESS 6^

to the cape Comorin.” The five tribes, synonymous

‘

with Aryans, meant the Purus, Turvasus, Yadus, Anus,

and Druhyus.
Seven other tribes are also mentioned in the
Eigveda Usinaras (of the time of the Aitareya Brahmanal
are located in the middle of Northern India. Chedis
(of the epic age) settled in Magadha. Kyvis (connected
with the Indus and the Asikini) point to the North-West
they bore the older name of the Fanchalas (at the time
of the Satapatha Brshmana) who inhabited north of
modern Delhi G-indharas (connected with Kandhahar)
point to north Punjab and Peshiwar. Muj ivats must
have derived their name from their residence near the
mountain of Mujavat. Msgadhas were the inhabitants
of Magadha in Behar, And Anga< (of the time of the
®
Atharvaveda) were the inhabitants of Bengal
The Aryan invaders of India, though split up into
many tribes remained conscious of their unity of race,
language, and religion “The tribe in fact was the
political unit well organised.”® They styled themselves
tirya or kinsmen The subjugated aborigines were called
dasyu (fiends) dasa (slaves), and later anarya (natives)
The characteristic physical difference between the
two races was that of colour (Varna), The aborigines
were described as black (Krishna), black skins of dasa
colour in contrast with Aryan (our) colour Thus the
distinction divides at first the Aryans and non-Aryans
into two varnas, the whites and the Blacks, the con-
querors and the conquered. Indra is stated* in a hymiT
“to protect the Aryan colour (Varqa) and subject the
Black skins. In another hymn Indra is extolled for
having dispersed 50,000 of the Black race’. Varna in
the Rigveda merely distinguished the Aryans and non-
Aryans, and no where indicates separate sections in the
Aryan community (K.v. II, 34, 9, etc).
On the analogy of this racial distinction and owing
to the presence of three professional divisions among
the Aryans they divided themselves into five varpas,

R. C. Duh, ‘A History of civilization on ancient India

1.

(Book Chap. V pp. 62 63).

I.

2. Later on new tribal names occur. The Aitareya BrAhmana?

the Mahabharata, Mann, and Buddhist literature supply long lists
mentioning the well known Kuru«, Bharatas Matsyas, and others.
3. Macdonell, History of Sanskrit Literature p. 1.57.X58,
60 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

comprising the counsellors, warriors, traders, the servile

class (dasa) of aborigines, and the unsubjugated Blacks.
This took place before the consolidation of the caste
system.

‘The necessary division of labour in an organised

society would inevitably lead to an exclusiveness. But
for a considerable length of time this exclusiveness
permitted intermarriage and interdining. The impassable
caste system appears to have started, in the first in-
stance, from the treatment cf the conquered aborigines.
They were treated on accepting the Aryan belief as a
servile class as the result of the A ryan polity. ^ This
gulf between the two races supplied the need and
reasons to cause further gulfs between the three Aryan
Groups themselves soon after the early Eigvedic period.
Not only do we find the four castes firmly established as
the main divisions of Indian society in the Yajurveda,
but as one of the later books of the the Vajasaneyi
Saiuhita shows most of the mixed castes known in later
times are already found to exist’.
Thus the impassable barriers of caste based on
birth (Jsti)® and heredity, and the prohibition of inter-
marriage and eating together grev/ up prominently in
the times of the Brahmapa literature. The word, brah-
mapa the regular name for the ‘man of the first class’
israre in the Eigveda, occurring only eight times. But
Brahmau.i meaning sage or ‘officiating priest’ is found
forty-eight times. It is used in a hundred places to
ftnply the composers of hymns and nothing else (E v.
yil, 103, 8 etc.). Kshatriya is also used as an adjective
and m-eans strong and is applied to gods (E v. VII, 64, 2 ;

VII, 89, 1) The first and only time the four castes are
mentioned in the Eigveda is in the Purusha hymn
(E.v. X
90) which is one of the very latest poems of the
Eigvedic age, for it presupposes the knowledge of three
oldest Vedas, to which it refers together by name. The
Purusha’s (of the first man or creator) mouth became
the Brahman a, his arm s the Eajanya (the ruling class),

1. A parallel is supplied by the Native Christians all over the

world as treated by the European and American Christian conquerors.
?. Like from the root ‘jan’ (to give birth to) the term
Jati
‘caste’ also derived from Portuguese ‘c^sta’ (race) and Latin
is
‘Oastuos’ and connotes ‘purity’ of racial descent.
 ECONOMIC LIFE OF MATERIAL PROGRESS 61

his thighs the Vaisya (the trading class), and his feet
the Sudra (the servant class)/

The brith alone determining men’s caste appears

to have been recognised not till the time of the Furanas/ -

The stories in the Jatakas® and the Buddhist texts^

make it clear that equality of castes and rational views
about higher and lower castes were recognised but the
practical distinction between the four castes had already
been well established.'"

On the consolidation of this caste system the Bra-

hmanas secured the religious as well as the social
supremacy. Although they were not the actual rulers
they exercised virtually all powers not only as priests
but also as kings, counsellors and judges. They also n ade
laws for the kings, traders, servants, and householders of
all professions. The defence of the territory was left
to the kshatriya warriors, the agricultural and industrial
activities to the Vaisya workmen, and the menial
services were reserved for the Sodra aborigines.

The inevitable powers of such hereditary division

of labour led to the growth of numerous sub-castes.
Thus by the time of the Epics (B C. 700 to A. D. 500)
and the Law Books (Grihyasutras, smritis, A. D. 100)

1. The Purusha of the Rigveda is the same as Prajapati

(creator) of the Brahmaua literature, who is ideDtified with the
universe in the later part of this literature known as upanishad.
the Sahkhya philosophy the Purusha becomes ‘soul’ as
Still later in
opposed to ‘matter’ (Prakriti), In the Rigveda Viiuj is mentioned
as produced from Purusha, and in later Vedanta Philosophy it is a
name of the personal creator as contrasted with Brahma> the universal
soul. Later on Purusha, Prajapati, Hiranyagarbha and Viswakarman
became identical.
2. Vishnu Purana (of about 500 A. D.), Book III, chapter VIII.
3. Bhaddasala Introduction ; «

Kumma Saplnda, Introduction ;

Gddalaku, IV 293 ; chandala, iv, 388 ;

Sataclarama, II, 82 chitta.sambhuta IV, 390

; ;

4. Digha ralkaya, no. 3, Ambatta Sutta ;

Majjbima nikaya no. 93, Assalayan Sutta ;

Vassettha Sutta. S. B E, X, 108 ;

Madliura Sutta J. R A. S., 1894, p 349

j. K. C. Mazumdar, Corporate life in ancient India p. 364;
Coplestone’s Buddhism, p. 145 lihys Davids ;

Indian Buddhism, Hibbert Lectures, p. 51;

62 INDIAN CULTURE AND < fVILTZATION

different caste rules came into being.* Even different

kinds of food, clothes, house were prescribed for peoples
of different castes as are illustrated below. The very
means of livelihood, as we shall see below, became
different for different castes.
Despite the caste restrictions, which appear to be
unfair to the individual liking and ability as tlxey denied
equal opportunity to all for self development, the system
worked very well and maintained the economic balance,
discipline and order in the Hindu society. But the
foreign invaders of different culture and civilization
struck at the weak points of the system, endeavoured to
cause cleavage and jealousy in order to weaken the
combined opposition, and to divide and rule. Almost
the same harmful policy was adopted by the Indo-Bersi-
ans, the Indo-Grecians the Indoscythians, and lastly
the Pathans, the Mughals, and the European Powers.
Thus at present majority of the Hindos educated under
the foreign surroundings have lost their faith and belief
in the ancient caste rules. Except marriage within
one’s own community, which persists in most cases, all
other caste habits have disappeared. But the political
powers once being in the foreigners’ hands the inevitable
confusion has arisen The different cultural basis and the
custom and habit of more than one foreign civilization

1. The four obligations of Brahmanas c jmprise Brah-

special
manya (faith in Grod),pratirupacharya (proper way of living) yasas
(fame), and lokapikli (training of the people). The four privileges
are archa (veneration) dana (gift), ajeyata (freedom from oppression)
avadhyata (immunity from capital punishment).
The duties include ‘not carrying arms’, not speaking in vulo-ar
tongue, etc. (Weber, Ind. Stud. X. 4l, 96, 97 191, 102).
(i) Brahmana is to be addressed as ‘ehi, kshatriya as
adrava
Vaisya as agahi (Sat. Bra i, 1, 4, 12).
(ii) Brahmana may marry in three castes, Kshatriya in two"
and Vaisya in one^bnly.
(iii) They begin their study respectively at the age of
8, 11
& 12
(hO They pray respectively by the Gayatri hymn of 8
syllables, a trishtub of 10 syllables, and a
Jagati of 12
syllables.
(v) Their initiation
takes place in spring, summer &
autumn
respectively.
(vi) White, red, yellow grounds are prescribed for
their buil
dings,
(vfi) Different dafida, mekhab, iittariya are prescribed for
 ECONOMIC LIFE OF MATERIAL PROGRESS 63

cannot in the old Hindu frame of the society.

fit

Nor is possible to rebuild after the foreign pattern

it
or reform according to the need of the present time keep-
ing the foundation intact for two reasons. First and
foremost is the foreign influence and secondly the mem-
bers of the society are not equally enlightened.
Taste in some form or other is, however, the
normal condition of all society everywhere Every
community (society) no matter what its religious or
social development may be requires for its well being
teachers, rulers, producers of wealth, and servants and
labourers. Even in the most democratic countries such
devisions f societ\ have always been and shall always
<

be formed and the well-being of the society requires that

the whole of the functions be discharged on a definite
and well-organised plan. Eut while in other countries
accession from one class to another is possible and
depends largely upon personal merit, in most cases upon
the possession of wealth, in modern India one caste
cannot be changed into another, although the caste
profession are frequentU changed In ancient India,
however, it was possible The story of the warrior-sage
Visvamitra being born as Kshatriya and becoming
a Brahmana by individual efforts confirms the fact
that till his time there was no impassable caste
distinction based on birth between Brahmapas and
Kshatriyas’.
‘Though outwardly there lias been Diversity and
infinite variety among
our people, there was everywhere
that tremendous impress of one ness’, as has been
recognized even by Jawaharlsl Nehru in his ‘Discovery
of India’ which had held all of us together for past ages.
Whatever political fate or misfortune had befallen us,
the essential unity had been so powerful that no political
division, no disaster or catastrophe had been able to
overcome it. The unity of India was no longer merely
an intellectual conception. Despite diversities and divi-
sions of Indian life, of classes, castes, races, languages,
forms of religious and different degrees of cultural
development there is the same set of moral and mental
qualities. The result has been that an Indian feels more
at home in any part of India, and as stranger and alien
in any other country. Ft Nehru quo*^es from Macdonell’s
History of Sanskrit Literature in support of his own
view that inspite of successive waves of invasion and
64 l^ilDIAN CULTURE AND GIS^ILIZATiOlS

conquest by Persians, CVreeks, Scythians, and Muham-

madans, ‘the national development of life and literature
of the Indo-Aryan remained practically unchecked and
unmodified from without down to the era of British
occupation ’
Moreover ‘the social structure, based on
the caste system and joint family, served the purpose
of stability and security, and provide 1 the social security
for the group and a kind of insurance for the individual
who by reason of age infirmity or any other incapacity
was unable to provide for himself’
Our Commimial village organisation has been
praised by all thinkers. In ISIO Sir Charles Metcalfe
wrote: ‘The village Communities are little republics
having nearly everything they want within themselves
and almost independent of foreign relations. They seem
to last when nothing else lasts- This Unionism of the
village Communities, each oae forming a separate little
state in itself is in a high degree conducive to their
happiness, and to the enjoyment of a great portion of
freedom and indepen fence.’ After quoting this Pt Nehru
adds ‘The destruction of village industries was a powerful
blow to these communities The- balance between
agriculture and inlustry was upset, the traditional
division of labour was broken up, and numerous stray
individuals could not be easily Mted into any group
activity A more direct olow came from the introduc-
tion of the landlord system. ..This led to the breakdown
of the joint life and corporate character of the Com-
munity, and the co-operative system of services and
functions began to disappear gradually.’

MEANS OF LIVILIHOOD
The distinction of caste as the basis of the Hindo
societywas carried with amazing success on all matters
of matu’ial progress. Unlike the primitive society where
personal property was not recognized and also Unlike
the medieval society where property was vested in the
church and its protecting authorities the Hindu system
made an ingineous device, much like the inodern
scientific method, whereby it was possible to recognise
both the nationalization of certain property and ownership
and possession of certain other property by tb.e indivi-
duals, families, and t’ne con.munities.
Thus the arable land was the object of private
 ^

ECONOMIC LIFE OF MATERIAL PROGRESS 65

ownership. The pasture land was owned in common

by the various families of the village. The forest land
belonged to whoever cleaned it. Income from agriculture,
industry, trade and commerce could be well as joint
and common property of the joint stock company.
Revenue from taxes levied on crown lands and other
items was also treated as individual property in a
hereditary monarchical state, and as the common pro-
perty of the nation in a democratic state.
This system underwent a change with the growth
of casteand monarchical form of government on the
principle that only the free man could lawfully own
property the Sudras or the subjugated aborigines were
;

not allowed to own property. Similarly the casteless

having no body to inherit, all property which had no
owner reverted to the king as it does now-a-days.
The sources of the right of ownership common to
all castes,as stated by Gautama (X 39; are inheritance,
purchase, partition, seizure of unclaimed property and
finding or discovery of new property. In addition to
these the Brahmauas own property from acceptance of
presents and dowry made to them. The Kshatriyas get
additional property from booty of war or conquest, the
Vaisyas from agriculture, trade and commerce including
the tending of cattle and lending of money at interest.
The wages from labour formed the private and personal
property of the Sadr as.
This communal division of the means of livelihood
has been further classified into three significant groups
known as the white means, the spotted means, and the
black means.
The white means obviously the pure and com-
mendable ones are seven in number They come from
religious learning for which gifts are made, teaching,
performance of sacrifice for which fees are made,
mortification of flesh by the practice of asceticism,
bravery and inheritance and the dowry of a bride.
The seven spotted or less commendable means
(3omprise the nuptial fee, service for superior work,
vvages for imferior labour, lending money at interest,
agriculture, trade, and crafts or industry.

1. Narada, I, 44—49 = Vishnui 58 etc,

9
66 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

The seven black or impure and objectionable means

Include bribe, ga:nblinv, bearing message (espionage),
causing pain (molestation), forgery, robbery, and fraud.
These are not the caste-wise division, although the first
group will come under the Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas,
and the second under the Vaib'y.is. The third group
falls under the criminal offence. These divisions, how-
ever, indicate the cultural outlook and the civilized
practices followed by the ancient F Indus in earning for
their food, clothes, and dwellings, which in themselves
will show below the standa;d of civilization attained
by the Hindus.

FOOD
Food stuffs and cooking —The state of culture and
condition of civilization are nowhere more universally
illustratedthan by fool. No life can exist without food.
At the primitive state people lived on vegetables and non-
vegetarian food on the principle of local supply and
superior force. This supply of food is not changed by
the mixture of various stuffs and by cooking.^ With
the dawn of civilization the selection and combination
of food stuffs and their cooking \yith further mixture
of spices with or without fire and with the help of oil
and butter appear to have been discovered by repeated
experiments The improvements in the taste and the
quality of food to increase vitality and strength deter-
mine the degree of culture and the state of civil zation
in the important and essential matter of food
Taste in food depends on habit and the variety of
dishes is regulated b v the local supply and economic
condition. Thus there is a great difference amongst
peoples in matter of food and drink. A comparative
study is, however, possible if the matter of food value
is taken into consideration.
At birth the chief article of food for man must
have been milk because the animal offsprings live by
instinct on mot'mr’s milk thereafter food grains and
vegetables in some form or other become the staple f< od
for all These food str.ffs come irom the plants grown
naturally in the forest or cultivated by human efforts.
In India wheat was produced by cultivatic n as
early as B (1 3000 as indicated by the live wheat dis-
covered at Mohenjodaro along with other fines dated
 ECONOMIC LIFE OF MATERIAL PROGRESS 61

at there thousand B C
In the subsequent Vedic period
from circa B C. lOOu Wfieht (godhuma and
2 00 to
barle (yava) were the principal produce of ihe field.
Eice(lh nya in Bergal) is seated to have been used
in the sense of ‘fried barley’ at the earlv Vedic ;ige, and
Vrihi, also meaning rice in the later period, is not
mentioned in the Eigveda. Various kinds of vegetables,
fruits, and roots formal pirt of the daily fare of the
Vedic Indians Tharaiscleir indication of the use, as
food in the Vedic age, of flesh of rams, horses', buffaloes,
bulls'^, cows^, bir^..s and fishes.

At least two kinds of spirituous liquor, viz Soma

and Suri were in use in taa Vodio time continued to
the time of Avesfi where these drinks were called homa
and hura respa ctiveb .

The preparation of these and other food stuffs

evinces a scientific progress from the early time. Even
in the early Vedic period grains of wheat, barley, and
later rice, were eaten after being parched or ground to
flour between mill stones and were also made into cakes
with milk or butter. Meat was either roasted on spits
or cooked in pot made of metal or earthen ware. Veget-
ables were cooked single and in combination in various
ways. As many as ten different parts of some single
vegetable viz. root, leaf, shoot, forepart, trunk, olfshoot,
skin thorn, flower, and fruit, were variously cooked.
The proces'^i of preparing the Soma liquor is elabor-
ately described in the Vedic hymns. “O, soma (plant),
you have been crushed, you flow as a stream of Indra,
seathing joy on all tides, you bestow immortal food i^E.v.
X, 66, 7) Seven women stir thee with thin fingers, blending
their voices in a song to thee, you remind the sacrifleer
of his duties at the sacrifice (E.v. X. 16, b). You mix
with water with a pleasing sound; the finger stir you
with an wooden strainer and filter you your parti- ;

cles are thrown up then, and a sound arises from the

woolen strainer {ibid 9). The woolen strainer is placed on
the vessel and the finger repeatedlv stir the soma, which
sends down a sweet stream into the vessel {ibid 9). O,

1. Compare R.v. X, 91, 14 (horses and rams)

2. Cooking of Oows, buffaloes and bull®, Rv. I, 61, 12;

II 7, 5 ; V. 29, 7.8 VI, 17, 11 Id, 47; and 28, 4

; ;
X. 27, 2 28, 2, etc.
;
;

3. Mention is mi-de of slaughter house waere coivs wore khied

(R.V. X, 89, 14).
68 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

soma you are then mixed with milk water runs towards
;

thee with a pleasing sound (ibid. 13)”

The fondness for such drinks is clear “ O, soma,
the praiseworthy soma has from ancient times
been the drinks of the gods (E.v, IX 110, 8) O, Soma,
there is nothing so bright as those when found out thou
welcomest all the gods to bestow on them immortality
(ibid ix, 108, 3). In that realm where there is perennial
light and where the heaven is placed, O, Soma, lead me
to that deathless and immortal realm (ibid 113, 7)”.
Later in the time of the Kamasastra drinks (peyas)
are divided into two groups, namely, cooked (with fire)
and uncooked- The former is called yOsha and admits of
two varieties, ri 2 soup and decoctior:. The latter has
two varieties, known as, asandhikrita (unfermented or
unexperimented'' and sandhana-Krita (fermented or exper-
imented) The latter are those which are made by disti-
lling such as the fermented or the spirituous liquor, and
are divided into dravita and adravita. The dravita is
made by mixing water, sugar and tamarind and is
known as drink or spirituous liquor. The adravita is
made of liquified herbs mixed with palmyra fruit and
plantain flower and is called rasa ( essence or
juice) of other beverages asava implies spirituous liquor
and indicates intoxication of three degrees, mild, ordi-
nary, and high and raga implies three things, namely,
;

those to be liked, powders, and liquids, and tasting salt,

tamarind, pungent, and slightly sweet.
The food stuffs are classified, as showing the man-
ner of eating them when prepared as dishes. Things to
be eaten by chewfing and mustication are known as bhak-
shya and charvya. Things which are eaten by sucking
are called bhojya and choshya. The things which are
taken by licking is known as lehya. And the things
which are taken by drinking are called peyas of which
a number of varieties are described above from
Vatsayana’s Kama Sutra.
Of these solid and liquid food there is a scientific
proportion for each meal. Of the total quantity of food
taken according to the capacity two parts form the solid
and one part liquid and the fourth part of the stomach
is left vacant for airing purposes.^ In other wmrds even
1. Dvau bhigau porayed annaih bhjgamekaincha paiityaili.
ViUdi— puranavthain tu cbaturtharii aveaeshayet. ’
 ECONOMIC LIFE OF MATERIAL PROGRESS 69

a meal should not fill up the stomach, not to speak

full
which is rightly considered unhealthy.'
of overfilling
Like the modern method followed in both advanced
Indian and European systems the meal is started with
some appetiser and ended with sweets." Balancing
of iet was understood and followed
;

The interval between meals is stated tc,' be at least

three hours but it should not exceed six hours Medical
reasons are cited for this rule. Within three hours the
food is not completely assimilated, but after six hours
the empty stomach" injures the vitality.®
suffice to show that the
These references should
Hindus of the hist( ideal period made very satisfactory
progress in a vital matter like food. The cultural develop-
ment and civilized condition in the matter of food stuffs,
of their preparati{ n, and the manner and time of eating
were then of high order. Predomiinantly vegetarian
food for people of tropical country was suited to the
climatic c( ndition, peaceful habit, and economic suffi-
ciency. The general practice and the prescription that
certain food stuff should not be taken on certain days of
the month, and that on certain other days one should
altogether fast or take some light food further indicate
the scientific knowledge regarding a change of f< od and
rest t( the stomach, wdiich is conducive to health.
In the art of cooking ilself there were in India
remarkable development. While, some civilized
peoples do not even now go beyond boiling and frying of
vegetables, corns, fish and flesh, Hindus made innumer-
able delicious dishes by adoptir>g further processes.
This luxury still continues but in many places delicacies
are unhygienic. This is apparently due to the lack
of scientific s tidy and investigation and a colossal
apathy for the health of the nation. Exploitation of the
poors has rendered them incapable of considering
nutrition and enjoyment for most of them the problem
is to pre vide for a single meal in a day. 1 he picture of
the past is entirely diferent. The normal term of life

1. Ati bhojanam jiva — Nn.>-'anaiii.

2. Madhurena sam.ipayet
3. Yaiiia-madhye na bhunjita dvi
Cha na langhayet.
— y imam.
Yama.madhye rasas tishthet triyame.
tu bala.Kshayah
70 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

of a hundred years which has been emphasised and

elaborated in previous section will lead support to this
view, especiady when compared with our present aver-
age life of 2b years only.
'
'
CLOTHES AND ORNAMENTS
Clothes : —Likefood to sustain the life, clothing
devices were disjovered by civilized men both for
reasons of hygiene and aesthetics.. Clothes are put on
the body to protect it from the inclemency of weather
and for its artistic decoration. Ti e cultured achieve-
ment of civilized inaividual as well as society is, there-
fore, more mar. edly indicated by the progress in
clothing than even in food for which there is not sc
much publicity possible. But even in most p dvate life
the cultural convention and habit demand covering of the
body, especially certain parts thereof, the exposure of
which even the one's ownself is considered uncivilized
The primitive pers< ns and animals do not observe
this decency That this decenev was keenly felt and
invariably observed in the Hindu society is clear from
copious instances from the archeological remains ol
sculptures and paintings and from general literature.
From these sources a highly developed artistic sense
is also indicated. Thus wuh the Hiiidos clothes became
a matter of great importance in all walks of life and
we shall see evidences that different dresses were
prescribed for aifferent persons for private and public
wear and civil population and officials.
From the references to dress which the earliest
literature, Eigveda (of B. C. 2600) contains we may
gather that a lower garment and cloak were worn by
the civil population of both sexes Ihe upper garment
(uttariya) and girdle band (mekhal.i) appear to have been
( f very early use. References to fuller aress f men and (

women of different ranks and occupations are also not

meagre
Mentio is made in the Vedas and Brahmanas of
the single piece garment known as dhoti (fer men) and

1. Otavah and tantavah (Kath. Sam XXIII, 1 Atharva Veda

;

XIV, 2, 51, 1, 45) ata'^ah and pn, china tina (taitt Sam
VI, 1, 1, d) Paryasa and annehahada ? (Sat. trah III,
1, 2, 13.)
 Economic life op material progress 71

s ri(for women) then called ViSas. It was made of

threads constituting warp and woof had borders and It
fingers, and ornamental 'embroideries'. The closf^ly
woven wider border (nivi-anchala in Pengah) is referred
to (R.v. II, .53, Av. IV, 2, 51) from which suspends. the
‘2
;

loose and long unwoven fringe and strikers'^.

The dhoti and s=ri (vsfas) had only one border (nivi),
the other end being much plainer (which in men’s case
is tucked behind even at present) to which belonged the
chaffs (tusha) or chhilki as it is called now Mention
is made of Asoka (Sat. Brah. Ill, 1, 2, 13), atiraka (Kath
Ham XXIII, 1) and alik^s (Tat. Sam VI, 1, 1, 3) which
are flower, star and spotty patterns embroidered all over
the cloth just as now-a-days.

For ritual purposes the cloth had to be unbleached

and unwashed (Sat Br^h. III. 1, 2, 13) but ordinarily it
.vas worn white (R.v VTI, 33, 1), Dyed cloths (v g. Sam
XX X 12 ; tait Br^h
4. 7,1) with rich gold thread
III,
drocades were affected (warm) bv gay young women
(Rv. 1, 92, 4 X. 1, 6). Red and gold borders are indicated
;

by their comparison with the horizon at sunrise and

sun set The house-holder of the Vr tya Group favoured
dark blue (Krishca) cloths and borders Pancha Brfih <

XVII, 11—16 Ka;h. Srauta Sotra XXII, 4)..

;

Out of the plain cloth v^sas vasana (R v. 1, 95, 7)

and vastra (R v. 1. 26, 17) with or w ithout borders, frinzes
and colours, varieties of scarfs, veils, cloaks, tight-jackets
and bust bodices were made- The manner of wearing
is indicated by the cloth (vi>asi being tied and the girt
which implies trucks and knots. The border (n vi) was
differently worn. The styles are shov\n by the elaborate
pleats and artistic waste-knots (nivi-bandha) of men and
women in the earlv sculptures as in Ellora. and other
places, and classical pahitings at Aimt^ and other p’aces,
and also in poetry. For instance the Vr tyas dis dayed
the hanging ornam-eital frii ge by tucking cnly oi.e

1. Himya (R.'^ 1, 11. 1), da^a (Sat Brah. Ill, 3, 2, 9, IV, 2, 2,11 ;

A;t Brah VII, 32).

2. Praghata (ta t Sam. VI 1, 1, 3 ;

Kath. Sam .KXUI, 1;

Sata Brah, UI, I, 2, 13).
For further details v.de Sarkar’s Ancient India wherefrom a
summary is made here.
 . ^
INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

corner of it as it is done even now by several people in

the United and other Provinces, The nivi knot was
so fashioned as to form a pouch wherein mag:ic herb
could be borne in ( A. v'. VIII, 5, 20). Women tie th-'ir i

ni\ i on the right side of the hop, it tlien being covei’eti by

the upper garment. Ushas is sa id to have a spet iai style
of wearing rich brocated cloth displaving her bosom (R v.
1. 9-2, 4).

The upper part of the body of men and women

was covered with separate garment, either a loose
wrap like upavasana, parya-nahana. adhivasa, or tailor
made close-fitting jacket bodice, cloak like the pratidhi.
drapi, and atka the bride had
her upavasana i^Av.
XIV, 2, 49 & 65) or scarf and veil and the vasas or sari
that fluttered high up in the air was an uttarfya or
scarf (R.v. X, 102, 2). Soma in the ritual had his paryau-
ahana (wrapper) in addition to upinabana d’oot wear)
and ushciisha (head gear). he gown (adhiv.sana) was
i

an overgarment worn by priitces over their inner

and outer garments (R.v. V. 1). Its identification is
suggested by the simile that forests are anadhiv^sa of
mother earth, thus it implies a long, loose-flowing
dressing gown for men and women. The atka and drapi
are close-fitting gold embroidered vest both for men and
women, atka for only, a long and fully covering close-
fitting cloak, bright and beautiful, the stuff being blea-*^
ched cottoit, inter wnven or embroidered with gold
thread. Pratidhi refers to bride’s attire consisting of one
made cloth drawn across or cross-
or tw'o strips, specially
wise over the bust and tied at the back to serve as
a bodice or like the short tight bust-bo-iii e (kanchuliki)
of later days.

The the Vedic literature were the originals

pcisas of
of peAvaz and gh
:gri of the present day. They were
gold em hr oided cloth generally the design being artistic
and intricate, and the inlay of gold heavy and brilliant.
The nritu is pleated skirt made of brocated cloth.
A large number of head dresses are referred to
viz.,ushnisha, Hipra, Stupa, Kaparda, Opasa, Sitika. Kuri-
ra, Kumbha Jati mauli, Kinta, Karanda, .^irastraka.
Kuntala Kesabandha, dhaminidla, aloka, chuda and
pattas *

I Vide Manasiara Chap. XI, IX see illustrative plates no.

 ECONOMIC LIFE OF MATERIAL PROGRESS 73

The ushnisha is mentioned very early as a characteristic

head dress of Vratya chieftain (Av XV, 2, 1) It was
worn by kings alsoh Sipra is mentioned (Ev. V. 54, Ur;
VII, 7, '20) as a helmet to be used in battle StQpa and
hiranya-stupa are the conical caps wherefrom the Persian
topi and the bridal topara have developed. Kaparda was
worn in front on the right side of the head (Rv V 54,
11). Opasa of Indra was like the volt of the heaven
(Ev. 1, 173, 6 Vlir, 14, 6). Sitika, Kurira, and Kumbha
were the hair dresses for women. Regarding the dressing
of the sculptural image the standard silpa sastra mentions
that the jata (matted hair) and mukuta (diadem) are worn
by Brahma and Siva; Kirita and mukuta by N rayana
(Vishnu) other minor gods wear Kara pda and mukuta.
• The love goddess Eati wears jata, maulimandala or
kuntala. Sarasvati and Savitri put on Kesabandha or
kuntala. Among the kings chakravartin and Adhiraya
wear Kiriia. Narendra puts on Karanda parslmika aiid
hrastraka. Patra-patta is suited to Pattadhara kings,
ratna-patta to Parshpika, pushpa patta to Pattadhwaja
and pushpainalya (flower wreath) to the Praharaka and
Astragraha Kings. The queens of these nine classes of
kings put on respectively kuntala, mukuta, kehibandha,
dhammilla, alaka, and chudf, the last three queens not
being entitled to put on any crown
0
" '

The height
of the divine
of a crown varies with the importance
or royal bearers The nuinber of gold
pieces and precious jewels in the crowns also vary in
accordance with the importance of the gods, goddesses,
kings and queens. Footwear was also not uirknown.
Padvisa which implies leggings (for a horse) is clearly
mentioned (Rv 1, 166, 16). Valurina-pada (Rv. J, 133, 2)
is footguards used by chiefs in battles Upanaha
(Av. XX 133, 4 ; Taith Sara. V. 4, 4, 4 ; Sat Bra V. 41,
3, 10) is a sandal used in rituals as shoes made of skin,
black and pointed.
More inferences can be made from the pre-vedic
statuary discovered at Mohenjo-daro and the extensive
sculptures and pai nti ng of the post vedic period. From
this source it is sufficiently clear that the priestly dress
was different from warrior’s garment, and labourer’s

!. Katha Sain. Xlll, 10, Tait'. Sam. Ill, 4, 1, 4 ;

bat. Brah. Ill, 54, 3, S, V 3, o, 2, 3,

XIV, ?, I, 18 «ee also MuJr Skt. Text iV 4, 3).

10
^4 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

loin cloth. In civil life man and woman had different

dresses for use at different times. It is not unlikely that
the night dress and sleeping suit were different from
those used in public and on special occasions.
The Vasas both for men and women seem to have
been the garment to cover in various manner the lower
part of the body
The upper part of the body was decorated with
simple and tailored dresses. The cloak and overcoat and
dressing gown formed the full dress. The headgears
and footwears anticipated the twentieth centuries
development in dressing made by the most fashionable
western countries.
This perfection in dress in ancient India must have
been preceded by the corresponding development in
producing the dress materials, cotton, silk, wool, and
skin, as well as weaving and tailoring. Cotton formed
the chief material for the textile industry. Its weaving,
spinning, darning and dyehig processes have been
elaborately described Wool from sheep (avikai was in
extensive use. Its preparation is mentioned in detail.
Silk is more common than wool two of its varieties
;

(tarpya and kshauma) are frequently mentioned. Skins

of black antelope were in common use. Maruts wore
dear -skins. Sages put on brown and tanned skins. Bark
dresses are also mentioned. Skirts made of Kuia grass
were worn by the sacrificer’s wife at the time of certain
sacrifice.

The indigenous mode of dressing still persists

excepting a very small number of government officials
and their families to some extent of the Muslim and
British periods. The
original mode depicted above was
no doubt in vogue during some 2000 years between the
period of the Vedas and the rule of the Pathans from
12th Century. The dress is the only thing in our life
which has remained least affected by foreign contact
—
Ornaments: Like clothes references to ornam-
ents to decorate the different parts of the body maybe
gathered in abundance from the Vedic and post vedic —
literature including poetry as well as from sculptures
and paintings. Ornaments made mostly ef metals and
jewels as also of shells with great artistic skill and aesth-
etic are found to decorare the top head, forehead, ear,
 ilGONOMIO LIFE OF MATERIAL PROGRESS 7o

nose, neck, chest, upper and middle, and lower

part of arms,* fingers, middle body, waist, ankles and toes.
Ti e Mohenjodaro figures ( of B C. 3000 ) show
f rnaments like fillets for the head, ear-rings, necklaces,
girdles with beads of carnilian, armlets, finger-rings,
and anklets. The rich people made them of gold. The
poor had them made of copper, shell, bone and terra-
cotta.
In the Vedic literature references are made to the
ear-rings (Karnasobhana, Kv. II, 33, 10 ) garlands for
the neck and chest (rukma-vaksha), jewels for the neck
(marugriva, Ev 1, 122, 14), bracelets and anklets (Kv.
I, 166, 8; V. 54,11).
In the post-Vedic general literature as also in poet-
ical description ornaments for the different parts of the
bo ly are frequently mentioned. A
general classification
is met with in the technical works like the Silpa-Ssstra.
The standard treatise, the Manasara (Chap 4) refers to
the lists of ornaments in great detail mentioning the
method of making them and manner of wearing them.
Thus for the decoration of the head of men and women
are prescribed^ diadem (kirita) of various kinds, fillet for
the forehead (Siro-vibhushaea), crest-jewel (Chud^imani),
combs for the hair mhulik:i) and also other ornaments
of the hair, Kesakiitaka mallik4 (of flcwer pattern),
puriraa worn on the head terminating at ears, small
fillets (bala-patta) for the forehead, and star ornament
(tilaka) worn between the eye brows For the ears rings
and pendants of various kinds are mentioned, liz.
Kundala, tatanka, and makara bhushana For the *

neck and chest are prescribed chains of 108 strings of

pearls (hara) and of 64 strings of pearls (ardhahara),
necklace (mala), garlands of wild fl( wer pattern (Vana-
mala), laces of star pattern (nakshatra mah) made of 27
precious stones corresponding to the number of the
stars, and strings (daman) worn round the shoulders.
For the arms one prescribed the armlets for the
root of the arms (bahu-mula valaya), for the fore arm
(prakoshtha-valaya) for upper arms Keyilra', for middle-
(

arm (kataka) for fore-arm bracelets made of jewels

(manibandha-kalapa) and jewelled wrist-lets (kankaiia).

1. These are fully illustrated in the Ajanta paintings and

Ellora sculptures (See Plates).
76 INDIAN CDLTUBE AND CIVILIZATION

Fingers are decorated with simple gold or silver rings

(-anguhyaka) and jeAvelled rings (ratnangi\l»yaka).

The middle body is decorated with chords and

-chains round the chest (pura-sctral round the female
-bosoms (stana-srtra) and round the chest of both sexes
-gold chains (svarra-sv.tra), girdles round the belly (irdara-
bandha) girdle round the waist (mekhala) chains round
the loin (kati-sutra), and golden bodices, jackets, cuirasses
(suvarna kanchuka).

Legs are also luxuriously decorated with bracelets

round the legs, anklets (nupura) of various patterns, and
the net ornaments for the fingers and the feet (psdayala-
vibh shana).
The general and poems in particular
literature
lend support to the above. Sculptures of Ellora and
paintings of Ajanta and other places fully demonstrate
these and other ornaments.

The artistic skill of these ornaments are recognised

even now and rich and fashionable people still take
patterns Irora these ornaments. Even the foreign ladies
appreciate their decorative values. The economic
prosperity of the ancient Hindus is also demonstrated
bv these ornaments. Their cultural importance and
artistic outlook are obvious.

HOUSE AND FUENITUBES

Like natural food comprising uncooked vegetables,
fruits, milk and flesh etc. wfiich sustain life, and the
natural skin and hair that protect the body from the
inclemency of weather, there are also natural cave
dwelling etc. wherein living beings can take shelter
to protect themselves from the sun, the rain, and the
wind. Human skill and art were however, demonstrated,
as in the preparation of food and clothes, in the matter
of house-building also. The degrees of achievement in
this matter are judged by the regularly made houses in
respect of their required accommodation in a hygienic
condition, durability based on materials and scientific
knowledge of workmanship, and aesthetics or beauty
and symbolic expression which satisfy the artistic
graving of an educated mind.
 ECONOMIC LIFE F MAAL TFRTBOGFESS 77

The first human effort at constructing dwelling

is shewn everywhere in cave-hovses which were made
in imitation of natural caves for which no foundations
or other devices for stability hsd to be provided. The
artificial caves excel the natural ones in matters of
openings and provision for light. The early.cave houses
were not partitioned into rooms nor was much attention
paid to polish up the floor, walls and the ceiling But
there was an extraordinary improvement in the rock-cut
monasteries and temples with natural wall and roofs
and storeys in the decoration of the interior with
wonderful chaitya roof, colonnaded partition, comfort-
able cells, halls and skilfully carved sculptures and awe-
inspiring paintings on the walls and roofs. The houses
built overground, however, demand the scientific calcula-
tion of load and the necessary strength of foundations,
walls and roofs in addition tc the provision for doors
and windows, w'eather and climate, light and ventila-
tion etc.

The durability of a house depends upon the kind

and manner of dressing various building materials.
The softer and more handy materials like mud, bamboo,
reed, straw' etc. are used by builders of various skill,
experience, and training. The more resourceful builders
of economic and political stability handle more lasting
materials like burnt brick and stones of various quality
and aim at a more durable structure. The real cultural
achievement in the science and art of building is fiuthe
indicated by the orientation, composition of mt' ibes.
distribution of rooms, consideration of drainage, light
and ventilation etc. Architecture proper provided more-
over a beautiful look and symbolic expression both
externally as well as internally. The architeotnral
beauty consists in w’ell measured proportions and dimen-
sions and in s>mmetry, uniformity and harmony, as
well as in balanced mouldings nr ornaments for the
members comprising storeys and. stairs floors arid
ceilings, roofs and spires, pillars and arches, verandahs
and balconies, porches and porticoes, doors and wuudows^
skylights and ventilators etc.

h condition of houses in India during the Indus

valley civilization of B. C. 3260-2750 is demonstrated b
the dwelling houses of private individuals and the public
baths, halls, and shrines discovered at Mohenjc-daro futd
78 lNi)lAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION
Harappa. These houses vary from the smallest ones
of two rooms to the large ones of
^^5 ft frontage and 97

ft. depth with wide entrance hall and door way, porter’s
lodges, 32 ft square courtyard surrounded by chambers
on both ground and upper floors. Such houses were
paved with burnt bricks of nearly 27 inches long. They
were provided with a covered drain which was connected
with vertical drains discharging into small earttienware
vessels sunk beneath the courtyard pavement for pur-
poses of upstairs privies. No distinctive features are
noticeable in halls looking like shrines which contain
phallic object apparently for worship.

The great public bath at Mohenjodiro corresponds

to the religious tanks attached to the temples of later
ages and also served the purpose of a regular hydro-
pathic establishment. Tt has several annexes. It con-
sists of an open quadrangle with verandahs backed by
galleries and rooms on all sides In the middle of the
quadrangle there is a swimming bath 39 ft long, 23 ft
broad and 3ft deep, which is provided with flights of
steps at the ends. There are wells from which it is
filled. There appears to have been an upper storey
also. In order to make foundations secure a nd water
light the lining of the lank was made of finely dressed
bricks laid in gypsum niortar about 4 ft thick ;backing
this wall an inch-thick damp proof bitumen further
strengthened by another thin wall of burnt brick behind
it ;
then came a packing of cr’ide brick and behind this
again another solid rectangle of burnt brick enccn pas-
sing the wh( le.

These structures i B. C. 3000 clearl> indicate the

<

engineering skill ani the ability of masons to handle

hard n aterialslike burnt bricks of very b g size. Dura-
bility is demcnstratf d by their existence for so many
th usanl years. The weather and soil con liti on as well
as the influence of the climate and the effect of the flood
from the nearly Indus which frequently went in split
appear t( have been well calculated. But the architectu-
ral beauties are altogether missi N< effort was male
to give an artistic look to these buildings externally or
internally. There were no spires, no pillars no
mouldings, no windows etc only the utility and stability
^
w ereairned at-
 ISOONOMIC LIFE OF MATERIAL PROGRESS 79

No such objects of the Veaic periol which came

next and continued from B. C. 2500 to 1000 have been
discovered. But particulars of a peater variety of
constructions showing great engineering skill and much
architectural beauty have been supplied by literary
'^•escription ci ntained in different branches cf the Vedio
literature. Such description can hardly be possible from
mere poetic in. agination which itself is based on some
concrete objects that the poets might have seen or
heard of.

Atristated tc have been thrown intc a n achine

is
ro( m ;red doors, Vasishtha desired to have a
with a hun
three-storeyed dwelling. Mention is made of a sovereign
who sat down in his substantial and elegant hall built
with a thousand pillars of which later examples still
exist in south India, ani of residential houses as are
said to be vast, comprehensive, andtho sand-ioored
Mitra and Varupa are represented as occupying a great
palace with a thousand pillars and a thousand gates.

In !( the noblemen’s mansions called

addition
harmya and and king’s palaces or prasada cc mprising
sail
seveal storeys particulars (f smaller houses are also
available. Such houses were built with timber pillars
and beams in various positions, vertical (upamit)
horizontal (pratimit) and slanting (parimit). Bamboos
were used for the frame-work of roofing. The akshu
was the wicker-work or split bamboo lining over which
was placed the thatch of hay, straw or long reedy grass
fastened by net to keep the straw bundles intact. Fine
clay for flooring and reed w rk for walls completed
the frame-work of such a small house which can still
be seen in poorer parts of Bengal.

In keeping with the requirements of such a house

for a family of Brahmagic custom in a village settlement
the accommodation provided was of modest character.
There were several side-rooms with a central hall in
bungalow pattern. The hall of fire-altar (agnisiila) pro-
bably in the centre served the purpose of both sacrifice
and sitting room. With it was connected the sacrificial
store-room (havirdhaiiad and women’s apartments or
bed-roon< (pai;ni sadana) Such a ‘well proportioned
house’ was covered by a mauy-wdnged roofing. Houses
of other varieties must have developed according to the
80 INDIAN CULTORE AND CIVILIZATION

regional conditions and requirements of the builders.

For honcuring the dead and keepii g their meu ory alive
rouu and square types f cemeteries were built of proper-
l <

ly dressed stones of various kinds. These sinatana build-

ings w'f re of three types known as vastu or reliquary of
bo: '.es which is still retained in the name kapila-vastu,
grihan or dwelling house for the dead and prajnanam
or memorial stone slabs and pillars which are the
prototypes of the stupas and monolithic pillars of the
later age.

in the absence of idol worship there wss no regular

shrine or temple. But fire altars for tlie pri^^st'y class
were built with bur !it bricks showing engineering skill
and geometrical calculation Particulars of the shape
of ien types of altars and the bricks which were employ-
ed for their construction have been supplied by Baudha-
yana and Apastamba. Every one of the a\ tars bearing
the shape of a falcon, a heron, an equilateral triangle,
two triangles joined at the base, a wheel without and
with sixteen spokes square or circular vessel or tube, and
a triangular or circular tortoise was constructed of five
layers of bricks which together came up to the height
of the knee in some cases ten or fifteen layers and pro-
portionate increase in the height of the altar were
prescribed,’ Every layer in its turn was to consist of
dOO bricks so that the whole altar contained a tbousaiid ;

the first, third and fifth layers were divided into hundred
p^rts in exactly the same manner a different division
;

was adopted for the second and the fourth so that one
brick was never laid upon another of the same size and
form. The area of every altar, whatever its shape
might be falcon, wheel, tortoise etc. had to be equal to
'l\ square purusha or the height of a man with uplifted
arms. Thus squares had to be found which would be
equal to two or more given squares oblongs were turned
;

into squares and squares into oblongs ; and circle had to

be constructed equal in area to a given square.

To
suit the advanced domestic and public life of a
highly culiured people there were public assembly
. halls both in villages and towns, rest housts, and
school buildings. Heads, bridges, causeways, gateways
royal establishments, castles for nobles defences against
the enemy can also be recognised.
 ECONOMIC LIFE OP MATERIAL PROGRESS 81

The articles of furniture which are mentioned

give more reality especially to the residential buildings
and civil architecture. The Rigveda refers to ‘married
women occupying their commodious Lalpas, the new
and prospective brides lying on the fashionable vahyas,
other single women of the household on the broad
proshthas, and a maiden on a sayana together
with paryanka and the ordinary couches or bedsteads.
The talpa is the nuptial bed whereupon alone talpya or a
legitimate son could be born. Vahya is a lighter struc-
ture used specially in marriage ceremony of getting the
bride and the bridegroom lain on bed side by side, which
ceremony may also be performed upon asandi which
IS a humbler settee proshathas on a combination of
a settee and a coffer’ and were also used as long benches,
couches or beds, which were also sent as dowry along
with the bride to her husband’s home. They could also
be fixed against the walls and furnished with turned
legs. The proshthapada or arm chaired and stretched-
legged gentlemen indicates an easy chair. The sayana
or ordinary bedsteads was also meant for ‘beloved
woman or maiden who felt pain of the silken coverlet
because of the absence of a male companion. Puru-
ravas and Urvas'i slept on such a soft couch. The asandi
and paryartka originated with the ruling nobility were
also used in the priest’s dwelling houses. The King’s
asandi was carried by two persons, while a god’s asandi
called the throne of justice’ was carried by four persons.
Paryartka is a magnified asandi and it developed to
be of ‘unmeasured splendour, having some arrangement
of feet and frame, and straps stretched lengthwise and
crosswise, with head-piece of the couch, the supporting
back, and cushion and pillow for the head’.
Various other smaller seats and smaller articles
of furniture are referred to throughout the Vedic liter-
ature. Various kinds of sacrificial seats, known
and used even now, as prastsra, barhis, and kurcha are
made of grass of various sorts. Sadas are seats for
Sadary as or members of society. Kasipu is a mat and
brisi is a cushion seat. Nadvata and kata are rotten
mats Pitha is a low wooden seat.
In the post-vedic period from B. C. 1000 to 1000
A. D. the epics of the Brahmapas and the literature of
the Buddhists and Jains supply details which n utually
11
82 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

corroborate the particulars of the—vedic literature and

pre-vedic finds of Mohenjodiro and other places.
In the city of Aycdhya as stated in the Rimayapa
extensive buildings were beautifully arrai^ed. Assem-
bly halls gardens and alms-houses were most elegant.
The steeple of temples and other houses were as res-
plendent as the crests of mountains and bore hundreds
of pavilions like the celestial palace of the chief among
the G-ods. The Mahabharata refers to various halls.
Charming lodgings were built for the royal guest at the
Eajasuya sacrifice. They were surrounded on all sides
by well built high walls. They were free from obstruc-
tions. They w^ere provided with doors of uniform height
but of various quality and were inlaid with numerous
metal ornaments The windows were protected by
golden lattices and decorated with a profusion of jewel-
lery. The
stairs were easy of ascent. The rooms were
provided with excellent furniture and furnished with
commodious seats and bed steads. The houses had
by them charming lakes and ranges of ornamental
plants.

By the time of Gautama Buddha of the 6th or

5th century the art of building was recognised as a well
developel science “ we need not therefore feel surprised”
says Vincent Smith in the Imperial Gazetteer, ‘when the
piprahwi Stopa gives us definite information that
India on the frontier of Nepal in 460 B. C. included
skilled masons, accomplished stone-cutters, and dainty
jewellers The masonry of the stopa is excellent of
its kind, well and truly laid ;
the great sandstone coffer
could not be better made ; and the ornaments of gold,
silver, coral, cjystal, and precious stones which were
deposited in honour of the holy relics, display a high
degree of skill in the arts of the lapidary and gold-
smith’ .

In Buddha’s time buildings were regularly classified

into five groups of which examples all over India are
still extant. Guhas were rock cut buildings like those
at Elloi’a, Ajanti, Nasik, etc. described in a later section
Prasidas are storeyed buildings. Harmyas are more
imposing palaces. Ardhayogas are ordinary bungalow
type of residential buildings, of which the roof consists
of two parts joined at the top in a slanting form and are
thus so called. And Viharas are the well known
 ECONOMIC LIFE OF MATERIAL PROGRESS 8B

monasteries built for the monks of which chaityas or

churches with altar, aisles and other peculiarities are
special varieties. Stupas with their ornamental railings
and charming gates as at Sanchi and other places and
free standing pillars with inscription some of the
monumental buildings. Elsewhere are referred to
the wonderful temples of the Jains at mount Abu.
Parasnath, Palitana, Gwalior Khajuraho, Chitor, Bengal,
Aharnedabad and other places. In the south of India
two types of Jain temples exist. The Basati contains
images of Tirthaukaras and Bettas combine monasteries
and temples with colossal images of Gomata.
The extensive residences comprised dwelling rooms,
retiring rooms, store rooms, service halls, halls with
fire places in them, store houses, closets’ cloisters,
halls for exercise, wells, sheds for wells, bath rooms'
halls attached to bath rooms and ponds, and open-
roofed pavilions,’ Even a devotee of Buddha is stated
to have, built for his own use ‘a residence, a sleeping
room, a stable, a tower, a one peaked building, a shop,
a boutique, a storeyed house, an attic, a cave, a cell, a'
store room, a refectory, a fire-room a kitchen; a privy’
a place to walk in a house to walk in a well, a well house,
a lotus pond, and a pavilion, and hot-sitting bath which
comprised an antechamber, a hot-room, and a pool to
bathe in’.

The Buddhist canonical texts refer to articles of

furniture of much improved style. Various asrmdi or
large couches are mentioned some of those being covered
with canopies, Asandaka are rectangular chains.
Sattangas were used as arm-chairs and sofa with arms
to it. Bhoddapitham is a state chair. Eka-padaka
pitham is a chair raised on a pedestal, and pithika is a
cushioned chair. Amalaka-vantika-pitham is a chair
with many legs. Phalaka is a leaning board. Benches
were made long enough for three persons. Bedsteads
of various sizes and types are mentioned. Mention is
also made of carpets, rugs, pillows, curtains, coverlets of
various materials and designs, mattresses, rich elephant
housings, panther and antelope skiirs, bolsters, floor
cloth, mosquito curtains, handkerchief, and spittoon.

Atthe close of the so-cafied Buddhist period about

the beginning of the Christian era when an effort to
84 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

revive Brahmanism was made by the Sunga and Mitra

dynasties, a standard text Manassra Vastusastra dealing
most methodically with the practical construction of
the various architectural and sculptural objects appears
to have been compiled. x\nd it seems that on the basis
of this standard text all the structures were built not
only in the south but also in the North including west
and the East of which the examples still exist from
the 6th Century onwards. It is also interesting to note
that this text bears striking resemblance with a similar
text of about the same age (B. 0 25) of the Koman
architect Vitruvius, on the basis of which all European
architecture grew up from the 16th Century.

In the treatise of Manasara rules and practical

directions for all kinds of buildings and their composing
members and mouldings are described with alternative
sets of measurement in great detail and in a scientific
manner. In the eight introductory chapters full
accounts are given of the system of measurement, the
necessary training and qualifications of the different
classes of architects, selection of building sites, testing
of soil, dialling and finching out cardinal points for a
correct orientalism of buildings mathematical calcula-
tions, planning and designing and a proper classification
of all possible and probably then extant kinds of building
and sculptures. Buildings are grouped under harmya,
yana and paryanka. Harmya includes all types of
buildings proper, such as prasida or palace mandapa or
pavilion, sandha or edifice, sala or mansions ranga or
theatres, and prapa or humbler houses (lit aim-house)
The ysna implies conveyances which are described under
syandana or litter sibika or palanquin, and rath a or
chariot.' Paryanka means literally couches and
bedsteads but it includes panjara or cages, manchaU or
mancha or platform, phalakisana or wooden seats, tables
chairs, ward-robes etc.

1. Vyoma.yana (and vimana) implies aereal car. The Push,

paka vimana by which Rama returned from ceylon to Ayodhya was
clearly an aeroplane. It is corroborated by the poetic description
of the Meghaduta or cloud messanger. The art of making
and plying
aeroplane appears to have been known in India before
it developed
in uropean and other countries.
 ECONOMIC LIFE OF MA-TiiRIAL PROGRESS 85

In the next forty-two chapters are described all

necessary things concerning buildings of various type.
Thus are given the alternative sets of measurement,
proportion, ornament and other details cf houses in
villages, towns and cities, and their foundations, dimen-
sions, pillars and thin component parts such as pedestals
bases, shafts, capitals and entablatures, storeys varying
from one to twelve in ordinary houses and upto seventeen
in gateways attached both to temples and residential
buildings. The artistic arrangement of storeyed man-
sions in as many as ten rows are described, together
with their attached buildings and detached pavilions,
compounds and courts and gatehouses. Particulars of
all houses are given regarding their compartments, hall
chambers, doors windows and other openings. Steps
and stair cases for houses, m( untains and rivers and
ponds etc. are also described with details of construction.
The courtyards and quadrangles are similarly described.
All necessary particulars are given of royal courts and
palaces as well as of thrones and crowns prescribed for
gods and Kings and their consorts.
Thrones for gods and Kings are described under nine
types viz. Padragsana, padma— kesara, padma-bandha,
padm a-bhadra, Sri-bandha, Srivisala, 6ri-bhadra Bhadra-
sana, and pada-bandha. Charming details are furnished
for facilitating construction. Their reality is ensured
by the extant examples to be found over sculptures and
paintings. Structural details and constructional
particulars of the articles of furniture are supplied under
scientific classification and precision. The domestic
furniture of this historical age include all necessary
articles like lamp-parts, fan, mirror, basket, chest, box
for oil, wardrobe, balance, swing and palanquin, cars
and chariots, coaches and bedsteads and cages and nets
for domestic animals boar, cat, etc. and birds like
parrot, partridge, goose, duck, cock, dove, mongoose etc.
In this standard text sculpture has been treated as
the handmaid of architecture. In the concluding twenty
chapters are described sculptural details of the idols of
duties of the Brshmanas, Buddhists, and Jains, statues
of great personages, and images of animals and birds,
The extant examples corroborate the conclusion of this
text The master pieces of sculpture and fresco have
been found in temples in monasteries and in chaitya
halls.
86 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

Elsewhere a survey of the existing temples has

been given. So far as the ancient remains are concern-
ed no structure in complete condition is available before
the 6th century A. D. Although most of the Hindu,
Buddhist and Jaina temples have been destroyed by the
invaders still there remain sufficient number which the
archaeologists have classified under the Indo- Aryan,
Dravidian and Chalukyan styles. More comprehensive
and scientific are the division made in the Manasara and
other architectural texts. According to the latter source
buildings of all character are classified as Nagara or
northern, Dravida or southern, and Vesara or eastern.
The northern style is distinguished by its alongated
shape and horizontal spire. The Dravidian style bears
the massive shape and storeyed tower. And Vesara
or the eastern style is characterised by its round shape
and spiral spire. ^
Various kinds of houses and furniture of which
short references have been quoted above should be
enough to show that the primitive limitation is no-
where noticed. The cave temples themselves, as the
temple (of Kailas'a) at Ellora and other places show are
construction of much engineering skill and architectural
beauty. They are not the natural caves lacking intelli-
gent workmanship of skilled masons, where primitive
men and animals reside. The extant buildings, being
predominantly temples, wherein the exuberance of fancy
and luxury is exhibited, may indicate the medieval
tendency. But the references to almost all kinds of
civil buildings and to the articles of furniture which
are required only in the residential houses make it
perfectly clear that the Hindus of the Vedic and pre-
Vedic periods reached modern level of civilization in
these respects. In certain matters the ancient buildings
appear to have been better than the modern ones. No
modern buildirgs will stand comparison with the ancient
ones of which the remains are still extant as shown
above in matter of bold construction, luxurious orna-
mentation and the ever lasting nature of their life. The
colossal temples of the south, north, west and east of India
from the seventh and eighth centuries and the civil struc-
tures of Mohenjodaro from B. C. 30C0 have been defying
nature and standing almcst intact without any repair.

1 , See the plates for examples.

 ECONOMIC LIFE OP MATERIAL PROGRESS 87

Again the provision made in ancient buildings for

orientation facilitating passage of the sun’s shine and
air is now impracticable owing to the peculiar conges-
tion in towns and the blind imitiation of the foreign
styles of different climate and soil.

In short the cultural achievements of the ancient

Hindus in the matter of houses appear to be higher than
what the modern civilization has achieved in India.
The articles of food and various dishes, the great
varieties of clothes and ornaments, as well as dwelling
houses and articles of furniture and temples and forts,
and fortified towns, indicating efficient industrial activi-
ties of the ancient Hindus, point to their abilities in
producing raw materials which are the basis of all
finished goods concerning food, clot’nes and houses.

PRODUCTION OF RAW MATERIALS

Agriculture : —
Like animals and birds men at the
primitive stage of civilization could not produce any
grain on which they lived. The principle of agriculture
in sowing seeds and reaping the harvest in much larger
quantity was understood and practised in the medieval
stage. But at that stage all the modern processes of the
science of agriculture riz,, selection of soil, its cultiva-
tion, manuring, and watering, etc., were not sufficiently
developed The intense religious nature of the medieval
society made the people fatalists, they could not bring
the nature under control by the modern scientific
methods on the other hand they prayed to God for
;

removing pests, increasing fertility of the soil, giving

water by rain, although from the time of Chandragupta
Maurya in the fourth century before Christ irrigation
canals were made for supply of water to the agricul-
turists.

It is, however, clear that the art of producing corn

was known even in B. C. 3000. The discovery of live
wheat at Mohenjodaro proves the knowledge of agricul-
ture beyond doubt among the pre-vedic people in India.

In the Vedic period from B. C. 2500, it is clear,

that vegetable, fruits, roots, cotton etc. were produced by
the agricultural methods. The various scientific opera-
tions, viz. ploughing, sowing, reaping and threshing are
88 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

elaborated in the Brahmana class of the Vedic literature^.

Even the earlier samhita literature mentions that for
certain crops there could be two harvests in a year.*
Various kinds of grain were produced, viz. rice (vrihi)
barley (Yava), maize (godhuma), bentils (masura^,
beans (mudga, misha) and sesamum (tila)* etc. Definite
time of sowing the seed and reaping the harvest for
various corns is specified.'* Thus barley is sown in winter
and harvested in summer. The first crop of rice is sown
in rains which ripens in autumn, Beans and sesamum
ripe in winter. Cotton, silk, wool, etc. are also agricul-
tural products. Like, rice, wheat etc cotton is still
extensively produced. Production of silk was not exten-
sive. Wool was not also produced on farming basis in
ancient India.
The manure of Cowdung (ksrisha) is referred to and
the value of the natixral manure from animals is esti-
mated®.
But merely prayers were made for the success of
the farmer, for growth of corn, fall of rain increase of
cattle and exorcisms against pests, wild animals, and
robbers.
The Agricultural implements are casually referred
to throughout the Sanskrit literature. At the early time
of the Samhita literature the plough is said te have
been so large and heavy that it could be drawn by a
team not less than of twenty-four oxen®.
The Arthasastraof Kautilya mentions special
officers for centralizing the inspection of cattle, pasture,
and forests. Gautama (XI, 20-21) allows powers to the
cultivators to lay down rules to safeguard their interests.
No full sastra (science) or treatise dealing exclu-
sively with agriculture has been found out yet. The
casual references quoted from general literature are
however sufficient to show that the ancient Hindus were
familiar with the principles of agriculture But the

1. Compare ^atapatha Brahmana, I, 6, 1, 3.

2. i’aittiriya Samhita, V, 1, 7, 3.
3. Compare Vaj. sam, XVIII, 12,
4. Taitt Sam. VII, 2, 10, 2.
5. ^at Brah. 2, 1, 1, 7 ; Av pj 14, 3, 4 ; XIX, 31, 3
6. Kath. Sam XV. 2.
 ECONOMIC LIFE OF MATERIAL PROGRESS 89

present condition, however, indicates that the necessary

development with the progress of time was not main-
tained, in this respect as in many other fields. It
appears to have been due to the smaller need, greater
fertility, lesser competition, more regularity of rain-
fall, and freedom from exploitation by the more intelli-
gent but selfish people.
Miner ology —VixQ raw materials like metals, gems,
coal, salt are not produced or multiplied by sowing
etc.
seed etc. They are the natural deposits. They lie hidden
beneath the surface of the earth. Wood, timber, stones,
marbles etc. are also the free gifts of natiire. They are
.

not generally kept concealed and plants and trees etc.

can also be multiplied by plantation. All these materials
may be classified under minerology. The activities of
this science consist in unearthing the natural deposits
and in spotting and discovering the surface products
This source of wealth enriches the people more
easily. In India this rich source is still undeveloped.
But the principles of the science were not unkn own to
the ancient Hindus. Even in B. C, 3000 G-old and other
metals were in use at Mohenjodaro. The Vedic litera-
ture also bears copious references to all these materials,
Digging of wells for water may be cited as an instance
But the modern development was lacking and the Hin-
dus di not keep pace with the modern development in
1

this respect also.

MANUFACTURE OF GOODS
Industry : —The chief
concern of industrial activi-
ties is to effect the conversion of raw materials into
furnished goods ready for consumption. We have seen
very early references to numerous dishes made out of
several food-stuffs, such as grains, cereals, vegetables,
fruit, salt, spices, milk, honey, fish and flesh. Dressing
and ornaments were also made out of the agricultural
and mineral products, such as cotton, silk, wool, metals
and shells etc. Houses and furniture also were con-
structed with reed, bamboo, wood, stone, earth, brick,
and metals. Sculptures and paintings also required
conversion of clay, marble and stone and colours etc.
No finished goods could, however, be produced economi-
cally by the effort of single individual . Thus from the
very beginning the Indo- Aryan society was f oim ie 1 on

12
90 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

the principle of the division of labour which is reflected

in the caste-system. Numerous sub-castes are merely
groups of workers each carrying on a single process of
an industry as the caste profession. In addition to raw
materials, workers with inherited skill and implements,
and a big market of consumers in the country itself, the
industry required for its develop meirt on a large scale
the capital-outlay and a scientific organisation only ;

the state protection was hardly needed as there was

not much competition with the outsiders. Traces
of improved industrial activities in B C. 3000 are
found in the pre-ve lie Mohenjo-daro discoveries.
Mineral products were in extensive use. Finished goods
made of gold, silver, copper, tin and lead have
'

been discovered in large nutnbers. Ivory, shell

faience, etc. were also extensively u-ed. Manufactured
goods of stone, bricks, wood, etc. are found in the
extant houses, and in the haflis, roads, and lanes of the
town of Mohenjodaro ; semi-precious stones such as
rock, crystal, hacmatile, carnelian, jasper, agate,
onyse, etc. were used for making ornaments. Referen
ces to dress and garments which could be made only-
•

of manufactured goods are clear U’om the bronze

figures of dancing girls and other images. The wea-
pons, such as bow, arrow, axe, dagger and irace. and
the implements, such as hcitchets, sickles, saws,
chisels and razors of copper and bronze indicate
further progress in industry. The wheel-made pottery,
which suppliel domestic vessels, such as goblets or
drinking cups, jars, heaters, offering stands, etc almost
complete the picture of the industrial activities cf
Indians some five hundred years before the time assig-
ned to the Indo-Aryans of the Vedic period.
The Yajurveda (vaj. San XXX, 7) has supplied
a list of occupations which show a striking development
in industry in the Vedic period from B. C -2500. This
list includes ploughers and cultivators, fishermen,
butchers, potters, smiths, smelters, fire-rangers, washer-
men, barbers, makers of jewels, baskets, ropes, dyes,
chariots, and bows, etc. Manufactures of metal goods
from gold, silver, copper, bronze, iron, etc are also
referred to. Gold coins of definite weight, indicating a
gold currency are mentioned. *

1. Nishka (^at Brah. V, 1, 2. 9, 5, 28)

Ashta.pindi (kith. Sam. XI, 1)
Satamaaa (Sat. Brah. V 5, 5, 10).
 ECONOMIC LIFE OF MATERIAL PROGRESS 91

More extensive lists of industrial workers are

available in the Buddhist-Jain literature as well as
throughout classical Sanskrit literature. The Jatakas
(VI and IV 137) mention the wood-workers, oarpenters
including cabinet-makers, wheelwrights, builders of
houses, conveyance makers, and ship builders and
mariners, workers in metals including gold and silver
are also mentioned Workers in stone, leather-workers
and ivory -workers are also included-
Such workers are mentioned also in the epigraphi-
cal records. For instance the Nasik inscriptivons (no.
113-3, 1137) specify manufacturers of hydraulic engines
andwmavers The Juanu inscription (no. 1165) men-
tions the bamboo- workers, braziers, jewellers, potters,
oil-millers, basket-makers, dyers, painters, fish-mongers,
butchers, and garland makers.
No references to big industrial concerns are how.
ever, found in these non-technical treatises. The idea
of exploitation of manual workers by investing large
capital an 1 organising the industries does not seem to
have developed in ancient India. The spirit of adven-
ture was not however lacking as is shewn by the
colonization of distant islands and the expedition
of religious mission in India. Thus the Sanskrit
culture and Hindu civilization migrated far and wide
but did not endeavour to exploit others materially.
Thus in industrial matter there was no trace of primi-
tive slavery but the medieval intensity of religion
prevailed. The tendency of combining individual liberty
with the sovereignty of state, as the ideal of the modern
civilization, is reflected in the ideal of the modern
civilization, is reflected in the division of labour in
ancient India obviously’- for industrial purposes,

DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH.
—
Trade and Commerce Trade consists in exchan-
ging or selling of agricultural and mineral raw materials
and of industrial products or manufactured goods,
(Jommerce is the interchange of merchandise on a
large scale between nations, countries, or individuals
especially at long distance. There is no distinction
of quality or kind betw'een trade and commerce the
only difference being !f quantity or volume. But for
the progress in commerce bigger markets more efficient
92 INDIAN CULTUEE AND CIVILIZATION

transport facilities, convenient medium of exchange

and banking and accounting devices are
scientific
necessary.
Both small trade and large commerce however re-
quire markets or places for stock! ng and buying and sel-
ling of concentrated goods. Such places are centrally
situated and must be connected by land or water routes,
or by both, and even by the air-routes in these days. An
easy and cheap movement of saleable goods wherever
they are in demand facilitates both trade and commerce.
Commerce in large scale howsver covers wider areas
and greater distil nee between the centres of buying and
selling. Trade between distant countries is also possible
when there are cheap facilities for transport. The
cheap cost of production and the increasei capacity
of consumers to buy and also the creation of fashion
or taste for new things contribute largely to the
progress of trade and commerce The shrewd traders
endeavour to create a false luxurious standard of living
for the consumers’ goods of cheaper price but of shorter
duration serve as a trick of traders and facilitate the
exploitation of the consumers. Thus the primitive
selfishness of the traders and false sense of civilization
of the consumers are noticeable in trade and commerce
also.
The motto of ‘simple living and high thinking’
has an adverse effect upon trade and commerce. And
this effect is remarkable in Sanskrit culture and Hindu
civilization of the earlier period. In the pre-Vedic
Mohenjodaro period of B. C. 3000 the simplicity of
living is reflected in the town-plan, in the buildii^s, in
the articles of furniture and ornaments which lack in
artistic skill and beauty But the existence of curved
stone etc. for buildings and gold, silver etc for orna-
ments which were not locally available at Mohenjodaro
indicate clearly that these materials must have been
imported from outside on a trading basis. No
further details of trade and commerce at that remote
part of India is, however, available.
In the Vedic period from B 0. 2600 to 1000 trade
must have made great advance. For in the Atharva-
Veda, following the tradition of the period, or charm for
success in trade is definitely mentioned. In the Rigveda
a system of exchange is also referred to. The Fanis
who scandalized the Vedic sages by the huge amount of
 ECONOMIC LIFE OF MATERIAL PROGRESS 93

wealth they amassed, undoubtedly followed the simple

system of exchange in their commercial transactions.
It will be shewn later that in the Vedic period some
kind of coin of gold, silver, and copper was in
use and that must have been required for trade facilities
only. Sanskrit words for purchase (Kraya), sale
(vikraya) and market (hatta), etc. came into use in the
later literature.

But the existence of towns (pura etc.) and village

(grama) implies the trading centre therein. They were
connected with tracks with wells at intervals and it
was ^calculated to facilitate the growth of business
centres at the important junction of the routes Transport
facilities are also referred to Caravans, accompanied by
armed escorts, appear to have wandered about the land
doing the business of buying and selling.
During the period of ti e Epics, and the Buddhist
and Jain scriptures and Jatakas till the time of the
Maurya (B. C. lOOii to 300) there are references to
indicate a fairly flourishing condition of trade in India.
From about B. C 800 India was In Commercial con-
nection with different countries lying at great distances.
There were both land routes and water -routes between
India and foreign lands. There was regular trade
between western coast of India and Phaenician coast
of Persia. And from this trade connection it was
once surmised by Dr. Buhler and others that the Indian
merchants picked up in B. C. 800 the method of trade-
account, to which the origin of indian writing wms
ascribed.

From the times of the Mauryas (B. C. 300 to 100)

AD) three great roads ran from Pataliputra, the capital
of India in three directions. One of these connected
Pataliputra with Nepal through Vaisali and Sravasti.
Another ran from Pataliputra through Kausambi and
Ujjayini to Baryaaza, otherwise, called Bharukachcha, the
modern Broach. The third connected Pataliputra to
Bactriana through Mathura (Muttra and upper Indus
)

valley. This last route was the longest high way of the
Empire and the naost important in its effect on economic
and political life of In iia. It connected a'aliputra with
:

Qaiidhara and latter with Bactriana when the Greek

Kingdom was established there, and the commercial
relations between the valleys of the Ganga and the
4 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILI2ATI0N

Ox\is became closer as a result. A mountain track

ran from Kabul to the upper valley of the Oxus, east
of Bactria. At this place it met another route which
passing round Pamir went to Chinese Turkestan and so
to Yarkand by the uppor Tarim. Further north a route
led from Maracanda (Samarkand) in Sogdiana to Kashgar
on a Tributary of the Tarim.
These routes carried the Chinese silk on Syria-,
and Chinese and Indian expansion on land came into
conflict by them. The Buddhist missionaries used
these routes in their enterprise which brought India and
China closer to each other than any economic relation
could even do, and the homogeneous culture which
Buddhism established from the north of Iran to the
west of China must have accelerated the economic
activities.
That these trade routes were establishei by the
State itself is clear from the fact that the road-making
was a duty of King (Ohandragupta Maurya) as laid down
in the Kautiliya Arthas^stra. The road n aking and the
digging of walls are still considered as advancing the
religious merits.
In ancient India water ways were also not neglec-
ted India is still reckoned among the greatest sea and
colonizing powmrs of the ancient woild. 1he favourable
situation in the centre of the Indian ocean was well
utilized, and the Indian civilization radiated to east and
west from Madagascar to Tongking through Indian sea
borne trade ‘Ships passed betw’een Bharukachha and
Babylon on the w^est, and Suvarnabhumi (Bowser Burma)
on the east’. A n intercourse was kept up with Egyot,
directly through the Red sea and indirectly through
Persians and Arabians. Commercial relations were
maintained wdth the East coast of Africa as w^ell But
the main port of the Indian trade and shipping passed
to the east to the lands colonized by the Indians.
Tamralipti the chief port of dengal, and even kenares
and Patna sent out ships to t eylon and other plates.
Ferand thinks that 'the Indian expansion in Indo-
Chinese peninsula and the Indian archipelago began in
the third or even the fifth century before Christ. Funan
(Southern Cambodia) and Cochin China- was first India-
nizffl by Kuitdinya who tlourisheil according to
Pelliot
in the fiVst century A. D. at the latest. Indianization
 ECONOMIC LIFE OF MATERIAL PROGRESS 95

followed in Champa (southern Annam) a century

later, Fahien, who landed at the latter gives some idea
of the flourishing conditions of the islands of Suvarna-
dvipa (Sumatra) and Yavadvipa (lit. island of barley,
modern Java)
This intercourse of India with all those foreign
countries, as his already been indicated, was not actua-
ted by the hope of material gain, it had primarily the
religious motives. It is, as the result of this, that
Saivaism, Vaishnavism, and Buddhism were introduced
in these places

From the time of the Epics, roughly from B. C.

1000 to about 1-200 A. D., the internal trade also flourish-
ed through the same aim of interchanging cultural and
religious rivers. Aryan cultur^ was spread all over the
countries by the heroes of the Ramayana and the Maha-
bharata. The sage Agastya is stated to have crossed
the Vindhya range which once divided India into North
(Aryrvarta) and South (Dakshinatya). Similarly the
missionaries and emissaries of the kings Asoka, Kanish
ka, ^ Samudragupta, Harsha, Pulakesin, Rashtrakutas
Palas, and Senas brought the different parts of the Indian
continent into closer contact. In this historical period
greater facilities of roads and transport were established.
Local goods with special names^ and quality were export
ed to distant parts There were even local coins The
Hundi (handnote) system of banking still continues.
The different systems of weight and measure which are
still prevalent indicate the flourishing condition of the
trade. From about B. C. 450 there are archaeological
remains and epigrahical records giving various parti-
culars of the trade facilities. But the want of primitive
selfishness and desire to exploit others, as well as the
absence of uncivilized competition and the non-inter-
fernce of the state and ever changing political authority
regarding individual liberty did not give rise to commer-
cial enterprise in a big scale.

These are indications, however, that from very

early time the state authority allowed and encouraged
a sort of trade-union. The term Sreni which occurs in
the Vedic literature and in Pali (as seni) means distinctly

1. As for example, MurshLdabad silk, Rame-bwarani shells

Bauaras brassvrares. Sauth lalian broaze scalpfcures etc.
 ' ;

96 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

in the period of the sncriti literature ‘a corporate

association’ for all kinds of workers such as traders,
baitkers and also artisans, sailors, herdsmen, tillers of
soil (Manu, VIII, 41). The Mugapakha Jataka (IV, 411)
specifies eighteen guilds including the workers on wood
metal, leather, etc. As the result of the caste system
the professional occupation was handed down from
father to son. Thus there came to be the families of
smiths, carpenters, potters, etc. which grouped together
and formed villages of smiths, carpenters and potters.
There were also srenis of ascetics, bandits and high-
waymen.
In matter of the working of the trade corporations
in particular there was president or head, known as
Pamukha (sanskfit Pramukha) in I’ali literature. He
was an iniportant person at the King’s court. The guilds
had legislative, judicial and executive povrers Rigid
discipline was observed to maintain order within the
corporatiom The customs of the guilds were always
safeguarded by the king and he was obliged to accept
their decisions as stated in one of the law books.
The discipline in trade and commerce is reflected
in the observance of accuracy and honesty in measures
and weights lollowed in buying an selling of goods, 1

In the Hindu system of ancient India an intelligent

device was followed so that no deliberate cheating was
possible. In matter of measure of length the finger-
breadth of a standard size of ibe buyer or tbe seller
was adopted as the lowest un.it and for the weight of
goods the smallest ui;it was a nlr or duskpavticle which
was converted into the unchanging Eati seed which
could be raised to the I igher units f yara and sarshapa
(

seeds'. In the most civilized countries at present the

1. N:irada Smriti, X, 2, 3,

2. Measure of length (Msnasira, Chapter II)

8 Paramanu (atom) 1 Rathadhuli (ear.dust)
8 Rathadhuli 1 Baligra (hair tip)
8 Balagras 1 Likhya (nit)
8 Lik’iyaa 1 Yuka (louse)
8 Yukas 1 Yava (barley corn)
8 Yavas 1 Angola (finger’s breadth)
Augulas
“ 1 V ilasti
24 Augulas Vilasti 1 Cubit (hastas)
4 Hastas 1 (Dhanus or bow) or danda (rod)
8 Dandas 1 Rajju (string)
 ECONOMIC LIFE OF MATERIAL PROGRESS 97

standard weight in gold and the standard measure

in a yard-stick are presented and enforced by the state
But these standards deteriorate by wear and tear and
also by the effects of weather even if there be no
intention of deliberate cheating. In the Hindu device
these effects were largely counteracted, although a
strict uniformity might not have been possible. The king
enforced the accuracy and honesty as laid down in the
Arthasastra of Kautilya.
The cultural value and the civilized custom in trade
and commerce are clearly demonstrated in the Hindu
system of measure and weights.

CURRENCY
Coinage— For the expansion of trade some con-
venient medium of exchange is necessary. The system
of barter by which one thing is exchanged for another
is a cumbersome, method. By this an accurate and
precise valuation of a thing cannot be made, if there be
no standard currency. To take a horse in exchange for
two cows or a bundle of sugar cane would not permit a
proper valuation of any of these things, if the current
prices of these things in some standard coin remain
unknown and cannot b compared. ‘

Thus with the progress of trade some handy

medium exchange had to be discovered. The most
of
ancient and reliable method appears to have been the
gold dust or coins made of other metals also. These
coins are the metallic pieces of definite weight authen-
ticated as currency by marks recognised as a guarantee
of value'.

Weight of things (Manu VIH, 123—137).

8 trasa — renu 1 L ikrta
24 trasa — renu 3 Likrta 1 Raya —sarshapa
72 trasa — renu9 Likrta 3 Raya— sarshapa 1 Gaura -Sarshapa
43 trasa —
renu 45 Likrta 18 Raya — sarshapa 3 Gaura — 1 yava
3 yavas 1 Rati.
1. Iron coin was in use in Sparta in Greece.
Tin coin was the currency in Maladvipa. Brass coin was in
use in China.
Lead coins were used by the Andhra Kings of India, but coins
of gold, silver and copper were the currency during the earlier time
of the Vedas and Buddhist literature.

X3
98 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

Coinage ne cessitated a system of notation for

counting and of syn-bcls or alphabet of writing. The
carginal numbers 1 to 9, were first determined. The
invention of zero (sunya) [first made in India paved the
way for the progress of arithmetic from India vhrough
Arabia to Europe and throughout the world A! ng with
the invention of symbols for cardinal and ordinal lUimbers
alphabets were invented to express articulal sounds ^

representing iiUellectual thoughts The s.'-'em of

measures and weights must have preceded A. actual
coinage in India, because tie earliest indigenous coins
bear the name of weights, riz. suvarna, dharana and
karshapana etc.
Various systems of w^eight were introduced very
early in the Hindu society. here were different systems
'1

for weighing gold, silver and copper with separate names

for different weights some of which became the names
of coins also Thus we meet with at least two kinds of
gold coins, riz. suvarna and nishka, three kinds of silver
coins liz. dharana, porana, and satamana, and one kind
of copper coin, dz Karshapana '

In the Vedic and post-Vedic period the knowledge

and use of a variety of coins are clear® The seer
Kakshivaii accepted 100 nishkas from a king Bhavanya,
and a neckchain made of nishkas is also mentioned in
the Rigveda (II 1.38,10,1114, 7 4). The satamana gold
coin is referred to in the Satapatha Brahmapa. The
grammarian P inini (Biddhanta Kaumudi, 5, 9, 119) men-
tions a silver coin, rtipya.

Gold weight •t Rati 1 Masha

80 „ 16 1 Suvarna
320 U 4
1 Pala or Nishka
S.lver weight 2 ati 1 Mashaka
32 » 16 ,, I Dharao a or Porana
320 160 10
1 Satamana
Copper weight- 80 Rati I Knshipana.
,

Ihe Rati is some seed of the most unvarying nature.

It IS lurther subdivided and bears
proportions with other smaller
see s ’,s yava and Sarshaoa and also with a nit
(likliy*) dust— particular
(renu) aiid atom (trasa.renu) t-

2 Some kind of com appears to have been in

use in the pre.
Ved.c Aohenjodaro period of B. C. 3000. But the names of the
corns etc, will remain obscure until the scr.
pts and language of the
written documents have been deciphered.
 ECONOMIC LIFE OF MATERIAL PROGRESS 99

In the Buddhist canonical works and the Jataka

stories Suvarua, Parana, Karshapana and Kakini are
frequently mentioned. In the tripitaka, hiranya is used
.

for uncast gold and suvarua for cast coin of goll.

Bu'^dhaghosha mentions a gold, silver, bronze, and
ct pper Kahapana (karshapana).

The Persian and Grecian invaders, the Andhra,

Kshsatrapa and Kush an settlers, and the Gupta, Pallava,
Chalukya’ Rashtrakuta, Pala and Sena kings circulated
gold, silver and copper coins of various denominations
introduced by the foreigners. These were both the cast
coins and punched coins. Numerous sculptures, paimings,
inscriptions and literatures supply references to dinira
and other coins of foreign origin. But the most ancient
coinage of India developed independently of any foreign
influence and followed the Indian system of weights as
given in Manu.'
From the view point of culture and advanced
civilization the history of coinage in ancient India is
remarkable. The sole purpose of coins being the
advancement of trade and commerce; the extant gold
coins of heavy weights from the time of Imperial or
early Guptas indicate unmistakably the economic pro-
perty of the country. The artistic shcpe of ccins, the
various symbols thereon indicating the national ideals
and the skilful workmanship further corroborate the
achievements of ancient Hindus in the field of arts,
philosophy and manual dexterity.

SYMBOLS OP THOUGHTS.
W riting —Goins as currency
must bear marks indi-
cating their values. These marlvs are symbols of
thoughts relating to numbers and letters of the alphabet.
The invention of wuhting must have preceded the use
of coins for facilitating trade and comniorce.

The thoughts and feeling of pleasuro, pain and

»ther sentiments are expressed instinctively by articu-
late sounds or voice. But these sounds have no physical
appearance and cannot, therefore, be recognized in

1. Prof Rapson. Indian Coin, P. 3 Vide also Buhler: Indian

Studies III,p. 49; Cunningliain. Coins of Indii p. 59 plate III,
ft— 12: yas Smith,
100 INDIAH CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

permanent and standard form. Thus various symbols and

letters were invented by the civilized peoples of the
world to record their thoughts and feelings, not by
sounds as has been lately done by gramophone and
radio, but by fingers and symbols known as the letters
of an alphabet. A combination of letters gives rise
towards representing a complete thought or idea. It is
not known when and by whom this wonderful invention
was first made. Like the invention of fire the origin
of writing, however, played a unique part in the evolu-
tion of human civilization. Once the principle was
known in any part of the W’orld it could be applied and
worked out in different manners as is clear from the
innumerable alphabets now known to the world.
The Hindu tradition ascribes the invention of
writing to the creator Brahma, after whom the chief
script is named as Brahml. It is, therefore, claimed
as a Hindu invention of the remotest antiquity. This
view is held in the Harada Smriti, in the Brihaspati’s
Vartika on Manu, in the Anhika-tattva and in the Jyotis-
tattva The Bhagavati Sutra begins with a homage to
this script. This view is repeated in Jaina Samavsyinga
Satra and Pannavana Sutra, and the Buddhist Lalita-
Vistara wherein the original script is called Bambhi.
The two -Jam Sutras contain a list of eighteen
separate alphabets and the Lalita-Vistara enumerates
sixty-four scripts. Brahmi is the parent of all the still
existing alphabets of India. It is further confirmed in
the representation of Brahma at Badami where the
deity holds in one of his hands a bundle of palm-leaves,
for which in later representation an inscribed sheet of
paper is substituted. The story is told in full
in the Chinese Buddhistic Fawanshulin. The first
available inscription however in the most advanced
script in the Piprawa Vase is dated so late as B. C. 450.
But the sign manuals of Mohenjodaro of which the
scripts and language still remain undeciphered, are dated
beyond B. C. 3‘260.
These written records of B. C. 3000 are available
in large number at Mohenjo-daro. But the script and
language of these decuments have itot yet been ascert-
airied. It is not, however, unlikely that they may
ultimately be proved to have been written in the earliest
form of Brahmi the most developed and standardized
form of which appears in the Piprawa Vase inscription
 ECONOMIC LIFE OF MATERIAL PROGRESS 101

of B. C. 450. This surmise is indicated by the fact that

in the subsequent Vedic period, from B. C. -3500 some
script and writing must have been in use. For without
some written record the colossal amount of Vedic texts
bearing three kinds of accent marks could hardly be
preserved so accurately without a single error of metre
and accent when they were discovered in manuscript
form after a thousand years.
In the post Vedic literature from B C. 1000 undoub-
ted an varied references to knowledge and use of
i

writing have been found. For instance Vasishtha

Dharma-Sutra (XVI, 10, 14-15) mentions written docu-
ments as legal evidence. Panini’s grammar refers to
Yavamni (writing of the Greeks) in contrast to Indian
scripts. Lipikar and libikar (writer) akshara (tetter),
grantha (book), Kanda and patala (chapter) occur
throughout the Sanskrit literature. i-ikha, lekha
and lekhana (writing and lekhaka .writer) are found in
Epics, Pur an as, Kavyas, dramas, etc. The Bhikkhu-
pachitya and Bhikkhuni itachitya of the Buddhists also
repeatedly mention lekha (writing) and lekhaka (writer).
The Jatakas frequently speak of the private and official
letters, and they along with the Mahavagga mention
royal proclamation and narrate the engraving of moral,
family and political maxims. Debtor’s bond and
manuscripts are also mentioned. The Vinaya pi^aka and
Nikayas refer to a game called akkharika (word making)
its main feature being the reading of letters formed of
stars in the sky. The Jatakas refer to the wooden writing
board also. The Mahavagga also refers to the curriculum
of schools, viz, lekha (writing) ga .iafia (arithmetic) and
rupa (calculation with coins of interest, wages and
elementary mensuration). These are also mentioned
in the Hathigumpha cave inscription of the King
Kharvela of Kalinga (B. C. 165).

Although the exact time and process of the origin

of writing in Inlia or of the Brahmi script is not known,
yet in the presence of all these evidences the knowledge
and use of writing in India from B C. 3000 cannot be
questioned. Thus the cultural value of the Hindu
intellect and the civilized habit and custom of the Hindu
society are well established in respect of such an im-
portant matter as the device of writing. The colossal
amount and variety of Sanskrit, Pali, and Prakrit
i02 INDIAN CULTUEE AND GIYILU A'DION

literature bear further evidence to the extensive use of

writing in ancient India
From the inexhaustible store of Sanskrit, Pali and
Prakrit literature only brief quotations are possible here
dealing with the social economic conditions of ancient
India within 1000 B. C. They will however show
how people lived and carried on their work. What
they proiuced and how, and the way their trade
functioned. The conditions indicated by Kautilya’s
Arthasastra and the Epic have been already referred to.
The Jatakas or folk lores of Buddha’s time represent the
popular tradition as contrasted with the aristocratic or
Brahmanical and Euling class tradition. On the basis
of Mr. Eichard Pick’s ‘the social organisation in North
East India in Buddha’s time’, and Eatilal Mehta’s ‘Pre-
Buddhist India’, Jawaharlal Nebru has drawn a fair
picture from a socialist’s point of view in his ‘Discovery
of India’. ‘It was predominantly an agricultural civiliza-
tion and the basic unit w^as the self-governing village.
The political and economic structure was built up from
these village communities which were grouped in tens
and hundreds. Village assemblies enjoyed a measure of
autonomy. Horticuiture, rearing of live stock and doing
farming were practised in an extensive scale. Gardens
and parks were common, and fruit and flow^ers were
valued. There were evidently many shops of vegetable
and fruit-sellers, as well as of florists in the cities. The
flower-garland was then, as now, a favourite of the
Indian people.
Bunting was a regular occupation chiefly for the
food it provided Flesh eating was common and includ-
ed poultry and fish venison was highly esteemed
;

There were fisheries and slaughter houses. The principal

articles of diet were, however, rice, wheat, millet, and
Corn. Sugar was extracted from sugar-cane. Milk
and its various products were then, as they are now,
highly prized. There were liquor shops apparently
made from rice fruit, and sugarcane.
‘There was mining for metals and precious stones.
Mention is made of gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, tin.
brass, and diamonds, rubies, corals, and pearls. The
jnanufactured goods include:! silks, woolens, and cotton
textiles, rugs, blankets aj;d carpets Sioinniug,w^eaving
and dyeing wei'e llocirishiag ?uid widespread
 ECONOMIC LIFE OF MAT! RIAL PROGRESS 103

industries. The metallugical industry produced wee.pons

of war. The building industry used stone, wood, and
bricks. Carpenters made a variety of furniture etc.
including carts, chariots, ships, bedstead, chairs, benches,
chests, toys, etc Cane workers made mattresses, baskets,
fans, and sunshades. Potters functioned in every village.
From flowers and sandalwood and number of perfumes,
oilsand beauty products were made, including sandal
wood powder Various medicines and drugs were
n)auufactured. The medical text books of Charaka on
luedicine Susruta on surgery enumerate a large numoer
of diseases and give methods of diagnosis and treat-
iuent. They deal with surgery, obstetrics, baths, diet,
hygiene, feeding and medical education Tliere was an
experimental approach and dissection of dead bodies
was practised inthe’ course of surgical training. Various
surgical instruments mentioned by SiPruta include
amputation of limbs, abdominal caesarian section,
cataract etc. Pentistry was regularly practised and
various instrumeirts for extraction etc. of teeth are
mentioned Wounds were sterilized by fumigations.
There were hospitals both for men, women, children,
and beasts.
‘There was partnership for trade and loans were
advanced on interest Trade associations and craft
guilds had already assumed importance’. Pick is quoted
in support of this : ‘The existence of trade associations
which grew partly for economic reasons, better employ-
ment of capital, facilities of intercourse partly for
protecting the legal interest of their class, is surely to
Je traced to an early period of Indian culture. The
qatakas refer to IJ^ craft unions including the wood-
worker, the masons, the smiths, the painters, and the
leather workers. Great roads and shipping facilities
helped the expansion of export and import trade.
‘Trade flourished not only in the country itself but
between India and foreign countries. There was a
colony of Ind’an merchants living at Memphis in Egypt
about the fifth century B. C. Overseas trade involved
shipping and it is clear that ships were built in India
both for the inland waterways and ocean traffic. There
are references in the epics to shipping duties being paid
by merchants coming from afar’. Exports from India
included ‘silks’ muslins, the finer sorts of cloth, cutlery
and armour, brocades, embroideries and rugs, perfumes
aad drugs, ivory and ivory-work, jewellery and gold’.
104 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

There were regular trade laws and standard of

weights and measures, According to Narada Smriti
Toss, expenses profit of each partner are equal to, more
than, or less than those of other partners according to
his share invested is equal, greater, or less Storage,
food charges (tolls) loss, freightage, expense of keeping
must be paid by each partner in accordance with
terms of agreement
‘Ten formed the basis of enumeration in India
even at the time of Rigveda. The time and number
sense of the ancient Indians was extraordinary. They
had a long series of number names for very high
numerals. The Greeks, Romans, Persians, and Arabs
had apparently no terminology for denominations above
the thousand or at most the myriad (10’’ 10,000). In
India there were IS specific denominations (10*'^ ) and
there are even longer lisis. At the other end of the
scale there was minute division of time of which the
smallest unit was approximately one-seventeenth to a
second, and the sTuallest lineal measure is given as
something which approximates to 1. 3x7-10 inches.”
All these big and small figures, although considered
”
“entirely theoretical and for philosophical purposes
by Pt. Nehru, there is no reason to doubt that they
indicate largeness of trade, commerce and economic
prosperity as well as the minute accuracy especially
concerning precious objects.
Pt. Nehre, a'ppreciates how the economic pros-
perity when quoting from V. A nstey he says ‘that right
up to the eighteenth century Indian methods of produc-
tion and of industrial and commercial orgaiiisaation
could stand comparison with those in vogue in any
other part cf the world. He admits that ‘India was a
highly developed manufactuing country exporting her
manufactured product to Europe and other countries.
Her banking system was efficient and well organized
throughout the country. Merchant capital had evolved
and there was as elaborate network of agents, jobbers,
brokers and middlemen. The shipbuilding industry
was flourishing and one of the flagships of an English
admiral during the Napoleonic wars had been built by an
Indian firm in India Clive described Mursbidabad as
a city ‘as extensive, populous and rich as the city of
London’. Dacca in East Bengal was famous for
its fine
 ECONOMIC LIFE AND MATERIAL PROGRESS 106

muslins. ‘All over the vast land there were greater

cities and large number of big manufacturing and
trading countries, and a very rapid and inginious system
of communicating news and market prices had been
evolvf'd. The economy of India had thus advanced
to as high a stage as it could reach prior to the Industrial
Revolution. Though the Indian merchant and manu-
facturing classes were rich and spread out all over the
country, and even controlled the economic structure,
they had no political power. As it happened, foreign
political domination came first and this led to a rapid
destruction of the et onomy she (India'/ had built up,
without anything positive or constructive taking its
place.’
 CHAPiER nr

PUlAi'iCAL LIFE OF STATE SOVEREIGNTY

and individual liberty
Bharata-Varsha is one of the nine states of the
remotest past into which the then known world appears
to have been divided^ This Blvratvarsha deriving its
designation from the King Bharata, a predecessor of the
Kauravas of the epic Mahahhaiata fame is known as
India from the time of the Persian or Grecian Settle-
ment as the foreigners recognized the country by the
famous river Indus. The natural boundaries of Bharat-
varsha or India have, howeve-, remained unaltered
fcr milleniums because the unchangeable Himalayas
in the north and ocean on three other sides have so
far ft ustrated all hunmit attempt at vivisection of a
cc.mplete organic whole. 'J'his area covers some 2500
miles from the Himalayas in the north to the cape
Comorin in the extreme south of the peninsula, and
some 8000 miles from the borders of Tibet, China and
Burma in the east to the borders of Arabia, Persia,
and xVfghanistan ;'n the west. The population within
this huge area which the country itself can feed and
clothe has not yet reached its full growth although the
census of 1940 has show' the figure of 40 crores or 400
millions, being tlie second largest v orld, China claiming
450 millions To the modern mind even this 400
millions appear as too large a population for a singla
government to manage, although in ancient India,
even of the Mahtibhfrata time (circa 500 B. C) a
single state under the Kaurava and Pandava sovereignty
constituted a uniform culture throughout the country.
T'espite the varieties of tribes, communities, castes
languages and climates there was a w'onderful social and
political unity Ihe Kuru and Pandu princes had matri-
monial connection with Ganrihara or Peshawar in the
North-West with Assam in the north-east, and with the

i. Sr Moner Wilhatn- m his dictionarv defines ‘Varsba'

a-'* a <livi«ion of the earth separated off fiy certain mountain
ran<,'es. Nine such divPions are enumerated, viz Kuril,
Hiran
naya, Ramyaka Jlavrita, Bari Ketu.nc, b, h^adr- s'va, Kimnara
and
“
bharata
 POLITICAL LIFE AND INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 107

hill tribes of Himalayas in the north with the Kaushala,

Berar, and Ceylon in the south. Despite the vastness
of the country, unlikeness of different parts, heterogenous
population and numerous non-aryan masses there was a
fundamental unity as shewn by the common sacraments,
laws of marriage, and similarity in food, clothes and
dwellings. Thus a political unity was well based upon
family and social life.

The temporary occupation of certain parts, of coun-

try by the Persian in the 5th Century B. G. the Grecian
and the Parthians from 4th century B C. to 1st. or 2nd
century A. D. and the Scythians including Kushans from
the 2nd to 4th century A. D., could not materially inter-
fere with the sovereignty and supremacy in all internal
matters, even the occupation of the country by the
Pathans and Mughals for some 600 years could not affect
the country’s freedom from external control. It is since
the British occupation for 160 years that the
country w^as sufferingfrom the external control.
Thus from the point of view of a large population,
territorial intergrity, and sovereignty and supremacy
in all internal matters and freedom from external
control Indian empire of the past can claim the status
of a regular state. Besides, despite the occasional but
national feuds among various cla* s or parties in such
a big state, there were well organised government or
governments always established by laws based on
national scriptures^.
It is due to impatience to comprehend the monu-
mental records which has led the ccmbined intelligence
of three learned authors of Ancient India to think that
‘Indian .politics consist, not in a doctrine of the
state but in an act of government the Keystone of
;

which is formed by the education of the prince ... A

treatise ongovernment has a scholastic apriori air . . .

Pedantic enumerations and distinctions are forced on the

foot rather than extracted from the emalysis of them
several writers have discussed more elaborately the

1. From the time of Aristotle a regular state stipulated the

existence of a definite territory, a minimum population of 10.000,
an organised government to rules according to accepted laws, and
sovereignty and supremacy in all internal matters and freedom
from external control.
108 INDIA.N CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION
doctrine of the State in India*’. The eduoation of the
prince’ in accordance with the enumerations and
distinctions’ recorded in Sanskrit treatises on Gover-
nient, will itself show to an unbiased intelligence the
existence of the ‘doctrine’ which is defined in diction-
aries as ‘an act of teaching, a principle or the body of
inhnciples in any branch of knowledge’. The motto of
the present writer is ‘to be quite certain of our data
tn present the monumental records
as they now exist,
and to interpret them faithfully and literally’ from
their analysis of them. Our main purpose here is
however to deal whth the art of government’ rather than
indulge in fruitless discussion of doctrine. Among
numerous treatises dealing with the political science
and the practical art of governmnt the Kautilya
A.rthas stra is the standard work. This earliest
preserved text htos deprive! by reason of its complete-
ness earlier treatises of tlie possibility of survival and
has shadowed the later less complete works. It opens
with an enumeration of several royal duties and deals
with the bringing up and education of a prince, including
kowledge, training in the art of government, conduct
of family members, ministers and officials. It
discusses
the laws and control of the administration in all branches.

As a political science it iscomparable to the much

later works of Machiavelli on political philosophy. But
,it (Icesnot (discuss in detail the fundamental issues
such
the relation of right and might, of fate and
1.-5

a leavour, and the origin of Kingship. These subjectshuman

ire more expressly discussed in
the Mahffiharata and
rue bud Ihist texts. TtholisArtha
_
the most important
Oi the turee aims ot life, viz.
Kama, Artha and Dharma
(.vloksha). It asserts that government (artha)
is essen-
tml to them all. Without it there
would be the reign
u anar.'iiy everywhere. Under the sceptre
the four caste
vnd t yur ordered ways of life prosper
and Kama, artha
and diiarm a are fulfilled. While with
Machiavelli and
.lubsohiu the state is all in all in
a vague manner

P>lity:k. Aiyaiwar: Ancent India: R. k '

MuLnefi

Maau Samhita «‘>J^dharma (trans P. C.

(transl. Buhler) )
Roy)
 POLITICAL LIFE AND INDIVIDUAL LIBEBTY 109

Kautilya means by the state an order of society’ which

the slate does not create “which it exists to secure’. The
end of the government, it holds, is the maintenance of
a firm rule, In addition to maintaining peace in the
realm the king must always be prepared for foreign war.
It admits the risks run by a King from Court intrigues,
military oligarchical functions, false ministers and
unruly heads of guilds. It recognizes the King as no
more than a servant of the state. It summarises the
relation of the King with the subjects : “In the happi-
ness of his people lies the happiness of the King in their
well being his well being, his own pleasure is not the
King’s well-being but the pleasure of his people iS his
well bainy'.”
Fot the purpose of ascertaining the condition of
culture and civilization in respect of the political life of
the ancient Hindus no more doctrinairing like that of
the school in France in 1815-30 is necessary. Govern-
ment being the machinery through which the will of
the state is expressed, the art and forms of government
depend upon the sources from which the power to rule
over others is derived. Both the divine and temporal
origin of royal power was understood and practised in
ancient India, The King is considered as the direct
re[»Tesentative of God. Hidirectly a prince is born to be
the ruler as he succeeds to his ancestral throne. In both
th-’ se categories the power to rule over others is a gift
from God rather than an acquirement through the
strength of superior brain or arms. The King of Kepal
is still considered as the direct representative of God
and behaves like an inactive agent of God, the prime
minister being the actual ruler of the state. The position
of the Tibetan Lama and ot the constitutional Kings of
Great Britain and a few other me dern Kingdoms is
almost the snm.e. The Italian Pope and the defunct
Turkish Khalifa were once considered the spiritual and
temporal head of their respective nations and dominions
The conception of the active God being a matter of per-
sonal faith and belief ihe theory of the divine origin of
Kings does not seem to appeal to the modern intellingence.
In fact the defective organisation and the inherent
selfishness nssociated with all hereditary and permanent
or immovable seat of power have removed from the face
of the present world almost all such Kings, or at least
they have been deprived of such divine power to rule
over others.
110 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

In contrast to this unknown source of power sub.

mission to which is always a matter of choice, the
power acquired by strength of arms enables conqueror
to enforce his superiority to rule over others even
without their consent. On the other hand in older to get
rid of the fratricidal state of anarchy and war of the
primitive age people selected or elected a powerful
individual as their ruler, and surrendered into his
hands their liberty irrecoverable or on condition of his
protecting their life, and property where it existed. In
this temporal origin of power a person gifted with
strength of brain and arms is selected or elected as a
ruler by a group of people owing to his superior capacity
of leadership. This method has given rise to theoires of
force, instinct, contract and evolution concering the
power to rule over others. The various forms of govern-
ment have accordingly developed.
Throughtout Sanskrit literature, notably in the Vedas,
Epics and Puranas, also the Buddhist and Jain texts we
find copious instances to illustrate all theories on temporal
power and all known forms of government. So far as the
Vedic India is concerned the power of the Aryans to rule
over India which had been being inhabited by the aborigi-
nal tribes was derived from conquest and may be called
temporal at the outset. But when the Aryans settled down
in India some political order had to be set up for the sake
of goo government. Ti us ar<)se the need for a division
1

of labour and also power. Before the growth of the

caste system the head of a family of Brahmans, Kshatri-
yas, Vaisyas and Sadras alike performed all the family
duties of defence or protection of the family members,
of the spiritual rites f the earning as means of livelihood.
(

Thus at the outset there could havv been no conflict for

the power to rrde between the classes of warriors, priest
and wmrkers. But when the Brshmanas were set apart
for priestlv duties, the Kshatriyas for defence and
further conquest, end the Vaisyas for the production and
manufacture of necessary things, the power of these
classes had to be defined. There was in India, however
no major conflict as in other countries, for the powmr
to rule. The priestly class no doubt monopolise i owing
to their superior brain large power of government, al-
though the warrior class continued to be the formal ruler.
The kinghood or rulership was virtually the monopoly
of the Kshatriyas, although there are a few instances of
a king being of the Vaisya, Sodra, and even Brahmapa
 POLITICAL LIFE AND INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 111

groups. Bi’ahmanas, were mostly the king’s counsellors,

Judges and the spiritual guides of the society, and thus
controlled the political and the social order of the whole
country and nation. This monopoly of the Brahraanas
was not the result of any conflict but was due mainly
to the superior brain power, noble sacrifices for the good
of the whole nation, and freedom from selfish motives.
The story of the Brshmana Dadhichi offering his own
bones for making a weapon to kill the demonish enemy
would serve as a good instance of the priestly sacrifiG3.
The man who governs and presides over the social
order is the Eaja, a term derived fmm the some sort as
the Latinrex and Gaulish rix. The Satapatha Brahmana
contains the declaration that “nothing is above the
power of the King”. The sovereign who is chosen by
nobles or people (rajakrit) as protector of the people (gopa
janasya) is the land of the people (Vispati). The sovere-
ignty" being established by force of arms is clearly
indicated by the title of kings as striker of cities (pura-
bhetta) and by the wellknown ceremonies of the Kajasaya
and AsVamedha festivitieswhich were performed in
celebration of conquests by military expedition. The
wandering of the horse to be sacrificed in these festivities
all over the territory, unopposed, confirms the complete
sovereignty of the victorious king. The Rig. Veda (X
124, 8) refers to the misfortune of a people not choosing
a king to lead them against an enemy. The symboliza-
tion of the sun’s rays by the horse of the Asvamedha is
of the same order as the execution of the three steps of
Vishnu in the Rajasuya. The Kingship, which is a
reserve of the Kshatnyas known as the ruler (rajanya)
is thus ascribed to the solar and the lunar origin.

Long lists of the king of the solar and the lunar

dynasties are included in the epics, the Itauiayana and the
Mahabharata. The Purauas have elaborated these and
other lists of the historical period of Hindu India.
The Buddhist and the Jain texts include further parti-
culars of dynasties of Kings and heads of republican
states. The vedic texts supply instances of both the
absolute and limited monarchical forms of government
where the king is a single individual claiming divine
origin, commanding absolute power over the population,
acquiring the territory either unopposed by anybody or by
conquest after opposition, and securing submission of
the people through instinct in the former case and
112 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

by contract in the latter. The monarchy of both the

varieties is hereditary. It is similar to the patriarchal or
matriarchal succession in families and tribal organisa-
tion. The absolute monarchy being acquired is illustrated
by the passages like the following ‘unto thee hath come
the kingdom. Step forward with maiesty as lord of the
people, sole ruler. Let Indra call thee for these subjects,
Vanina for waters, and Soma for mountains, may the
king become master of the princes, that is the overlord*,
The limited monarchy w'here the king is accepted
or chosen is illustrated by numerous passages from the
Vedic texts The subjects have chosfiiyou their king’
:

ta ima viso na rajanam vriusna, Eigveda 1, 24, 8). The

subjects have chosen you to rule over them (tvam Viso
vrinatam rajyaya, Atharvaveda 3, 4, 2). All the subjects
accept you to rule over them (vibAs tva sarva Van-
chhantu) Ev. X. 175, 1). Thee let the people choose
unto Kingship (Av. HI, D, 4 ;
Kans. 16, 30).

The Eigveda mentions tribal organisation of the

Anus, Druhyus. Turvasas, Krivis, Kurus, Purus, and
Bharatas, who had their sleeted chief or King. The
Faiichala king Pravahana Jaivali is mentioned in the
Chhandogy Upanishad (V. 2, 1-7) as attending the council
(Parishad). The Satapatha Brahmana (Xlll, 5, 4, 2) and
Aitareya-Brahmana (VIII, 23, 3) similarly make men-
tion of the kigks Parikshita and Janmejaya, There are
instances of the Eepublican or Democratic form oi
government also. In this form the supreme powmr is
vested in the people collectively, and is administered
either by the officers or officers appointed in them or by
their own representation. In the former case the head
.:(f the state may be a single person or a body or people
nominated or selected, conditionally or unconditionally,
by the people. In this direct form of democracy the head
possesses the monarchical power and may hold heredi-
tary office in accordance with the conditions. In the
indirect democracy, better known as the Eepresentative
I’arliamentary or Eepablioan form of government the
]>ower of ruling is exercised by the chosen representa
lives of the peopse. In this case also the head is chosen
who may be either a limited monarch with the power
of hereditary succession, or a president of the people’s

1, Compare Athai-va Veda IV. 22 : HI, 3,4

'
 POLITICAL LIFE AND INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 113

representative council, appointed only for a fixed period

without power of hereditary succession
This was evolutionary in nature. It was not given
to n^en readymade by God nor was it a human con-
trivance. Tn its origin it was more or less spontaneous,
natural, twin born with man and with the family.
Although this form of gvernment did not originate in a
deliberate contract, a deliberate choice has always
played a part in its development.
The Republic was known as Gana, the technical
meaning of which coincides with the current meaning
of the terra used to imply a crowd or assembly. Public
affairs were discussed in an assembly, the president
(I'Tja) of which was elected by the people ‘The Sskyas
of Kapilavagtu were a million inhabitants living in
independence under the overlordship of Kosala, Similar
States were those of Mallas and V aijis. The Lichhavis
of Vaisali had 707 senators (rijis), 3 archons, and 9
ministers (gana-rsji). The secoivl group of western
states consisted of Malavas, Kshudrakas, Sambastai
having 3 ai chons, I7ysaeans governed by a senate of 300
members. Pattalas had two kings (presidents) and a
council of senators. The third group of states may be
gathered fr^eni the Mahibhirata. Yaivlheyas, Kunindas,
Malavas, Sibis, and Arjunsyanas were situated in
central India It is also mentioned in the Mahibharata
that the Yadavas were federation of small clans, each
with its hereditary chief, and the common affadrs were
managed by a body of elected senators. Here each state
is monarchical "and the federation 's republican. The
republican states which were in existence in the time
of the Gautama Buddha (BO dOO) and mentioned in the
Buddhist texts have been described by Pdiys Davids
in his Buddhist India included the Sakyas of Kaplia-
vastu, the Bhaggas of Sumsumara Iliil, the Rulers of
Allakappa, the Kalauias of Ivesaputta, the Koliyas of
Bamagama, the Mallas of Kusinara, the Mallas of Pava,
the Mori y as of Pipphalivaha, the Videhas of Mithila
and the Lichchhavis of Vesadi jointly knovn as the
Vajjianas, and also the Mallas of Kosi and mentioned in
the Jain Kalpataru (p. 65) by Jacobi The machinery
of Government devised by these democratic republican
states included a state council of Elders (sabhr), a popular
assembly (sangha), and guilds (puga) of villagers. The
village organisation was the basis of whole adminis-
15
114 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

tration. The head of the village (giMmani) was

responsible for the payment of taxes and conrtol
of the village work. Five to ten villages were combine I

under an administrator known as Gopa (lit, portector).

This combination fmnned a district Four such districts
or quarters matle a province of which the governor
was as the Sthtnika (local head). Above him was the
Commi'sioner known as the Npgarika Tit. head of the
capital city) Over all these officials the Maurya Kings
placed a minist'U' of the interior known as the Santa
h:irtri.

According lo Kautilya Artha^pstra (LXXIV, p. 87)

dealing with the Mauryan administration the city was
placed u'lder a mui.icipal government divided into six
sectioois Each section was formed into board of five
members. One board was in charge of the care of
artisans including ^supervision of wraA done and
wager received. The second hoard was in control
of foreigners regarding their
_
lodging, health, dis-
posal of their goods freely, and observation of
their conduct. The third board recorded the birth
and dec'.th etc of the population probably for health
and fisfail income. The fourth board was in control
of retail trade and exchanges, checking weights and
measures, suiinping go^ds to guarantee genuineness, and
eolFniiig duties on sale. The fifth board was incharge
of su])ervision and siamping of manufactured articles.
\i t V --ixth Was the finance board collecting the tenth.

MACniXEhY OF fiOVEfiXMEXT
Tlv goverrm en1cor.ducted wa.s
by the Eirg
with tb.e iml.) ofadvisory bodies and executive
l)oiii
mafwling to written laws. For the democratic
^Fites them were
a state council of elders
popular asmmbly
of people (samiti) a federa-
"enuhhcs (Sangha), a guild (pugal of traders-
meuacrms, and the village assembly (gTcima-sabha)
lormeuoi tho families (kulak The sablm: and
Samiti
vei ,he bigbesi legislative bodies which
'

represented
the wid of the peofie and expressed itself
on important

1. Mefra^thene-; tlio -eo ao

i i
-V liot
kmper ,r (.’hiindpaoui'ta M-a ,ryi
ill'' c .I'lrt oi the
til-
 POLITICAL LIFE AND INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY il5

matters including the election of the king himself and

the general welfare of the people.

The sabha was the highest council of state

held by a king kings of which the subordinate
of
kings were the members as stated in the Satapatha
Eriihrnana (III, 3, n, 14). It was a smaller and selected
body of elders, heads of clans or families and functioned
by a committee. It had the double function. As a parlia-
ment it disposed of public business by debate and discus-
sion. It also served as a law-court on important cases
of appeal from the lower and ordinary courts of
justice. That the decision was taken by a vote of the
majority is implied by the designation Narishtha given
to the term sabha in the Atharvaveda vii 1-2-3) which
i

the great commentator Sgyana explains as ‘inviolable

not to be overridden because in ihe sabha the many meet
and speak with one voice which is binding on others.’
In the Rigveda (VI, 28, 6 viii, 4, 9 x. 34, 60) Sabha is
;

mentioned as an assembly and hall or meeting place for

social intercourse and discussion of public matters other
uses therein imply sabha as a ‘council of elders and
nobles’. Sabhachara in the Vajasaneyi samhita (XXX,
6) and sabhasad in the Atharvaveda (iii, 19, 1 vii. 12, 2 ; ;

xix, 55, 6) mean’ one who attends the sabha sitting as

law-court dispensing justice. Sabhastara means a judge
in the Mahabhirata (iv. 1. 24) which says (v, 35, 38) that
‘that is no sabha where there are no elders, and those are
not elders who do not declare the law.’ Samiti was the
larger general assembly of the people. In the Athar-
vaveda (vi. 88 V. 1')) it is used as expressing the voice
;

of the people (viz) in the choice of their king. It is

further stated (vi <82, 3) that ‘the support of the samiti
was essential to the king to subdue his enemies and
make his position firm on the throne.’ In the lUgveda
it is stated that ‘the King attended the samiti (ix 92, G :

X. 97,6) and met it ‘with power invincible and capturing

their minds and their resolutions (X 166, 4). It 'is
further emphasised that ‘concord between the king
and thp samiti was essential for the prosperity of the
realm (X. 191, 3) In the Atharva Veda (vii, 12, 1) the
sabha and samiti are described as ‘the twin daughters
of the Prajapati (creater of people).

Paniiji refers to san.ghas on r^-publics Kshudraka

and Malava (iv 2, 25) and Yaudheya (v. -3, 117), and also
116 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

to the confederation
of republics like the Trigarta
Samgha of six republics (v. 3, 116), anl the Andhra
Vrishni samgha (v, 3; 114) of which the federal exe-
CQtive was formed of the rajanya (kshatriya) leader of
each constituent republic with his own party (varga)
such as Sini and Vasudeva, SvciphalkaAnd Chaikraka and
Akrura and Vssuieva with their rival Vargas. Sangha
as a confederation of republic had two varieties, Gana
and.Xikaya. The former was the political assembly
or republic comprising all castes, but the kshatriyas
alone being on the governing body or cabinet. It ran
on party (varga) system as the Vasudeva Varga, Arjuna
Varga etc. named after the leader. But the business
was oarimd on on a majority vote (chhandaso nirmite).
The NtAaya was a non-political association in which
there was no distinction due to birth. There also busi-
ness was carried generally on majority votes.

The puga was a guild of the vill-'' ge community

under the village head vgramani) as stated in the Panini
(v. -i, o'2 ; V, 3, II J;. Kumara pugas were the juvenile
assGoiations. The GiMma-Sabha or the village assembly
appears to have been the ultimate source of all powers,
as it was formed of ell families (kulas) and elected
representative to all higher councils of the king or the
state. But in the town there was a differentiation bet-
ween the law courts and assemblies. The head of the
village was responsible for the control of the village
and collecting and paying the taxes. Five to ten
villages were combined under an administrator knows
as (iopa (protector) and this combination formed a
district. Four such districts formed a province of
which the Governor was the sthmika (local head). Above
him was the commissioner known as the Nagarika (a
city magistrate). Over ad these officials the Manrya
Kings placed a minister of the interior known as
samahartri (co-ordinator) as stated in the Kautilya
Arthasastra,

According to the same authority (LXXIV. P ,S7)

and supported by an eye witness, Megasthenes vvho ’

was
the Grecian ambassador in the court cf the emperor
Onandragupta -Maurya the city was placed
under a
municipal government which divided
itself into six
sections each of winch formed into
a board of five
members, one board was inchargc of
the care of
 Political life and individual liberty ii7

artisans including the supervision of their work and

wages. The second board was in control of foreigners
regarding their lodgings, health, disposal of goods
and observation of their conduct. The third board
recorded the birth and death etc. of the population
apparently for the improvement of health and probably
for fiscal income. The fourth board was in ccmtrol of
the retail trade and exchanges, checking weights and
measures, stamping goods to guarantee, genuineness,
and collecting duties on sale. The fifth board was
incharge of supervision of the industrial manufac-
tures. And the sixth was the finance board collecting
the revenues.

MACHINEEY FOR GENERAL aDAIINISTRATION

The ministry (mantri-parishad) was the chief
executive. In the time of the Mahabhsrta 01, 85, 6-11)
a cabinet of 9 was formed out of a ministry of 37, com-
prising 4 Brahmans including the prime minister, 8
Kshatriyas_, 21 Vaisy<:*s and 3 Sudras. According to
Kamandaki (XI, 67) the number of ministers which the
king must appoint was twelve. But according to Manu
(VII, 54) the number should be seven or eight only. And
the king should consult his ministers (Manu, Vll, 56)
of peace and war, of home affairs (sthana) of revenue, of
defence, and of gains by pious gifts, at first separately
and then jointly before the final decision is taken. The
prime minister should have the full confidence of the
king in deliberating im.portant state affairs and in
r-egard to the royal policy (vii 57) relating to six
measures (Vll. 160) viz, alliance, war marching,
halting, dividing the army, and seeking protec-
tion. According to the Ivlahabharta (ii, 5, 43) the
knig attended daily the council hall (mantra-griha) for
consultation with his ministers individually or collec-
tively. The president of the assembly (sabhadhyaksha)
accrding to the same authority (ii, 5, 38) was one of
the eighteen chief officers of the state.
In the Kautilya ArthaPiStra (Book I chap. XV, 29)
Manu is stated to have recommended a ministry of 12
members, school of Brihaspati suggests 16 ministers,
the school of Usanas 20 ministers but Kautilya holds
that the ministry “shall consist of as many members as
the needs of the dominion require”.
118 INDIA^n' culture and clViLlZATKL,
According to Kautilya (Arthasa&tra VI) the seven
bases of government or elements ot sovereignty inclu-
ded the king, ministers territory, fort, treasure, army,
and alliance. According to Mann (IX, 294) the seven
constituent posts of the Kingdom consisted of the King,
his ministers, capita-i, realm, treasury, army, and allies
in order of importance. According to Kautilya (Book
VII chap i, --ol) ihe sixfold state policy are stated
to be neutrality (a^anna), machinary (ytna), peace
(sandhi), war (vigraha), ahrance (samsrya) making
peace with one and waging war with the other. The
obstacles (lit. thorns) to good government) were truly
recognised to be the miracle mongers, coiners, highway
men, healers, musicians, and dancers all of whom were
despised as thieves in disguise.

The privy council or the royal office in the Epic age

of which the king was the chief comprised the allies,
subordinate Kings, military leaders and priests. These
aristocratic nobles took part in council, conducted the
assemblies, and led the army. They were divided into
eight classes as Mautri or cabinet councillors, Amstya
or general officers eight of whom might form the King's
_

cabinet as stated in the Mahibharata (i, TiO, 2) Sachiva

or officers of high rank who were in charge of King’s
military duties (M])h i, 49, 23) Parishad or assembly
members who also guarded the realm, Sahayas or allies
(vii 83, 22 : -37, 23), Arthakuin or executive officers
in charge of state business, five being in the cabinet (xii,
93, 22;
3?, 23), Dharmika or judges (.Mabh, xii, 121, 4b ;

Ifamayana vi, 3, lo), and rhe Tirthas or departmental

heads (Mbh. 11, 5, 33 Kam. 11, 100 43)
These departmentalheads were twenty one in
numher as stated in theMah-ibh.irata (II, 3,3s) and the
Rainayana (ii, 109, 43). They included the Mantrin or
chief councillor, I'urohita or chief priest, Yuvaraja
or crown prince, chamnpati or Commander-in-chief of
the army, Dvarapala or chamberlain, Antarveska or
comptroller of house hold, K rrgdiMdhikara or superin-
tendent of prison, Uravya-sauchaya-krit or steward,
Artha viniyojaka or chief executive officer, pradeshta or
chief judge Kagradhyakshaka or city magistrate, Karya-
nirmatnakrit or chief engineer, Eharniacffiyakashaka
or chief justice, Sabdidhyakshaka or speaker of the
Qiouncil or assembly, DanOtapala cr chief criminal judge,
 POLITICAL LIFE AND INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 119

Durgapila or keeper of forts, Ilashtrantap-ilaka or frontier

guard, Atavipilaka or conservator cf forests, Vainayika
or registrar or officer in charge of rules and discipline,
Vyavaharika or legal advi'er, Aupiyika or finance
member (Mbk. V, 4,34) This will indicate a well organised
administration in the age of the epics (B, C. 1000 to
A. E> 500). The superintendents under the departmental
heads as given by Kautilya (Artha-'astra Book II, Chap,
1— xxxiii) will further show the care taken in the civil
adn inistraAion in order to develop the economic life of
the nation. Thus there were superintendents of
accounts treasury
;
mines metals, coins and mints
; ;

ocean mines and of salt gold store house

;
commerce
; ; ;

forest produce armoury weights

;
and measure
;
tolls ; :

weaving ;
agriculture; liaqnor, slauhter house; prostitutes ;

ships ;
cows; horse elephant chariots infantry
;
; ;
pass ;

ports, pasture lands and the

;
city superintendents of a
hundred or of a thousand communities regulated the
subsistence wages and profits.

In all administrative matters the king is advised

by Kautilya (Book I chap xv 27.) to have the benefit
of cosultation with all his officers. ‘The King shall
despise none but have the opinions of all because a
Wiseman makes use of even a child’s sensible utterance.
Visalaksha is ciuoted by Manu, who emxjhasises that ‘no
deliberation made by a single person will be successful.
The nature of the worlc whicli a sovereign has to do is
'
to be inferred from the consideration of both the visible
and invisible causes. Many things are possible of a
ccrrect decision by the officers concerned with them, such
as ministers, departmental heads, and superintendents
of offices. He shall, therefore, set at deliberation with
persons of wide intellect (an-l of large experience)
possessing direct knowledge.
The Political life of a nation is judged not only by
the organisation of the forms and machinery of the
government but mainly by the administration of the
royal revenues, civil, military and ecclesiastical matters.
The principle of taxation is laid down by Manu
(vii,137-130) ‘The King should not cut up his own
:

root by levying no taxes, nor the root of the subjects

by excessive greed or exploitation”. It is further eluci-
dated (vii, 80) that the revenue official must obey the
sacred law in his transactions with the people and
behave like a father. The taxes were laid on the basis
12^ INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

of a part of produce from the agricultural or forest

lands, manuual labour, and in money. The revenue was
derived from two main sources, viz,, the rent for leasing
out or selling crown lands, and the taxes for various
kinds imposed on the members of the state with or
without their previous consent. The head of the village
or a state official sets aside a part of the different kinds
of agricultural produce for the king, the proportion vary-
ing between a twelfth and a sixth. A trifle tax was
annually taken from those who lived on traffic and
annual labour of one day in each month was taken
from the mechanics, artisans, and sudra or labourers
(Manu vii, 139) in order to perform gratuitous labour in
the construction of public roads, tanks, temples e+c,
Kautiiva ( Arthasastra) classifies the aya-raukha
or sources of all revenues into bhTga or royal share
or title, Flripta or fixed taxes, mala or capital
out-lay, vyiiji or premia, parigha or gate-money or
custom, I’upika or coinage fee or excise duty, and atyaya
fines. Custom duties or tolls were levied on internal
and external merchandise, that is, on goods manufac-
tured in the country (abhyantara) and in foreign lands
(b.ihya) on their export (nishkrimya) and import (pra-
vesya) as stated by Kantilya
For land revenue the kingdom was divided into
four groups rek. parihiraka or village exempted from
taxation, ayudhiya or villages that supplied* soldiers,
village that supplied free labour for public roads or
buildings (vishtj) ai\d dairy produce (Kara-pratikara),
and villages that gave taxes in grains, cattle, and gold
(hiranya) and raw materials (Xupy a). Royal revenues
were also collected from interior (durga). Country parts
(rashtra) other than tlie above villages mines (Khani)
buildings and gallons (.-eUi), forests (vana), herds of
cattle (vraja) and roads of trciffiG or road cess from
traders (vanik patha).
Dnrga or interior taxes r.cluded tolls, fires (registra-
i

tion weights and measures, through town cFrks and

of)
superintendents of coinage, seals, and pass-ports, liquor,
slaughter of animals, (manufacture of) threads, oils ghee"
through state -goldsmith, ware itouse of merchan-
sttgar.
dise,from prostitutes, gambling, ileasingt building sites
from the corporation of -artisans, handicraftsmen’
Superintendents of gods or temples and gate tax includ-
 POLITICAL LIFE AND INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 1
‘21

ing entertainment tax and entrance fee for foreigners

(bihiraka).
Rashtra meaning realm or parts of the kingdom
outside the interior (durga) supplied taxes on the produce
from crown lands, tithe, tributes on share of offerings
(bali) made to the temples, from merchants, superinten.
dents of fisherv, ferries, boats, ships, towns (markets),
pasture- grounds road-cess, and ropes to bind thief with
probably implying manufacture of non-military weapons,
Khani or mines were a special source of taxation
wherefrom were brought out through processes of
minerology by private enterprise grid, silver, diamond,
gems, pearls, corals, co uohshells, iron, salt and other
minerals.
Setu or special grounds separated from ordinary
corn--fields, another special source of taxation,
included flower gardens (as in Holland of present day),
fruit-gardens, vegetable gardens, and wet-fields, etc.
These were also developed on a large business scale by
farmers through private enterprise. Vana or fcrests
were also developed as implied by their division
for the purpose of taxation into ti?pber-forests,
game forests, and elephant forests. Minerals are not
included in this cacegory as they were tapped in places
other than deep forests which yielded more notably
timber, game comprising bird's uni animals, and wild
animals like elephants vrho helped tdie devehjpment
of economic life in the past.

Vraja or cattle breeding was another source of

taxation which was also develope by private enterprise
1

which had to pay the royal share of income Like farmers

of various things, there were breeders of doniesticated
animals including cows, buffuloes, goals, sheep, asses,
camels, horses and mules, which sipiplied both, milk and
flesh, and also draught animals for transport contributing
largely to the economic developu ent of the country.
Vanik-patha or traffic routes included both land
roads and water-ways. The traffic of goods hy^ tlie land
and water must have been in a large scale in Kantilya’s
time, for otherwise, it condd not form a special item of
royal taxation, And in order to make it possible the
traffic business must have been carried through both
private and state enterprise.
16
12-2 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

For the purpose of equitable taxation it is elabora-

ted by Kautilya (Book II, chap xxxv, 142), that the
boundaries of villaa'es were set up, ard the numbering
was done of plots of grounds as cultivatel, uncultivated,
plains, wet lands, gardens, fences or roads (vata), fr rests,
altars, temples of g. ds, irrigation works, cremation
grounds, feeding or alms houses -sathcU, watering places,
(prapa), places of pilgrimage, and pasture grounds. This
was necessary for remission cf taxes for charitable and
public institution. The houses were also numbered as
tax paying or non-tax paying The total number of the
inhabitants of all the four castes in a village were
registered and air account was bept of the exact number
of cultivators, cow-herds, merchants, artisans, labourers,
and slaves and quadruped animals. An account was
also kept of the number of young and old men that
resided in each house, their hi'-tory of conduct and
character (charitra), occupation (ajlva) income (riya) and
expenditure (vyar a). Imporxance of such a census can
har dy be exaggerated. It not only helped a iudicious
allocation of taxes but ?,lso supplied necessary particulars
to study and improve the condition cf the people.

Concerning the foreign merchandise arriving by

land or water route an aceou’.y: was kept concerning the
amount of toll, roa l-ce-'S. conveyance-cess, military
cess,_ ferry fare, charges ii ciurci b,'. them lor tbeir own
subsistence and for the acco'uuu^ hv it u of their mer-
chandise ii ware liouses pa 'y g rah The rate cf taxes
(

under various heads are veil ilb: -t rated by Kautilya

.

(Book V, chap, ii, 24i). ])etuaii'l was made up to one

fourth of cultivatcrs’ grain an'', one-sixth of forest
produce and of such cimiiuoclities cotton, ware,
fabrics, barks of trees, aeuqis, wc 1. silk,, medicines,
sandals, flover, fruits, vegetables, firewocd; bamboos'
flesh and dr'cd fish; cue half of ^.11 ivorv and skins
cf animals. Tliese are the uixes L-vied in a share of the
pro luce. Taxes were a.lso tnkcu^ in m< i.ey. Thus the
merchants dealing in gold, silver, dianum Is, precious
stones, pearls, C(/ral, hcu’ses a-ud elephants ha to pay
I

fifty kcU-as being eqinvaleut to 10 pasas. Tliose who

traded in cotton threads clothes, copper, luass, bronze
(sandal, medicines) and liquor paid I'oitv laras.
Those who traded in grains, liciuiOs me+als,
(loha)
and dealt with carts bad to pay thirty eras
Those who
 POLITICAL LIFE AND INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 123

carried on their trade in glass -.kacha) and also artisans

of fine workmanship paid twenty karas. Traders on
articles of inferior vrorkmanship and those who kept
prostitutes had to pay ten karas. Those Vvho traded
in firewood baniDoos, stones, earthen pots, cooked rice
and vegetables {i.e. the hotel-keeper) paid five karas.
Dramatists and proscituces had to pay as much as half
of their wages. Drauduieiit cran.rs like the golds'niths
had to pay their entire income. Traders rearing cocks
and pigs had co pay as taxes half of the stock of their
animals. Those who reared inferior animals hat to pay
one-sixth. Those v- no i:ept the domesticate 1 animals of
public use like c..^vts, buffaiucs. mules, asses, and camels
paid only one-tenth of their live-stock as royal taxes.
Those who of their own accord with intention of doing
good for the public offered their wealth as voluntary
subscription to the king were honoured with a rank
in the king’s court, an umbrella, a turban, or some
ornaments in return for tneir gold
Taxes were also entirely remitted. Those who
performed sacrfices (Titviks), spiritual guides, preceptors,
priests, and those learne in the Vedas were granted free
i

(Brahmacharya; lands yielding sufficient produce, and

were exempted from taxes and fines (Book II, chap, i,
46). All other learned men, orators, charitable and brave
persons were also encouraged with gifts of land and
money, aird with tue remission of taxes (^Book XllI,
chap. V. 4o7). Barciai or temporary reiuission of taxes
wms made in case oi construction of new tanks, lakes,
etc., for five years, and lor lour yeais fur repairing such
works of public ruility, and for three years for improving
or extending water works. Land taxes for such works
Vv'ere remitted for two years tn connection with the pur-
chase or mortgage oi such lands. “Out of crops grown
by irrigation by means of wind mills or bullocks, or
below tanks, in fields, parks, flower-gardens or in any
other way only so much of the produce as would not
entail hardship on the ciihivaturs might be given to the
government” i ersons wiio are permitted to enjoy such
lands free of reut of any kind were, however, required to
keep the tanks etc,, in goon repair.
The king’s establisluneiu. charges f. r maintaining
his servants, as stated by Kautilya (iSook V, (diap. iii^
246) were fixed at uu.ier one-tounh of the total revenue.
But the king had to look to the bodily comforts of his
1-24 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILTZAIION

servants by providing such emoluments as can infuse

in them the spirit of enthusiasm to work and prev'-ent
the violation of the course of righteousness. Thus the
emoluments were enough to meet the necessiides of
living and position, aird prevent unfair means of earning.
Thus paa ts the highest pay, was fixed for the
prirae-minisGer who performed 'he dudes of the State,
the adviser and priest, the commander-in-chief of
the army, the heir-appa.rent to the throne, the queen
mother or -dowager and the c’.iief queen The door
keeper, the superintendent of the haivm, chief legislato:
or law-officer (Vrassstri), the collector general of revenue
received 24000 pa'Gas each. The princes othfr than the
crown prince, the governess of the prince, the chief police
officer (Nayakah the city n agdstrate, the chief officer in
charge of commerce, the Superintendent of factories (Kar-
miiitika). members of the couacilof ministers other than
the chief minister, the snrveyer general in charge of coun-
try parts and boundaries received 12,000 p-;nas each. The
chiefs of military corporation, elephants, horses,
chariots, iitfantry, and the commissioners of a divi-
sion (Prades'.ara) received .u^ooo paras each. The
superintendents of infantry, cavalry, chariots, elephants
and the guards of timber forest and elephant forest
received 4,0c0 panas each. 'j
he chariot drivers,
the physician of the army, the trainer of horses,
the state engineer ( Banddhika ,
and those who
reared animals received 2000 panes each. The trade
soldiers, accountants and writers or clerks received 600
jjanas eacli The state musicians got 260 panas, but the
trumpet blowers got twice as mucdi. The artisans and
carpenters received T20 pa^ as each Servants in charge
of the state animals and birds, workmen doing miscella-
neous work, attendants u.non the royal person, king’s
body guard and the procurer of free lovers received 60
paras each, A messenger of ordinary qualifications
received 10 pa- as for each yc jana he travelled and twice
as much when he travelled 10 to bJO yo.ianas. The king’s
representative at the KgJasCya and the other sacrifices,
and the chariotsm- of the king in the sacrifices
received 1,( 00 pa- as not as a .salary but probably as
honorarium Simil.rrly an honorarium of 1000 panas
vvas gi\ en to the play-u a.te of the -'ung, the elephant
dri\ ei, tue sorcertr, the spotter ol the mines in mountains
and ad other kinds of temporary attendants, teachers
and learned men similarly the ideal house-holder.
 POLITICAL IJFE AND INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY

merchant aitl ascetic, and the temporary spies received

1000 panas each as honorarium. The village servant,
inferior spies and mendicant women received -7;(( paras
as honorarium, and lastly the servants assisting the spies
received 250 panas.
All the royal servants received a special allowance
on the occasion of funeral, sickness, and chdd birth.
The sons and wives of those who died wltile on duty
received a subsistence allowance and a pension where
it was iieGessary,
These particulars will show that there was an
equitable system of salaries, allowances and pensions
which were fixed on a sound principle. The amount
fixei was computed to be sufficient according to the incli-
vidnal requirement. it kept the people free from
discontentment and unfair means of earning'. It also
ensured loyalty and attachment. Two points, however,
remain obscure. What would be the equivalent of one
para to the modern coinage is not exactly known, and
the period for which various amounts of salaries quoted
above was fixed is also a matter of uncertaintiP If one
pana could be interpreted as being equivalent to ore
rupee of the present day then these salaries may be
taken, as some scholar think to be, for a year rather than
for a me nth.
The particulars of royal revenues quoted above
should make it clear that taxes were imposed on all
sources of income, land ferests, manufacture, agTicuhuie,
minerology, industry, cattle breeding, tra.ffic, exports ana
imports etc. A reasonable part of incon e from all ].ro-
fession went to the state which supplied proteucion, law
and order under which conditions only one can earn any
income. There is no reference available to any poll tax
or tax on any unproductive adventure like theit. On the
other hand the prostitutes and gamblers, etc., were taxed
for social good and to prevent encouragen ent cf immi ral
traffic. The toleration at the same time of gambiirg
and prostitution would imply the individi al liberty with
which the sovereignty of the state did not interfere.
Thus for the means of livelihood for individuals and
communities white, spotted and black n eans were tole-
rated to which reference has already been ]nade in the
preceding chapter. But so far as the State reverues
were coircerned there as no such liberty cr indtdgence
iu different sources of income On the other hand tliere
1-26 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

was no restriction laid down by the State on the liberty

of one spending his income as he liked except of course
on tiie perforniance of the fivefold basic daily duties of all
house holdei’s which no doubt required a portion of his
income. But the state had no such liberty, even the
household expenses of the king himself was fixed for
which only he could draw from the state treasury, the
rest of the revenue had to be spent for the good of the
society only. In fact tne items of the state expenditure
will indicate more clearly the standard of civilization
and culture achieved in the political life of the ancient
Hindus.
Vyaya sarira or the main heads of state expendi-
ture according to Kautilya included at the outset the
maintenance of the cnurch, literally the chanting of
hymns to gods and amcestors. Although the material pro-
gress was xiever ignored the aim of the state policy
in all the Hindu period was the moral uplift and spiritual
development The governmrnt establishment, althouijh
required even for the maintenance of the church, was the
next item of royal expenses which were incidental on
the maintenance of peace and order by courts of justice,
police, public works, etc. Maintenance of a permanent
army in an efficient form was the next item of expendi-
ture from the royal revenues. It was necessary to
maintain the armoury for the production of weapons
and inuxiitions, array store of food and clothes, main-
tenance of infantry, cavalry, chariots, and elephants.
Provisions were also made both for military and civil
purposes for maintaining warehouse, raw-materials,
factories, labourers, herds of cattle comprising cows,
horses etc., fodder, and fire wood. And lastly the expen-
ses were drawn from the revenues for the king’s house,
modestly called here, kitchen, which intenied to supply
the bare necessities for the king and his family.
Although the Hindu king was rrever called a public
servant his maiir function was to please* of course by
service the subjects as indicated by the chief designation,
raji, aird fully illustrated by the conduct of the
ideal king
Bamachairdra who renounced the royal throne and
consort in order to please the subjects. In fact
there is
hardly any iirstance available in the Vedas
.Jain and
Buddhist scriptures, in the Epics and the Puranas
in the
poems and dramas which would go to indicate
anv extor-
tion exercised by the Hindu kings of the past
Even the
 POLITICAL LIFE AND INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 111

rulers of the Historical period till twelfth century after

Christ were free from ar y accusation of extortion. Xo
one king in the lines of the Sisunigas, Xandas, Hauryas,
Andhras, Pallavas, Guptas, Chdukyas, Rashtrakutas, Palas
and Senas proved to be anything but the raji or the
pleaser of the subjects There were, however, rulers like
queen Didda who in Kashmir indulged for a she rt time
in a reign of terror.

CIVIL ADMINISTRATION

The branches of Civil administration are indicated

by the departmental heads and superintendents of various
offices. The general principles of administration were
drawn from local usages and from the Institutes of the
sacred law as stated by Manu (viii, 3). Thus the judicial
devices and the legal rules were constantly mingled with
moral exhortations A distinction was however recog-
nised in the treatment of civil and criminal law In
regard to rules on judicial procedure and Civil law, Manu
discusses more elaborately ‘the moral side of the duties,
incumbent on the judge and the other persons concerned
than to the technicalities which are much more minutely
described in the DharmasSstras of Yajnavalkya and
Narada^. Among the ancient law books the Vasishtha
Dharmasastra (xvi, 10, 14-1 o) is the only authority which
alludes to written documents and names therein.

The aim administration was to eradicate

of th •

offences. The two-fold duties, according to

king’s
Kautilya, included enforcing the recognised laws and
promoting new laws (Dharma Pravartaka). Thus
the justice consisted in promoting the dharma and
vyavah.ira The former safeguarded the c rrect conduct
of life in matters of the Samskaras or the sacramental
duties of parents towards children, and sacrifices or social
and public duties of a householder and the observance of
asramas of four castes. Vyavahara safeguarded laws like
contract, agreement, trade, purchase, sale, ])act, etc
The aim of justice was also to promote achma and
charitra, that is, traditional usage and practice by the
aristocratics, aryi sasana or royal degree.

1. For further details see Weber, History of Indian Literature

pp. 279-281: Stenzler Yajnavalkya, pp. vii.x Journal of the German
;

Oriental Society, vol. ix Jolly, Tagore Law Lectures, pp. 45.49,

:
1-2S INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

In conformity with the general aim of the civil

adniistration there were protective laws in general
(dharmasTliiya) and penal law^s of police measures to
eradicate offences (kantaka-lodhana). Thus the civil law^
was based on the principle of maintaining prosperity
(dhana-samudbhava) and the criminal Jaw on checking
the teu'iency to retard law and order (hiinsa-samud-
bhava).
The court of justice was formed of eight classes of
officers. The king passed the final degree The chief
justice pronounced the sentence. The judges examined
facts and scrutinized evidence in order to arrive at a
correct decision. The law books comprising local usages
and dharmasastras were the authorities and guide of the
trial judges. In doubtful cases the judgment had to be
confirmed by ordeals of gold, water, fire, etc. The Court
Accountant assessed damages and fines according to law.
Tne scribe or the trial clerk wrote the judgment from
dictation of the judge and passed orders of the court.
The usher guarded the court room in order to provide
undisturbed atmosphere. The judge was assisted by
three assessors as stated by Manu (viii, 10) The inter-
pretation of the recognized law* was entrusted to a learned
Brahiuana probably the prime minister I'vii. 20). The
administration of justice was entrusted to three mem-
br^rs acquainted with sacred law (dharmasthas) and three
ministers (amatyas) of the king (as stated by Kautilya
Book III, chap i, 140),
The that gave rise to law-suits as stated by
titles
klami I
included eighteen topics the non-payment
viii, 4 7) :

of debts; de’ osit and pledge sale without ownership

; ;

concerns among partners resumption of gifts non-

; ;

payment of wages ;
non-performance of agreements ;

ivoev-ion of sale and purchase dispute between owners

;

cf cattle and his servants, dispute regarding boundaries ;

as- v.ilt defamation theft, robbery and violence

; ;
adul-;

tery, duties of man and wife; x^artitiou of inheritance, and

gambling and betting.
In dealing with- any of these suits the judge was
rcoquire i, ns stated by Kautilya (Book VII!, cha;). ix 221)
not to threaten, browbeat, send out or unjustly silence any
one of the disputants in his court. He was required not
te defame or abuse any of them. He was tiot to omit, to
a-’t what ought to be asked and was not to ask what
 g

POLITICAL LTFP AND INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY

ought not, to be askeh He was not to leave out of

co.isideration what he himself had aske and directed.
’

He was not to make unnecessary ielay in discharging

his duty, postponing work with spite or causing parties
to leav'e the court by tiring them with dehry. He was not
to evade or cause to eva ’e statements that wo'dd lead
to 'he se'thinent of the case He was not to help
vcitnes^-C'' giving ttiem clues cr to resume cases already
settle',! cr riisposed
The tr al lerk was required to be careful to record
what had been deposed by parties and w'as not to enter
what had not been deposed He was not to evade what
had been indistincdy said or he was not to render either
diver e or ambiguous in meaning such depcsitions as were
satisfactorily given out. The chief justhe was required
to revise with, out any rej' dice the findings of t^e court
i

the interpretation of the recognised law by the expert

Brahmen counsel, the estimate of damages and fines
calculated by the court acc^'antant, an to be satisfied,
I

that the trial was con'-^hicted without in'errup ion by

disturbance, d bus the c‘ ief justice acted as a revision
court atvi there appears to have been no summary trial
however pett- a case might have been. The assessors
whom the jud .e had to consult provided lurt cer check
upon the miscarriage of justice. The Id' himseb who
had to approve of the revised judgment by the chief jus-
tice ) ad to be carefid beca' se t' ere appears to have been
a curious p ovision of a fine for the king also. li is
by Tvauiilj^a (Book iv, chap xiii, 2-34)
stated clearjy
t.uat ‘when the ing punishes an
1 nocent man, he
i

shill throw dito water dedicating to Go Varuna a fine

i

equal to h rty times the unjust imposition, and this

am unt shall after a’ds be d stri! uted among the Braii-
>

mans'. This shows that despite all precautions mis-

ca riage of stri'^t justice was possible and that die king
himself w.us not beyond the scope o’ law. There could
ceriai qv be no higlier ideal ol jiistive and impartiality
in the eyes of law.
The punishment prescribed will indicate that
the- we^^e never vindictive. Despite doubtful re-
fe. ern es in general literature to capital punishment
or removal o certain li-dn.- the most recognissd
to irv of nnnidime’t c mprised as stated ;y Mann
(Viii, l’u9, al the La'ivt a gentle adnu nitio
I
aftenvards
,

harsh reprove, thirdly a fine, and af er that corporal

chast’sement including p'robably lint risonmont and
17
130 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

loss of a limb or life, ifautilya ha=; referred throughout

his Arthasastra to a long list of fines for spies for false
information, for neglecting to maintain dependent per-
sons, for killing an elephant, that is, cruelty to animals,
for deception in gems, for driving out robbers by a hint,
that is, for abetting robbery, for loss and misappropriation
of royal revenue, for the fabrication of acccunts and neg-
lecting to prepare and check the account, for falsehood
of a minister, for not enforcing the king’s orders, for
false accusation of a government servant, for negligence
of one’s duties, for niggardliness and extravagance, for
carelessness in the manufacture of coins, for adultera-
tion of salt, etc., for manufacture of salt without licence,
for entrance into the mint without permission, for
artisans for neglect of work, for manufacture of gold
and silver articles outside the prescribed place, for using
unstamped weights and mectsures, for deception in
manufacturing gold and silver articles, for misnaming
merchancise, for enhancing the value of articles, for
not paying the toll, for smuggling, for importing
forbidden articles, for ptu'chasing minerals directly from
mines, for purchasingflowers and fruits from gardens and
grain' from fields without giving the royal share, for not
doing the work paid for, for adultery in the weaving
factory, for stealing articles in the weaving factory, for
carpenters for not doing their works, for unauthorised
manufacture of liquor, for trespassing in the reserve
forests, r killing or molesting harmless beasts, for false
f(.

weigut for selling rotten flesh; for a prostitute for

entrustirg her jewellery to any other persons and for
mortgaging her prc perty. and for defamation for not fulfil-
ling engagements, for rnurderint her lover, for voilating,
abducting or hurting a prostitute for fording rivers, fcr
;

neglect of duty by cowherds, for cowherds for milking

COW'S rnauy times a day, for letting bulls to fight, for
grooms for neglecc of work and for riding horses against
orders, for cere'essness in treating the disease of animals
and in rearing animals for travelling without a pa-s,
;

foT not reporting arrival and departure of stranger.-,

for ke-^ping fire against order and not keeping any
instrumeiUs to extinguish fire and not helping to ex-
tinguish fire, for causing the outbreak of fire, for throw-
ing dirt in the street, for committing nuisance in the
street, for throwing carcass of arrimals inside the city, for
taking a dead bod> through forbidden road-, for cremating
dead bodies in forbidden places, for moving in the streets
 POLITICAL LIFE AND INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 131

of the city at night after the trumpet sound, for moving

near royal buildings, for moving with clubs in the city ;

for watchmen for adultery and for neglect of their duty ;

for an officer for rot reporting nocturnal nuisance for ;

taking part in illegal transactions, for entering into frau-

dulent agreeme nts, for self-assertion and making false com-
plaints; for a wife for disobedience, for husband for crvmlty
to wife, for awe man for transgression, for wife for the con-
tempt of her husband, for adultery, for a woman for mak-
ing forbidden transaction, for a wife for going out of her
husband’s house, for a woman for taking another man’s
wife into her house, for preventing a woman from
helping kinsmen when necessary, for a woman for net
helping during child birth, for going to another village,
for accompanying strangers on her way, for illegal
remarriage ;
for not making water-course and drains
near the house, for not keeping the fire place, corn mill,
etc.) in the house, for damaging neighbouring houses
and water courses, etc., for unlawful occupation of a house,
for a tenant for forcing cut of the house another tenant,
for obstructing the use of any part of the house intended
for common use for bidding in the sale of a property in
;

the absence of its owner, for selling things to any other

but the bidder, for destroying boundary marks, for
encroachment upon boundaries, for walking on crops, for
closing the sluice gate of tanks, for obstruction to roads,
for encroachment upon a neighbouring field, for selling and
mortgaging land to persons who are not cultivators for ;

Brahmans for selling ormortgagingBrahmadeya lands to

non-Brahmans; for the headman of a villbge for banish-
ing a villager and for villagers for doing the same; for al-
owing cattle to trespass or to stray, ^or driving cattle
through a field, for hurting cattle for a labourer for not
;

doing the work as agreed upon, for not taking part in a

work beneficial to the whole village, for exceeding the anth o-
rised rate of interest, for claiming morethan the amount
lent out, for a creditorfor refusing to receiv'e the payment
of his debt and thereby stopping his exaction of interest,
for running away without paying a debt, for master and
servant suing each other insTe:;d of comyromisiivi.- them-
selves; for bearing false witness, for misappropriating a
deposit, for not reconveying a pledge, for enslaving an
Arya, for deceiving a slave, for employing slaves in mean
works, for violating the chastity of a slave-woman or a
nurse etc., for commiiting rape with a slave girl, for sel-
ling a pregnaiu slave -woman without provision for her
13-2 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

confinement for failure to set a slave free on receipt of a

ransom, for keeping a slave in c mfinernent, for enslav-
ing a liberated slave; for failure to pay wages, for
misappropriating w'ages, for a labourer for putting off
work, for an employer for not taking work from his
labourers; for guilds of workmen for taking away any
thing from places of w ork and for leaving any thing
undone and for deserting tdreir company; for a sacrificer
for dismissing a priest; for merchants for refusal to give
delivery of an article sold; for a superintendent for causing
a merchandise to perish; for giving a girl in marriage
without announcing her blemishes; for concealing a bride
grootn’s blemishes; for selling diseased birds; for receiving
gratification, money etc. by intimidation; for conspiracy
to hurt a person; for showing haughtiness to the king;
for running away with a stolen property; for claiming a
lost property not one’s own; for making possession of an
unclaimed property without permission; for improper
proceeding against ascet cs; f.,rpiifei'ing; for cattle-lifting;
for rieepin i persons in prise ns, for releasing prisoners by
force, for abetment of robbery, ior using abusive expres-
sions for intimidation and defamation, for causing a man
to fall down, for striking and hurting a air tor robber^
in a rtiarrel, for causing damage to the wall of another’s
house, for throwing hurtful things inside the house of
others, for beating animals with sticks, for cutting oif
branches of fruit trees; for gambling outside the gain
bling house, for substituting dice ani false play in gam-
bling, for the superintendent of a gan.bling ho se foi tiie
neglect of his duties; for not returning bon owed or hired
things, for sitting under the shade of a tree ioiiger than
allowed; for deception in prying a cess or freight while
passing rivers etc for oausing a row. for not deaverj.ng
;

an entrusted property; for dragging the wife of a brother

and adultery with her; for selling bad things; for oi’eas
ing open the locked door of a house, ior Imrting, fof
misappropriation of the revenue of a private person; for
adultery with a wddow; for a Chandala touching an Arya
woman; for not rescuing a person in danger; fur feeding
Buddhists and Ajivikas in an ancestral ermnony; for
unautho isel criminal trial; for impersonating a govern-
ment servant; for rendering quacnipeds imnuteui, for cans-
ing abortion ;o a female slave by medicine cti,.; for lather
and son for abandoning eaca other, for ab;n.doinnga
helping person, for deserting compaiu in traveliing toge-
ther, for illegal Gonfin-_m,ent; for artisans for postponing
 POLITICAL LIFE AND INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 133

engagements; for deception in spinning end weaving

by substituting other yarns; for washermen for wmshing
on rough stones; for wearing unstamped clothes, for
selling or mortgaging those clothes or substituting them,
for keeping clothes longer than allotted period; tor gold-
smith for purchasing gold and silver articles from
suspicious hands; for deception in manufacturing articles
and for stealing gold etc.; for the examiner of coins
for declaring a tampered coin to be good, for misappro-
priatioti of coins by tampering, for n anufacturing and
Using counterfeit coins, or depositing the same into the
treabui’j
;
for scavangeis for taking precious stones, for
taking possession of a treasure trove and for stealing
the same; for a physician for carelessness in treatment;
for musician for too much indulgence; for using false
balances, fi r deception in counting and in trade, for caus-
ing anno'v ance to artisans, for tracers for preventing sale,
for middlemen for deception, for adulteration of articles,
for enhancing prices, for not rescuing person carried
by floods and from a tiger, for receiving bribes, for extor-
tions for false witnesses, for witchcraft, for poisoning, for
robbery, for association with the condemned, for false
accusation, for concealing a thief, for the use of false
seals, for wilful proceedings of a judge, for the misdeeds
of a clerk, for unjust punishments, for false judgment, for
releasing prisoners, for letting out debtors from lockup,
for the supei'indendent of a jail for bribery, for causing
prisoners to escape, for adultery in a jail, for mutilation
of limbs for pick-pocketing, for impersonating, for
blinding a person, for fabricating the king’s order, for
removing the images of gods and their ornaments etc.,
for illegal possession of anything; for causing fatal
WvUnds, abtrtion and death; for spreading false rumours,
for obstructing travellers, for house-breaking, for cremat-
ing the condemned, for helping murderers etc., for treason
against the kingdom, for forcing entrance intothe harem,
for creating disaffection, for patricide, for breaking the
dam of a tank, for wife for murdering her husband, for set-
ting fire to pastures, for stealing weapons, for disregarding
kitchens of Brahmans, for insu ting the king, for castrat-
ing a man, for hurting another, for defiling a maiden, for
impersonating a bridegroom, for deception and securing
a bride, for substituting a maiden in marriage, for carnal
connection with a slave, for keepii.g a relative’s woiuan.
for giving prohibited food etc , to Brahmans etc., for
mounting the roof of one’s own as well as of others at
134 INDIAN CULTUtlE AND CIVILIZATION

night, for b^’eaking fences of villages etc.,

for construction
of unstable houses, for stealing the
rope of an animal,
throwing Stoners etc at carts, for not rescuing a man
,

troin beasts, for causing horned animals

to fight, for
causing hurt by letting loose untamed animals, for
stealing or riding on a dedicated animal like the
bull,
tor rash driying, for unnatural sexual
connection, for a
nun tor adultery, and for concealing or hoarding grains
and for the king for miscarriage of justice (Book iv.

Even the Brahmans were not exonerated from the

payment of a fine and the people of other castes
had to
to pay in cash as stated
by Manu (IX. 229y A Kshatriya, a Vaibya
and a Sudra
y, ho are unaWe to pay a fine shall discharge the debt
by labour a Brahman shall pay it by
;
instalment’.
These p^articulars
should clarify several disputed
points regarding the civil administration.
First of all
these various fines^ will indicate the
thorough' ai d com-
plete vigilance of rue governmei.t
Then, all these laws
are not to be found in the Dharmasastras.
The rates of
fines for various minor offences
must have been fixed
by the king m
consultation with his councils which
thus prove to be a sort of legislative
bodies also and
ma e laws of
heal and periodical interest. The next
point to note is that in the eyes of
law all people of the
equal all individual officials ornon-officia’-

f-fll'iv
falsely
Brahmans wh? are
accused of partiality in
making laws were
similar offences.
kimself set a noble
exanmle bv^r^®
example by providing a penalty on him
for an offence
commi^ssion in the discharge oT
dnH^ '''' un individual his
Simi udf-n-
member of the state,
durm punished for failure of
both h'isnand and wife, parents
"
rirATi ''tVi and chil-
servant and the master, the
en^nWer^a
trader and the customer
inchidLcr
)
uul^'u^an. Cognizance
^urts of laxity and sexual immorality
thpft
theft, deception, fraud,
breach of contract or imnhe^
ofhersfn'dtSSrdS'.'®*™'’
roatment of w'omeii and the
'i

of sexual „,orah,y
weak and a stendar^
as already pointed
out lie examples
 POLITICAL LIFE AUD INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 13o

at once of the individual liberty and the sovereignty of

the state. The standard of a civil administration is
clearly indicated by the rules of taxation and punish-
ment laid down to regulate the social life. It is stated
by Kautilya (Book iv. chap, xii, that he who
defiles a maiden before she has reached her maturity
his hand wouid be cut off and . fine imposed but if the
maiden dies in consequence the offender should be put
to death No man shall have sexual intercourse with
any woman against her will. He who defiles a woman
of maturity without her consent should be heavily
punished and shall receive lesser .punishment when the
offence is done with consent. But it would be no offence
for a man of equal caste and rank to have connection
with a maiden who has been unmarried for three years
after her first menses. For committing intercourse with
a woman outside a village or for spreading false report
regarding such things, double the usual fines shab be
’
imposed
An instance of capital punishment and less of a
limb inflicted on rare occasions is supplied by the pass-
age quoted above. Thus all the four forms of punish-
ment illustrated above will show that the principle of
punishment in ancient India was never vindictive but
the object was corrective and deterrent.
Considering all the points of civil administration
it is justified to hold the view that ‘no higher principle
of civil administration is known to exist anywhere even
at modren times,’ As regard the Army Command the
cfhee of the Senapati, the commander -in chief, goes back
to the earliest times of the Vedas, the Epics, the Buddhist
and the Jain texts, and the Puranas. In the historical
period, as in the time of the Imperial Guptas, newer
and more significai t military^ titles came into use Thus
in the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudra Gupta
Maha-danda nayaka, great leader of forces, was used
as a technical military title. The officer who held this
rank was the superior of the Danda-nayakas, lead r
offerees. We also meet with titles Dandanathg, Dan-
dadhimtha, Dandsdhipa, Dandadhipati, Dandesa. and
Dandesvara as synonyms when danda means army or
forces. Similarly Chamunatha, Chamupa, Chamupati,
etc., in which chamu means ‘army’ are used in the
Kargudari inscription of Vikramaditya VI and Tailapa
II as commander-in chief of the army. In the Bala-
 INDIAN CULTUEE AND CIVILIZATION

gamve inscription r>andan§yal:a is defined as saniasta-

senagresara or leader of the whole army. In the Allaha-
bad pillar inscription Samdhi-Vigrahakika, lit. an officer
for peace and war, is used as a technical military title.
In the Indian Antiquary (vol. iv, p. 1-2-h vol vii, p 70;
vol. viii p dO) are found used synonymous titles
Saiiidhi -Vigrah-adhikarantdhikrita Vigrahadhikrita and
Saiiidhi-vigrahin coupled with Mahapradhina and
Danda-nayaka. The next higher grade was tl at of
Mahs-saindhi-vigrahika whicf is used in the Khoh
grant of Maharaja Hastin of the yeai' 168. Several other
titles of lower grades must have been used. The tradi-
tion has been retained by the title of Jlayaka used in
modern Indian arn y-commander of a small unit.
Kings themselves led the army as stated not only
in Vedic texts hut also in the Kamayana. Ramachandra
and I.akshmana with the monkey .general Hanunian
conquered Kavana and rescued Sita Arjuna, Duryo-
dhana, Bhishma, Kama and others of the Mahabharata
fame fought personally at the battle-fields Abhimanyu,
16 year son of Arjuna fought against the combined
attack of seven generals of the Kanrava army. Chandra-
gupta Maury a in the 4th century B. Ck gallantly opposed
the Grecian army. In the 4th cputury A I) Sar tidragupta
is stated in his Allahabad pihar inscription to liave been
‘skilful in engaging in a hundred battles of various
kinds’ and he was praised becam e Ids ‘mo-t charmdng
body was covered over with all 'h '
bemty c.+ the
mark- of a hundred confused wounds’ causec by a
n'-mkoer of the then known weapons. His great grand-
son Skand-.gupta as stated in the .Tunagaih Kock
inscription of 455-58 A. D. won victory in he countries
of the Mlechchhas, an '
in conquerinEr the Pushvi. mitras
in order to resto'e the fallen fortin es of his fannly
spent ‘the whole night on ihe bare earth in the batt e-
fielc’ as de-cribei in his Bh'tari pillar inscripiion.
Inst nces like these may bo multiplied ad infinitinn.
Accordirg to M .nu (vii, 65.06^ abb ugh th armv
comm-ands d pend or- them litary officers pia.nd in
charge of it, the due ccntrol on the aimy, the treasury
ud governmer t of he realm as a whole rests with the
king, and peace and war with the ambassador who alone
makes king’s allies and separate- allie- and transacis that
businep Ity whicr the kings are united or disunited
Traditionallv’ the forces comprised four arms, riz. foot
horse, chariots, and elep>h >nts as constantly mentio' ed
 Political life and individual liberty 137

i’ the Epics an3 oth r b’arsches of Sa' skr't litf ratiire.

But the navy was not unknown. Even king Har ha
of Kanauj ni -es mention of nau,
’.
vy, along with
the four traditi mal arms in his three i scriptions.
Kautil/a in his Arthas'istra menti n^ a sixth hr nch,
the armamen' or munitions of war ir eluding the great
guns with which ship is f>rmed. In addition to those
i

weapons d^ scribed in 1he Mahabharata and othtr

ea'^ly li e’ .ture w'e come acr ss an inmrestintr list in 'he
Allahabad pillar inscription of Sam.udragurt viz. .

battle ax^'= (parasul, arr ws (sara\ spears (s'arku),

pikes (paktil, barbed darts 'prasa), swords asii, lances
(tomara\ javelins L r thr^ wing (bh-ndipala', iron arrows
(narachaj pistol or small hand gun of the size of a span
(vaitastika) and many others. Fire-arms of other kirds
sounding like the latest atomic bombs vagu ly called the
agneyastra in the Ma* abh-'rata were Iso used obvi-
ously from some kind of field gun or artillery. G'eat
heroes like Arjun conducted painstaking researches
>

in order to discove" new -weapans to deal with the

powerful enemy as significantly descr’b d by Bhuavi
in his Kir darjuni' a.
The strategy of wa’ in co- ducting a campaign a^ d
manoeuvrirg an army was w 11 understood. Flaborite
description s avail able 'n variou branch s of Sanskrit
literature c ncerning the military posts, season of
expedition, and technical devices for overp wering the
enemy’ A regular a'^my was maintained and military
expenditure for.? ed a special ite-r in the budget. Thus
came into being a whole class of warriors who ubse-
quently were c r sohdated into a caste whose prof ssion
it was to b trai ed in warfare. Tr ining was given m
various kinds of fighting as in open co mtry, in holl w
ground by saps a: d trenches, by day and by night.
According toManu (VII, 87 -9d) king who is
.

defied by fees superior, equal ir weaker strength

of
mu't not shrink from battle remembering the caste
duties of Ksha riyas or warriors viz. not to turn back in
battle, to proteco the people, not to strik" with weapons
conceal d in wood, nor with such as are barbed, ! oisoned

1 Compare the complaints raised during the last world war II

regarding the u=e of atomic bombs, pilotless air planes and many
other unfair means.
18
138 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

or the points of which are blazing with fire, not

to strike one who is in flight nor one wh snrreniers >

saying ‘I am thine’, nor one who joins the palms of his .

handsinsuppliGaiion.no ne who sleeps in fatigue,

;

who has lost his coat of mail (we ipons for proteotio a),
who is disa"med and is not fighting or is engaged with
anathe' foe, nor ore whose wmapons are broken, who
is afflicted with sorrow, ha? been grievously wounded,
or in fear or as turned to fligh: But the dutr of an
honourable warrior does not permit him to turn back
in fear.

The duty of the king is to protect and not to

oppress subjects (Manu, vii 8-3. 3-5, 80, 88, lll-lld, 142-
144 viii 17-2, 303-309 ix. dod x Sd, 119) but to punish
; ;

the wicked ''ii, 14-54; viii. 302-303, 31 -311, 335,

343-34? ix 252-293, 312', to shun the eighteen vices
;

(vii. 44-53), to bu Id safe residence and fortress (vii.

'

69-76) and to fight bravely and honourably (vii, 87-97,

184-204 X, 119). In this last ‘a-soge the whole strategy
and expedition is elaboratec. ‘1 he king should leisurely
proceed for w'arfare agains' the en.-my’s capital after
having duly arranged til affairs in his own kingdom
and what relates to the expedition, having secured a
basis for his oper;itior.s. h-oving duly dispatched his
spies, having clearel th) thre'- kin is of roads, and
'caving m
-ad e his sixfo'd ar.ny rffioient. He must be
very muel on his gu-i.rd ag-ahw a friend who secreoly
serves tlie enemv and ig.i-inst des- rters who return from
the enemy’s camp. Me should the: march cn his road,
arrayirg his troops iu an ob'ong like a staff or in a
wmdge like a waggon, or in a rhombus like a boar, or
in two triangles with apieces j<iined like a Makara, or
in a long line like a pin. or in a rhomboid with far
extended wungs like the Garuda bird, lie should always
himself encamp in an array shaped like a lotus and

1 Hanting, gambling, sleeping by day, excess with women,

drunkenne.ss, inordinate love for dancing, singing and music, and
useless travels — these ten •-et of vices spring from love of pleasure ;

the eight fold set of vices produced by anger consist of tale

bearing, violence, treachery, envy, slandering, unjust seizure of
property, revelling, and assault.
 POLITICZL LIFE AND INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 139

extend his troops from whatever side he apprehends

danger. He should allot to the commander-in-chief, to
the subordinate generals, and to the superior officers
places in all directions and turn his front in that direc-
tion whence he fea.s dinger. On all sides he should
place tioops of soldiers on whom he can rely, with
whom signals have been arranged, who are expert both
in sustaining a charge and in charging, fearless and
loyal. He should make a s nail number of soldiers fight
in close order or extend a large number in loose ranks,
or make them fight arranging a small number in the
needle array and a large numbec in the thunderbolt
array. On the even ground he should fight with chariots
(tanks) and horses, iii water-bound pla-ees with beats and
elephants, on ground covered with trees and shrubs
with bows, o hill ground with sw ids, targets and other
wf»apons. He shou’d let the rail airl Lght seldiers fight
in the van of the battle. As the suoreme commander
he should carefully inspect the jroops ai d encourage
them by an address. He should also mark the behaviour
of the soldiers when they engage the enemy. When
he has besiege ! a town an shut up his foe within it
!

he should sit encamped, harass bis enemy’s kingodm,

and continually spoil his grass, foed, fuel, and water,
and destroy the tanks, rampmts and itches, and assail
the foe unawares and alarm him at night. He should
instigate to rebellion those who are open to such in-
stigations, and keep hims-Lf correc.ly informed of his
foe's doings, and at an opportune moment he should
fight without fear, trying to conquer his foes at first by
conciliation, by well applied gifts and by ci eating
dissensions, used either separately or C'mjjintiy, and
never by fighting if it can be avoi led because
victory and defeat in the battle are as experience
teaches uncertain. But when those three expedients
fail he should duly exert himself and fight in such a
manner that he may completely conqner his enemies.
When he has gained victory he should grant exemptions,
and proclaim promises of safety. dlie seizure of
desirable property which causes displea-.ure and its
distribution which causes^ pleasure ars commendable
if resorted at the proper time. But he sm. uld ascertain
the wishes of all the conquered- and t lace there a rela-
tion of the vanquished ruler on the ihrone and impose
on him his conditions. He should make aiitioritative
 ^

140 INDIAN CULTURE AND GIVLIZATION

and the lawful cu^tcnis of the inhabitants, and honour

the new king and his chief servams with previous gifts,

The scientific achievement and the high standard

of morality indicated by the details of the military
administration remain unsurpassed even by the latest
strategy of modern warfare. There can be no douot that
these p 'inciples were adhered to and actually practised
by the historical kings of the Hindu pericd. The king
Puru chide tged the vorll onqueror AHxander the
Great and d- c’ared to be treated like a king.
The king Aboka treated the vanquished enemy at
the Kalinga war with co'^sideration. JSamiidra-
gupta entranced his glory by showing favcur in
capturiTig and then liberating k ngs ivlahendra of
Kosala, Uyaghrar-ija of Mantaraja of
Ma’~-a antaTa,
Keraia, Mahen Pishtapnra Sv midatia of ioxtnra,
ira of
Damana of Erandapalla, Vishnugopa of Ivanchi, Nilanja
of Avamukta, Hastivarma of Vengi, Ugra^ena of
Palakka, Kubera of Devaraslqra, Ghana njaya of Kurthala
pura, and all ether kings of the region of the south. He
exterminate d Eudradeva, Matila, Nagadatta, Chandra-
varman, Ganapatinaga, Eagasena, Aebyuta,- Nandi n,
Balavarman and many other kings of the north (Aiyi-
varta). He made all the kings of the foiest countries his
allies and servants. Pie secured with grace obeisance,
obedience and taxes from the frotitier kings of Samcitata,
Davaka, iviimarupa, Xepalo, Ida tnn pura and ether coun-
tries and from the tribal heads oi Halavas, Arjuns v’-'inas,
Yaudheyas, Madrakas, Abhiras, Prarjunas, Sanacanikas,
Kakas, Ivharaparikas and other tribes. He re-estabiishied
many royal lamilies fallen and deprived of sovereignty
who became his firm allies ant included Devaputras,
Shahis, Sh ihanushahies, Sakis and Murandas. The
people of Sirnhala and other islands also submitted
to him.^

Thus it should be noted that Sanskrit treatise on

government is not a mere “scholastic aprori air”. The
enumerations and distinctions ‘are not forced on the

l It should be noted that the modem - r uegy h.iS not much

in proved upon these plans ol attack.

i Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Sumudra Gupta, lines 19—25,

 —

POLITICAL LIPE AND INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 141

facts’ but can be scientifically extracted from the analysis

of them.^
Professor Keith, however, declares that the Kautiliya
Aithasastra asserts that ‘government is essential to them
all without it there would be the reign of anarchy
;

everywhere under the sceptre the four castes and their

;

ordered ways of life prosper, Kama, Artha, and Pharma

fulfil ed wLile with Machiavelli the ‘-State is all in ail.’’
;

In a vague manner, the Axthasastra ireans by the ‘state’

an order of societj “which the state does not create but
which it The end of the government,
exists to secure”.
it huics- the maintenance of a firm rule. It recog-
is
nizes the kiT gs as to more han a servant of the state.
Its nnises the rddtion of the King witii the subjects
“in the happiness oi his people lies the happiness of the
kii g in the.r well-being his weh being his own plea- ;

sure is not the king’s vvell-be.ng, but the pleasure of his

people is his weil-being’’ Uulturall there can be no nobler
ideal -ind oath than that which the rulers had to declare
at the time of coronation as stated in the Aitareya Brah-
ma na of pre-Buddhistic age; “If I (king) oppress you
Vsubjects let me be deprived of fruics of my all good
actions during my life time, during next life, and of my
descendants.”
The ecclesiastial adminUtratim concerning the
temple which is discussed in a later section dealing
With basic arts will m.ake it fuither cl^ar beyond doubt
by epigraph:Cal and monumental recc rds that the
literary evidences were not unreliable.

1 Conipare the remarks quoted from ;he three aut -ors of

Ancient India.
2 Yarn cha ritrun ajayeham yim cha pretigni tad ubhayam
antaren purtam me lokain sukritam iiyuh prajain vrinjith.i yadi
e.sht i

te druhyeyamiti (Aitareya Brahmana).

 Chapter iv

MOKAC AND SPIRITUAL LIFE

ETHICS

The laws by which the life of civilized people

living in fcaiily, community, society, and state is
regulated and ruled are no:- arbitrary They are derived
from the ethical prnciTes philosophical reasoning
and the religious faith and belief. In the modern
society especially of the wcs ,
the moral life is totally
disconnected from the spiritual life. The state laws are
entirely has d on the ethical principles, tie religious
faith and belief being consi lered a matter of individuals
rather than of society as a whole. In the Indian
philosophy, however, metaphysics was the basis of
social life.
The ethical principles dealing with relation between
man and man consist in deterr. ining right and wrong,
and good and evil of the atciety as a whole. In the
most developed condition of the society the greatest
goo of the largest number is aimed at. Tnis aim has
I

given rise to the republicin or democratic form of

government with wilest franchise so that a decision
can be arrive-i at after the consideration of all shales of
opinion and by a majority of votes. The ascertainment
of right from wrong ied the Hindu thinkers to the
consideration of the raesauhysical problems, concerning
the relation of mortal man and immortal soul and
spirit, namely, human good rot only in this life but also
in the next. The molern materialistic states, however,
do not care to consider the fate of the human existence
after the end of this life, something like ignoring the
fate of sons and daughters after they have been married
and left the parental shelter.
The laws based on ethical principles are mostly
applicable to state laws. The social laws are based on
religious faith and belief, or customs and tradition. The
state laws are subject to experiment and reasoning. The
social laws may be reasoned but hardly can be experi-
mented. The laws based on religious faith and
beliefgovern the social customs and rites. They are
 MORAL AND SPIRITITAL LIFE 143

not subjact to experiment but may be reasoned to a

certain degree and from certain points of view. They
are, however, intended to satisfy the spiritual instinct
of cultured people.
The Hindu laws in Sanskrit are known as Vyava-
hara or usage. They are based on Dharma winch
implies both ethics and religion. Thus the lawbooks,
Dharmasastra, contain regulations regarding prayer
and sacrifice, funeral ceremoi.ies, purification and
penance, food and drink, manner of living, customs of
various castes, and the duties of kings and councillors.
The duties of rulers and executiv es alone are referred
to in modern law-books which are based on ethics.
The Vedas are the first and foremost source of our
Dharma-sastra. The Vedas contain occasional notices
about legal affairs along with data about sacrifice,
penances, prayers, etc. Apastamba in his Hharmaktstra
li, 14, II) quotes a Vedic passage, the purport of which
is that Manu divided his property equally among his
sons. Thus ipastraaba lays down the law of inheritance
that unequal division of propertv among lawful sons is
forbidden. Similarly a law was made regarding
compensation for murder. Thus came into the law-
books different sections dealing with the law of inherit-
ance, of legal procedure? and other features of law
proper.
After the Veda, the second source of law comprises
the DharmasSstras and the Smritis. The third source of
law is the custom or ways of living and the teachings
of pious men (sadachara, sishtacharak The particular
manners of particular countries, castes, and families are
also the main features of modern laws, for which the
other two sources are absent or rare. The first two
gave rise to sacred or religicus laws, and the third
one to the ethical laws.
Thus in India ethical or moral lavrs gave rise to
the systems of philosophy proper and the spiritual
faith and belief to the various forms of religic n. Both
these functions, however, are combined in a wmy by
certain schools of Indian philosophy. Theology, as has
already been defined, is the science which treats of
god and of man’s duty to him. It is known as Natural
when it is discoverable by the light of reasoning alone ;

and it is Positive or revealed when it is based on the

144 INDIAN CULTUEE AND CIVILIZATION

stud- of divine revelation. As a science it 1 as affinity

with the the istic systeirs of philosophy. Ihe various
forms of religion developed out of the positive or
revealed theology. Thus for the moral and spiritual
life of the Hindus only the Metaphysics of the Indian
philosophy need be considered here as it deals wiTt
problems regarding the relation between the creator and
Cl eation, the other problems of both the theistic amt
atheistic systems having been discussed under the survey
of the philosophical literature.

PHILOSOPHY
The Purva-mimamsa of Jaimini is more a theology
rather than a system of philosophy Its aim is to nter
pret the practical matters of the Vt-dic sacrifices.
According to it Dharma (religion) consi ts in the
performance of the Vedic rites and sacrifices. Though
not d voic of reasoning it assumes as in the theolo y
proper, the Veda as the only god and authority and the
performance of the Veiic sacrffices is the only means
of propitiating the supernatural powers for the pm pose
of attaining the Moksha, release, emancipation or
salvation and the heavenly bliss which is the sole aim
of liffi (purushirtha). Jaimini does not ft el the
necessity of Ho i, the Vedic duties bringing forth the result
automatically.
The Vedanta system assumes an omniscient,
omnipo'ent god as the efficient and material cause of
the univeise, its existence, continuance and di=soln-
tion. It admits the fruits of Vt die sacrifis es but God
;

alone cm give these fruits But the salvatl n is

achieved thr- ugh the true ki owlege of God. It is more
philosphical because it aims at knowing the gol by
reasciing (Brahma-jijnasn). By reason of ignorance
or false knowledge (avidyt, miyai, it is assumed,
an individual mdstakes the world as well as its body and
mind for realities. The moment the perse nal sc.ul is
set free from this ignorance by^ a proper understanding
of the truth all the illusion vanishes, and the identity
of the personal soul (jivttma and of the phenomina^l
universe (pr itihhrsika jara-) with the supieme soul
(parmatma) is re-established. A man persuaded of
thisknowTedge that I am He and that you are He (aham
Brahma, tat tvam asi) obtains release (mukti) and
 MORAL AND SPIRITUAL LIFE 145

salvation (nioksha) This is mainly the view of the

famous commentator Sankara (c-800) But the equally
famous commentator Ramanuja (c 1100) holds the _

view that OJokshi is not the merging of individual

souls and matter into the absolute but it is the blissful
existence. While the Moksha of Sankara is won
through the true knowledge of the absolute (jnanamarga)
the bhssful existence of Ramanuja is attained through
Bhakti or faith in and devotion to God i^bhakti-marga).
Thus Sankara represents the most sustained intellectual
'

effoit of In :i n thought, and Ramanuja represents a

theory of the world which has many similarities to
popular Christian belief.”
This \ iRshtadvaita system of Ramanuja admits of
of three independent existences, viz., the supreme Being,
the individual souls, and the visible world (drisya jagat).
Thus it combines three separate doctrines, namely,
unity, duality, and plurality. Unity is admitted in sayiirg
that all individual spirits and visible forms constitute
the body of one spirit Duality is admitted because
;

the spirit of god and spirits of men are stated to be

distinct and Plurality is admitted in saying that phe
;

spirit of god, innuu.erable sphits of men, and the visible

worli are distinct.
The Pcrva-prajna system of Madhava -sayana is a
doctrine of Dua.ity because Vishnu is held to be the
one eternal being an the individual soul and material
!

world form the other entity. According to the Ny_.ya

system of Gautama God creates the world from
tile self existent atoms. Thus there are several individual
sou s. The Apavarga or salvation can be achieved
through the true knowledge, not only of God as in
the Ucd.mta; but of all subjects and objects This
system aims at a coriect method of phil sophical
inquiry intc p c sses or proofs throu /h which the mind
'-

arri-. es at the true aiud accurate knowledge of al! obje ts

an : subjects. The four proofs (p amsna) comprise
sense-perception (pratyaksh i), inP rence ianu’’ ana),
anal gy uianiina), and authority (sabda) of the Veda.
The subjects iprumeya) about which right knowledge
is to be obtained by means of these reasonings include
soul (ritman), body (sarira), sense organs (indriya),
matters or objects of sense (ramely. dravya, guna,
karman, sauianya, visesha, and samavsyat, cognition
(buddhi), mind ananas), effort fpravritti), fault i^dosha),
19
146 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

transmigration (pretya-bnava' tnutlon (phala\ pain

(dublvha),aid (rinan- ip;, tion or '-alvation apavtrga).
These are the Id ch'.ef ingredients or ca agories of
knowledge. Theie are 14 other accessaries of kn wledge
and 7 more topics to prev'eut erroneous knowledge.
False knowledge is a-^ the root of all mi er^n From
false knowledge comes liking, ih nee mistaken
fal e
activity, thence repeated birt'.is to reap the fruit of
action. From birth proceed misery, and it is the
in of the Nyiya piiiiosophy to correct the false
notions at the root of this n ery It hold® matter i

comp sed of uncreate at. ms, and souls eter al. It

mentions Ged IbVara) o ce bnt dees not Tec gnize His
moral attributes and government of the world.
The Vaiteshika syst* ru of b arada, which is clos- ly
ccnnected with Ny yn s.'sTem, is based on .he uncreatel
eternal atom.s alo<g wif th <J eator and inHvidU:il
i

souls While the Ny ya Sutra deals essen iilly with

logica reasoni g, the \ aib'eshika represents a natural-
isticview w’hich fin s in atom the basis of the material
world. The individual so’ils are a'so eternal These
atoms and souls exist side by side with t le supreme scul
of the lunverse. it doe not. nowever, m3ntion G- d
•
It
believes in ch- e-al activity of the soul, holds the effect
to be different fron, the cause and the qualities from
the substance, it Imlds that Vhe ba is th- cause of
combination of atoms into v iriuus matters. Acci rding
to it iSihbrevas intimate good cr salvation is achieved
tbr.mgh tae true kiiovl- .ge m siilipcts and objects when
the_ soul is purified by the performance of fruitless
action. It a l s the a'ju-exist-noe (abhiva) as the seventh
to the six catagories of Ny.ya, tiz., substance’ dr-.vya),
quality^ (gLina^ action ikarman;, gener lity (s-imany ),
particularity (vise ha cc-inberitance fsamavaya', and
,

non-exLstence iabh va/ These categories, resembling

those of Aristotle, supply a complete analysis of all

1 PrLthvi (earth), apas ''water), tejas (light), vayu fair), akas'a

(sky), kala (time;, dik (direction), atma (soul), and manas Imind).
2 Kvipa (coloun), rasa (taste), gardha (odour', spar.G (touch),
Fankhya (number), sahiycga (c(.njuncticn), vibhaga (disjunction^
parimn la (d mension), pr.ihaka va (sep^ra'eness), paratva (posteriol
nty), apaiatva (pru r ty guruiva (gravity), druvatva (fluidity)j
,

Bceha (vi'c dity), sabda (sfui.d), biiddhi ntellect), sukha (pleasure),

(

dubkha (sorrow), ichchs (desire', dvesha (abersit n), prayatna (effort),'

dharma (merit), adharma (demerit) and sariiskara (impression).
 MORAL AND SPIRITUAL LIFE 14J'

existing things and deal with the whole phenomena of

existence.
The original view of the Nysya and Vaiseshika
Sutras as to Ood is uncertain, both saying very little on
th topic
^
But by the sixteenth century the fc llowers
of both the systems became completely theistic. The
‘livergences between the tvo schools being gradually
reduced to minor phnts, the reasoning aad working over
of both the systems had to assume the theistic view.
The Purva-min.ainsiT and the Vedanta are th direct
descendant of t e Upai ishads. The ISTviva and the Vaise-
'

shika systeo'S do not at least go out of their way to

ch-illenge orth doxy, and uldmately adopt more and more
the authority of the scripture. The Saiiikhya system of
Kapila is atheisttc because the existence of (lod cannot
be proved ilbvmrtsiddhah). 'ihough developed as a pre-
liminary stage from Katha upauishad, it d es not adopt
the authority of the Veda. The Absolute of ihe Up- nishads
tends to become meaniu Usswith the S- nk y a. INlatter
ie given the po ver of e.f -f vo'uiion and has no cor^ exion
witu t e Absolute, it postulates an ii.fii ite i umber of
spirits. Consji usuess is explained by son e fcrm of
e; ntact etwee spii it and matt t. n elease (moksba)
is attained when the nnr- alir.y of any connexion betw en
he two is appreciamd. he S ihkhym, however, adm ts
the conception of three p im iples of proptities (guiias),
consut ents rather than. ai;ahties, which perva e nature
and man aliKe, v-z hattva (go
,
ot creation, Rajas m
(desire f r c:eation), an Tarnas tignorauce f the efie* t
c l creation Rral.riU anc urushu art the two prin ary
.. i

agencies of creation But the eternal and uncha g able

Purusha, comprisin cuuntless souls of inaivid als, is
without qual ties a d propert es (guras) and inactive
until ccmbined w th rakriti whointh . Tantras is
recognize) as the mot er of the universe. This system
is based on Ji tattvas (,e ements or dogmas) of which ‘

the Oiigin n t sojgti to be exp ained. It does not

adopt the author dv of the Ve a. It is expressly
atheistic. But its ul.i mate aim is also Moksha (release)

1 Five Jfisnendr'ya, five Bhuta« tprithivi,

Karmendriy'!, five
e'-c.', five Tanm ,trus (rupa, and five ca'et'Ties compris ng
r.t- .. etc),
Buddhi, ihaiiik ira, Manas, I’lakr ti and Pmusha. Tl e true knowledge
of ihe last tvvo leads to the release (moksha) whicli is equivalent to
the removal of pain.
143 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

which is attaired through the knowiedge of un-

reality of any conn xion between spirit ami matter.
Ssmkhya means coniolete knowledge f the 25
<

tattvas (categori s) According tr. ir action (karya)

is included in the cause (karat.a). The ultimate
cause of the world is Prakriti or Pradhai a. -The
Purusha is not the enjoyer (bhokta' of tte I’rakriti,
because He is asanga (nirlipta) to any thing The tliree
qualities of Prakriti are eattva. rajas and tamas, xhe
equilibrium of which is changed by association with
Purusha. Thus are originated mahat cr buddhi, ahankara
and the other tattvas. Purusha and individual so 1
imply the same idea. Due to ignorance Purusha appears
as the enjoy r (bhokta). When this ignorance is removed
t

all pains cease and release (u'oksha is obtained

The Yoga system of Patardali agrees in general prin-
ciples with the Simkhya systeni. While the latter is
based on 25 elements (tattvas) the former assumes 2d
dogmas including God as the twenti-sixth. Thus
Yoga is expressly theistic assuming the existence of God
but Samkhya is atheistic not acknowledging God
openly. This supreme Being (Om) of the Yo.;a is a
soul different from the secondary or individual souls
unaffected by the ills with which they are beset. The
great end of the Yoga doctrine is to obtain union (yoga)
between the supreme soul and the individual souls by the
suppression of the function of heart or desire (ohitta-
vritti.mrodha) through restrain (yama), performance
of rites (niyama), practice of postures (ssana) of which
there are «4, regulation of breath (nrai avama), with-
drawal or restraint of senses (pratyah rt.), fixed attention
(dharaua), contemplation (dhysna). and meditat'on
(samadhi) The aim of these pracdces is to obtain
_

concentration, the means towards it, and the winnirg

by it of supernatural powers and the stare of Kaivaiya
(emancipation detachment of soul from matter).
Of these six main systems the aim is the s.ame.
According to Yy^ya the true knowledge of IG paJ'ai’Ptas
leads to NiLtreyas (ultimate good\ ^j’hich is a, so the
aim of the Vaiseshika for which knooTe 'ge of six
categories is required. The Moksh , (ivUase) of the
Sankshya achieved by the
is kno.vedge of the 25
categories, The heavenly bliss (>va.rga sukha
PurvamimariiSa is achieved by the correct eiforaia"'' e of
the Yedic rites. And the Mukti (e.nancipation) of the
 MOEAL AND SPIEITUAL LIFE 149

Vedanta is obtained thiough the true knowledge of God

(Brahma).
The poular materialistic system is known as the
T.okaya+a (of popular control) and Ci\.irvika (of p easent
expressicr). The sun maries cl the systen, made not
by their adher nls but by their opponents, ascribe the
original avthorship to the teacher of the infidels,
Brihaspati Thus in the estination of the opponents,
the followers of the system prove the birth of spirit
from matter and that when the body is dissolved in
death the spirit ceases to le “ Tney, therefore, com-
mended onh th‘ pleasures cf ihe b cy, ridiculing the
doctrine of the reward to be reaped in heaven by those
cvho made the Vedio sacrifice.’ This creed asserts that
soul is not different from b dy and that the phenomena
of the world are produred spontaneonsly without any
agencyn Lt admits four eternal principles (^tahtvas), viz.
earth, air, fire and water. It rejects the sources
(pramanas; of true knowledge except ihe sense percep-
tion Thus it ignores not only the aulhcrity of the
Veda but a’so the common sense view of inference
tanumana and analogy (upanaua'. Such pure material.
Stic creed could naturady claim no m< ralityu Thus the
end it aims to attain is not Moksha (release) cr
freedom from sorrow* or imperfection even of the frail
body but the ti ansitc ry pleasure of eating and drinking
at all cost because one can die to mcrrow. It is
idcgicol and shows a degraded mentality and lack
of intelligence (buddhi) out of which, however, con-
scious ness is stated to have been produced.
The philosoplucal categories of the Jainism followed
the materialistic principles of the Vaisesbika school.
Thus it adopts the atomic theory to explain the creation
w*ithout the agency of a personal god. It is n dualism,
not of individual souls and supreme soul, but of
in'lividuals huinin actions' and matter (natural foices).
Human ills are the result of former acts The misery
of existence is due to the ignorance of these facts. The
salvation moksha) or cure for sufferings lies in the
'

pre^. ention of new acts ikarman) from encumbering cur

fMidamental freedom and in the dissolution and elimina-
tion cf rl e Karinan occun iilated in it ‘
The v.*armtb of
asceticism hastens the ripening of the results of Karmau,
and effects a cleansing which, returning each substance
to its place, restores us to oar native purity." The
150 I^iDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZAIION
ig oranc0 '.vhich gives ri^e to miseriescar be removed
by a i-uide i.guru) anl th^ asceticism is chieved by
observitig four vows, tiz. ahimsi (not to kill any life),
asTeya (not to steal sunrita 'do spe k the truth, and
,

brahmacharya (to observe chastity'. According to some

aparigruha (non-acceptance of utinecess ry things' is the
fifth vji,'. These two or three prohibitiois and two
actions lie within the moral powers of man. They do
not depend upon destiny within our own nature (sva-
bhava ,
nor upon an externa, arbitrary fate (niyatih
As the traditional Jain philosophy could not le
rationalized tnere was no serious development of meta-
physics in it.

Buddhism a form of religion rather than

is strictly
a system of philosophy, its confuse philosophical
l

doctrines being derived from its religious dc gmas. It

conhsts of tile irnphcit faith in the Buddha, the Saegha
(ccmu-unity of his followers), and the Dharma rule of
conduct) which comprises the duties assigned by the
Buddha to the house holder la t desciples and to monks
and nuns who live as ascetics in m.onasteries The
house-hold disciples are required to observe the rules of
n-jt to kill, not co steal, not to lie, not to drink and net
to have uu'a vful sexual intercourse; they are further
required to provide for the maintenance of ihe clergy
(uiouks a'l-l nu’ s', anl to tak'^ part in their fjasts. The
ascetic disciples are require! to abstain from sexual
iutt^icoui’se, to renounce all possessions except yelhw
rube anl beU, a rije-bowl, a razor, a needle, ant a
Si rainer to prev* nt invisible life with water), and not
to accept any n oney but to live on begging (cooked)
food. Tbo other pcrctioes (both for househ deers and
asot ties' inch a-; thi recitation of formulas teat. Buddha
Dnarneo, and Aringha are tiiu-, and adoration of the relies
of ihid lia :.nd Arhat--, and pilgrimage to holy places
and stQpas which commemorate events of spirituil
nature
The method of religious practices gave rise to the
two sects of Buddists, the Hinayina and the Mahay ana
schools T ie Hmacanists who came first worship the
relics of the rhiddua nnd not or the Bochisattva, and
h ive their canon u u buoks written in Pali as in Ceylon,
Siam, and Sunna The Mahaymnisls worship the
redes of Bndaha as preserved ai Sanchi stopa and other
places) as well as the images of Bodhisattvas and Buddha
 ,

MOEAL AND SPIEITUAL LIFE 151

(as preserved in Gandhara, Ajanta, Ellrra, Arnaravati.

Sarnath, etc.' and their canoiital iieaiises are gei eialiv
found written in fcai.slrit and trais a.eQ into h.nese (

and Tibetan, Tie Hina>ar.a sect foiltwi; the path of ac-

tion (k^ra:an) and knowlecge (jnana) while the lMah,y;.na
sect follows the path o] cevotion ^bhakt ntafga) Accord-
:

ing to the Mahivastu-Avadana Bndahists wete at first

dividea into ti lee groups, viz the Lcdlnsattva-y n i vho
aimed at bodhi or enlightenment for aii ; the f.ka
Euddhayana w^ho waireu peiso; ai salvation by lenuncia
tion and ascerticisui and the ssiavaka-y na who wanted
;

to wait to hear ironi another Euduha for salvation.

The Hinayana sects incorporatt d the first and secon
groups and the Mahay^na the fit st gnup, die third
group Goes not seem to exist. Hirayanists were
known as non-idolators and the Mahayanists as idol-
wuishippers.

FORMS OF RELIGION
The science of tleolc^y, as noted above, treats of*
God and man’s duty to him. A hiie tlte Natural
ol
theology is based on reasoning the Positive or nevealea
theology deals with faith ana belief rather dian reason
ing Religion proper assumes the existence of some
supernatural and almighty poweis which can regulate
human destiny. Thus is reccgnize man's obligation
;

to those powers It is further assumed that they can

be propitiated y obe ince, love and v. crsliiu thrcugh
prayers and through tfferings. In the scheme cf Hindu
religion there are several elements capable of formative
expression. They include the Mother goddess, trees,
phalli, animals, sione objects, i aturaj^ phenomiena,
lUits O’ Vishnu, Siva, R-ma, Krishna, Sakti, practice
of yoga, the doctrines of Bhakti and of kaii.sira (mete-
mpsychosis;

The non-Aryans includTg fhe pre-Aiyan Dravl-

dians believed as'Oppert says’, “in the existence of one
sopreme spirit of Htaven with whom were associated
and admitted to an equal, and eventually tven superior

1 Original Inhabit ants of India, p 574, as quoted by Sir

The
John Marshall, in his Mohenjodj.ro and the Indus Civ. 1, nation, Vol,
I, p. t8.
152 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

share of power, the Goddess of Earth. Both ruled

supreme over the good as well as the evil spirits who
disturbed and tortured men, over men and the entire
world Associated with this doctrine was a belief in the
transmigration of souls after death” Tt;e Mother
goddesses whose figurfs have b^en discovered at
Mohenjodaro, Beluchisian as well as in Elam. Meso-
potami., Transcaspia, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine,
Cyprus, Crete, the Cyclades, the Balkans and Egypt, and
whose shrines found in every town and hemlet in
nicdern India and worshipped as the ‘'author of fertility,
dispenser of life and giver of all things” are stated by
Sir John MarshalE to have “originated in a matriarchal
state of so i-ty”. The earth (loidess Prithivi of the
Yedic Aryans, rersonified as a deity in the Rigveda
sometimes alone and sometimes in conjunction with the
sky and invoked for her blessings was, however, ‘a figure
quite distinct from the Mother rmddess of the older
peoples’.
T' e earliest form of religion in Indii and else-
where wa^, however. Totemism. Totauj implies a natural
symbol, not an individual objeo" but o e of a class or
species. It is considered as a symbol of life and energy.
It i’ rev- aled in the world of vegetable and of the
animal. Thus a particular variety of trees and of
animals is worshipped with the offerings of flowers,
sandal paste, etc. ‘'lo the primitive man the spectacle
of the vegetable world bears witness to t'm polymorph-
ism of nature more clearly than that of the ardmal
kingdom’’.
TREE WORSHIP
The Totemists recognize the Cieatcr in vegetation
and the Animists in animal worl 1. The cult worship
pers on the other hand, make an image of the Creator
as a symboli G object for practical worship by^ making
the offerings of flowers, scents, etc., and uncooked dishes
of fruits and sweets, and cooked dishes of fish a,
rid
flesh of animals sacrificed to the idols The idols may
take the form of various trees and plants, animals
and
birds, phallus and yoni, stones, as well as the
inia'-'ps
of gods and goddesses, the demigods, the
Buddha and
Jina and their apoMles.

1 Mohenjo Daro and the Indus Civilization, Vol. I. p. 5L

 MOEAL AND SPIEITUAL LIFE 153

The animistic conception have distinguished the

worship of trees from the time of ^^ohejoda^o
and Harappa. After the Earth goddess as “the
author of fertility, dispsenser of life and giver of
all things”, the vegetation which supplies food pre-
dominantly a ppeaied to the ancient mind as the more
direct sustainer of life. Thus the tree representing
plants, creepers, and vegetables also became the objects
of worship like Vishnu, Siva, and Sakti of later
period. At Monenjcdaro and Harappa ‘two forms of
tree-w^orship is represented one in w'hich the tree itself
:

is W'orshipped in its natural form, and the other in

which the tree spirit is personified and endowed with
human shape and human attributes’. The scupltures
of Bharhut, Sanchi and other places point to the same-
fact. The tree in the Mohenjodaro seal (Plate xii, fig.
‘

18 ) is represented by two brarches, between which

stands anode figure with long hair, Trisola horns and
armlets, and in front of which is the half-kneeling
figure of a suppliant together with a line of seven
standing figures behind it. From this Sir John Marshall
suggests that the nude deity is a goddess and that the tree
deities in India are usually female. Thus the develop-
ment of tree spirit from the Earth-goddess is further
strengthened. The tree -worship symbolizes two ideas of
which one implied by the “Tree of Life” as conven-
is
tionalized at Mohenjodaro and Harappa as in Babylonia.
And the other is represented by the“Gree of Knowledge or
Wisdom” under which the Buddha gained enlightenment
and which traceable in Mesopotamia. From its leaves
is
the tree at Mohenjodaro appears to be the pipal (ficus
religiosa). The Bodhi tree at Gaya is of the same
species. This tree is still an object of universal worship
throughout India, “which no Hindu would willingly
cut or injure, and beneath the shade of which he would
be reluctant to tell an untruth’’. It is further believed
that “every tree or plant has a personality and soi l
of its own and is treated as a conscious being. Thus
it is usual before cutting a tree to ask the pardon of
the indwelling spirit. The non- Aryan Gone s will not
shake a tree at night or pluck its fruits for fear of distur-
bing the sleeping spirit. Brides are married to a tree
before being united to their husbands. Trees are also

1 Mobenjo.Daro and the Indus Civilization, vol. 1. p, 51,

20
154 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

solemnly married to one another The sacred Tulsi

tree is annually wedded often with elaborate ritual and
costly feasting to the Saligrama stones,” The Akshaya
Bata in the fort at Allahabad is venerated by millions
ol pilgrims throughout the year. Similarly the Siddha-
Bata at Ujjain is worshipped. There are several other
trees and plants algo which are similarly respected.
In poetic literature in Sanskrit mango and other trees
are treated as protecting huaban s ot creepers In_ fact
the popularity of the t.re -worship among the Hindus
still continues.

Fhallism : —
After discovering the means of livel hood
supplied by trees and plants, the won ter of creatins:
life and producing children must have caught the
imagination of the primitive people. Thus perhaps
originated the worship of the Linga and Yoni, the Adam
and Eve of Christian myihology. The Linga repre-
sents the male organ and the Yoni the female one.
Both are the combined agency of proc’eation This
idea appears to have been at the root o' animal worship
which at some stage of its development degenerated
into the form of animism.
Animism, : —
The animism, though implies the
recognition of life and energy in animals as symbol
of creation the form of worship, as practised by the
cannibals, M indas, Santals, Kols, and by the aborigines
of the Jlicobar idands and Malacca, consists in the
sacrifice of human beings and consumption of their hot
blood and raw flesh. These bloody rites, it should be
noted, are different from the animal sacrifices of the
Vedas and of the post-Vedic Hinduism. In the Vedic
period sacrifices were not periormea mainly for the supply
of blood and flesh for the consumption of the worshippers.
But in the period of later Hinduism which reaches the
present day the cooked flesh of sacrificed animals,
especially of the gta',, is eatea as sacred food.
Animal worship .- —The engraving on seals and
sealings as well as variety of smad terracotta, faience,
stone figurines and stone idols discovered at Mohenjo-
daro and Haiappa furnish evidence of animal worship
Irom B C. 3000 The- animals represented fall into
three groups, viz., mythical, semi-mythical, and natural
species. The first group includes a human faced goat
or ram or part goat or ram, part bull and part man,
dart ram or goa t, i art bull, and part elephant with
 MORAL AND SPIRITUAL LIFE 155

human countenance (Seals 378, 380, 381, Indus Valley

Civilization, Vol. and stone images (Plate c, 7 and 9)
semi-human, semi-bovine creature (Seal 367 The
half hum in and half animal includes the Nagas
as represented by sealings (Plate cxviii, 11) where
the cobra appears distinct from the suppliant in front
The second group comprises the unicorns (Seals 1,301,
637-41, 543, 544, 546, 548-57), two-horned animals (Seals
30-2, 303). Tne third group of real animals comprises
the water buffalo, gaur or bison, humped bull or zebu,
short-horned humpless bull, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros,
crocodile, monkey and possibly dog, pig, goat, and
bear, and the serpent ISlagas.
The buffalo is the vehicle (vahana) of Yam a,
the god of death. For this reason ‘the pious Hindu
will not use him for ploughing or carting. He is also
a dark demon of the water. As the death-demon, the
bufallo was slain by the Devi, whence arises her title
of Mahisha-mardinl and whence also has come down
the common sacrifice of this animal to the Mother
Goddess. Under the name of Bhainsisura buffalo is
deified as a corn spirit to be propitiated when the
grain is coming into ear. He is essentially a malig-
’

nant type of deity

‘The buU, humped and humpless, is closely asso-
ciated with Siva and is daily worshipped by his followers
and once a year by Hindus of all sects-^ The liberation
of a bull (Vrishotsarga) dedicated to Siva and stamped
with his t' ident at the time of the first Sraddha ceremony
of a deceased parent is believe-l to provide the deceased
with a vehicle to the next world and hence is considered
to be an act of the highest ineritV
‘The tiger is the vehicle of Mother goddess who in
one of her cruel aspects takes the shap^ of a tigress.
Among the Gonds of Berar she is known as the Vaghai
Devi, while among the Bhils there is a corresponding
deity Vaghaika Kunwar (tiger Prin.ee), to whom fruit,
’

wine, and sheep are offered

‘Among the Kand^.s the Earth Mother assumes the
form of an elephant. Amongst the Aryans the elephant
appears as Air.ivata, the vehicle of Indra. It is,
however, as Ganesa or G.anapati, the God of wisdom
and enterprise, and the embodiment of good luck, that
he is most widely worshipped’. This elephant god is the
eldest son of Siva by Parvati or of Parvati alone. In
156 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

allforms of Hindu worship Ganesa is to he first wor-

shipped. This cult is very popular in the South and
in theNorth, especially among the traders. ‘The
rhinoceros and bison has disappeared from most parts
of the country But the Lhota N^gas still bury a piece
of rhinoceros bone near their fifdds to make the crops
grow’.
The cult of Monkey god is also represented at
Mahenjodaro. It is widespread and deeply rooted
amongst non- Aryan tribes and is also worshipped by
others in later post-Vedic times. ‘As Hanuman he is
figured in half human, half animal form, and his
idols commonly guard the entrances to temples, forts,
towns and villages’. He is associated with Eima and
venerated under the name of Mahavira (great hero) as
the rescuer of Siti from Lanka (Ceylon) under the
demon king Ravana.^
is the vehicle of the river Ganga and
The crocodile
the Tortoise the Yam.una. Like fish they are pro-
is of
tected in sacred tanks and in certain localities worship-
ped. There are two species of crocodile, viz., snubnosed
magar and long nosed ghoriyal, both are venerated
and deified. The Sonjharas (gold washers) of the central
Provinces catch a crocodile alive, worship it and then
return it to the river, and certain wild tribes of Baroda
worship a rough wmoden image of the crocodile
supported on two posts.
It is not traceable how and why some animals
were regarded sacred and others were deified. Some
animals like some trees are conceived of as personal
deities and endowed, like hitman beings, with distinctive
attributes and functions. ‘‘The anin als which thus
appear to be held sacred are those ivhich are remarkable
for their strength, courage, virility or swiftness.”^

1 The dog,
pig, sheep, bear and hare were never an object
of actual worship. he dog i.«, howe-. eri deified by the dog sect of
!

the Bhils and is respected by hunting and pastoral tribes. But m

the eyes of Hindus generally it is an impure animal. Pig is regarded
as the representative of the Goddess Gauri and its flesh is sacr'amen
tally eaten by Rajputs. The cult of sheep does not now extend
beyond group of shepherds. The bear and the hare are both
isolated
endowed with magical virtue.s but are not objects of actual wnr-bin
by any tribe or sect.
" ^

2 Sir John Marshall, vol. I. p. 74 ,

 MORAL AI^D SPIRITUAL LIFE 157

River uorship :
—“ The worship of rivers is so
v/orld wide that itmay well have originated indepen-
dently among the pre-Aryans as well as among the
Aryans”. The Ganga and the Yamuna are both
personified and on oc. asion worshipped. In fact all
other rivers and seas also are regarded as sacred. Even
the lakes, tanks and wells are venerated by the
Hindus. The water of the sea, the river and the pool
is holy in the eye of Hindus because water is able to
clean from material and spiritual pollution. Every
pious Hindu starts the day with bathing, preferably in
a running stream, or faili ng that in a pool or tank or
even in a private bath, since is is only by such bathing
that the sins of the day can be washed away, while
to bathe in a holy pool like that of Pushkara is to be
absolved of every sin committed since birth ^The
holy river Ganga arrested in the matted hair of Siva
is stated to have sprung from the feet of Vishnu. The
two fold sanctity has rendered the bath in its waters
on numerous occasions a very great mass religious
observance.

Vedic Ivor ship :

— “The deification of rivers is a
prominent feature of Vedic relh ion.’’ The Vedic form
consists in the worship of the natural phenomena sach
as the God of wmter (rivers', the God of heat and light
(the Sun), the God of wind (maruts), etc without which
,

the life of creatures is impossible. Although the idol

worship is not expressly mentioned animals were
sacrificed to some symbols of God. God was, however,
idolized by ascribing to him the mujtiplied num-ber of
human heeds, eyes, arms, feet, etc. Siva as Rudra and
Vishnu are mentioned. Put the conception cf Triad and a
number of other gods and godd-csses wmre not. recognized
until the post-Vedic classical period.

In the Vedic form the efficacy was recognized of

of both words and offering, in other words, of prayers
and sacrifices in achieving material aiid spiritual
good. “What the Aryans of ewly India sought to obtain
in this w' ay', was the good of this worjd subsistence, a
minimum of well-being, even wealth, a full life, not cut
off by premature death, and male descendants who
alone were qualified to continue after father’s death
the offerings which supported the life of their
ancestors.”
158 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

Hinduism The modernized form of the Vedic

religion is the Brahmanism proper and popularly known
as Hinduism It includes all forms of faith, belief,
and worship ^cther than those of the Muslims and the
Christians). Brahmanism distinguished dharrnan, kar-
mar, brahman, and atman as anonymous forces until
they are transfornied from neuter categories to mascu-
line idols, representing more concrete divine forms.
According to this the continuity of existence, efficacy
of one's action, transmigration of soul and rebirth, and
the heaven and the hell are fully developed.
The difference of this Hinduized Brahmanism from
the Vedic form lies in the fact that it no longer confines
itself to the prayers and sacrifices practised in the
Vedic time. It has developed a new asceticism and
de' otion (yoga and bhaktit It claims to obtain the
realization of the Absolute by a certain manner of living.
The ascetic discipline originally meant the joining of one-
self v\’ith the Absolute by the mastery of his vital func-
tions. Later as Bhakti (devotion) it meant uniting “not to
oneself but to a higher principle, in other words to be in
communion with God.’’ Thus the unity of the soul is
acquired through union with God instead of realizing
the Absolute it aims at reaching it and being one with
;

it. The stages of communion are aimed at by the four

classes of devotees k own as Saloky (dwelling in the
same locality as the deityl, Ssmipya (dwelling in the
vicinity of tke deity), Saropya (being in conformity with
the deity), and Savujya (being united with the \leity).
These are the four kinds of salvation as aimed at by the
four classes of devotees.
The different sectarian forms of Hinduism are dis-
tinguished in accordance with the chief deity of worship.
In theory these sects are innumerable as the gods of
w'orship are numberless. In practice, however, the
^
sects known as Siktas, Saivas, and Vaishnavas pre-
dominate and incorporate within these three sects
ail otlier subsections. All the functions and
qualifications
attributed to tue trinity of Brahma^ or Prajapati, the
creator, Vishnu the preserver, and 8iva the destroyer,
are ascribed to wffioever is chosen as the chief deity
by
the sectarian devotees. The followers of Hrahma do
not appeal to exist as a sect. The devotees of Siva
and Vishnu exist in large numbers There is also a
large sect of devotees known as Saktas
whose chief
 ;

MORAL AND SPIRITUAL LIFE 159

deity of worship is Sakti or the female energy represent-

ing^ the original Mother G-oddess and later as the consort
of Siva or Vishnu.

, —
Saktism : The Saktas are the worshippers of the
Sakti, the female ^ divinity. They are found in two
classes. The real Saktas in overwhelming majority are
grouped as Dakshiriacharis, and the degraded group
represented by a small number and limited to a parti-
cular locality are known as the Vamacharis, The wor-
ship of the latter group is licentious and is known as
a degraded form of Tantrika whose five requisites com-
prise wine (madya), flcsh rnamsa), fish (matsya), parched
grain or mystic gesticulation (mudra), and woman
(maithuna'.^ This degraded form w.is confined to a
limited part of Bengal, Orissa and other provinces, and
appears to have been derived from the immoral practice
of the later Buddhist monks and nuns.

The goddess Sakti is personified in two fold nature,

as., gentle and fierce. One of the gentle forms representing
in a realistic sense the Mother Goddess is figured as Sha-
shthi with a number of children on her lap and arms, and
has some affinity with the Grecian godd^ess Madonna,
Uma and Gauri are gentle forms of the Sakti of Siva
Durga and Kali are fierce forms As the great goddess
(Mahadevi) she has a great variety of names, referable
to her various forms, attributes, and actions. In her
milder form she is Uma, light, a type of beauty Gauri,
;

white or brilliant ;
Barvati, maid of the mountain
and Jagan-mata, Mother goddess of the universe. In
her terrible form she is Durga. inaccessible, worshipped
especially in autumn and spring; Kali or Syamg
wcrshipped specially in rew-moon night in October-
Kovember; Chandi, the fierce, and bhairavi the terrible,
worshipped on particular occassions; Jagat-dhatri, fosterer
of the world; Tara, deliverer, Mashisha-mardini, the
destroyer of the demon buffalo Chinna-mastaka,
;

headless fury, and many others In all these forms she

fought and killed many demons who disturbed the
peace of the world. These terrible fornis are popular
for worship which is offered with or without animal

1 Madyarii manisarfi cha minaiii cha mudri maithunam eva cha

Ete pariicha makaral.i syur mokshada hi yuge yuge.
160 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILI2^ ATION

sacrifices All these mild and fierce forms are treated

as the Saktis (consorts') of Siva,
Vishnu’s Sakti is represented by Lakshmi or Sri,
the goddess of wealth and prosperity whose worship in
every household in Bengal in particular is regularly
performed especially by the ladies, Krishna’s Sakti
Radha is popular among the Vaishnavas.
Another popular goddess is Brahma’s Sakti known
as Brdhmani. riarasvati. Bharat), Putkarr, Sirada, and
Vagisvar), Sara.5vat) retains in the Vedas the deriva-
tive meani ng of ‘watery’, and implies a famous river
of that name. As the river goddess she is lauded for the
fertilising and purifying powers ot her waters, and
the besmwer of fertility, fatness, and wealth The
Brahraanas and the Epics recognized the other deriva-
tive meanings of Sarasvati, elegant, ana lauded her
as the goddess of speech which is also implied by the
names, Bharat) and VagBvari. In this form she is
represented as of a w’nite complexion, graceful figure,
sitting on a lotus and holding a lute and a book. Her
annual worship is celebrated at the advent of the
spring and is very popular among the Bengali students.
Saivism The name Siva is unknown to- the
Vedas. Rudra isused in the Rigveda for x\gni, and
Maruts ar his sons.
- He is lauded as the lord of
sacrifices and songs, the best and most bountiful of
gvods, the lord of nurishment who grants prosperity
and welfare to cows, horses, sheep, men and women,
drives away diseases, dispenses remedies, and removes
sin He is also the wielder of the thunderbolt, bearer of
bowandarr ws, destructive and fierce In the ifajurveda
in a prayer called Satarudriya he is described as auspi
cions, not terrible, first divine physician, blue-necked
and red-coloured, and Tryambaka, the sweet scented
inoreaser of prosperity. In the Atharvaveda he is
sill the protector of cattle, but his character is fierce;

he is prayed not to assail mankind with consumption',

poison, or celestial fire. In the Brahmanas he is given
eight more attributes implied by the eight epithets
of Bhava, Sarva, Pasupati, Ugradeva, Mahadeva, Rudra,
Tsana and Asani In the Upanishads he is the' Mahes-
vara and Mahadeva (great god), he is Brahma (creator)
Vishnu (preserver), and Siva (destroyer), all pervading’,
undecayinj;, eternal, supreme Lord, consort of Uma!
Knowing him, a man overpasses death, there is no
 MORAL AND SPIRILUAL LIFE 161

other way to liberation In the Ramayna he is a

great personal god, rather than a supreme divinity.
In the Mahabharata also he is Mahadeva, all-pervading
god, the creator and the lord of Brahma, Vishnu and
Indra, whom all the gods including Brahma and the
Pisaohas worship The Puranas distinctly assert the
supremacy of their particular divinity. Siva or Vishnu,
and amplify the allusions of older writings into number-
less legends and srories for the glorification of their
favourite god.
Rudra of the V’ed^s has thus en veloped into the
great and powerful god Siva. He is worshipped in two
forms. Siva is represented as a fair man with five
faces and four arms, seated in profound tho gnt, bearing
a third eye on the forehead, surmounted by the moen’s
crescent, and matt-d locks gathered up into a
horn-lika coil which contains a symbol of the Ganga.
A necklace of skulls hangs round his neck, and he puts
on a garment of skin of a tiger, a deer or an elephant.
He is generally accompanied by his bull Nandi,
Although as Rudra or Mahaksla he is the destroying
and dissolving power, he is auspicious (Siva Sankara''
because the destruction implies reproduction As the
reproductive power he is represented by his symbol,
the Ling or phallus
A, It is under this form alone
combined with the Yoni representing his Sakti (female
energy that he is everyw^here worshipped, although
)

the twelve places containing the Jyotir Linga are the

most famous. The popularity ''f the phallus w’orship lies
in the fact that the imag-^ of stone m.ay be bathed,
oiled and worshippei directly with flowers, scents,
dishes jewelleries, etc by the worshippers themselves
.

(excepting some places in south India on^y)* On special

occasions huge congregation- celebrate religious
festivals of Siva.

Yaishnavism - Vishnu in the Rigveda is the

:

manifestation of the solar energy and is described as

striding through the seven regions of the universe in
three steps which re, -resent the three manifestations
of light, fire, lightivig and the evn, also the rising,
culmination, and setting of the sum Ihns he is all
pervading (from root vish to pervade ,
and is called
the ‘unconquerable preserver.’ In the Brahmat as
Vishnu acquires new attribute^ which are illustrated
by new legends In the Iviah'bhirata and PnraLas he is
21
162 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

the Prajapati (creator) and the embodiment of Sattva-

guna, the quality of mercy and goodness, which
displays itself as the preserving power, the eelf-existent,
all pervading spirit. He is associated with the watery
element which spread everywhere before the creation
of the world In this character he is Nirayana (moving
in w
ters), and is represen ed iu human form slumb ring
on the serpent Sesha floating on waters during th
temporary annihilation oi the world. He is figured
in various forms Sometiraes he is represented as
seated on a lotus with Lalshmi or Sri^ beside him ;

sometimes reclining on the serpent Sesha, and at

other times as riding on his vehicah Garuda bird.
He has a thousand names indicating his various forms
and attributes.

His w'orshippers recognize in him the supreme

Being from whom all things emanate. As such he
has three conditions (avastha). First as Brahmi the
active ere .tor, who is represented as springing from
a lotus which grew from Vishiuvs navel while ^e was
sleeping afloat upon tie waters ;
secondly as Siva or
Kudra the destructive power, who (according to the
Mababharata) sprang from his forehead and thirdly
;

as Vishnu himself, the preserver, in several incarnate

forms which ini ply the gradual development of
humanity both physically and intellectually The forms
of Vishnu in his various incarnatioi.s imply the stages
of development of humanity both physically and
intellectually. According to the Bhagavata Purina
there were twenty-twi incarnauons of Vishnu, of which
ten are prominent and usually recognized in the
Mahabharata, viz., fish, tortoise boar, man-lion, dwarf,
Parasunma, Haniachanira, Krishna, Buddha, and Kalki,
The first, fish incarnation, is recognized by geologists
also. When the ethereal substance by its own movement
was converted into water, the first creature appeared
as fish. It is allegorically sta'ed that in this form the
Creator (Prajapati Vishnu) Burned into a ship in order
to protect from the deluge Manu, the father of man.
The fish as the first created being has its limitation in
stature and movement. It is the shortest animal in
height and can move and live only in water The second
incarnation, toitoise, is a mere forceful animal, taller
and bigger in size, an capable of moving and living
both in water and land. In this form I’rajapati Vishnu
 MOEAL AND SPIRILUAL LIFE 163

created offsprings. The third, hoar, is a higher creature

with greater facility of movement, strength and intelli-
gence. In this form Prajapati Vishnu raised the
earth out of the boundless waters ;
this geologically
means the formation of the earth out of waters. The
fourth, man-lion, is part animal and part man. It is
taller, stronger and more intelligent than boar; but it
still retained the beastly feature but shows a little
human character. In this combined form of man and
beast Vishriu delivered the world from the tyranny cf a
lemon, Hiranya-Kasipu. Shorn of allegory it means
that man started conquering over the beast. Then came
the short man, dwarf, with human intelligence but
having the physical disability. In this form. Vishnu
subdued the demon Bali and imprisoned him in the
netherland. This implies the ability of man in con-
quering the sea and discovering the treasure thereunder.
In the next incarnation Parasurima, the normal
height of man was attained but he is still a primitive
;

man, working in forests with an axe in hand. It,

however, implies the supremacy of the brain power of
the Brahmans over the mere physical force of the
Kshatriyas as the Brahman Paras'ursma defeated in
battles the host ^of Kshat iyas several times The
seventh incarnation of Vishiui represented by Eama-
chandra of Ayodhya leputed as the ideal king and
the great hero 'vho killed the king of demons, Ravana,
and destroyed his kingdom of Lanki (Ceylon). But the
human weakness of arrogance and self-conceit still
persists and Rama of Ayodhya renounced the throne on
senti nental grounds and banished Sita and destroyed
the empire But his heroism is celebrated by the two
great festivals, damalila in October and Rama Navcmi
in April. The next incarnation is represented by
Krishna of Mathura who was the romantic lover, the
fighter, the diplomat and the great ambassador. But
he was unsuccessful as ruler, and failed to establish the
reign of justice and destroyed him elf together with his
,

.clan. Krishna is looked upon as a fuller manifestation

of Vishnu and is the object of a widely extended and
very popular worship. His memory is celebrated by a
number of national annual festiv Is like the Jhuli, the
swing festival at rainy season; Janmashtami, his birth
festival in August ;
Rasalda, his sportive dance
with the cowherd girls, Dolayatra in spring i^pril)
when the figures of young Krishna and his girl, Radbs,
164 ItJDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION
areswang in a swing, and Snanaystra in s nnmer (June)
when Krishna takes sportive sea-bath along with his
girl friends.
The ninth incarnation is represented by the Buddha,
the most enlightened, who sacrificed his dornerstic happi-
ness and remounced the kingdom in order to discover
a remedy for the ids and evils .vhich are incidental
inhuman life This incarnation aimed at serving the
masses and establishing a popular religion. But it
faile 1 because it became two much sectarian and its
high principles did not alio v the freedom of thought
and action prescribed in ti e Velas and approved by
the popular Hinduism.
The la-t incarnation, Ka’ki, is yet to come moun-
ted oil a vhite horse and wieldinr a drawn sword as
destroyer of the wicked. The purpose of this incarnation
is the final destruction of the •.vicke-l and the selfish, the
renovation of the creation, and the restoration of
purity in thought, word, and action. It aims at the
establishment of a peaceful wprid where there will be
no want and privation for an;, body, where everybody
will have equal facilities to develop his natural gifts and
derive the benefit of individual liberty \\ithin the
discipline and sovereignty of a well organised state.
The universal an national character of the Vishnu
1

worship is shown by the four ends of India where the

main abodes (chaturdhama’ of Vish u are situated,
viz., Jagannatha of Puri in the east, Badrinatba on the
Himalayas in the north, Dvarokarutha on the sea-coast
of Gujarat in the west, and Ramesvara on the sea-coast,
south of Madras.
The inclusion of the Buddha r,s one of the ten
incarnatif ns of Vishnu is a significant fact. Apart
from the earlier rivalry betwefn Brahmanism and
Buddhism, in the Buddha incarnation the highest
development of Hinduism is indicated. Buddha is
reputed to have discovered retredies to overcome the
pains of death, disease and infirmity of old age, the
evils from which every living indi’.idual suffers.
Thus this form of Hindusim became popular among the
masses. Although the Hindusim did not permit conver-
_

sion it did not hesitate to incorporate Buddhism. In

fact Hinduism during the Muslim period introduced the
worship of certain Muslim saints like Satyapir in its
own way. The result has been that the Hindus by
 MORAL AND SPIRILUAL LIFE 165

their extreme tolerance of other beliefs and other ways

than their own avoided the conflicts that have so often
torn the society assnnder and managed to maintain
some kind of eqndlibrinm. B> allowing within the
larger frame work consideralle freedom to live
the life of their choice, they showed the wisdom of an
old and experienced race.’ The 1 isr incarnation or the
new world that is expected to emerge out o^ the
present global turmoil will be the one t'aat is expected
to supply ways and means to remove the presert world
conditions, the exploitation of the weaker by the
stronger, not only as iitdividuals but also as tee organi-
zed races, rations, and states. The remedies w^hen
discovered will restore the natural purity of humanity
in thought, vrord, and action, whicj. are the direct
outcome of the sincenre practice of a true religion as
represented by Hinduism.

Itshould be noted that ‘religion is closely associated

with ritualisticpractices and dogmatic beliefs’ as
stated by Pandit ISlehiU in bis Piscovery of India.
‘Behind it, however lies a method of approach to
life’s roblems which is not that of science.
s
Religion
deals with the regions of human ex erience unchar-
tered by the scientific positive know'Hdge of the day.
It is an extension of the known and chartered region,
though the methods of science and religi m are utterly
unlike e ch other, and to a large extent they deal
with different kinds of media. It is obvious that there
is a vast unknown region all aroued us, and science
with its magaificent achievements knows little enough
about it. Besides the normal methods of science, its
dealings with the visible world and the processes
of life are not wholly adapted to the physical, the
artistic, the spiritual, and other elements of the invisible
world Life does not consist entirely of w^hat we
see and hear and feel, the visible wmrLi, which is
undergoing change in time and space It is continually
touching on invisible world of other and possibly more
stable or equally changeable elements. No thinking
person can ignore this invisible w^rrld Science does
not tell us much or anything about the pm pose of life.
It is obvious that religion had supplied some deeply
felt inner need of human nature, and that the vast
majority of people all over the world could not do
without some form of religious belief. It had produced
166 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

many fine types of men and women, as well as bigoted,

narrow minded, cruel tyrants. It had given a set of_

values to human life and is still the foundation of

’
morality and ethics
tt is recognise that 'man’s outlook has
time to
become unbalanced,’ as declared bj'- another great
thin<er ^f the present age, Marquis of Zetland, in his
very th( ughtful article Homo Sapiens, ‘because his
progress on the physical plane has outstripped his
advance along the moral and spiritual pla .es. It
is, however, a fatal mistake to regard ‘civilization as a
by-oroduct of economic progress whereas the essence
of civilization is a restraint imposed by divine law or by
reason, upon the instincts of man. This evil can be
redressed if it be realised that for his moral and spiri-
tualwellbeing man mast turn back once more to the
simple truths taught him in the Ganges valley and
in Palestine long centuries ago The chances of the
survival of humon civilization may be estimated not
by mere eeonomic progress but by the consciousness
of the spiritual and moral issues involved in the plan-
ning of the new wodd which is hoped to rise from the
ashes ot the oil. .‘.mong the rising generation it is
necessary to generate a movement of the mind eager
for the truth and a feeling after God if haply rhey may
find him. For that purpose there must be given a
clearly defined place for religious education in the
life and work of the schools, colleges, univer hies and
various student and youth associations.’
 CHAPTER V
BASIC AETS
The state and the church remained separated
in ancient India, the latter not assuming any
political power. The state did not interfere with the
in'livi ual freedom of religious thought. Therefore there
gr^w up all sorts and forms of religions of worship.
The intensely spir Trial nature of the Hindus is, however,
reflected more expressly in both private and public
temples and the institutions connected therewith,
schools and colleges, libraries, separate debating halls,
theatres for enacting dramas and performing dancing
and other music, alms-houses for free distribution of
food and residence, medicine and treatment of ailments
to the needy persons and devotees. The temiple was
in fact the centre of all public and healthy activities
Temples \s ere a sort of assembly and unio . Around
the temple developed both the village and city lives.
The state delegated its power of administration to
the temple authorities of important educ ational institu-
tions and organisation of charities, not only to the poor
but also to the religious mendicants who supplied moral
education to the people and never W' rked otherwise
to earn their livelihood. The king or the head of the
state was thus relieved of a great responsibility of
educating, feeding and clothing, and even housing the
deserving people. But he had to provide funds liberally
for the building up and maintenance of all these impor-
tant institutions. Non-recurring grant of huge sum
appears to have been made for the erection and
development of such institutions and permanent land
grants were made for their repairs, upkeep and main-
tainence. And above ail fully autonomous power was
given to the managing per ons or bodies of these
institutions. It looks as if quite independent states
were allowed to grow within the sovereign state. The
germ of autonomous government within the sovereignty
of the state is indicated by the temple government.
The subordinate fates which devloped di ring the
Budddist and the epic period starting from 1000 B, C.
were based upon the institution of temple administration.
Similarly from the temple came out the independent
168 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATIO

alms-houses a: d Dharmashalas which still continue

to provide free lodgings wi'.h o without boarding for
-

pilgrims an- secular travellers. Thus the hospitals and

charitable digpensarks boih for man and beast came
into being. Similarly independent universities came into
being at Ta^xiia in North west, Valabhi in Kathiawar,
Ujja.inin Uentral India, Nalanda and VikramasiM in
Bihar, Odantapura in Bengal and Amai avati in the south.
Shelter and watering places on public road were made
as stated in the inscriptions of king Asoka and others.
Colleges and schools for general and technical
studies of medicine, surgery, engineeriig, agriculture
etc,, were also established. Taxila specialized in medicine
and surgery. Apart, fiom rel.gious and philosophical
subjecos secular and practical subjects were also
taught at Nalanda There was a post graduate school
of a.rt and a depart n.ent for architecture, a medical
school, an agricultural departmeni with dairy farming
and cattle breeding. The .ife of the university was
one 0 ^ animated debates and discussions, and attracted
students Irora China, Japan, Tibet, Korea, Mongolia
and Bokhara. The spread of Indian culture abroad was
largely the work of scholars fr m Nalanda as admitted
by Nehru in his Discovery of India. There were
separate rr.usical halls and theatres also at these places,
and several other ( entres.
F om the lime
: oi Cautuma Buddha the great
institution of mrnastery fcr monks and nuns cam- into
being with the most elaborate rules of admirastration
and the most methodical l odies of management The
Buddhist monks in Burma known as Ifungis and living
on public charitv, still C'urtinue 10 supply free primary
educalion, resulting in the ce t per cent literacy of the
•

Burmans of to-day. Couidries like India on the other

hand have been shi-’king the responsibility for providing
free minimum education to all the population as a
birth rignt on tho ground of the want of funds The
Vihara or Monastery, both with the Buddhists and
Jains, was a hall where the monks met; afterwards
these halls came to be used as ten pies and became the
centres of monastic establishments. Like the Chaityas
they resemble very closely the corresponing institutions
among Christians, In tre earlier ages they were
accompanied by, biu 1 ter detaf bed from, the Chaityas or
churones. In later times they were furnished with
 BASIC ARTS 169

chapeis in which the service could be perfcrmed inde-

pendently of the Chaitya halls. The Chaitya halls at
Barabar 16 miles north of Gaya bear Asoka’s inscrip-
tions of about '250 B. C. Chaitya halls at Lomas Eishi
preserves the general feature. More interestiig exam-
ples exist in western and cential India at Bhija, Bidisa,
Nasik, Karle^, Ajanta (caves no. 10, 19 and 26), Ellora
(Viswakarma cave), Junnar (Manmoda) cave and at
Kanheri,
The well known examples of monastery compris-
ing a group of apartments for 'uonks and thus known as
Sangharama exist at Ajanta (caves no. 2, 11, 16, 17), Bagh
(cave no. 3), Salsatte, Bombay (Darbar cave), Nasik
(Nahapana 7ih«a) at the south end of Ellora group;
;

at Aurangabad, Ehuda and other places and at Jamal- ;

garhi, Takbt-i-Bahai and Sha-Dheri, The small but rich

community of the Jains are still famous for their
charity homes, free schools for boys and girls and the
generous endowments for their temples and monks.
The -Tains, like the Buddhists, built Bhikshu-grihas
or the cave-dwellings, that is, monasteries for their
recluses from about 2nd century B. C. The best exam-
ples still exist at iJd .iyagiri (Tiger cave), at Ellora (Indra
Sabha), Lakkundi, Pulitana (Satrunjaya hill) Mount ;

Abu (temple of Vimala and

of Tejahpala) at Girnar ;

(temple of Neralnatha) ruins at Parswanath Hill at

; ;

Ranpur in Jcdhpur at Khajuraho in Bundelkhand,

:

the Ghantai and Adinath temple; and at Chitor (the

tower of Victory of Wana Ivhumbha). In south India
there are beautiful examples atSravana Belgola (Basils),
at Mudabidri (temple and tombs of priests), at Guru-
yayankeri (Pavilion). The modern Jain edifices are
illustrated by the temple at Sonagarh m Bundelkhnud®,
and Hathisingh temple at Ahmedabad. There are
traces of temples being converted into
several Jain
Muhammedan mosques of which the examples are the
Adhai-din-ka Jhopra at Ajmer, Qutab near Delhi, at
Kanauj, Dhar, and many other places.
The great public bath at Mohenjodaro of about
3,000 B. C. to which a reference has been already made,
is a tank cr bath of secular and religious character.
How that was built we do not know. But similar tanks

1 See plate Appended at the end.

2 See plate from Ferguppion Woodcut 297, Vol. TI, P. 63.
22
170 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

separated from the temple precinct vs ere built from

time immemorial till nineteenth century by the state
and irivate personages and it fas solved a great
problem of water snppty in cities and coun-
tryside alike. The great lake at Junagarh originally
built by the enperor Chandra gupt a Maury a and
subsequently repaired by kings Asoka, Rudradiman,
and Skandagupta served also for irrigation, agricultural
and other purposes, and retained the fertility of the
Gujerat desert. King Asoka had wells dug and trees
planted on the road side also. Several names of the
kings of the Pala dynasty of the tenth century and the
Sena dyr.asty of the tv/elfth century are associated with
hundred of such tanks in Bihar and Bengal. Hardly
there is any long road in U. P. and other provinces
which is not adorned with such tanks at easy distance
which are still supplyirg water to travelling public and
local beasts. The road of some hundred miles between
Tippera Hill State and Chittagong has been provided
with tanks of even half a mile in length and at some
fou'' to eight mile distance at enormous cost. They
still supply unlimi-ed quantity of naturally filtered and
pure water which no municipalities of present day
have been able to do anywhere in India. References
to regularly built altars during the p.eriod of the Vedas
have been already quoted. But the details are lacking
regarding the state share in their construction and
the management thereof. Sim.ilar refe ences to temples
of scientific construction and (‘etails have been quoted
from the epics also. The Eamiiyaca (I. 5, 10-15) refers
to the temple together with their associated as erably
halls, public gar fens, and charitable a ms houses. The
Mahabharata refers to several assembly halls and one
royal council including lodgings for royal guests. The
Buddhist Texts refer frequently as stated abo- e to
rock-cut temples of which some three thousand still
exist including those at Ajanta, Ellora, Nasik, Badami,
Bagh, Bedsa, Bengal, Bihar, Bhaja, Dharanan, fximt
palle. -Tunagarh, Junnar, Kahtguuialai, Kanhari, Karhad,
Karie, Kholvi,_ Kondave, Kondivte, Orissa, Pitakhora,*
Sana and Talaja. Monasteries are associated with most
of the rock-cut temples but there are independent
morastries also such as in Burmo, Tibet, Gandhara
and Pekin. Stupas and Chaitya halls at Sarnath, Bharhut
and specially at Sanchi which show how easily they
could be built by public comribution, as is indiciittd by
 BASIC ARIS 171

inscribed stone slabs. The regular Bhuddhist temples at

Barobudar and other places show the extent of money
and labour spent on its construction apparently by state
contribution.
The finest example of a purely Hindu temple is
supplied by the Lingaraja (Siva shrine) at Bhuvaneswara
which is traditionaly ascribed tu a king Lalitendra
Kesari of 7th century A. B, The original temple like
almost; all those in Orissa consisted only of a Vimana
or tower (Baradewal) and a porch or Jagamohan;
the hfata-mandapa or music hail and the Bhoga-mandapa
or dining hall were added about the l-2th centcry, while
the kings of the Somavaiiisa of Saiva faith built the
Siva temples at Bhuvaneswara, the kings of the
Gangavartisa of Vaishnava faidi who superseded about
1078 A. D, built the stupendous edifice at Puri known
as the temple of Jagannath. It is ascribed to king
Anantavarma Chola Gaiigadeva (1100 A. D ). It is
enclosed by a double wall with four openings and it is
also composed oi; the Vimana tower of 142 ft. in
height, the Jagamohan or porch of 155 ft east and west,
Naja-mandira or music hall and the Bhogamandapa
tr dining hill jointly making the whole length of the
temple about dOO ft- and numberless smaller shrines,
halls for debate, for teaching, for congregation,
open sheds for distribution of cooked food, and cells for
residence. The sun temple at Konarak, IJ miles north
east of Puri, describe! in great detail by Abul Fazl,
is ascribed to Raja Narasingha deva I (1238-1261 A. D.).
It comprises the same four parts of the Orissa temple,
viz.^ tower, porch, music and dining halls.*

1 See Appended Plate. There are several other temples in Orissa.

Fergusson has put in 650.1000 A.D. five temples, viz-i Paras u-Raraes.
wara, Sisireswara, Kapalini, TJttaresVara and SomesVara at Mukhalin.
gam. Between 900.1000 A.D are placed eleven temples, viz, Sari Deula,
Mukteswara, Lingaraja at BhuvanesVara. Kedareswara, Siddheswara,
Bhagavati, Someswara, Brahraeswara, Mukhalingeswara, Viraja and
Varahanatha at Jajpur, and MarkandesWara at Puri. In the 11th
century are dated five temples, viz., Nakes'wara, Bhiskareswara, Raja-
rani, Chitrakarni, and Kapiles'wara. In the 12th century are placed five
temples, t i?, Ramewara, Yame>wara, Maitreswara, Jagannatha temple
at Puri, and Megheswara. And in the 13th century are placed another
five temples, ci;;., Vasudeva temple, Konarak Sun temple, Nataman-
dapa of Lingaraja at Bhuvaneswara, Vishnu temple at Madap in
Konarak district and Gopinatha temple at Remura.
Most of these were built by the Pala rulers and some might
have been erected by private persons.
 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

Owing to the vandalism of the Muslim invaders the

early temples of northern India have disappeared. At
Benares, the most sacred place of the Hindus, the present
temple of Viswanatha was built in the 18th century
toreplicethe original Kirti Visweswara which was
thrown down and desecrated by Aurangzeb in 1659 in
order to erect on the most ^ acred spot of the Hindus
his mosque whose tall minarets till lately reared their
h« ads in insult over all the Hindu and Buddhist buildings
at Benares and Sarnath. Here all the alms houses,
Dharraa rdlas, Music halls, etc,, are completely detached
from the temples At Mathura, Brindavan, Govardhan,
etc,, a few Hindu temples till exist. The Krishna
cult developed in Braja Bhomi especially at Biindavan
in Mathura district. But its temples built both by the
kings as well as by Goswami community of Bengal
met with the same fate as the temples in Orissa and
at Benares. The famous Govindadeva temple at
Brindavan was built in 1590 .A D. by the celebrated
Man Singh of Ambar and Jaipur (1622-1615). Its
Sikhara was thrown down by Aurangzeb who erected
on the roof an Ibadat-gah or a place for Muslim prayer.
The antarala or the inner mandapa of t e riginal (

temple was afterwards converted into a ^shrine, the

celler having been destroyed along with the Sikhara. On
each side of the original shrine are two side chapels.
About the sani^ time was built the similar vaulted
Harideva temple at Govardhan by Raja Bhagawandas
of Amber. The disciples of Chaitanya known as
Goswamis who settled at Brindavan. built about 1627 A D.
three other famous temples dedicated to Krishna under
the names of Madan Mohan, Gopinath and Jugal Kishore.
Ajmer and mount Abu (Arbuda., are the two places
in Rajputana which supply examples of Hindu and
Jain temples. At Ajmer the original Brahmanical temples
were converted into Jain temples. One of the latter
now exists in the form of a mosque known as the Arhai-
din ka Jhopra containing all the auxiliary institutions
of temples, viz., rest house, alms house, etc. The two
wonderful marble temples of mount Abu are stated to
have been built by Tejapala and Vastupala in 12.30 A. D.
and by Virnala in 1031 A. H. at a fabulous cost of some
twenty-one crores of rupees as stated in an inscription.
Excepting fifty-two cells for Jain deities in the former
temple there is no other public institutions attached
to them.
 BABIO ARTS 17a

Like the temples in Orissa and in Northern India,

Rajputana and Gujerat temples in Central India also
supply instances of the public life being centred round
temples. The desecrated temple ai Laroli situated not
far from the falls of the Chambal has a detached porch
known as marriage pavilion which was erected for the
marriage of a Huna prince to a Rajput bride between
the 9th . nd 10th century A. D. In Gwalior there were
some iirteresting examples. The governor of the fort
built in b75 A. D the Chfiturbhuja Vishnu temple. In
the fort there is the Sas Bahu really the Badmanabha
temple built by the ruler himself in 1 l 93. In the
same place an older temple wms used as a mosque
as ha pened at Benares. The example of a temple
having been built by a guild is suppliea by the l eli-ka-
mandir which was built by the oilmen. .Tbout 160
miles southeast from Gwalior is the old capital of the
Chandella kings, knowm as Khajuindro which, like
Bhuvaneswara in ( rissa are still adorned with some
thirtj important temples of which twenty-eight exclud-
ing the two temples of Chaushath Jogini and Ganthai,
W'ere erected by the Chandella princes between 950
and lOdO. They are dedicated in alinost equnl number
to the Saiva, aishnava, and -Jaina ceities. In each group
there is one or more larger temples with smaller ones
scattered about. The Saiva group is dedicated to
Khadarya Mahadeva and the Vaishnava group to the
Chaturbhuja and Raraachandra. he combination shows
'i

clearly the toleration or community of feeling. The erec-

tion in the l-2th century of the large Gondeswara temple
at Junnar about 18 miles from Nasik is ascribed to a
petty king of the Yadava dynasty- Like^ Khajuraho
Nsgda or Xagahrada contains groups of Siva, Vishpu
and Jain temples. The finest here are the two Vaishpa-
va temples knowir as Sas-Bahu built in the 12th century.
The smaller Mahadeva temple built about the same
time contains the public meeting halls in front of the
Jain temple. One dedicated to Parswanaiha wms built in
1429 and another called A abudhaji’s temple wms erected
in 1437 in the reign of king Kumbhakania, At Cliitor-
garh the famous Mira Bai and her husband Kana
Kumbha of Chitor (1418-14C3) built two Vishnu
temples, the king’s temple being the smaller one and
showing thereby that there was even a competition
betwmen husbands and wives in their contributions
towards temples. Again Rana Kumbha although an
174 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

orthodox Hirdu is well known as a patron of the Jains

and mnst have contributed largely in the erection of
the Jain temples at Kanpur and the Kirti Stambha or
victory pillar at Chitor.
As in Bengal, there is hardly any Hindu temple
left in Gujerat and Malwa to illustrate the similar
constraction, composition and n anagement. In the
Punjab the golden temple at Amritsar has, however,
survived the Muslim vandalism. But the golden temple
in the sacred tank is no longer an idol shrine but a
monotheistic place of prayer. Its construction was
started by the fourth Sikh Guru Ram das and was com-
pleted by his successor Arjuu. But^ Ahmed Sha Abdali
blew this Hara-mandira (temple of Siva) in 1761. It was
rebuilt in 1766. In IdOd Ranjit Singh spent large sums
on it in ornamenting its walls with marbles from
Jahangir’s tomb and roofing it with copper gilt. The
Sikhs never required and built many temples. Their
reading of the Granth Saheb and prayer was performed
individually till recemly and therefore no place for
congregation was required.
I'eniples in Kashmir surmounted by four roofs met
with the same fate. Only the remnants of the won-
derful structures remain. The temple of Martanda
situated .5 miles out of the old capital Islamabid com-
pares well in beauty and magnificence to ‘Palmyra or
Thebes or ether wonderful groups of ruins of the old
world The court-yard ~20 ft. by 144 ft. which is a more
’

remarkable object than the temple itself was no doubt

the place of meeting and union of all the people. As
stated in the Rijatarangini of Kalhana this wonderful
temple of M,irtanJa with its massive walls of stone
within a lofty enclosure was built by King Lalita-
ditya Muktapida (72 -j-’ 60) Sikandar Shah Bhutsikan
(1393-1416) destreyed the image and wrecked the
temple itself. The court, however, had been used
as a fortification in Jayasimha’s reign ( 11-2S-1149 ).
The next group of temple ruins in Kashmir are
found at Avantipur or Vantipor on the right bank of
Jhelara half way between Srinagar and Islamabad. All
these were erectel during the reign of Avantivarman
of the Utpala dynasty (855-S3I). At Sankarapura or
modern Pat an between Srinagar and Beramula Sankara-
varraan (S83-9.-2), son and successor^of Avantivarman,
and his queen Srigandha erected two Siva temples which
 BASIC ARTS 176

still though coiridors have disappeared. The

exist,
Buniar is nearly perfect and gives a very fair
terijple at
idea of the Kashmir templesh Bern ai ns of temples at
Panduthun, Payer and Malot in he salt Eange are
pleasing though not magnificent.

The two temples in the Kangra valley illustrate

efforts of private individuals and merchants in erecting
such monuments which were ultimately taLen up by the
state for repair and maintenance. Two irscriptions'B
in the larger t ample dedicated to Vaidyanatha Siva and
situated in Kiragrama about 26 miles east of Kangra,
record that it was built by two brothers, Manyuka and
Ahuka, wealthy merchants under Lakshmana Chandra,
brother-in-law of Jayactan ra. king r,f Jalandhara
or Trigarta in 1204 But in 1786 it underwent a
thorough repair by Baja Samsarachandra II. It con-
sists of a hall, 20 ft. square inside, with four round
pillars of the Hindu-Corinthian order supporting the roof
and shrine for the phallus of Siva, 8 ft square, separated
from the hall by a small antechamber. The second
temple of Sifilhanntha at the east end of the town
dedicated probably to the Sun also consists of a four-
Billare hall and a shrine 33 ft. by 20 ft. and with a
i

Sikhara or spire about 36 ft. in height.

Unlike in Kashmir where a Budihist jjeriod
developed by the ^th century, in Kepal we find the Saiva,
Vaishnava and Buddhist religions existing side by side
at the present day. The towns of Kathmandu Patan, and
Bhatgaon are crowded with sacred edifices of the ihree
sects and it is rightly stated that in Nepal there are
‘

more temples than houses and moie icols than men"'

though the strnctures are all modern and the people are
too poor to indulge in such n.agnificence as is found
on the plains. King Asoka, who is stated to have
visited the valley, built five Chaityas, one in the centre
of Patan and the others at the four cardinal points
round it, which still exist. They are not stupas because
they do not coirtain reiics of the Buddha but they are
of the same shape being hemispherical mound of "earth
covered by brick and surrounded by a plinth of brick
which serves as a circular path. Four chapels are pi; ced

1 See Plate from Fergusson Wood Cut 151, vol. II p. 266.

2 Translated in Epigraphia indica, vol. 1, pp. 97.118 vol. ; ii,
p. 482 vol. V. Appendix, p. 78 Indian Antiquary, vol. xx. p. 154.
;
;
176 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

round the dome, ach coi-hn'ning the iir age of Buddha at

-

four cardinal points.The two most important Euddhiet

vionumcnts ii Xepal are, however, Svayambhircatlia and
Bodhnathah the former at Kathmandu was built by
Baja Pratspamalla in the 17th century and the latter at
Bodhanatha is ascribed io King Mahadeva of the 6th
century, as also to a Trbetan Lama named Khasa or
later date. The most characteristic Napaless temples of
several storeys, resembhng those of Burma and China,
are usually^ dedicated to Siv.i or Vishnu But the on:^ at
Paian is dedicated to Mahabuddha and Sakyamuni
occupies the basal floor, .mitabha the second storey,
a Chaitya, the third, a relic shrine (dharma-dhatu-man-
dala), the fourth, a Vajra-dh itu-mandala, and the fifth or
apex which externally consis's of a jewel-headed Chaitya.
It was built in the 16th century by x\bhaya-raja, a
Buddhist Newar, during t le reign of Amara Malla after
the model of Bodh Gaya which he had visited with
his family. One of the most elegant Hindu temples
of the sloping roof class is the Bhawani temple
at Bhatgaon which was built in five storeys on a
pyramid of five platforms in 1703 by Bbupatindra-malla
to ensbri e a secret Taiitrik gcddess not allowed to be
seen to this day^. The other of the same class but of
two storeys is the Mahideva oemple at Patau on the
left of which stanis the beaufiful temple of Krishna
with its spire and clustming pavilions and tall Sikhara
or -pire of the Bengal type. About 3 miles east from
Kathmanlu on the bank of the Bagmati stream was
built in the 17th century bv so e king the famous
Pasupati Siva t mple wliicli is as sacred as the
VibvanAha temple at Benares, aut it is more notable
for the little chapels close by it which are memorials
of the Satis or wiiows burnt along with the bodies
of their dead husbands. [n Xepal tire king who is
treated as an incarnation of (lod and is w rshipped,
does not take part in the adrn: i;Lstration, the prime
minister beirg the solo ruler.

Tn Tibet aiso Buddhism exists in inexplicable

com ination with Saivism nl tiemon worship. But
-

1 See plate from Uergu-s.j.,L -V. o lciit lU, p ^78, Vol. 1).

2 See pi ',te from ph )tograph 157, Fergui=son vol

1, p. t81.
 Plate IV

Corridor, Angkor Vat (temple), Cambodia

Sliwe Dagon Pagoda, square temple, at Hangoon

 BASIC ARTS 177

the Tibetan monasteries consisting of long streets cf

cells surrounding small courtyards, three cr four on
each side illustrate more than anyvvhere else' the
residential rather than spiritual nature of s ch
institutions. It is state! (A. B. B. 1891, p. -278; that the
.Debung Lamasery contains 9000, Sera 7000, and Gandan
4000 Lamas vowel to celebacy and living together
on the contribution ma le by the visiting public and
the state. The most magnificent monastery is that of
Potala built between 1642 and 1650 by the first Dalai
Lama who is believed by the Tibetans to be the living
incarnation of the Bo ihisattva \valokite!wara and
hence the principil object of worship in Lhasa. The
centre of the whole monastery is occupied by a great
block dominating the others, which contains the
temples, audience halls and the Chaityas of the Dalai
Lamas. Besides the reception and state rooms anl
sanctuaries it is said to contain 10,000 chambers for
its myriad occupants. round this central place are
grouped a number of smaller cues, where the inferiir
members of this great ecclesiastical order reside. On the
roof of this Bed Palace are the gilded p vilions of
Chinese style that render it so conspicuous in the land-
scape.^ Thus it is the centre of all polit'cal and social
activities and in it has fully cul.mnatei the ideal of
temple and the intimate connexion of the state
therewith,
Samya- n. nastery about 35 miles south-east
'Ihe
from asa near the Sangpo r'lver is the earliest i Tibet
Tj'

founded about the middle of the ^th century by he

famous teacher Badma Sambhava who went from
Bihar along with other Buddhist teachers and nn.idehed
after the great temple onastery of Odanlap ri near Na-
;i

landa and of Vikramasila both desiroyed by Muham uiad

Bakhtiar Khilji about 1194 This Samyas monastery
with its large temple and four separate colleges enclosed
by a circular wall about a mile and a half in circuit
and containing a notable library and the state treasury
‘became the metropolis of the Bed-cap order.' The
monastery of Saky.-, founded in .071 is said to contain
the largest single building in Tibet it is seven storeys
;

high and has a spacio’ s assembly h.dl and a library

1 See Photograph from Fergupson, voi. i. plate vi between

pp. 292-293.
•2.3
178 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATK;N

which is famous for its collection of Sanskrit and

Tibetan manuscripts. Its grand Lama was ackno-
wledged by Khubilai Khan in 1-370 as head of the
church and made tributary prince of Tibet The
intimate association of non-political character of the
state with the church is illustrated by the Sakya
monastery. T1 e Gandan monastery founded in 1409
by the Geludgpa Lama Isong-Khapa, of which
the chief object of reverence is the lofty mausoleum
of the founder built of marble and ornamented with
malachite and a gilded roof. It encloses a stvpa of
gold in which is deposited the embalmed remains of the
sage One of his disciples founded the Sera monastery
two miles north of Lhasa in 1417 in which are about
5600 monks. The Depung monastery 3 miles west of
Lhasa ‘“contains fully 7000 inmates”. It was founded
in 1414 and modelled after the Indian monastery of
Dhanyakataka or Amaravati. Within its enclosure
there is a large temple surrounded by four chapels and
a palace of Lhasa Lama. The byar-tse monastery
forms a little fortified town Its buildings rise in tiers.
It is locally known as Gandhola, a name of the great
tern pie at Bodh-Gaya. It is a beautiful structure^ lOO
ft high and 600 ft. m
circumference and is built in five
stepped terraces with recessed angles on the plan of
the Vimanas (tower) of the Indian temple. Above
these is a circular drum of one storey and over it a
smaller square one surmounted by a spire of thirteen
great rings of gilt copper covered by chhatra canopy
of same material. In the different storeys are numerous
shrines dedicated to different Buddhas which are reached
by inside stairs, and the terrace roofs of the successive
storeys form a series of chaityafigana or Prada-
kshinapatha.'*
Tem.pies in south India are classified under
two groups, Ghalukyan and Dravidian. Most of the
earlier and finer exam.jles of the Chaliikya group
covering Mysore and all the Kanarese country perished
during the early Muslim invasion and the later rule
of the various Muslim dynasties of the Deccan. Extant
examples include the great temple at Ittayi, the temple
of Someswara at Gadag, the Cbandadampur temple of
Mukteswara, the Malikarjuna temple at Kuruvatti on
1 See plate vii, Feigusson Vol.l, between pp. 294.22.5
2 See plate from Fergusson Woodcut 250, vol. i, p, 430.
 BASIC ARTS 179

the right bank of the Tungabhadra, 3 miles from

ChandadampuT ;
the Galageswara temple at Galaganatha
9 miles north from Chandadampur ;
the Buchhanapali
temple near Hyderabad, the Kesava temple atsSomanath-
pur, the Rijarajeswara temple at Belur, the Kedareswara
temple at Balagami and the Kedareswara temple at
H alebid
The metropolitan temple of Anamkond or Hariam-
konda, 4 miles north-west of Warangal in Hyderabad,
was erected by king Prat.lparudra of Kakatiya Dynasty
according to an inscription on it in 116-2. For
some 300 years .1000-1300) the Hoysola Ballala kings
of Alysore built groups of temples Boma the general of
Narasimha Ballala completed the Somanath temple
in 1270. The Belur temple was built by Vishnuvardhana
in HIT. The same king probably started the
Halebid temple in 1135; it appears to have been
continued in 1219 by Vira Balia’ a and one of his queens
but partially destroyed by the Muslim invaders in
1310-1311. The Siva temple at Aihole was built
by the Chalukya king Vikramsditya (655-5 0); it con-
tains an inscription of the Chaluky king Vijayiditya
(718 A. D.) recording a grant for oil to be burnt in the
temple.

The Dravidian temples are spread over the area

below Mysore, Hyderabad and Orissan border to the
extreme southern point of the peninsula. Though cut out
wonderfully from rock ‘^he Kailasha temple at Elapura,
modern Ellora in Aurangabad of the Hyderabad state, is
an example of a perfect Dravidian temple. The con-
struction of this wonderful Siva temple on the hill
Elapura is ascribed to the king Krisha T (757-783) of the
Eashtrakuta dynasty of Malkhed. Fresh alditions
appear to have been made from time to time in the
rock walls of the surrounding court. Unlike the
Buddhist caves, the Kailasha temple is not a mere
interior chamber (ixt in rock, but is a model of
a complete temple cut away from the rociv externally
as well as internally with amazing precision. Its
monolithic character is the principal source of awe and
wonder. Its unalterable ch iracter and appearance of
eternal durability are also remarkable. In tne centre
of the rectangular ccuit 100 ft, by 2S0 ft stands the
 ;

ISO INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

temple consisting of ViTnaiia ^tower) 96 ft. in aeight pre-

cede d by a large square porch supported b / 16 columns
before this is the detached porch for the Bull Nandi
reached by a bridge and in front of all stands the
;

gateway tgopur a). <Un two sides of the vorch are two
fire pillars dbvaja srambha and two life-size elep- ants.
R und the court dicre is a peristylar clo'ster with cell
and a’ ove are some halls which give to the whole a
Gommexity and at the same time a completeness, which
never fail to strike the behoHer witl: astonishment
and awe.
TVie Mammalla' uram Batiias or seven PagDdas on
the Madras coast all cut in gran te an in single i

block showing no sign of wearing or decay are placed

in the seventh century, They are all left ur. finish-
ed- The first on the north is !)raupadi Ratha, next is
Arj na’s Ratha, the third is Bhima’s Ratha, the fourth
on the extreme so iPn is Dharmaraja's Ratha which is
the finest and most ithereRing of the group.^ The small
Ratha to the west o others,, forming the fifth group
are called Sahadeva an Naknla’s." The sixth is Ganesa
1

Ratha situated at a distance of three quarters of a mile

north of the others. In ^ this there is an inscription
dedicating the shrine to Siva by king Atya takama
Ranajaya who with Rajasimha Pallava of
is identified
the 7th century and who executed the Dharmaraja and
probably the other excavated shrines f Mammallapuram i

within a short period about A D. 670 to 700.

v/f the remaining temples of the Dravi ia country
the Virupjksha temple at Pattadakal was built by Loka
mahadevi_, the queen of the Chalukya king Vikramaditya
II ). Tha Sangameswara tem, le at the same place
to the north-west was erected in the reign of Vijayaditya
(647-733) At Aihole Rav.kirti, a Jain, built in 634-63 5
Meguti temple during the reign of t'ulikesin II. The
Malegitti Si v Taya ,out-ide the town of Badami was
_

also built in the ith century. At Conjivaram or Kanohi-

puram the Kailasauatha temple is the most interesting
one. it was built by the Pallava king Rajasimha
or
Narasimha Vishnu, son of Ugradanda Lofcditya between
655-680 as shown by the inscription on it. The
Vaikun-

1 See plate from Fersu'^on’s Woodcut 190, voi. i, p, 334 ^

2. See plate ibii Wood cut 193, p. 337.

 BASIC ARTS 18

tha a Vaishnava temple at the same place.

'"erumal is
The Ebararnanatha is a Saiva temiple posies&irg the
largest Gopuram of ten storeys of IbS ft. in height built
by KrishnadevaEaia of Vijayanagar (1509-1P-30). In little
Conjivararn is the Varadaraja Swami Vishrm temple
which is the principalis eat o*' the Visishtadvaita school
of Rimanuja. The Siva temple or the seven Pagodas
contain two shrines, one dedicated to Vishnu and an-
other to Siva It was built about the 9th century A. D.

The oldest and best preserved of the Dravidian tem-

ples is the Tanjore temple of Brihadnwara Siva-linga,
otherwise called KajaraieRvara. It wasbu It by Eajaraja-
deva Gh la I, son of Parantaba II between 985 and 1012
A. D. Long inscriptions in old Tamil covering the
ba-^e of the central shrine further record the gifts of gold
imagei, vessels and ornamenis mm ;e to the temple by
king R
jar-ija and his eldesj sister Kundavaiyar. It
consists of two courts, one a square of 250 ft originally ,

devoted to the minor shrines and residdnees but convert-

ed into an arsenal by the French in 1777*. The main
shrine 5 C ft. by 250 ft. i^ two stoiej s in height above
which the pyramid rises in thirteen store} s to the summit
of 190 ft. culminating in a dome of single stone. The
tower, Vim ana, which is the best in the south, dominates
over the Gopuramsand smaller shrines of the Vaishnava
faith added in the 16th century. The most remarkable
object in this temple is the image of Bull Nandi carved
in a single piece of granite stone measuring 10 ft. from
muzzle to rump by above 7 ft. across, 12 ft. 2 in. to top
of head, 10 ft. 4 in, to top of hump and 7 ft. 5 in. to top
of back®.

Of the several other smaller shrines in the en

closure the Snbrahmanya or Kartikeya temple is, as stat-
ed by Furgusson, the mest exquisit pitce of aecorative
architecture in south of Inaia.® On the other band
the Valmikei^wara (Siva and consort) temple at Tiiuva-
lur in Tanjore district, is stated do be the worst artis-
tically with its ii regularly spaced Gopuramas nun Bering

1 in 1758 Lolli besieged it in vam, in 1771 the English took

it and in 1801.1802 Raja Sarfoji had it purified and reconsecrated.
2 The image of Bull wiihout beii g connected with a 8iva
temple at Bangalore is more bulky but the carving is more wonderful
at Tanjore.
3 Plate from Pergusson Woodcut 214, vol 1, p. 365.
182 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

fiveand its great hall with SOT columns half of which

are mere posts not fitted to carry a roof of any sort.
The oldest existing portion is the shrine of Achaleswara
which contains defaced inscriptions of Eajaraja I and
Rajenira Chola (A.D. 985-1018 .

Sri Ranganatha Vaishnava temple at Srirangam

2| miles north of Trichinapoly proper is the largest
temple in the s^uth. It consists of four courts or
prakaras and fourteen or fifteen Gopurams or gate
towers. The fourth court encloses the shrines and the
hall of 1000 columns which actualh contains 953 pillars
being 18 in front by 63 in depth. The outer enclosures
are generally occupied by tl e Brahmans and persons
connected with the temple. The outermost enclosure
is practically a bazaar (market) filled with shops when
pilgrims are lodged ana fed. It measures 2521 ft by
2865 ft. The shrines and inner prakaras must have
been built before the Tlth century by some king of the
Nay yak dynasty, for, Jatavarman Sundara Bandya in
1254 made large gifts and additions to the temple and
in 1371 Kampana U iaiyar of Vijayanagar repaired it.
Its further progress was stopped in the 18th century by
the French who occupied and fortified it. , Within a
mile to the east there is the Jambukeswara Siva temple
which surpasses in beauty as an architectural object
the ugh not so large, lls hall of 1000 pillars contains
720 columns. It is also furnished with enclosures,
Gopurams and Miniapams, and a tairkfei by a perpetual
spring. An inscription on the south wall of the second
Frakaram is dated in the tenth year cf the reign of
Jatavarman Sundara Pandya w^ho began to reign iir
1251; the ouler enclosures were probably added as late
as 16C0 A.D.
The Sive temple at Chidambaram (a name of Siva)
in South Arkot district is the most venerated if not
the oldest. It is dedicated to the Aka?a lingam of the
Pancha lingamiS.^ But the chief idol of the temple is
Ratesa or dancing Siva. There is the temple of
Parvati also which is remarkable for its singular
elegance of its porch. The Chitasa'oha or main shrine
1. The Prithvi Ungam made of earth at Conjivarani; the Apa.
hngam extruding water at Jambuke&waram, the Tejah-lmgam sparkl.
ing with light at T iruvannan.alai in South Arkot the Vayu.lingam,
of which the lamp vibrate with wind at Kalahasti in north Arkot; and
the Akasa lingam having no material representation at Cludhambaram.
 BASIC ARTS 383

is also fuTBished wi jh its Kanakasabha or golden hall,

Nrilya-sabhi or dancing hall, Deva-sabha or office hall,
a porch of 56 pillars, hall of 1000 pillars, Mandapams,
Gopurams and enclosures. This exemplifies the growth
of a big temple by the efforts of several generations.
According to an inscripticn Viranarayana or Parantaka^
early in the ICth century covered the haU with gold
cr erected the Kanakasabha. An inscription of Eaja*
dldi’aja I (1018 1052) shows that the two inner enclosures
were in existence in the 10th century. The temple of
Parvati on the north of the tank was added in the 14th
or 15th century tc which period the great Gopurams
and second enc'osure also beloi g. The north Gopuram
140 ft, high is ascribed to Krishradeva about 15i0 A. D.
The hall of ICOO columns was erected between 1595
and 1685 where the outer enclosure was commenced
but left unfinished.

There is a detached hall also across the Siva.ganga

tank and oppo-ite the main temple. It is called the
Eajasabha, king’s council hall of 1000 columns of mono-
lithic grantite arranged 24 in front by 41 in depth
making 984. It measures 338 ft. by P.)7 ft.

The Siva temple at Ramelwa am in the island of

Pambam exhibits all the beauties and the charactistic
defects of the Dravidian style. It has also
records showing clearly how the tempe property was
administered and how the actual b ilclers were dei)rived
of all control. Like other temples it alsa consists of
the shrines, enclosures, Gopurams, Mandapams, halls
ant corridors. Externally it is enclosed by a Wjill of
20 ft. in height possessing four Gopuraais. But
the f-lo:y of this temple res d s in its corndo s’, which
extend ti nearly 4i. CO ft. in length, cover 17 ft. to 21 ft.
in breat and rise to 30 f :. in height each pillar being
;

12 ft. high standing oii a platform of 5 ft. from the

floor. The side corridors are almost 700 ft of uninter-
rupted length.’ The central shrines w re built in the
l6th century by Udaiyan a SetiRati chief of Eamnad
aud his family endowed it exclusively. In the 17th
century the namnad Enjis erected the surrouniing

1 None of European Cathedrals are more than 500 ft. and

even the nave of St. Peter’s, Rome, is only 600 ft from ‘the door

to the apse. See from Fergusson, Wood cut 225 yol I p. 383,
184 INDIAT^ CULTURE ARD CIVILIZATION
walL^ (prskaras) to which addi ions were made in the
18th century including the Ainmarj temple.
The Pandaram or the manager of the temple
raised a suit against the Zamindar of Earn nad to deprive
him of the hereditary right of supervision of the temple.
The Privy Uouncil did not accept claims of the Eainnad
Setupatis and deori .'ed them of their right to appoint
the Dharmakartgs or have anv share in the manage-
ment of the temple which their ancestors built and
had so richly endowed, ihe court wonid not inter-
fere with the manager's plans whc.‘e agents destroyed
the old inscriptions and forged others^ leased out the
temple property to his O'^ n relations, estroyed the
(

statues of form( r patrons and benefactms of the temple

to subs! itute those of his wealthy caste fellows. This
is a unique instance mit the same absolute right of
management was no doubt give n over by the state in
order to show tliat the ecclesiastical administration was
free of political interforence. The temple is th s a wholly
antonomcns state in itself enjoying all sovereign power.
The great temple at Madura is composed
of the sanctuary dedic.ated to the Sundareswara
(linga) and the shrine of the goddess Minakshi or
Parvati.‘ The compound measures aboir. 730 ft by 850
ft. The temple originally had ten Gopnrairs, a beautiful
tank sirrounded by arcades, a hall of 1000 ccl anus and
a small shrine de-licavd to the god Sabhapati. it was
built in the loth centur by a Snndara Paiidya.
.
In 1324
it fell to the Muslims who plundered it mercilessly.
In 137-3 it was recovered b\ the Vijaxansgar sovereign
and Hindu worship was restored. The Mindcshi
Nayyaka Mantiapam was built by Tirumalai ]Sla\yaka
in 1023-1610 or his elder brother Muttu Virappa. The
Kalyma Ma'.dapim was built in 1707 and the Tatta
Sud hi in ]77i)

At Madura there is a famous detached ball, the

celebrated Vasanta sprirg) M-aniapam known as
'j'iruraalai’s Uhaultri Tirum-aiai Nayyak in 16-33 1659
built it for the recc-ption of he presidirg deit,y of the

1 Minaksl.i mewis both eyed and brit<ht eved. It was

also the n-imo of the wife of k:ng Sundira Pandya ~ Therd wa«
another Qooen Minakshi the last soveresQH oi the Nay yak dynasty
who was betrayed by Chanda Sahib, Newali of the Ivarnatik.
Sculpture- fn>ni Nur.imunui, Anuradhapuram, Cevlon
 BASIC ARTS

place where he could also receive in a suitable manner

the homage of the king and his subjects. The hall
is 333 ft. long by 105 ft. in width and consists of four
ranges or columns all of which are different but
elaborately sculptured. It is identical with corridors
at Eameswaram^. According to Wilson ‘it was begun
in the second year of Tirumalai’s reign and completed
in twenty-two years (1623 to 1615) at a cost of upwards
of a million sterling; the main temple must have cost
between three and four times as much as tbe hall.’
In front of the hall Tirumalai Nayyak c .mmenced his
Eaja Gopuram, measuring 174 ft. from north to south
and 117 ft. in depth larger in scale than that at Srirangam
and far surpasses that celebrated edifice in the beauty of
its details. But Tirumalai did not live to complete it.
The Gopuram at Kumbakonam, though smaller
than that at Madura, is a richly ornamented example of
its class. There are small temples at Kombakonam,
At Tinnevelly there is a double temple, the great square
being divided into equal portions, of which the north
one is dedicated to the god ^iva and the south half to
his consort Parvati. There is a detached pavilion,
Kalyana Mandapam, at Velor near Koimbator. Its
cornice in particular is of great architectural interest.
It is assigned* variously to 1350 and 1485. The porch
at Perur 3 miles south-west of Koimbator is dated
between 1360 and 1750.
Lastly Vijayanagar which was finally destroyed
by the Muslims in 1565 contains ruins in such profusion
and variety as exist no where else in India. The most
remarkable temple in the city is the Vithala or
Vitthalaswami Vishnu temple. It stands in a rectangu-
lar enclosure 538 ft. by 310 ft. with Gopurams on three
sides. Outside the east entrance stands a lofty Dipa-
dana or lamp-bearing pillar and there are two beautiful
pavilions one of which is the Eatha. Surrounding the
whole court there is a corridor with three rows of piers.
The shrine is made of granite and carved with boldness
and expression of power. There are bold cornice of
double flexure, the detached shafts, the Vyalis and the
richly carved stylobate, etc. There is on the right the
car-pavilion the principal storey of whi^h is formed of
a single block of granite with movable wheelsL It

1 See Plate from Per,;usson’s Wood cut 228, vol. 1, p. 889.

2 See plate from Fergusson's Wood cut 216, vol, 1 , p. 403.

24
 186 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVLIZATION

was begun by Krishnadeva in 1513 and continued by

Achyuta Raya in 1529-1542 but was never finished.
At Tadpatri, about 100 miles south-east of the
are two Vishnu temples
capital, there Tho Chintala
Tiru Venkata Swami -temple was built in the time of
Timma Nayudu the local governor of Krishnadeva.
About 50 miles still further east in the Karnal district
them is the Diguva Ahobalana temple which is as-igned
to Prataparudra about 1300.
The garden pavalion at Vijayanagar is an example
of the detached building. The hall 125 ft. hy 69 ft. by
56 ft. in Tirumalai Nayyak’s palace at Madura would
serve as a very effective instance of what Indian
architect could do so far as civil edifices are concerned^.
It is situated round a courtyard 160 ft. by K'O ft.
surrounded on all sides by arcades
of very great beauty.
The pillars which support the arches are of stone 40 ft.
in height and are joined by foliated brick arcades of
great elegance ot design, carrying a cornice and ontabla-
ture of 60 ft, in height. On the west stands the corners
and the octagonal drum rises from these, pierced by a
clerestory Above this at the cornice 45 ft. up the
octagon is changed to a circl and the dome rises in the
centre to 75 ft. from the floor. 3'he 'ourt in the oal ace at
'

Tanjo’-e and the palace at Ohandragiri will further show

the finest examples of Indian Civil architecture.® As
a lo\^er of fine art Fergusson deplores ‘the di appearance
of f )rmer refinement in the south of India like in other
parts also and points io the modern oalaces of the
Karnatic Nawabs and of the Rajas of Ramnad and
Travancore, wh ch are the bad CDpies of Italian style
that was not properly understood, and which are un-
suited for the use to which they are applied’
No temple
proper exists in Ceylon As in
India the ruins in Ceylon have sufferred at the
hands of Public works— countless pillars and steps
have been broken up to go into culverts on a
road and ‘the ruins at Puliyan Kulama were sadly
destroyed for ashlar to buil three or four large culverts
'

on a branch road.' In Anuradhapura there are two

Dagobas or Stupas, The larger one Abhay ^giri, of

1 See Plate from Fergusson Woodcuts 240, 241, vo' i,

P. 414, 413.
See Fergusson vol. i. Woodcuts 242, 24 1, pp. 415, 418.
 BASIC ABTS 187

1000 ft. in circumference, 3-28 ft. in diameter and 2^0 ft.

in elevation is ascribed to king Vattagamani Abhayar
or Walagamabahu who conquered his kingdom in the
first century B. U. and to commemorate his victory he
is stated to have built also a Vihara or monastery on
the site of Jain temple. The second Dagoba known
as the Jetavanar ma was l)egun by king Mahasena
in the 4th century and finished by his successor Kirtti
8iii Meghavanna. Of the smaller but more sacred Dagobas
the Ruw^anveli dagoba va; erected by king Duttha
gamani between B. C. 102 and 78. The same is stated
to have built the Mirisavetiya dagcba a so. Still smaller
ones are known as the lluparfma and J ankprf^ma. Ihe
king Devsnampiya T ssa is stated to have built about
246 B. C. the relic shrine of Thup.irama to contain the
right collar bone of Buddha The origin of the
Lankarama is not known but it appears to have been
restored along with others by Pat .kramabahu 1 0163-
1186). In ad ition to these there are a gre^t number of
dagobas of various sorts scattered over the area once
covered by the old city of Anuradhapura.
At Polonnaruwa, the ancient Pul stipura also
knovn as Kalingapura, there is the Jetavansrama
temple ascribed to the period of Par:.kramab§hu. It
contains an erect statue of Buddha built of brick 58 ft.
in height. There are also Kiri dagoba, Eankot dagoba
and others, of which the Rankot dogoba is ascribed
to Kirti Nissanka Malla, a Kalinga prince of the 2th i

century, who is also stated to have built the Sat Mahal

Prasida and Galpata which are like the Baths of
Mammalia pura in south India. Close to the water-da-ge a
circular unique building is situated at the Thumarama
temple, a large oblong brick structure with walls of
6 ft. thickness was built also by Parskrama bahu.^
Pagan the old capital of Burma excelled the t eylo-
nese capital both in the extent of its build ngs and in
their magnifi ence. But the rise and fall of Pagan cor.
responds with that of Palonnaruwa. It was founded in
the middle of the 9th century and destroyed by the _

Chinese or the Tartar array of Kublai Khan in 1284.

The most remarkable is the Ananda temple built by
Kyantsittha (1057-1086). It is a beautiful pagoda of
several storeys in height, the two lower ores are

1 See plate iv, Fergnsson i. between pp. 246-247,

188 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

square with square turrets at each end, the three above

have seated lions at each angle L A slightly larger but
almost identical is the Dhamniayangyi built also at
Pagan by Narathu in 1160 A. D The temple of Gandau-
palin is still more beautiful.® The Mahabodhi temple
was built after the Bodh Gaya temple by Nandanngmya
Min in 1198 A. D.
The monasteries known as Kyaung attached to the
Pagodas are less magnificent. Their ruins only remain
at Thaton, Prome, and Pagan The Kyaung at
Mandalay® illustrates the Burmese monasteries It is
raised from 8 to 10 ft. above the ground and surrounded
by a balcany on three sides access to which is supplied
by flights of steps enclosed between balustrades with a
peculiar curved termination. Burmese pagodas are
circular and temples are square. There are three groups
of ecclesiastical monuments in Burma. The Bupaya
pagoda at Pagan
about the earliest one being placed in
is
3rd century A. D. The Baubaugyi pagoda in Prome
consists of a solid mass in brick of a cylindrical form
about 80 ft. high.
The Abhayadana pagoda* like the Seiunyet pagoda
shows the bell-capital. In the Sapada and Tamani
pagodas there is above the bell a square moulded plinth
symbolic of the chamber in the basement, known as the
Dhatugarbha or relic chamber. The most important
in whole Burma is the great Shwe-Hmandan pagoda
at Pegu ascribed to two merchants who raised it to 12
cubits and successive kings of Pegu raised it tc the pre-
sent height of 324 ft. above its terrace and 354 ft. above
the country three or four centuries ago. Similarly was
completed the Shwe Dagon pagoda® at Rangoon start-
ing from 27 ft. in height was raised to 129 ft. in 16th
century and to the present height of 321 ft. in 1768.
The earliest example of the square temple or pagoda
is the Lemyet —
hna at Prome attributed to 8th and 9th
centuries. It is about 24 ft. square and is built in
brick with a solid pier 8 ft. s ^uare in the centre sur-
rounded by a corridor 4 ft. wide.

1 Plate XLI, Fergusson, vol. ii, between pp, 360 and 361.
2 Wood cut 454, Fergusson vol. ii, p. 364.
3 Wood cut 357 ,, „ ii, p. 368.

4 PlateXXX vi, vol. ii, pp. 342.43.

5 Woodcut 447, vol. ii, p. 348.
 BASIC ARTS 189

There are two other classes of religious structures

in Burma, known as Thein or ordination hall, and
Pitakat Taik or secred lihraTy. The Upali Thein in
Pagan dating from the 13th century is a rectangular
one divided into nave and side aisles by arcades. The
cen'^re aisle or nave is loftier than side aisles and is
simfiar tc the Chaitya or Christian church. There is a
second Thein at Pegu dating fromldid. The Pitakat
Taik at Pagan ^ was built by Anuratha in 1057 to house
the Buddhist scriptures It is a copy of the Thaton
library, square in plan four parallel corridors round
;

the central chamber or tell the ground storey is of

;

moderate height the roof consists of four storeys, set

;

back one behind the other with ogee roofs between,

resting direct on the vaults of the corridors.
In Siam or the land of the Thais, the Venice of the
east, corresponding to the Burmese Thein or ordination
hall for priests there is the Bot of Vat Jai at Sukhodaya
which stands within the Vat or enclosure of the temple
opposite the principal entrance and behind a porch.
The principal feature in the Bot, admission to which
was confined to the priests, was the great altar carrying
a gilded statue of Buddha, which was always placed in
the central aisle, in the last bay but one. In its rear
was the principal Phra or Stupa of the temple. The
Phra Prang and the Phra Chedi are the two types. ^ The
upper part of the Phra Prang has a dome shape which
may have been derived from the Buddhist Stupa in
India or Burma, but the upright pait looks more like
the Sikhara of spire of a Hindu temple. The Phrachedi
is based on the Stupas of India, but the cell containing
the relics of Buddha is placed underground and reached
in larger examples by secret passages in the thick-
ness of the walls. At Sukhodaya there is one of the
Phra chedis of Vat Jai and the Pathc mchedi in Phra
Fathom. Among other Siamese buildings Vihans or
Viharas, and Kamburiens similar in design to Bot are
the assembly halls where people assembled to offer
prayers and listen to sermons. In the Vat Tha Sao at
Ayuthia the central court with the great Phra in the
centre is identical with those of Beng Mealea and Ankor
Vat of Cambodia. The galleries round it and the towers

1 See plate XL of Fergusson, vol, ii, between pp. 356-357.

2 Plate XLVI of Fergusson vol. pp. ii, 406-407,
190 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

at the'angles and in the csntre of each front appear to

have been carried out by the Cambodian architects. The
Cambodian influence is shown also in the Vat Phra Prang
Sam Yot at Lophaburi, which ‘consists of three sanc-
tuaries, ciuciform on plan, side by side, with corridors
between them. Above each of these sanctuaries is a lofty
tower with five receding storeys enriched with scul-
ptures. The Hall of Audience at Bankok^ illustrates the
bad taste of Bangkok Pegodas, palaces, porticos and
dwelling houses showing the innate and irresponsible
aspiration in architecture degenerating into vulgarity
bscause “the new civilization in Siam is not indigenous
the men of progress wearing European hats, the ladies
French gowns, and the rich i^eopie building palaces with
Corinthian porticos and sash windows’

The Cambodian temples bearing Indian influence

and built by the kings are classified under four groups.
In the first group are placed the tem.ples of Ta Prohm,
Kedai, and Pre Eup in which the enclosures, generally
three in number, are all on the same level. Secondly
temples like Phimeanakas and Bapcun bear the pyramid
shape and consist of seven narrow terraces rising one
above the other. Thirdly the temples of Angkar Vat^
at Bayon, also pyrarridal in form, are a combination of
the first and the second groups and their enclosures, one
within the other, are each raised from some 20 ft. above
thelevel of that outside. And lastly the smaller temples
consist of three or five sancturies placed side by side, the
centre one being the n.ost important, the whole being
surrounded by a wall or moat. In many instances the
enclosures take the form of a gallery or corridor which
is roofed over with horizontal courses of stone corbelled
over till they meet at the fop. The gateways to the
several enclosures are called Gopura as in India and
over the cei tre of the Gopura is a tower which in the
entrance gateway of Angkon Thom is carved on each
side with Brahma heads.
In front of the Cambodian temples also within the
enclosures as in India, there are tanks of wmter with

1 Wood cut 4r5 of Fergus?on vol. ii, p. 412, Woodcut 462, and
46? vol. ii, pp. 384. 38*5.

2 See appended p'ate.

 BASIC ARTS 191

stone borders and steps round. These not only provide

water to the temples and the visitors but ilso serve as
reservoirs of enormous dimensions to supply water for
agricultural and other purposes.
The temple of Angtor Vat or city temple is situated
between the city of Angkorthom and the lake Tonb Sap.
Its walled enclosure measures 1030 yds by 1100 yds and
itssurrounded by a moat of 216 yds. wide- [ts great gate-
way Is five storeys in height of 180 ft Its shortest width
north and south is more than GOO ft. It is thus higher
and larger than Borobular and has better ornamentation
and more delicate carvings. The temple of Rameswara is
equal to it only in colonnades, but inferior to Angkor
Vat and Borobudar in architectural design a nd sculptural
decorations. The ga'leries or ccionnades at Aigkar Vat
are perfect in their mechanical arrangements and
artisticdesign.^ The general view of the temple of
Angkor Vat is equally grand and charming.'*
I' he great temple of Bayon with fifty towers within
the city walls of Angkor Thom belongs to the third
group. It was founded by Jayavarman II and consecra-
ted by Yasovarman about 900 A. D. The finest example
of the pyramid temples is that of Bapuon south of the
palace in Angkor Thom. But the more charming is the
temple or Nakhon Vat ®

or Indonesian islands Java sunplies

Of Insul Indian
last of luiian temples. The earliest extant
examnles
monument in Java is the great Barobudar*. It is situa-
ted on the summit of an isolated hill. It is nearly a
pyramid in form. It is describe I as a seven storeyed or
nine storeyei Vihara or monastery according as we reck-
on the platform on which the seventv two smcvll dagobas
stand as one or three storeys. Its basement measures
over 460 ft. across but the real tern ole is only 300 ft.
from angle to angle either way. But it is famous not
for its dimensions or architectural design but for the

1 See plate from Fergusson’s Woodcut 463, 463, vol. li

pp. 384, 38s.

2 See appended plate and Fergusson Woodcut 464, vol. ii, p.
387.
3 See plate from elevation made by Fergusson’s Woodcut
no, 46. vol. ii, p, 382.
4 See appended plate.
192 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

remarkable sculptures that line its galleries The soul,

ptiires in both faces of galleries in two storeys would
extend over nearly 3 miles of ground. Buddhas includ-
ing five Dhyani Buddhas, in groups of three, five, and
nine are repeated over and over again. There are Bodhi
sattvas and saints of all sorts. The sculptors must have
been imported fro n India for, the character of the scul-
ptures and the details of the ornamentation are identical
with those ia cave 26 at Ajanta, 17 at Nasik and in the
caves at Kanheri in Salsette, at Kondivte, Mayathana
and other places It is as^^umed that Barobudar was
erected net ween 650-750. But the builder or buil-
ders of this great monument are still unknown. It may
however, be assumed that such a structure could have
been constructed only with the patronage of some ruling
authority if not by the ruler himself.
In .Java there still exist remains of several such
temples, leh,, Chandi Bhima, Chandi Arjuna, Chandi Ja-
bang, Chandi Sari, Chandi Kali-Bening near Kalasan
and Chandi Panataran, There is a second temple at
Panataran, which is known as Serpent temple because
whole of the basement moulding is made up of eight
great serpents, two on each face, wkose upraised heads
in the centre form the side pieces of the steps that lead
up to the central building. There is another temple of
this class at Machanponthi of which the sub-base
ment is composed of one tortoise and two serpents and
the heads of these three animals uniting on the west
face and forming the entrance.
Apart from the fragmentary inscripti ns found in
some of the temples described above there are hundreds
of copper plate inscriptions which contain more
detads of ecclesiastical endowments No elaborate
citation <d these historical documents is necessary.
By way of illustration a few only are quoted below.
They will show to what great extent the royal donors
were anxious to renounce their complete right over
the Ian 1 and monetary grant they made to the temple
authorities for the upkeep, repair, offerings, feeding of
the poor and recluses, etc. Owing to the sentiment that
no gift could bring sp ritual merits to the donor and his
ancestors if it be not completely made over, the donee
enjoyed the complete autonomy in the administration of
the endowed property resulting in the crt ation of the
small sovereign state within the bigger state but
 BASIC ARTS 193

caiising sorn© obvious a d rn ini strati V6 confusion ooncern-

ir.^ thiovcS) ©tc., who could tak© sh6lt©r and escap©
punishmont by running from one state to th© other.
The Indor copper plate inscription of the time of
Skandagupta dated, 465 A. D. records a perpetual
_

endowmen' for the purpose of maintaining a la cnp in

a temple of the Sun at Indrapura or modern Indor. This
gift of a Brahman’s endowment of the temple of the
Sun is the perpetual property of the guild of oil men as
long as it continues here or eleevhere should give for
the same time as the moon and the sun endure two
palas of oil (daily) uninterrupted in use and without
any diminution.' The transgressor is merely threate-
ned with tbe criminal punishment due to the murderer
(of a Brahman), theft of goli, adultery with preceptir's
wife, drinking of intoxicating liquor, and abettirg any
of these crimes and th© minor crimes like killing a
cow’.
Four out of the five copper plate grants of the
Parivrajaka Maharaias, and all seven copper plates of
the Uchchakalpa Maharajas are records of endowments
some of which are specifically made for temple pur-
poses, some as gift to Brahmans, and some made as
gratuity. Thus the Parivrajaka Maharaja Sankshobha
‘in th© enjoyment of sovereignty by the Gupta kings’
made in .5-28 to Chhadugomin half of the village
of Opani for the purpose of Bali or offering of grain,
rice, etc., to gods and all creatures Charu or fblation of
cooked food for the deceased ancestors, and Sattra or
alms and refuge to the needy people, and for the pur-
pose of renewing whatever may become broken or
torn at the temple of the Goddess Pishtapuri’, Here
all right excepting the right to fines imposed on thieves
and mischief doers is made over to the donee. No
obstacle to the enjoyment of this grant is to be caused
by his successors or feudatories as it is made to
increase the religious merit of his parents and himself.
The authority of the Mahabharata is quoted to the
effect that ‘preservation of a grant is more meritorious
than maldng a grant and that the giver of land enjoys
heaven for sixty thousand y^ears but the confiscator of
a grant and he who assents to an act ot confiscation
shall dwell for the same number of years in hell’. The
writer of the document was Bwaradasa and the king
himself gave it in person and did not employ any
26
194 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

Dutaka or messenger to convey the orders to the local

officials.

The Maharaja Hastin of the same dynasty made

three grants. In the first of 475 A. D. for the same
purposes as in the previous instance he granted the
village of Vasuntara-shaqdika to the Brahman Gopaswa-
min and others with the Udranga and Uparikara
implying some unforeseen income and with the privilege
that it is not to be entered by the irregular or regular
troops but with the exception of the right to fines impos-
ed on thieves. In his grant of 482 A. D, the Agrahara of
Korparika was made to Devaswamin and other Brah-
mans with same privileges and for similiir purposes.
In his grant of 610 A. D. the village of Valugarta was
granted to Govindaswamin and other Brahmans in the
identical manner.

The grant of the Maharaja Jayanatha of the

Uchchakalpa dynasty, dated 493 A. D. is recorded in a
more legal form. “Be it known to you the cultivators
that for the purpose of increasing ray own religious
n erit, the village of Ghhandapallika is granted by me,
being in good health, to the Brahman Mitraswamin with
the Udranga and Uparikara and with the privilege that
it is not to be entered by irregular or regular troops but
with the exception of the right to fines imposed on
thieves. You yourselves shall render to him the offer of
the tribute of the customary royalties and taxes, and
shall be obedient to his commands.’' His successors should
assent to it and should not confiscate it and they should
not take such taxes which by custom did not belong to
the king. The authority of the Mahabharata is quoted here
also regarding the criminal punishments, etc His other
grant of 190 A D. records the grant of the village
Dhavashandika to the Brahman writer (divira) Sarva-
vada and his sons and successors for the royal temple
of the god Vishnu for the purpose of repair and main-
tenance of Bali, Charu, Sattra, and ether rites. The
villagers including Brahmans and artisans were asked
to offer to the new owners the customary duties, royal-
ties, taxes, gold, etc., and to be obedient to their
commands. The same warning and persuation are also
added. The Maharaja Sarvanatha of the same dynasty
made the grant in 612 of the village of .\sraniaka
to the specified Brahmans in four shares with the san.e
 BASIC ARTS 195

conditions of repair of the temples of Vishnu and the

Sun and maintenance not only of Bali, Charu, Sattra
but also perfumes, incense, garlands, and lamps. He
made two other grants one of which is dated
616 in the same way. His grant of 533 recorded
the sanction of the Maharaja Sarvanatha to the transfer
among private grantees of two villages named Vyaghra
pallika and Ivacharapallika for the purposes of a temple
of the Goddess Pishta-purikadevi at the town of
Manapura The Maliya grant of 5l7 records its
issue from Kathiawad Gujerat by Maharaja Dharasena
II of the Valabhi dynasty. It is stated that ‘the king
being in good health issues a command to all the
officials, Hz.. Ayuktakas, Viniyuktakas, Brsagikas,
Mahattaras, irregular and regular troops, Dhruvadhika-
nikas, Danda-pisikas, EsjasthaUiyas, KumaramMyas
and others that some lands at the villages of Antarstra,
Dombhigrjma and Vajragr.Tma are given by him with
libations of water in accordance with the rule of land
transfer to the Brahman Eudrabhuti for the mainte-
nance of the five great sacrificial rites of the Bali, Charu,
Vaisvadeva, Agnihotra, and Atithi (feeding of guests)
to endure for all time and to be enjoyed by the
succession. It was given together with the Udranga,
Uparikara, vata, bhuta, grain, gold, and Adeya and with
the right to forced labour and with the privilege that
it is not to be even pointed at with the hand of undue
appropriation by any of the king’s people. .And no one
should cause obstruction to this person in enjoying it
in accordance with the proper conditions of a grant to
a Brahman, and cultivating it, or causing it to be
cultivated, or assigning to another. As usual it was
to be assented to and preserved by his successors as
stated bythe venerated Vyasa.the arranger of the Vedas.
This charter was written by the minister of war and
peace and contained sign manual of the king and it was
conveyed or registered by a high official
In 766 Siladitya VII of the same dynasty issued
from his camp at the town of Anandapura a similar
charter to record the grant to a Brahman of the village
of Mahilabali.

lung Harshavardhana of Kanauj n ade similar

grant in 63d from the camp of victory containing
boats, elephants, and horses from Pinthika (Madhuvana)
and announced that he had broken a forged edict on the
196 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

strength of which the Brahman Vamarathya enjoyed

the village of Somakandika and taken it back from him
and duly gave it to Bhatta Vataswamin and Bhatta
Sivaswamin as an Agrahara and commanded the people
to give these donees the share of the crops, objects of
enjoyments, taxes, gold and service generation to after
generation.

The Beopara stone inscription of Vijayasena of the

last quarter of the 11th century contains reference to
the erection of the temple of Pradyunineswara Siva to
whom the king provided ‘bright coloured dresses, a
hundred lovely female attendants adorned with jewel-
ornaments. towns filled with citizens and endless wealth’.
In the very game way endowments were made in south
of India also. But the Oharomak copper plate of Maharaja
Pravarasena II of the Vakataka dynasty issued in the
18th year of his reign from the town of Pravarap i a
in the Bhojakata kingdom corresponding to east Berar
contains certain additional and legally useful conditions
which are missing in theMnd-grants cf East, North, and
West India. The village of Charmanka in the llichpur
district of east Berar measuring «000 Bhumis was given
to 1000 Brahmans. The high born royal officers
employed in the office of general superintendents and
regular soldiers and umbrella-bearers were commanded
thus '‘Be it known to you that in order to increase our
religion and life and strength and victory and dominion,
and for the sake cf our welfare in this world and in
the next_ and generally for our benefit, this village is
granted, in our victorious office of justice as a grant
not previously made, with libations of water. Now we
grant the fixed usage, such ss befits this village
and such as has been approved of by former kings,
of a village which belong 5 to a community of Chaturl
vedi (Brahmans) namely, it is not to pay taxes
;
;

it is not to be entered by the regular troops or by the

umbrella-bearers it does not carry with it the right
;

to cows and bulls in succession of production or to the

abundance of flowers and milk, or to the pasturage,
hides and charcoal, or to the mines for the pur'^hase of
salt in a moist state it is entirely free from all obliga-
;

tion of forced labour, it carries with it the bidden trea-

sures and deposits and the Klripta and TJpaklripta. It is
to be enjoyed for the same time with the moon and
the
 BASIC ARTS 19 ?

sun; and it is to follow the succession of sons and sons’

sons. No hindrance should be caused by any one to
those who enjoy it. It should he protected and in-
creased by all possible means And whosoever disregard-
ing this charter shall give or '-anse to be given even
slight vexation, we shall inflict on him punishment
together with a fine when he is denounced by the
Brahmans. In this document which has at least the
merit of religion, in order to avoid boasting of other
meritorious actions performed by us we do not recite
our care and protection of grants made by various
kings who are dead and gone.” Ihen the authority
of Vyasa is quoted regarding preservation and confi-
scation. But unlike in the endowmients to temple cr
deities it is laid down here that this condition of the
charter should be maintained by the Brahmans (donees)
and by future lords, namely, enjoyment of this grant
is to belong to the Brahmans for the same time with
the moon and the sun, provided that they commit no
treason against the kingdom ccnsisting of seven
constituent parts, vtz , king, his ministers, ally, territory,
fortress, army, and treasury, of successive kings ;
that
they are not slayers of Brahn ans and are not thieves,
adulterers, poinsoners of kings, etc., that they do not
wage war, and that they' do no wroiig to other villagers.
But if they act otherwise, or assent to such acts, the
king will commit no theft in taliiig the land away.’’
This citation shoul ' mr.ke clear the legal position
between royal donor and the two classes of the "donees,
namely, the managers of tem!)les establisb.ed already
by the king, his ancestors cr others, and those institu-
tions like univer^dtles, colleges and nmnc.steries, and
those Brahmans and monks who are net associated
with any temj)l0 property but wbo are given endow-
ments by t’ne king so that they may perform their
communal an I caste dudes of learning ami educating
the society without anxiety for eirniug their livelihood.
In the former case under no circumstances the grant
is taken ba ik but the manag'^r may 1)e changed, but in
the latter case if the donees fall down from tlieir noble
pursuits they are deprived i-f the royrn,! grant. Thus
the state did not interfere with the administration of
ecclesiastical property but the king enforced a standard
of morality for those who lived cn royal or public
charity.
198 INDIAN CULTURE AND ClViLIZATION

It should be noted that from the point of view

of culture the temple is a monument at once of the
social, economic, political and religious progress.
Moreover arhitecture proper is the basic record of
all fine arts. The idea at the root of a temple cons-
truction is religious. It is built to house the idol of
god for the purpose of worship. It serves a social
benefit of great value inasmuch as temple is not only
a place for worship but it is a centre of learning there
being schools, colleges and lecture halls and debating
societies. Men and v/omen, old and young, meet th^re
on equal footing and exchange views and ideas. Thus
the temple compound is an exhibition ground showing
the economic and moral prosperity of the visitors, the
wealth of the builder, the skill of the artists comprising
architects, engineers, carpenters, sculptors, painters,
decorators and other artisans. The inscriptiDns on
the temple itself and the copper plate records pre-
served by the priests and the managing body as quoted
above show beyond doubt the amount of responsibility
which the ruler felt for the moral and material pro-
gress of the people. Indeed of all the literary and monu-
mental records dealing with the family, economic,
poTtical, and moral and religions life the institution of
temple combines in itself all these phases of life of a
civilized nation.
SGULPTUEE
“Art and by this is ordinarily understood, painting,
sculpture and handicrafts— is but the handmaid of
allied
arjhitecture which has been the foundation of all preat
aesthetic movements since history began.” Percy
Brown further adds that “a powerful creative spirit is an
essential quality’’ of the arts of sculpture and painting
co-relited to architecture. Theshmt account of houses
together with articles <'f furniture and of the objects of
sculpture and painting as described above does not
irclude numerous other objects which may be included
under the category of fine arts distinct from niere crafts.
The fine arts or Kak in Sanskrit are classified under
a traditional list of sixty-four ^ But a commentary
1 The 64 arts include singing, instrumental music, dancing,
paiuting, paints over the bouy, arranging flowers in pots and
gardens, bed making, garland making, dramatic play, composing
verses, jugglery, sewing, weaving, solving literary puzzles, carpentry,
dress.making, doll-making, house- making, etc,
 BASIC ARTS 199

vaguely refers to as many as 62S fine arts of which no

details are available and may have been made up by
including crafts of which the number is unlimited. The
objects of mere craft are intended to_ serve only the
utilitarian purpose, for instance a sailing vessel, a doll
for a child, a basket to carry things, a godown to store
goods, a third class waiting room in a railway station,
an office room in a shop, etc. As objects like these are
intended for a set purpose some engineering skill is
required in their execution and a certain amount of
durability is also ensured in order to make them market-
able. But an object of fine art demands much more
than skilful workmanship and durability. It must have
a symbolic meaning and its beauty must consist in
proportion, symmetry, uniformity and harmony which
alone can satisfy the aesthetic craving of an educated
mind. Thus in its execution there must be a definite plan
and design and it must be made in strong and durable
materials. The same object, therefore, may be treated as
an instance of craft or fine art. A doll for instance may
be made bcth as a play thing for a child or as a fine
sculpture with a symbolic significance and an aesthetic
value. Similarly a house may be built as a mere object
of engineering or as a real object of architecture both
externally and internally, to demonstrate externally its
character by its mere look as a man is distinguished
from a woman or a Sikh is distinguished from a Gurkha,
and internally to show wuthout a name plate whether it
is a temple room or a bride’s room, a school room or an
office room. Thus it is stated by Burgess that “architec-
ture, it must be understood, is something more than the
mere art of building in any form and, if a definition
;

is required, it must be that it is the fine art of designing

and constructing ornamental buildings in wood, stone,
or other (lasting) materials. It is thus distinct from
common building or civil engineering.’’
This definition is equally applicable to objects of
ether basic arts also, viz., sculpture and painting. Like
the artistic temples referred to above and described more
fully elsewhere there still exist in India numerous objects
of sculpture. But the extant objects of artistic painting
are confined to a few places especially at Ajarta.

Although art was practically absent in the buildings

unearthed at Mahenjodaro and Harappa, the object of
•:nO INDIAN CULTURE x^ND CIVILIZATION

sculptures 'vvere not wimtiug. The human heads and

various animals especially the bull were carved with
shill aui scieatiU-; accuracy. Tnesc realistic images
are, however, in saaro contrast with the idealistic
terracotras whic'a are mere crafts.
In the Vedic period we do not find description of
sculptural oojects like those of the architectual ones.
In the Rtmiyara, h.owever, a clear reference is made to
carving of S ti’s image in geld in so much realistic
details th.h ordinary onlookers would not be able to
distinguish it from Sita herself accotnpanying her hus-
band at the great festival :<nown as the Aswamedha
sacrifice. Similar realistic descaiptions are supplied by
the Mahtbhtrata and the Bud ihist texts, i he pre-Maur-
yan scvdptures exist in the colossal statues ot Yaksha
obtained from the village of Parkham wiih an inscrip-
tion in Mauryan B.ahmi which states that it wms
carved by 'Uomitra, pupil of Kunika’. This establishes
ihe fact that there were trained carvers and necessary
chisels and tools to carve the hardest stone, much like
‘the skilleQ miasons, acccmplised stone- cutters and dainty
jewellers, who built the I'iprahwa stupa in 450 B. C. on
the frontier of Nepal. Yaksha and Yakshi images have
also beei found at Patna, Besnagar, Faro la, Mathura,
and the Yaga statues at Besnagar and Chhargaon, and
the Kalpavriki-ha at Besnagar. But these specimens
of sculpture indicate only crude representation and lack
in real art. They are ob.ects of crafts only.
Since B. B. 000 all the basic aris must have develop-
ed rapidly. The Budohist art vhich commencea from
B 0. 2-j(J during tae reign oi the great Asoka, comprises
monuments of perfect beauty. The numerous columns
artistica,liy erected to bear Asoka’s edicts are well-pro-
portioned ano beantit ally polished monoliths ‘with
grooved capitals which are surmounted by the image of
some animal. Ihe abacus a,s a. rule is also decorated
with animal and floral crnaments' The charming and
well-known lion capital at Sa.rnatb near Benares bears
four figures of stately lions which once simported the
Dharma-chakra or stone wheel, the symbol of Law that
Buddha had proclaimed. The abacus is decorated with
four effigies of the rac ed wheel alternatiisg with four
anin,a:s an elephant, a bu 1, a horse aid a lion. Protes r
Vogel rightly surmises that “in all probability these
animals symbolize the four quarters, the whole menu-
 BASIC ARTS 201

ment beiiig meant to convey that the good doctrine was

destined to spread in all directions to the ends jf the
earth The images also exhibit the artistic proportion,
symmetry, uniformity and harmony and the per-
fection in their carving.^
Tradition ascribes to Asoka the erection of 84,000
stupas with which monasteries ani convents were no
doubt built. The stupas proper as at Sanchi, Bharhut,
Benares, Bandhar, Mathura and other places is not,
however, of much artistic value. It is a primitive type
of building, a sort of masonry tumulus intended as recep-
tacle of relics. It is, however, crowned with a square
railing cf stone which enclosed a standard supporting an
umbrella. But the enclosing railings at the lower part
as well as on the ground and the monumental gateways
are covered with sculptures which are very remarkable
specimens of genuine Indian art. Both at Sanchi and
Bharhut the sculptured decoration consist of panels in
which scenes portrayed from the life of the Buddha
and the Jataka stories, concerning Buddha’s previous
existences, especially those in which he appeared on
earth in the shape of some animal, are illustrated in
profusion on the stone railing pi liars, along the coping of
the large balustrade, and all over the gateways. This art
as Professor Vogel concludes possesses a ‘powerful charm
by virtue of its genuine naivete, its great love of nature,
and pre eminently its devdion to and intense veneration
of the Buddha.’ It is remarkable for its scrupulous
avoidance of Buddha’s portrayal in visible form. At
Bharhut secular subjects also were portrayed. Thus the
procession of Ajata^atru on his visit to Buddha is
depict^M artistically. Jefcavana monastery^ with its
mango tree, temples and Aiiathapinda emptying a
a cartful of gold pieces are also beautifully carved.
There is also a beautiful carving of the inmates of two
storeyed house looking dowm. from balconies and a pair
of geese and peacocks standing on the wall, which carry
the idea of a peaceful home- Mauryan arts are also
illustrated by the remains of a pillared hall at Patna,
rock-cut shrines at Barabar hills, a throne at Bodh Gaya
together with the famous temple of much artistic
skill, some terracotta heads found at Sarnath and the
elephant carved beautifully at Bhauli in Orissa. Amidst

1 See pla^'e appended as in plate 1 of Vogels Buddhist Art

26
20-2 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

2500 carvings of various kinds which exist at Bodh Gaya

there are a few figures of female devotees but no images
of Buddha. The reliefs illustrating the Jataka stories
include the purchase of -Tetavanarama. But the inner
faces of the old Bodh Gaya rail contain animal figures
including horses, etc. There are also lotus medallions
with human busts and animal figures, superhuman
male and female beings of a fearful nature. There are
sculptures of the Brahmanical deities also. One relief re-
presents Indra and another the Sun in a chariot drawn by
four horses The Earth goddess is represented standing
on a tortoise, Lakshml mounted on^her vehicle, and also
the Bhairava attendant of the god Siva,
Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, Lumbini garden at the
border of Nepal and Kusinagar or Kasia near Gorakh-
pur are the four famous places associated with
the four main events of Buddha’s life, viz., enlighten-
ment, preaching of the first sermon, birth, and
nirvfna or death. A.t Lumbini garden there is the
memorial pillar erected by Asoka. At Ivasia there is a
stupa and a colossal image of Buddha made in the fifth
century A.D, by one Dinna, a sculptor from Mathura
as stated in an inscription. At Sarnath there are
sculptures of the Maurya, Sunga, Gupta, and later
periods. The Dharma-chakra monasteries at the Deer
Park and the Dharmarajika stupa of the Mauryan age
are all in ruins and have mostly disappeared. But ‘the
lion capital of Asoka column, though in fragments, is a
piece of most developed Indian symbolic art. In the
masterful strength of the crowning lions with their
swelling veins and tense muscular development the
Mauryan sculptor had shewn dexterity and experience
of generations behind’. Several of the stone-railing
belonging to the ruined stupas are assigned to the
Sunga period ending about 50 A.D. Of the subsequent
period known as Kushan period, about 50-300 A.D.,
there is a colossal statue of Bodhisattva with an
inscription of the third year of Kanishka’s reign. The
head of this image is shaven and the style of drapery
resembles that of the Parkham statue of Yaksha. The
sculptures of the Gupta period (300-600) include stele
divided into four panels of equal size one above the
other, which represent four scenes of the Buddha’s life,
viz his birth, enlightenment, preaching and demise.
,

There are some slabs of eight panels also, portraying the

 BASIC ARTS

above four events as well as the four minor scenes of

Buddha’s life. The latter include the scene of his
descent from the heaven at Sankasya or modern Sankisa
in Farrukhabad district in U. P., the great miracle at
Sravasti, modern Saheta-Maheta in Gonda District, the
presentation of bowl of honey by a monkey in the
Perileyaka forest near Kausambi, and subduing of the
wild elephant Xakgiri. Several of the Jataka stories are
also illustrated. On a teautiful door lintels four bas-reliefs
relating to the Kshantivadi Jataka are artistically depicted.
There are standing images of the Bodhisattvas also. There
are also well carved stone images of Avolokite&Vara,
Maitreya, and Manjusri, gods of the Mahayana pantheon.
There are several images of Tara, in one of which the
goddess holds by the left hand a water pot on the hip,
in another the goddess is attended by Marichi, the
goddess of Dawn and by the angry Ekajata, in a third
one Tara is seated in an easy pose on a lotus and in a
fourth one Vajra Tara is carved in the round with
four heads and eight arras

There are also Jain reliefs with standing images

or busts of Tirthankaras. The Brahmanical images
include a colossal figure of Siva spearing Andhaka
demon with his trident. There is an image of
Trimurti with three faces. There are also the image of
Ganesa in sitting pose and the representation of Durga
holding mace adorned with a pair of human skulls on
her left shoulder, and in another she is shown piercing
the buffalo with her trident in the right hand. A votive
plaque shows a four armed figure of Vishnu wearing
a high head dress, a sacred thread and a garland, his
right hands holding a lotus and a conch and left hanls a
mace and a wheel. The minor images include faces of
animals, image of Jambhala, the God of wealth, with
the protruding eyes and tusks, corpulent deformity,
wearing cobras and trampling on a prostrate figure. The
image of Marichi the goddess of Dawn or Vajravarahi
is carved with three faces including the boars’ head and
three hands wielding various weapons, and standing in
the archer’s attitude on a chariot drawn by seven boars.
There are the images of Vasudhir.T, the goddess of plenty,
Bhairava riding a dog, and the Vamana or dwarf incar-
nation of Vishnu The Sarnath sculptures show a
flourishing condition of art in all its varieties.
20 i IlviDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION
Mathura on the bank of Yamuna situated between
Delhi and Agra was the place of Krishna cult in the
pre-historic period. The well known Kharoshti
inscription on the Lion capital found near Saptarshi
Tila states that in the first century B. C. Kshatrapa
Kajula and his son Sodasa were ruling over Mathura.
From about the first century A. D. Mathura passed
under the soverignty of the Kushans who played an
important part in the development of Indian sculp-
ture. They introduced the image worship of Buddha in
accordance with the Mahayana doctrine in place of
the symbol worship of the Hinayina system which had
been in vogue at Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, Sanchi, and
Bharhut. Beginning was made here of the Buddha
images which ultimately developed into five varieties,
viz., Buddha in meditation, Buddha in eostacy,
Buddha as a teacher, Buddha as a pilgrim, and
Buddha on his death-bed. Thus during B. C 50 and
300 A. D. Mathura served as the distributing centre
of Buddha images and other objective sculptures. It
owed its importance as Professor Vogel says, ‘as an
emporium to its situation on the great trade route which
connected the two capitals of the north west border pro
vinces, Pashkalivati or Purushapura, modern Peshawar,
and Taxila (where Gandhara sch ool of sculpture de veloped
during the same period) on the one side with Pataliputra
or Magadha on the lower Ganges and on the other with
Bharukachchha, the great sea-port on the west.’ Mathura
appears to have been closely connected also with
Dhanyakataka or Dharanikata, modern Amaravati in the
Guntur district, Madras, where the Andhra kings were
ruling from B.C. 250 to 100 A.D. In the districts adjoining
the deltas of the Krishna and Godavari rivers Buddhism
flourished from Vsoka’s time. The famous Buddhist
scholar Nagarjuna w'ho was born in Vidarbha, modern
Berar, and died at iSrisailam gave birth to the Mahaysna
school which introduced the Buddha images in the south
wherefrom its chief centre was established at Nalanda
and thence it spread to Mathura and Gandhara. We
shall see the influence of the Mathura school on the
Amaravati schools in the south and the Gandhara school
in the rorth. “Buddhism in its gradual expansion over
Indian continent.”, holds Professor Vogel, “naturally
followed the great ti'irde routes. It is clear also from
numerous inscriptions that among the merchant class
its most zealous adherents were counted.”
 BASIC ARTS

Numerous pieces of scu’pture have been discovered

iu the city and the district of Mathura, although not
a single building to which they belonged has been pre-
served. But several inscriptions of the Knshan kings
make it clear that the first wife of the great Satrapa
Rajula founded a monastery with an adjoining stupa
on the river bark below the city. There was another
monastery farther south "which w'as famcus for the splen-
dour of its sculptural ornamentation and "‘was founded
by the Kushan king Huvishka. A third mcnastery
known as the Yasa-Vihara wms in existence in the sixth
century Excepting its slender shape the Mathura stupa
resembled those at Sanchi and Bharhut, the balustrade,
railings, gates and their decoration being cf the same
pettern. The ornamentation of the pi'lars also including
lojus-rosettes, pahnettes, animals and female figures,
bears strong resemblance, “Mathura schccl must be con-
sidered,” declars Professor Vogel, “as a direct development
of the early sculpture of central India. It is, therefore,
fundamentally Indian. The earlier sculMors of Mathura
had represented Buddha by means of symbols. Thus a
railing pillar shows a Bodhimanda under the Bodhi tree.
A relief shows the -worship of Buddha’s alms bowl.
The railing pillars illustrate some Jataka scenes also
including those of the worst evil and the presentation
of honey by monkeys. There are Basreiiefs illustrat-
ing scenes of Buddha’s birth, enlightenment, descent
from the heaven, first sermon, death”, etc.
But the symbolic form of worship was replaced by
the image worship when the Mahayana system was
introduced during the Knshan period. Ai.d Mathura
produced numerous Buddha images of various dimen-
sions. Hri Apurva Prakash in his Foundation of Indian
Art and Archaeology has classified these into two types
side by side showing the Buddha head as shaven as well
as with luxuriant hair twisted into large knot upon the
crown of the head, clean shaven face s well as face with
t-

moustache and heard in terracottas, i.ormal ear as well

as ear with elongated lobes, head without Ushnisha or
skull protuberance and bead with Ushnisha covered with
spiral locks, drapery leaving the light shoulder bare as
well as drapery covering both the shoulders, drapery
with natural loose folds concealing the bony and drapery
transparent showing the body and arranged in schematic
folds, nimbus plain or scallaped at the edge in low
206 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

relief and nimbus ornamented with a narrow foliated

band, in sitting posture with the right hand raised in
Abhaya-mudra and the left hand clenched resting on
the thigh, in the same posture the fingure being in the
Bhumi-sparsa-mudra, in the erect or standing posture
the left hand supporting the drapery as well as lifting
up the hem of the drapery ;
the feet protruding from
the drapery and lying flat and uncovered up to the
thighs and cross-legged when seated as against the
drapery covering the entire body up to the ankles leav-
ing only the feet free and the feet also covered with
drapery in sitting posture; the seat being a lion
throne (simhasana) as against Ictus throne (padmasana)
or diamond throne ('^ijrisana) for standing images
;

there often being a seated lion detween the feet as

against a bundle of lotus buds between the legs. In
several examples both these types are found mixed up.
Buddha images all over India come under one of these
peculiarities whether created simultaneously or borrowed
from the Mathura stock.
Professor Vogel recognises the fact that early
in Kanishka’s reign a Bodhisattva image was brought
from Mathura to the Deer Park at Benares. A similar
image with a stone parasol was erected by the same
donor, the monk Bala, in the Jetavana of Sravasti. In
several other spots on the Gangetic plains fragments
of 83ulpture have been recovered which are carved in
the yellow-flaoked red sindstone of Mathura. Such
pieces have also been found in Sanchi and as far north
as Taxiia. As late as the fifth century a colossal image
of the dying Buddha was erected at Kushinara on
the site of the Teacher’s Nirvana. The inscription
states that it was the work of one Dinna, a sculptor
of Mathura. These few examples will suffice to show
that Mathura in the first centuries of the Christian
era was the great centre from which Buddhist art
(that is sculpture') spread over tlie entire region of the
Ganges and far beyond including Gandhara on the
one side and Amaravati on the other.
The first forms of most of the Brahmanical gods
and goddesses probably originated at Mathura because
of its association with the Krishna cult. Thus we see
here the Eka-mukhi (one-faced) Liugam of Siva, Siva
and Pai'yati as husband and wife, Ardhanarisvara
image of Siva and Ihrvati, Simha-vahini Durga, four
 BASIC ARTS 207

armed Vishnu, Gaja-Lakshmf, four-armed Mahisha-mar-

dini Durga, Vasudhara, and Surya (sun) with Usha (dawn).
There are reliefs ilhistrating Vasudeva, Krishna’s
father carrying the baby Krishna to Gokula across the
Yamuna. There are railing pillars depicting the ascetic
Rishyasringa, Kapila, Bharadvaja, etc. There are several
statues of the Sun god including one with Danda and
Pingala by his sides, one with Ushi and Pratyushg, one
seated in a chariot of two horses and wearing coat and
trouser found in the Kankali Tila. The earlier sculptors
of Mathura depicted on the railing pillars ‘Yakshinis or
Vana-devis engaged in toilet scenes holding mirror
in hand, enjoying tricks with unwary cranes and
parrots, playin? with balls, bathing under niDuntaneous
cascade and singing to the accompaniment of seven
stringed flute’. The pillars of Bhutes'vara contain Yakshi
figures of erotic character. Mathara possesses yet
another type of images representing male beings adorned
with rich head gear and a profusion of ornaments.
There are numerous terracottas and stuccos of
archaic tutelary female Yakshinis, Vedic deities,
Buddha and Bodhisattva images, Jina images and
symbols, secular scenes and decorative panels in stucco,
baked clay and stone.
Besides the images of gods, goddesses, incarna-
tions of Vishnu in ten forms, the Malhura sculptors
were successful in carving images of historical persons
like Verna Kadphises, Kanishka and other Kushan
princes, ladies, noble men, as well as local residents
wearing turbans, etc. There are panels depicting the
lovely toilet scene of Buddha’s half brother, Nanda, and
his wife Sundari, which Asvaghosa immortalised in
his poem, the Buddha-charita.
Like Mathura, Gandhara occupied an important
situation as a centre of cuHure.
It covered the region
between the Indus and Kunar rivers comprising the
districts of Hazara, Rawalpindi including Taxila,
Peshawar, representing ancient PushkaHvati and
Purusbapur, Bajaur, Svat, Bunar and Yusuf zai, Gan-
dhara monasteries embrace the remains at -Tamalgarhi,
Takhti Bahi, Shadhehri, Sanghao, Nathu. Loriyan
Tangai and Swat representing Veiic Suvastu Darius
I conquered Gandhara along with Sindh and part of
the Punjab and it remained under the Persian from
208 raDIAN CITLTUBE AND CIVILIZATION

B. G. 530 to 330. The Persian rule was replaced by

the Greek after the conquest of Alexander the Great
who entered the Peshavvar valley when Gandhaia
was under the rule of an Indian king called Astes
by the Greeks with his capital at Pushkakvati, modern
Charsadda, and Taxila was under Ornphis or Ambhi. In
about B. C. 300 Gandhara came under the Maurya rale
as a result of treaty between Seleukos Nikator and
Chandragupta. Asoka fixed up the border of the
Mauryan empire by his Pock edicts at Shahbazgarhi
some ten miles east of Mar dan. After the breakup of the
Maurya empire in about B. C. 200 Gandhara was ab-
sorbed by Diodotus I the Indo-Parthian monarch
in his kingdom. The Eucradites replaced the family of
Demetrius in Baetria, Kabul valley and Gandhara, but
in about B. C. 135 they were expelled by the Scythian
Sakas and the Kushans finally turned out the Parthians
and continued to rule the Gandhara provinces from
150 to 550 A. D. when the Huns Toraman and Mihirgula
overran northern India.
King Asoka introduced Buddhism in Gandhara
wherefrom Buddhism made the triumphal progress
to China and Japcn through Central Asia or Serindia
and to Insulindia or Indonesian islands. But the
prosperity of the Gandhara sculpture was due to the
Knshan king Ivanishka who held the Third Buddhist
council guidedby famous Kagsrjuna of the south and
embraced MalGyuia Buddhism to which the introduc-
tion of Buddha images is ascribed. Outside India the
^

Gandhara art appears to have been the parent of the

objective art of Eastern Turkistan, Mangolia, China,
Korea, and Japan
In about 100 A.D. the Chinese pilgrim FaTTian saw
the stupa rf the Eye-gift decorated with silver and gold
and some TOO Buddhist priests at the Patra chaitya.
Sonp-yuu in 520 A. was the last to see the glories
(f the Buddhist shrines in Gandhara province who
met the Hun king Mihiragula in camp practising the
most b.u-berous rUrocities. When Hiuen-Tsang visited
the country in 6;-]0 A. D. m'=st of the monasteries were
in ruins.
The monastic ruins of ancient Gandhara have
supplied an incredibly large quantity of sculptures
which are now preserved in museum's at Peshawar
 .

BASIC ARTS 209

Lahore, Calcutta, Louvre at Paris, British Museum in

London and in the Museum fur Volkerkunda at Berlin,
But among these many thousands of sculptures there is
not a single one which bears a clear date, the inscribed
sculptures being very few. The Bucdha image of
Leriyan Tangi is date in the year 318 and the Hasta-
:

nagar pedestal in the year 384 of some unknown eras.

The stupa at Manikyala is dated in the 18th year of
Kanishka whose actual date is stilt a matter of dispute.
The hemisphere over the (landhara stupas were
loftier and more slender than that of the stupas at Sanchi
and Bharhut. The former were placed upon a square
platform consisting of severe. I terraces. Thus the whole
looked like towers and were so called by the Chinese
pilgrims. There were no stcne balustrade and Toranas
or gateway s at Gandhara stupas which were decorated
with rows of reliefs depicting the life of the Buddha
fully and in chronological order Jataka scenes were
few and included the stories of the Prince Vesvantara
who was the king of the §ibis and of the hermit boy
Sygma.
The Boddisattva is illustrated by the scene of
Buddha's departure from Kapilavastu both at the east
gate at Sanchi and at Gandhara.^ He is dressed as
prince Siddhartha in royal robe riding on his horse
Kanthaka whose hoofs are supported by Yakshas. On
one side is the umbrella-bearer and on the other is
Mara in the garb of a warrior who as the Buddhist
Satan vainly tries to make Buddha to return to the domes-
tic life. Here the halo around Buddha’s head marks him
as Bodhi-sattva There is a Buddha figure onalofcis
throne with a long stalked lotus on either side, one on
the left supporting a Vajrap.mi and the other bearing a
half-worshipping figure.
As in Mathura the detached images were found at
Gandhara also. One of these in sitting posture was
carved in monk's dress.® It is marked with XJrna, a
slight eminence of circular shape between the eye-brows
and the XJshnisha, a krob on the top of the head tapering
in shape in later examples. These are the tokens
of his superhuman nature. The head is covered with

1 Plate appended from Yogel> No. 9.

2 Plate appended from Vogel, No, 7

27
210 INDIAN CULTUKE AND CIVILIZATION

short curls. It is provided with a moustache but

there is no beard or ear-ring. The drapery keeps the
right shoulder and arm uncovered. Tbe hands are joined
upwards at the middle of the breast in a special mudra.
The legs are crossed in swastika posture keeping the
sole of the feet upwards. The image is seated upon
a pedestal which is held up by two lions at the two ends
between which ju-it below the feet of Buddha there is a
seated image in meditation attended by two figures on
each side. The Gandhara images of the Buddha were
carved both in human as well as docetic form with the
physical characteristics establised by Indian tradition.
It is stated to bear the well marked Greek influence by
its features “which sometimes remind one of Apollo or
Dionysus”, and especially by the nimbus round the head
and also probably by the folds of the drapery. The types
similar to the Gandhara ones are still found in Tibet,
China, and Japan. Besides the various facial expres-
sions there is also some similarity in the treatment of
hands, hair, drapery, pedestal, etc.
The other Hellenistic motifs of Gandhara art are
supposed to be decorative elements like the vine leaves
with bunches of grapes, the winged or snake-tailed
monsters, the kneeling Tritons, acanthus leaves, the
_

Corinthian pilasters, the Bacchanelian scenes, the

socalled silenus, Hercules with the Nemaeon lion, and
the narrow line of ornament above the
saw^-tooth
medallions. ProfessorVogel recognises ‘the pains-
taking workmanship bestowed on some of these reliefs
which reveals the artistic sense and pious mood of the
sculptors. On the other hand Gandhara for all its output
has produced few works of art of outstanding merit.
These few include the image of the king of the Yakshas,
Buddha emaciated by his long fast found both at
Gandhara and Mathura and tbe striking scene of Mara’s
threatening host of demons on the march to wrest from
the Buddha his seat under the Bodhi tree’. Havell and
others also hold that the Gandhara sculptors wmre
not high class artists but some sort of mechanical
craftsmen.
It is necessary to note that the Gandhara images
like those of Mathura were not exclusively Buddhistic.
Thus the Jataka scenes include the figure of Indra. The
sun and the moon are represented with the nimbus on
the relief from -Tamalgarhi. Sarasvati, the Brahminical
 j

BASIC ARTS 211

goddess of learning and music, is represented sitting

sideways on a lion and holding on her knees a lute, A
Siva image was found at Charsada with three heads
three eyes, six arms holding the Damaru or drum, trident,
and waterpot and standing before the Bull Nandi, There
are also Vishnu images with several arms and the
mutilated statue ol the one-horned sage Eka-sringa.
Besides the numerous Buddhist and Brahmanical
images carved in stone there are large number of heads
made of stucco and of terracotta They vary in size
from two inches to life size. They are sometimes seated
and clothed in folds of drapery with hair woven into
rows of curls. Many of the stucco fragments from
Takhti Bahi are well preserved and of great; delicacy
and beauty Some of these are furnished with beard
and heavy moustache. Some scholars think that these
represent Buddhas and Bcdhisattvas.
Like many other critics Professor Vogel is also
uncertain about the origin of the so-called Greco Buddhist
art in Gandhara It is a hybrid combination. There
is an undeniable stamp of the Grecian and other foreign
semblance. But the essential elements are purely
Indian. Even in the Buddha images one cannot fail to
notice absolutely Indian way of sitting in particular
asina or seat, keeping the hands in Indian Mudra forms,
and above all meditating in the peculiarly Iniian method.
The images bear the Indian proportion of the Talamsna
measure Besides the Buddha was recognised as one
of the ten incarnations of Vishpu. At the same time
as pointed out above certain decorative features of the
Buddha image like the folds of drapery and especially
the nimbus round the head are of foreign origin. Pro-
fessor Vogel does not think king Menander (150 B. C )
could have introduced the Grecian influence on Gan-
dhara sculptures. The evidence of coins points rather
to the Scythian Prince Azes who reigned about half a
century before the Chrishan era and made the beginning
of the Graeco-Buddhist art. But the hayday of Gandhara
art was brought aboiit by the Ivushans who about
50 A.D subdued northern India and made the Satraps
of the Parthian and Scythian kings their tributaries.
King Kanishka founded a stupa outside the walls of his
capital Pushpapvira (Peshawmr) which is praised by the
Chinese pilgrims as the largest pagoda of India. He also
introduced the Mahayana pantheon which gave rise to
212 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILISATION

the Buddha image. Victor Goloubew is quoted by

Apurva Prakash as holding the view that the Buddha
images were at first made in Mathura. It also seems
that elements of the iconography
all essential of Buddha
and Bodhi-sattva figures had already appeared in
Mathura before they were noticed in Gandhara. The
spiral locks and the curly hair had been known to the
Mathura sculptors. The drapery leaving the right
shoulder and right arm free and Ushgisha, etc., were
already practised in Mathura they only took new forms
;

in Gandhara under the Hellenistic and other foreign

influence.
Some practising artists notice in the Gandhara
sculptures a fidelity to nature and anatomical treatment.
‘A definite attempt is mtade towards the realisation of
the idea of perspective. The figures in gioups are
delineated on different planes. The light and shade are
so well controlled that they convey the impression of a
picture. The objective artists of Gandhara gave _

attention to naturalness and reality, endeavouring to

render the optical impression in a correct objective
manner. They presented the body as relaxed without
any tension in its attitude and w'ell graduated, It \vas
in the best period of Gandhara sculptures that the
objective Indian artists paid their attention to display
anatomy. The early subjective sculptures (like the
portions of an elephant frieze nos. 305, 319) were not
chiselled with so much fidelity to nature. Minute and
careful observation and accurate delineation are noticed
in the later objective representations. They are thus
stated to be intrinsically beautiful, skilfully executed,
and well adapted to express both the objective ideal of
the Indian artists and the religious sentiment of their
patrons or donors.’
Some foreign influence of decorative and unessen-
tialcharacter has been variously tried to be explained.
The Gandhara sculptures flourished most during the
supremacy of the Kushans who before they came to
India had long sojourn in Bactrian and -'xus valleys(

and might have absorbed some non-Indian motifs

which they introduced to the Gandhara sculptures.
Roman sculpture of the same perio I has some semblance
to the Gandbara sculptures. But since the time of
the Seleucids it was from Western xlsia that the
streams of art flowed westward over the Roman empire.
 BASIC ARTS 213

In Western Asia the arts of Greece and Ionia were

fused, together. Some Persian elements are also
observable in Gandhara sculp+ures. Excepting the
inscription in Aramaic character no ot’ner monument,
of Indc-Persian period has however, been found at
Taxila and in its neighbourhood There is hardly any
evidence to support the theory o: Chinese influence on
the Gandhara sculptures as profounded by Kakasu
Okakura in his Tdeals of the East with reference to
the Art of Japan.’ The sculptures of the Han dynasties
of B. C. 206 to 220 .A. D may have some ftatures,
drapery and decoration in common vvith those of
Gandhara sculptures but no direct intercourse between
China and India at that period can be traced. The more
convincing appears to be the assumption that in tiie
evolution of arts among various nations and countries
there was an independent grow'th of certain features
of non-essential character which were the conmion
development without any influence or borrow! rg. So
Apurva Prakash holds the view that ‘the Gandhara
Buddha is neither Greek, nor Roman, neither Iranian
nor Chinese, neither Scythian norKushan, but universal’.
It appears to be clear that the Gandhara sculptures are
essentially Indian and belong entirely to Indian life as
they deal with Indian topics, Indian saints, Indian
legends, Indian religions, Indian animals and Indian
plants and flowers. There are local varieties but the
cheme is all Indian and the iconographic proportions
are based on the Indian tslarnsna as suggested by the
Silpa-=astra.

Amaravati in the Guntur district of Madras

represents the ancient Dharanikota the old capital of
the Andhra kings from about B. C. 250 to 100 A. D. In
the district adjoining the deltas of the Krishna and the
Godavari rivers Buddhist inounments once existed
in large number. But the entire Amaravati stupa with
its sculptured pillars and panels were demo'ished for
building materials. The stupa at Jaggayyapeta or
Betavolu 30 miles north-west from Amaravati w’as
plundered for its rails and the marble casing of its
basement, the dome was destroyed and the relic casket
dug out and stolen. Remains of other Stupas also testify
to the predominence of Buddhism in this province a
couple of centuries before and after the Christian era.
The Amaravati stupas at Dharanikota appears to have
214 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

been corstructed in the second century B. C. as indicated

by the oldest sculptures bearing inscriptions of the
Andhra kings in Brahmi characters of about B. C. 200
and also of the time of Nagarjuna who was intimately
associated with this monument as the originator of
Mahayma Buddhism. An inscription records that some
devotees constructed a number of Chaityas and Vi haras,
and dug wells for pilgrims visiting the sacred place
from Gandhara, China, Ap .ranta, Vanga (Bengal),
Vanavasi, Ceylon or Tamra-parni dvipa, etc.
Archaeologists have succeeded in rescuing some
precious sculptures. Seven bea’.tiful pieces are pre-
served at Indian Museum in Calcutta 160 pieces adorn
;

the great staircase of the British Museum in London ;

400 damaged pieces are preserved in the Museum at

Madras. Some cf the earliest pieces are obviously
related to the type of Bharhut. Sculptures of the second
series resemble in certain respects the Mathura and the
Gandhara style. The railings resemble those at Sanchi
and Bodh Gaya in their general appearance. Majority
of the sculptures on the railing were executed during
the Andhra kings as indicated by the inscriptions of
three Andhra kings, Pulumayi, Sivamka, and Yajna. A
further set was added during the later Andhra Kings.
A relieffrom Amaravati^ as preserved at Madras
museum gives an idea of the famous edifice. The
miniature stupa in the relief shows a high bell-shaped
dome surmounted by a square Harmika, which supports
two umbrellas. It is surrounded by a profusely decorated
railing which represents a balustrade of circular
plan. ‘Facing the four projections of the stupa are the
entrances to the procession path, which are formed by
the balustrade bending outwards either side.’ The
primitive character of the Amaravati stupa is indicated
by the entire absence of the toranas or gateways and
the square terrace connected with flight of steps which
decorated the stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut. The great
balustrade of the Amaravati stupa consists of pillars of
extreme richne-s and refinement, about 9 feet high and
connected with cross-bars and covered by a continuous
coping. On the outside both pillars and cross-bars are
thickly covered with beautifully carved lotus-rosettes

1 Plate Appended as No. 14 of Vogel’s Buddhist Art.

 BASIC ARTS 215

alternating with gambolling dwarfs in various attitudes.

On the inside the ornamentation is even more varied.
The central lotus rosette of the pillars is here replaced
by a medallion containing some story-telling relief,
while the space above and beneath is occupied by smaller
panels likewise representing either an episode from the
Buddha legend or some Jataka. Along the inner side
of the coping there runs a series of sculptured scenes,
while outside it is decorated with motif of the
garland-bearers. But unlike those at Mathura and
Gandhara the garland wa^ transferred at Amaravati
into a waving and differently decorated scroll which is
carried by running dwarfs in Indian garb. The vacant
spaces between the curves of the waving scroll are filled
with symbols of tlie Bodhi tree, wheel of the law, (dharma-
chakra, a stupa, a five headed N a,ga or serpent or a
Garuda bird.

The reliefs illustrate the Buddha legends vividly.

One well preserved piece in Calcutta museum repre-
sents the descent of the future Buddha. The first panel
shows a Bodhi-sattva in the Tushita heaven surrounded
by heavenly attendants. The next panel shows him
being carried through the sky in the shape of an elephant,
and supported by Yakshas among the dancing and jubilant
gods, and the third panel depicts the sleeping Queen
Mays dreaming the Boddhisaltva descending in the
shape of a white elephant. This legend is ‘portrayed
in grotesque clumsiness at Bharhiit and in uninspired
realism in Gandhara. But the Amaravati sculptures
evinced imagination and plastic skill such as even in
India have never been excelled. Another relief_ pre-
served in Madras museum is a splendid specimen
showing the Buddha’s encounter with the mad elephant
egged on by his wicked cousin Devadatta to destroy
him. The centre is occupied by a group of frightened
citizens who are trying to escape from the dangerous
beast. The Buddha is seen approaching from the right
side. The elephant has been pictured twice, first in
his rage seizing a man with his trunk, and again
devoutly kneeling before the Master.’^ Here too the
pathos expressed by the Amaravati artists is missing
in the ‘irrelevant detail’ of Sai.chi. Another Madras

1 See Plate 17 from Vogel Buddhist Art.

216 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

specimen presents the four principal events of Buddha’s

life .The edifying legend of the ccnveision of Buddha’s
half brother Xanda, vhich has been described in the
Saundataiianda by the poet Asvac-hosha, is illustrated
in a relief the upper half of which is lost. The two
remaining panels show young Nanda in the company
of his beautiful wife Sundari wTiom he assists at her
toilet and in the next scene he is on his way to
naonestery carrying the begging bowl of his inexortable
brother. here are also reliefs depicting scenes from
I

court life, frivolous ladies in*company of young men are

masterfully showm The Buddha standing on a lotus
pedestal appears at Amaravati, Mathura and Gandhara.
Similarly Buddha with a nimbus is included in sculptures
of ail these three school centres.
The other Buddhist ruins near about Amaravati
include the Jaggayyapeta stupa founded by Virapuri-
shadatta of the Ikshwmku dynasty together with
inscribed Ay aka columns) and a Mahachaitya, two
temples of the old absidal type, monasteries and a few
smaller monuments, all of the same style as at Amara-
vati itself. ^
Buddha’s encounter with the mad elephant and
other scenes are specimens of the objective Buddha
images while his descent from the heaven, etc,, are
symbjlic representations. Although originated at
Amaravati the Buddha images developed remarkably
at Mathura and Nalanda. As shown above several
scenes are common Amaravati, Aiathura and
at
Gandhara and more oi less contemporary. Their commcn
motifs aud reliefs may have origiiated from legends
common throughout India and without any direct
influence from one to the other. The Kushan kings
exertf 1 influeuce both at Gandhara and Mathura but
not at Amaravati. The influence of Mathura which is
situated mid-way between Gandhara and Amaravati
is, however, noticed in both the latter places. Besides
Alathura gave rise tc the Krishna cult before the Buddha
cult. Thus Mathura’s influence upon the sculptures
of Gar.dharc and Amaravati may be assumed. But the
sculptors of Amaravati were more artistic aud skilful
than those of two other places.

1 No Bratimanical motifs or reliefs are noticed among the

8culptur-s of Amaravati although they are found in large
number
in Mathura and in Gandhara.
 BASIC ARTS 217

Of three recognised schools of cur sculptures

thf!
Aniaraya'I the luost creative and artistic, Mathura
is
is the most universal and exhaustive, and Qandhara
is the most receptive.
The survey of the Buddhist art in India would be
never complete without a reference to the monuments
at Tibet, Burma, Ceylon and Java and other Indonesian
islands. The architectural monuments of these places
have been described elsewhere. Scnlptural monuments
of Ceylou and Java only may b-: briefly referred
to here.
Although Buddhism vanishecl from India about
1200 A. D. it is still a national raligion in Ceylon,
Thras the Buddhist monuments still exist there. Kuins of
Buddhist stupas inoiule the early Ambastha’a Dagaba
containing the boue5 of Mahinder and Mahassya and one
containing a hair of the Buddha, which are situated on
the sacred mountain of Mihintale. The stupas at
4nuradhapura dating between 800-1000 A. D. are
of gigantic diamensions t*>nd were made of solid bricks.
Of these the Ihuparama dagaba was built by Tissa.
The Buanwali dagaba is ascribed to Dnttagamani
about B. 0. 1,0. ihe Jetavanarama or Eastern dagoba
was built by king Mah>sena of 325-352 A. D. This is
the_ largest structure, the square paved platform mea-
suring some 600 ft. both ways and the base covering
about 8 acres. The Abhayagiri or Northern dagoba svas
equally big and built by king Vathagamini Abhaya
about B. C. 29. The dagobas have retained the early
type of the Indian stupas. “They’' are hemispherical
structures raised on a triple circular terrace. The
superstructure was a cube carrying a tapering pinnacle.
The grooved pinnacle which is connected with the cube
by means of narrow neck, still recalls the Harmika
with its row of stone parascls peculiar to the
early stupas of Indian continent. They are also
provided with four roctaugular structures projecting
from the drum of the dome <ui 1 facing the cardinal
points They are variously designated as altars,
chapels, frontispieces, or screens. These were copied
from the Mahachaityas of Amaravati and Nagarjuna
Konda which consist of a solid dome and drum with
four rectangular projections with Ayaka pillars each.
The stupas of Ceylon have neither railings nor toranas
or gateways and thus missed the opportunity of
28
218 INDIAN CULTUEE AND CIVILIZATION

sculptural decoration on them. But the two ends of the

altar is surmounted by a seated lion figure carved in the
round. The front is carved with a high sfidk rising
from a bulbous vase. And at the Abhayagiri Dagoba
there is a charming Naga figure.
Exquisite specimens of sculptural objects are, how-
ever, found with other monuments at Anuradharura.
Professor Vogel refers to the flights of st^ne steps as
‘‘works of rare beauty.” The circular slab forming the
door step or the so called moon stone is decorated with a
procession of animals including elephant, bud, lion
and horse as are found on the abacus of the Asoka
capital at Sarnath. The guardstones at the entrance
are carved with two Xaga figures, one with a hood
of five cobra heads and the other with a nine or
elevenfold hood.
‘Sculptures illustrating the Buddha legend or
the Jatakas are almost unknown in Ceylonese art.
Professor Vogel refers to two reuefs’, one showing a male
figure, looking like a Buddha image, seated with his
outstretched right arm resting on his knee, and the
head of the horse over his shoulder. The other repre-
sents an armorous couple,’ The female figure looks
charming and the male compaion appears to be a we.::rior
with his sword and shield.
The three Buddha imm.ges of the Ruanwali dagoba
resemble the Buddha type of A maravati by their general
style and treatment of the drapery with its schematic
folds. Another Buddha image of 8 ft. heignt carved
in very dark granite is hiddmi in the forest of Anura-
dhapura. Here the image is seated in the attitude of
meditation with folded legs and hands resting on the
lap. Dr. Vogel praises it as ‘a grand work of art ia
which mental repose is admirabb. exptessed.’ At the
same site two colossal standing figures represent two
ancient monarchs of Ceylon, one 8 ft. in height ond tbo
other 10 ft high.
Polonnaruwa is a later capital of medieval period
itstwo large stupas known as ilankot Vihara and Kiri
Vihara were made in imitation of the Anuradhapura
types. There are two other temples, called
Jetavans-
rama or Lankatilaka, ornament of Ceylon, and Thup.uana,

1 Plate no. 3.5 of Vos;el’s Bud-lhivt iiuPa,

 BASIC ARTS 219

They contain gigantic standing images project-

ing from the back wall of the sanctum and made of
plastered brick. Remains of frescoes representing
Jatakas are found at Lankatilaka. There are also the
group of rock cut images at Oal Vihara including a
Nirvma statue measuring 46 ft. in lenghth which is
much impressive but not of much beauty.
There master piece at the Palgul monastery.
is a
The figure with its simple dress, imposing beard,
braide hair reading a palm-leaf book appears to repre-
i

sent the Brarnhanical sage Kapilaor Agastya. Professor

Vogel declares it as ‘the greatest work of art found
in Ceylon’.
The most wonderful of the Buddhist stupas is the
Barabudur in Java derived from the simpler relic
shrines of India. It is most elaborate in construction
and ornamentation and quite unique in other respects
also. It was built on the^ top of a hill in the fertile
plains of Kedu by the Sailendra kings of Srivijaya,
a mighty kingdom comprising Java, Sumatra and the
Malay Peninsula in the latter half of Sth century A. B.
as indicated by the Buddhist inscription of 700 Saka era
correspoding to 77S A. D. found near the village of
Kalasan in central Java. The whole edifice consists of
six square terraces at the bottom with double recessed
corners surmounted by three circular terraces. The
uppermost circular terrace is occupied by a large dagaba
measuring dd ft, in diameter and bearing the hemis-
pherical form of the In lian stupa, which crowns the
whole monument. All the three circular terraces
are ‘beset with small dagabas arranged in three
concentric circles and numbering 32, 24 and 16 respec-
tively and these 72 degobas are unknown in any other
parts of the Buddhist worli’. They are not solid but
perforated bell-shaped domes each enshrining a Buddha
image seated in the attitude of preaching (dharma-
chakra Mudra).^ The four square terraces succeeding
the enlarged basement are each provided with a solid
stone rampart forming a kind of balustrade’. Thus there
are four corridors or passages open to the sky serving
as the pradakshina or the path of circumambulation.
From the middle of each of the four sides of the square
basement a flight of steps leads up to the top of the

1 Plate no. 36 Vogel’is Buddhist India and the plate appended.

220 INDIAN CaLTURE AND CIVILIZATION

monument. On each square terrace the flights of steps

pass through a gateway adorned with sculptures
including a Kfla-makara consisting of a lion head placed
in the apex of the arch combined with two maharas or
crocodiles.
Four classes o‘ DLyani Buddha? are arranged along
the four fascades. Each of these is represented by 92
statues enshrined in 92 niches which are arranged in
four horizontal rows along the respective fascades.
‘Besides this there is an upper row of Buddha figures
64 times repeated and placed along the highest square
terrace. On each fasc.^de the total number of enshirned
Buddha figures consequently amounts to lOS. Of the
four Dhyani Buddhas Ak-hobhya is placed on the east
in Bhurni-^par sa mudra (touching the earth’, Ratira-
sambhava cn the south in Varada-mu^ra (offering boon ,

Amitabha on the west seated in Dhyana mudra (medi-

tation) and Amoghasiddha on the north in Abha:,a-mudra
(imparting protecfcior'. These indicate the fifth Dhymi
Buddha, named Vairochana as placed on the zenith.
The sixth Dhya'ni Buddha, called Vajrasattva, highest
of all and identified as the supreme deity is placed in
Dharma-chakra-mudrs or preaching attitude among the
72 Buddhas enshrined in the 72 dagabas aiong the three
circular recesses which stand upon the six square
recesses. There is also a life-size Buddha carved in
the round and seated cross-legged on his lotus seat
placed on the rows of niches outside the four balustrade.
These long rows of Buddha figures arranged along toe
fascades in impressive miiformii.y but in different
attitude or nnidras are one of the most striking features
of the whole monument.
There are also continuous rows of sculptured panels,
numbering some 1500 and extending if placed side by
side, over three miles, placed on the main walls and
balustrades all a^ong the four passages. These sculp-
tures include skilfully carved hamaii figures, ‘admirably
characterized’ elephants and monkeys and other animals,
and equally depicted accessory buildings and forest
sceneries. ITofessor Vogel speaks very highly of tbeir
aesthetic value and art-stic skih when he says that
“they are, of course, not till of equal merit but most of
them are far above the average ana several are real
master-pi ces , although the artists rendered types
rather than individuals. ‘Bearded figures in scanty
 BASIC ARTS 2G1

dress are Brahmans personages wearing rich attire and

;

abundant ornaments are kings, princes, or nobles but may

also be Devas or gods. 'Eo atteinpt is, however, made to
characterise a special personage either by his facial
expression, hair dress, or garments. There is a marked
tendency to evade the rendering of violent scenes except
when su_h subjehs were unavoidable as is the case
with several reliefs on the basement partly nortraying
the punishments in hell. It is to be noted that ‘the
portroyal of human society, animal life and vt gelation
is distinctly Indonesian’.
The life story of the Buddha up to the first sermon
at Benares as given in The famous Sanskrit text Lalita-
vistara is illustrated in the 120 panels in each of the
double rows along the main walls of the
first gallery,
A number of avadana or edifying tales are similarly
illustrated in the lower row -f panels, A large number
of Jataka stories are illustrated on the reliefs along the
balustrades of the first and second passages. The
wonderings of the Bodhisattva Sudhara in search of
supreme wisdom and meeting with noble men, G-ods
and Bodhisattvas includir.g Manjusii, Maitreya and
Saraantabhadra as given in the Gandavyuha, are illus-
trated on the reliefs of the srcond, third and fourth
galleries. Professor Vogel has reproduced two beautiful
specimens of the Buddha legends in his Buddhist Art’.
The one shows the Bodhisattva practising austerities in
the wilderness in the company of the five Brahmanical
anchorites, and the other represents hiui crossistg the
river Xairanjana previous to his enlightenment while
divine beings are paying him homage.
Exquisite sculptures are found als in the two
other Buddhist temples, Chandi Mendut and Chandi
Pawon. The walls of the former show ‘graceful figures
of Bodhisattvas and goddesses and a number of animal
fables probably from Jatakas, and on the vestibule there
are two graceful panels representing the god of wealth
and the goddess of fertility Among the sculptures of
the other temple there are the Kalpavriksha or the
_

Divine tree and the treasure vase probably showing the

dedicalirni of the temple of Kubera, the god of veahh.
A group of monuments uf the Hindu period is found
near the village of Prambanan including lofty temples
dedicated to the Brahmanical gods, Brahma, Vishnu,
and Siva. In the eastern Java there are many temples
222 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

dedicated to Brahmanical deit'es. In several instances

the temple cf this later phase of the Javanese art is at
the same time a sepulchral monument preserving the
ashes of some Javanese king or queen. The image of
the God or goddess enshrined in the temple was at the
same time the statue of the king or queen whose remains
had been buried beneath the icon. The Indian impress
is indicated by the INagari letters of the name on
the statue.
Professor Vogel and all other experts appreciate
the remarkable aesthedc value of the Barabudur sculp-
tures in particular. “From an arcistic poirt of view
tbe Barabudur is invaluable on a'?count of its sculptures
whicb are unsurpatse in the east for their profusion
i

and beauty. No where do we find a sculptural illustra-

tion of Buidhist lore ani doctrine so marvellous in its
extent and detail A^so they are distinguished by a
definite style in which mental repose is expressed in
forms of singular gracefulness.”
‘To know In iian art in Iniia abne,’ says John
Marshall/ ‘
is to know but half its story. To
apprehend to the full, we must follow it in the
wake of Buddhism to 'entral Asia China and Japan;
we must watch it assuming new forms and breaking
into new beauties as it spreads over Tibet and
Burma and Siam; we must gaze in awe at the unexampl-
ed grandeur of its creations in Cambodia and Java. In
each of these countries, Indian art enccunters a different
racial genius, a different local environment, and under
their modifying influence it take on a different garb.’
It is an'
Xtraordinary incident to note that so far
as the great art of sculpture and painting is concerned
‘the form of expression was not artistically perfected
until about the 7th or Sth century when a marked dete-
rioration in literature and other matters commenced’.
According to Havell and others the great creative period
of Indian art corresponding to the highest development
of Gothic art in Europe was the period between 7th and
14th centuries. From the ]6th century the creative
impulse of the old Indian art began markedly to dimi-
nish. He further holds in his ‘The Ideals of Indian Art’
that Indian art in Java has a character of its own which

1 As quoted in U, N, Ghosal’s Progress of Greater Indian

Research 1917.42 and referred to by Jawaharlal Nehru m his
Discovery of India, p- 24').
 BASIC ARTS 2-23

distinguishes it from the Indian art whence it came.

‘There runs through both the same strain of deep serenity
but in the divine ideal of Java we lose the austere feel-
ing which characterises the Hindu sculpture of Ele-
phanta and Mamallapuram. There is more of human
contentment and joy in Indo- -Javanese art, an expres-
sion of that peaceful sacurity which the Indian colo-
nists enjoyed in their happy islaul home, after the
centuries of storm and struggle which their forefathers
had experienced on the majinland. The broken image
of the dancing Na;araja Siva in the Eleplianta caves
shows a majestic conception and embodiment of titanic
power. Though the rook itself se-ms to vibrate with
the rhythmic movement of the dance, the noble head
bears the same look of serene calm and dispassion which
illuminate the face of the Budcha.”
The great creative perio.; o: the Indian art during
the period between the 7th and Idth conturi.s had its
foundation laid during the (J-upta period from oOO to
GOO A. D. It wa=, therefore, possible in the Tth and
&th centuries to cut the mighty caves of Ellora out of
solid rock, with the stupendcus KaiLla temple in the
centre and carve on the walls and ceilings of the temples
and along the walls of the corridors in storeys the
wonderful BrahmaniccT gods and goddesses and the
reliefs containing illustration of stories and legends
from the Puranas, the hima/a.ia and the Mahabha-
rata. ‘It is difficult t .imagine,’ says wonderstruck
Nehru in his Dicovery of India, ‘how human beings
conceived this, or having conceived it gave body and
shape to their conception,^.
Buddhist sculptures of Bharaut of second century
B. C. included several Brahmanical deities like
Indra, Brahma, La.mhmi, etc. The Sanchi sculptures
included the figure of Gaja Lakshmr. The figure of the
fire god Agni ".ppeared on the Mitra coins of the Is;;
century B. 0. The images of sun god and Siva were
carved on the Kushan coins of Kadphises II and Kani-hka
whose I'tigns preceded the beginning of the Gupta
period from 320 A. 1). Thus the Ciupfca period saw the
revival of the Brahmanical sculptures. Probably as a
reaction against Buddhism the Gupta artists at the
beginning fell upon the popular belief of the pre-vedic

1 Havell, Ideal oi Indian Art ;1920), p. 169.

2 Nehru, Discovery of India, p. 24-3, 237,
224 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

aiid introduced deities with many heads and

anns as Joscrihe in the laier hymns of ihe Idigvoda.
1

To this belief may aho be describe.! the appearance of

Vahana or animal vehicle? for Brahma, Vishun, Siva,
and their consorts, and for other gods and goddesses.
Thus we find the rivers Ganga and Yamuna depicted with
their respective vehicles, crocodile and tortoise. In the
later Gupta period the deities of the Puranic mythology
together svith the ten incarnations of Vishnu appeared.
At Udayagiri caves some six miles ncrch of the Sanchi
Stuca, tlie scene of the great Boar saving the ea'^th
from destructive flood is depicted with great vigour and
much anistic shill. The other incarnations including
the Buddha are als'- ilhistrated. I'ha G.valior museum
contains remains of Navagraha or Nine planets of the
Pauranic tradition. Else-vhere the great seven sages
and host of mythological scenes are skilfully carved.
Now the vedic triad Agni, indra and Surya were
replaced by the Pauranic triad Brahma, Vishnu and
Siva [n sculptures these and other deities were associa-
ted not only V. ich their animals but also with their
Saktis or consoits Thus Brahma is accompanied by
Sarasvati, the goddess of learning as his consort and
Hariisa or goose as his vahana or vehicle. Similarly
Vishnu is represented wnth Sri cr Lak?hnii the
god= ess of prosperity at_ his right ana earth goddess
Mahi or Prithvi at his left. Vishnu’s vahana or vehicle
is Garuda who is represented as a powerful human
figure With two wings oi a bird and having an aquiline
nose and rcun.! eyes and placed beneath the lotus
throne o: Vishnu kneeling ory the right knee and ^ with
foiled finds in adoration. Siva has some eight Saktis
OS his oLsort.s including Urua, Gauri, and Parvati.
But in sciilpTures he is mostly represented as lying
under the feet of idle ten-armed fighting Duiga or the
fonr-armed Kali adorned with a garland of human heads.
Lie is a:so carved as a great Yogi or ascetic wraft in
meditation, with matted hair, crescent moon, tiger-skin
as drapery, skull and a snake, and trident as llie attribute
in the north, and an axe-drum and antelope in the south
His vehicle Nandi Bull is represented generally in a
recumbent piosture, but also standing erect separately
as in his marriage scene on the inner wall of a rock
cut temple at Ajanta. The^ famous Tanjore Bull is placed
recumbent facing the Siva temple The Bangalore
 BASIC ARTS 225

Bull is worshipped, in a separate temple of its own.

At the entrance of Siva temples Nandi Bull as well as
the three leggled Bhringi are placed as guards.
Ganesa and Kiirtikeya are represented as the two
sons of Siva and Parvati. The former is also known as
Ganapati and Viaayaka and sculpturally represented
with the head of an elephant and a large belly as the
god of wisdom seated on his vehicle Mushike or rat
and without any female consort. Kartikeya is variously
known as Kumara and Skanda in the north, and
Subrahmapya in the south. He is the goi of war and
is decorated with weapons. He rides on his vehicle
Mayura or peacock. So oetimes he is represented with
two consorts, Valli and Devasena. xA.s a warrior he is,
however, known as, a confirmed bachelor. Virabhadra
created from the Siva’s hair also served as a warrior
as he slew Daksha as reprisal for insulting Siva’s
consort Sati at the great sacrifice.
Sculptural representations of several other deities
are noticed all over the continent of Indja. Nagas in
the form of Sesha, Vasuki, Takshaka, Sankhadhara,
Kulika, etc., are represented in many places. The demi
gods ^akshas, Vidyadharas, Gandharvas, Kinnars,
Apsaras are illustrated at Mamallapurani and other
places. The Dikpalas or quarter lords are represented with
their vehicles, Indra with elephant, Agni with ram,
Yama with buffalo, Nairitya with man, Varuna with
shark or crocodile, Vsyu with deer, Kubera with
horse, and Tsina with bull. The Dvarapalas or door-
keepers comprising Chanda and Prachanda, Jaya
and Vijaya, Haraprabha and Subhadra are placed in
pair at the entrance of the Brahmanical shrines. Sculp-
tural representation of the Navagrahas or nine planets,
like those of the ten incarnations, comprise the Sun,
Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn, as Surya,
Chandra, Mangala, Budha, Brihaspati, Sukra and Sani
respectively and Eahu and Eeiu. Pingala, the attendant
of Surya is represented on his right as a bearded, pot
bellied man with a pen and inkstand in his hands. The
divine physicians, Asvini-Kumaras, the god of death
Yama, the father of man Maim are represented as the
three sons of Surya.
The largest group of medieval temples in northern
India numbering some 600 in Bhuwaneswara and Puri
districts in Orissa are remarkable for profusion of
29
226 INDIAN CULIURE AND CIVILIZATION

sculptures, some figures of which are grossly obscene

but the ornamentation as distinguished from the sculp-
tures properly so called, exhibits the usual variety and
delicacy. Similarly the Khaj ‘:’’aho group of temples in
Bundelkhand built between yOu-1200 bj' the Chandel
kings present numerous bad sculptures some of which
are grossly obscene.

Near the seven pagodas at Alamallapuram 35 miles

south of Madras there is a beautiful group cf sculptures
in the form of a tableau representing the goddess Durga
in conflict with the buffalo demon, This is praised as
the most animated piece of Hindu sculpture by Babing-
ton and as of spirited character by Fergusson. There
is a huge bas-relief, 90 ft. long and 30 ft high, represent-
ing the four armed Durga together with numerous other
figures and a whole menagerie of animals. There are
also colossal images of a Naga Raja and his queen.
These sculptures are ascribed to the 6th or 7th century.
The Halebid temple erected by Hoyasala king
Vishnu Varddhana in the Tith century is remarkable
for the rich friezes of elephhants, lions, crowded with
thousands of figures. Some 7 miles to the south is the
Belur temple of which the outer walls and the spire are
decorated with numerous Brahmanical deities. The
Cli&lukyan temples of Beilary district in Madras ascribed
to the 12th century are remarkable for the carving
which are characterized by ‘marvellous intricacy and
artistic finish in even the minutest details’ and remark-
able for its exuberance of varied forms, boldly designed
and finely executed but the figure sculpture is feeble’.
The marble temples at Mount Abu in Rajputana dating
from 1032 to 1231 carry to its highest perfection
the Indian genius for the invention of graceful
patterns. The 30 ft. high Jain tower at Chitor in
Rajputana and other towers of 1442-1449 are
covered with sculptures of highly artistic value. The
Jain tower in nine storeys are aecorated with statues
and ornaments inside and out, and every Hindu deity
with the name inscribed below is represented thereon.
‘These sculptures’, says Vincent Smith, ‘constitute an
illustrated dictionary of Hindu Mythology’.
The Siva temple at Madura eating from the 17th
centuryis remarkable for its hall of a thousand columns
which is decorated with sculptures of marvellous
 BASIC ARTS 227

elaboration. The walls of some of the buildings are

adorned with mythological frescoes. The two magni-
ficent temples at Tricbinapoly are celebrated for the
colossal rampart, the horses standing about 12 ft. high
placed on pedestal in front of the pil'ars of the Seshagiri
Eao Mantapam are striking for their general design, and
look spirited with the attendant grooms and are superior
to that of most of the Indian sculpture. The temple at
Tanjore is celebrated for its colossal rec! mbent bull
which is a master piece of sculpture. Go is. goidesses
and other sculptures at the temple at Chidambaram and
Ramesvaram are remarkable for their aesthetic value.
V7ith the great revival of Brahmanieal Hinduism
in the 4th century the Buddhist worship was not violent-
ly extirpated during the Imperial Guptas but slowly
decayed. The Buddha images of the Gupta period had a
distinct style. The rules of the Siipa-sastras were
appliedto the Buddhist sculptures also. Thus the Buddha
'
image had the same proportion as the Brahmanieal gods
of the first ranking, the image beirg ten times its head
in length in accordance with the ten tala system. Buddha
images were carved in greater variety of Mudras and
were furnished with decorated Prabhamandala or nimbus
but there was no Urna or raised mark on the forehead
between the eye-bre ws. The head was shaven and
had also curly hair, the drapery beirg over one or both
shoulders. The 'back of the image was sometimes
decorated with four principal scenes of Buddha’s life.
The Jataka stories, however, were seldom illustrated.
Despite the patronage of king Haisha with the assistance
of Hieun-Tsiang towards Buddhism in the seventh
century Buddhist sculptures lost their popularly.
Buddhism continued to flourish under the sympathetic
Pala kings of Magadhabetween the llth and 12th centuries
until the Muslim conquest and traces of it are found
in many other parts of the country up to a late time,
but Buddhist sculptures could no longer be revived. The
medieval Buddhist statuary of Bihar became almost
identical with that of Hindu sculptures and the two
classes of objects are frequently confounded.
The mere mtila and trading classes who formed
the great stronghold of Buddhism seem to have turned
to the allied Jain system, especially in central and
southern India. Bundelkhand is full of Jain images
of the llth and 12th centuries, whereas Buddhist
228 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

remains of that period are rare. The colossal monolithic

nude Jain statues of the south are among the wonders of
the world. The Jina image at Sravana Belgola in
Mysore is 57 ft. in height cut from a single block of gneiss.
Similar images were erected in about 1432 at
Yenur and Karkala in south Kanara. On the Parasnath
Hill in Bihar the Tirthankaras are^beautifully illustrated.
According to the rules of the Silpasastras the Jina
images were marked by long hanging arms, Srivatsa
symbol on the chest, and nudity. They were attended
by Yaksha couple and (Tandharva figures and had the
marks of Svastika, mirror, book, flower, garland and two
small fish. They had their own cha wry-bearer and
symbolic tree and Lanchana or some sort of animal
vehicle like those of the Brahma meal deities.
These medieval figures belonging to the pantheon
of the Buddhist, the Jain, and the Brahmanical
mythologies exhibit a common ideal as they were
executed in accordance with the common rules of the •

Silpasastra. In all schools of sculpture this common ideal

aimed at a spiritual expression rather than to exhibit
an anatonomical expression and physical strength.
But the human and animal figures of the male and female
are realistic and mostly point to the locality wherefrom
they originated. Thus the sculptors dressed their figures
in the costumes which were in vogue at the places, where
they carved them. The ornamentatiem was, hov.^ever,
heavier in medieval figures than in the earlier ones.
Excluding nose rings which are not seen at all, other
ornaments include head gears, ear-rings, necklaces,
armlets, bracelets, finger-rings, waist bands, and anklets
both for female an male figures. The female figures were
i

also provided with Stanasutra cr jacket and bands to

cover the be sc ms, and various net ornaments for the feet.
The contemporary manners and customs are illustrated
in groups of sculptures representing marriage assem-
blies, political and social gatherings, funeral processions,
feasts and festivals. Even the age of marriage is
indicated by the immature bust and figure of the bride
and bridegroom. The scene of Siva’s mrriage carved
on the inner wall of a cave in Ajanta shows Paivati as
an immature girl. The domestic life is further
illustrated by articles like pitchers, baskets, fans
umbrellas, lamp sta! ds, caskets, bedsteads, seats,
eteV.
which have been described elsewhere in detail.
 BASTG ARTS 229

For the study of social conditions sculptures are

thus the most reliable evidence.

An orderly development of the Indian sculptures

appears to have been^ due to guidance afforded by the
compilation of the Silpa-s'astras. The standari Silpa-
sastra is known as the Manasara, literally meaning the
essence of measurement, which is a chief factor especi-
ally in sculpture. Manasara has given elaborate details
regarding architectural and sculptural measures. So far
as sculpture is concernel two sets of measurement are
suggested. One set includes six kinds of linear measure-
ment, liz mana or the height of an image from the foot
,

to the top of the head, pramana or breadth, parimana

or the measure of circumference or width, lambamana
or the measurement by the plumb-lines drawn perpendi-
cularly through different parts of the body, unmina or
the measurement of thickness or diameter and upamana
or the measurement of interspace as between two ears, two
eyes, two arms, two feet, etc. The second set known as
Adimsna or primary measurement of images comprises
six comparative measures and three absolute measures.
In the former case the height of an idol is determined in
proportion to the breadth of the main temple, height of
the adytum, length of the dcor, the height of the pedes-
tal, the height of the vehicle on which the idol is placed,
and the worshipper.to whose full height or up to the hair-
limit on the forehead or eye-line an idol may reach or it
may extend to the worshipper’s nose-tip, chin, breast,
heart, navel or sex-organ. The height f the vehicle or
c

riding animal bears the same proportions with the idol.

The absolute measure may be made in cubit, angula and
tala. The cubit of 24 angula or finger breadth of about
8/4 inch, the cubit of 25, 26 and 27 afigulas being used in
measuring larger objects like a building or a tower. The
afigula measure is either manaUgula or equal to 8 barley-
corns matraiigula is the breadth of the middle finger of
;

the W’orshipper or in age-maker, and dehalabdhangula

is the measure equal to one of the equahparts into which
the whole statue is divided for sculptural measurement.
Talamana elaborates the bcdily measurement by this
;

the face of the image itself is taken as the unit, and

the height of the image is given certain cemplete
multiples of this unit. The twelve tala measure in
which the height of the image is twelve-times its own
face is prescribed for fiends, eleven tala for supernatural
 t

230 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

beings, ten tala for Brahmeiinical gods, Buddha images

and Jina images, nine tala for goddesses and certain
sages, eight tala for men, seven tala for women and
demi-gods like Yakshas, etc., six tala for tigers, liens,
etc five tala for certain mythical beings, four tala for
,

goblins, etc., three tala for Kinnaras, two tala for birds,
fish, etc., arid one tala for certain lower beings like
rats, etc.
A Roman Architect Vitruvius of B. C. 25 commen-
ting on these body proportions says “In truth they are
as necessary to the beauty of a building as to that of a
well-formed human figure, which nature has so fashioned
that the face from the chin to the top of the forehead
or to the roots of the hair is a tenth part of the height
of the whole body. From the chin to the crown of the
head is an eighth part of the whole height, and from
the nape of the neck to the crown of the head the same.
From the upper part of the breast to the roots of the hair
a sixth, to the crown of the head a fourth. A third pap
of the height of the face is equal to that from the
chin to the under-side of the nostrils a nd thence to the
middle of the eye brows the same from the last to the
;

roots of the hair, where the forehead ends, the remain-

ing third part. The length of the foot is the sixth part
of the height of the body, the fore arm a fo ;rth part,
the width of the breast a fourth part. Similarly have
the other members their due proportions by attention to
which the ancient painters and sculptors cbtainedso much
reputation.” The Manasara has eleboraled 154 propor-
tions in the ten tala system. Vitruvius his further
referred to circular and square measures of a well-
proportioned human figure. ‘The navel is nat rally ;

placed in the centre of the human body and if in a

man lying with his face upward, and his hands and
feet extended from his navel as the centre a circle be
described, it will touch his figger and toes. It is not
alone by a circle that the human body is thus circums-
cribed, as may bp seen by placing it within a square.
For measuring from the feet to the crown of the head,
and then across the arms fully extended, we find the
latter measure equal to the former, so that the lines
are at right angles to each other, enclosing the figure
will form a square’.
‘So the ancients have with great propriety deter-
mined that works each part should be
in all perfect
 BASIC ARTS 231

some aliquot part of the whole’. This direction appears

to have been followed in all master pieces of Indian
sculptures.' ‘Like every other canon of artistic propor-
tion’, says Vincent Smith, ‘these methods are no more
capable of producing works of art in unskilled hands
than are any other aids or method. These sastrasare
the common property of Hindu artisans, whether of
northern or southern India’. Mr. Hadaway, a modern
practising artist of great repute, recongnizes the great'
importance of the rules of proportion followed by the
Indian artists when he says that ‘the Hindu image-
maker or sculptor has a most elaborate and beautiful
system of proportions, which he uses constantly, combin-
ing these with those observation and study of natural
detail. It is in fact a series of anatomical rules and
formulae, of infinitely more practical use than any
European system which I know of, for the Indian one
treats of the actual proportion and cf the surface form
rather than the more scientific attachment of muscles
and the articulations of bones’.
Manassra has prescribed nine materials '.for making
images which consist of gold, silver, copper, stone, stucco,
terracotta, gravel or grit, wood and glass (abhasa) which
may be transparent, half transparent or partially trans-
parent. The process of casting of the metallic images are
fully described. ‘If an image is to be made of metal, it
must first be made of wax, and then coated with earth.
Gold and other metals are purified and cast into the mould
and a complete image is thus obtained by capable work-
men.’ To this direction of the Vishnu samhita Mana-
sara adds that if any of the minor limbs be lost through
this process the image should be furnished with it again
after having been heated, but if the head or the middle of
the body be damaged the whole image should be changed.’
These authorities show that the art of casting metal
images in wax moulds had been known in India from
very early times and Mr, Eao emphasises the point in
his ‘Elements of Hindu Iconography’ when he says that
‘in regard to bronze image it is believed by some that
India could not have known the cire perdue method of
making metal images earlier than about lOth century
A. D. and that India must have therefore borrowed it
from Europe but that this art was known in India much
earlier can be shown in more ways than one’.
The images are stated to be carved as stationary
232 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZaTIuN

or movable, in erect, seated, or recumbent posture, and

in t^’O equipoise, tbree-ilexionei, or excessive poise.
Then follows a masterly classification of all varieties
of images belonging to Brahmanical, Buddhistic and
Jain pantheon. Of the Brahmanical images Brahma,
Vishnu, Siva together wit}i their respective consorts
and animal vehicles are elaborately illustrated with
minute details of pr'^portionate measures, postures and
poses, ani ornamentixtiqn for the various limbs. Sym-
bollic representat’on of Siva and his consort in the form
of Linga or phallus and Yoni or pedestal is referred to
with a very large variety pravmlent in different parts of
the country. Goddesses as Gidependent images are classi-
fied as SarasvatT Savitri, Labshni!, Mahi, Manonmani
(love goddess), Burgs, and seven Mothers, who are treat-
ed as dependent and comprise Brahmini- Rudi’ani as
consorts of Brabina and Siva respectively, Vaishnavi
and Varali! as consorts of Vishnu.
The Jain deities include the twenty four Tirthan-
karas carved in purely human shape hut completely
nude having no robe or ornament excepting a Srivatsa
symbol marked in gold on the chest. They have no
consorts but they are attended by Nmada, and other
sages and Yakshas, Vidytd.iaras, Siddhas, Nagendras,
Lokapdas, etc and have besides the animal vehicles
,

and particular trees or plants as their symbols.

The images of Buddha are associated with ficus
religicsa representieg the Bodhi tree and furnished with
ushnisha or protuberaiece for the rest the appear nee of
;

the Buddha is purely human. Boddhi-sattvas which

became rare from the 4th century, about when the
Manasara was ]KibUshed, are not mentioned at all.
The usual human images are described under the
sages Goraprisiug Agastya, K -wapa, Bhrigu, Vasishtha,
Bhargava, Visvamitra, and Bhf.raivsja. They are,
however, robed in sagely garments and attriimtes but
bear the completely human proportion of seven, eight
and nine tnla. The devotees or w’orshippers of the
Salokya, Ssmipya, Sariipya, and Siyujoa groups are also
described fully. ^

1 Sjilokyas want to reside in the saine world where the supre-

me god is, Samipya- want to be beside the god, Sn’uDyas want to have
the same features as the god, and Sayujyas want to lose their
identity and become united with the god.
 BASIC ARTS 233

By way of describing the vehicles of chief deities

a sculptural description is given of the Goose, the
full
Garuda bird, the Bull and the Lion together with icono-
graphic details.

The thrones and crowns prescribed for the images

of gods and goddesses,, an^i kings of nine ranks and of
their queens are fully described. Thrones for the divine
occupants include the well known Padmasana, Padma-
kesara, Padrna-bhadra, Padmabandha, P:da-banlha,
Sribandha, Sribhadra, Srivistla, Srimukha, Bhad-
risana and Siiuh=>sana. These indicate different designs
and the number of gems inset in them. Similarly the
royal thrones are described under four categories compris-
ing Prathama or primary, Vira or heroic, Mangala
or auspicious, and Vijaya or victorious. The various
head-dresses suggested for the gods, goddesses, kings
and queens include jata, mauli, kirita, karanda, Mras-
ti’aca, kuntala, kesa-bandha, dhammilla, a ’aka, chuda, and
patta which has three varieties, liz. patra or leaf, pushpa
or flowqr, and ratna or jewel pattern.^ Most of
these can be verified from the existing sculptures and
paintings.

The bodily ornaments referred to elsewhere also

include, in addition to the crown, chudamani or cre^t
jewel, shrovibhushana or any head ornament, kupdala
or ear-ring, tatanka or ear band, makara-bhushana or
ear-pendent, kankana or bracelet, keyura and kataka for
upper armlet, valaya for arm-root and fore arm, niani-
bandhana-kalapa or nel; ornamen; for the back of- the
palm, kinkini or little bells for anklet and bracelet,
finger rings, strings of pearls, garlands and necklaces of
various kinds, chord or chain round the female bosoms,
chain round the chest, girdle round the waist, chain
round the loins, belt, bodice or cuirass, anklet, bracelet,
and the net ornament worn on the feet. All these may
be verified from the El ora sculptures and Ajanta
paintings.

Sculptures like architectural objects were a

1 For illustrations see the writer’s Encyclopedia of Hindu

architecturewhere patterns are reconstructed after the description
of Manasara which may be seen on images in the South Indian
temples referred to above.

30
234 IKDIAN UCLTURE AND CIVlLZATiON

fascinatingsubjecttotheInliarimind.lt has been thus

thoroug'aiy analysed in t8..hnicai and general literature
and extensive^’ illustrated from the beginning of idol
worship Both sculpture and architecture are manly arts
and boldly executed in gigantic forms and made such a
remarkably unique progress in India.

PAINTING

In comparison with sculpture painting is a finer

but weaker art. The fornmr is mor*^ manly while the
latter is more womanly. Painting bruAt is more suited
to the delicate hand of a woman. More strength and
skill are required to handle a ci.isel in order to carve a
piece of stone into an accurate and aitistic image. It
appears that sculpture as an art was more popular and
dignified- .The result has been the numerous objects of
which a brief survey has been given above. But as a
fine art ancient literature has frequently mentioned
painting and there are a few texts dealing with the
subject although their number is much less than those
dealing with sculpture and architecture-

Like the golden image of Sda the Eamayapa of

about B. C. 1000-600 refers to painted hails. The -Jataka
stories of about B. C- 600-.I00 include more detailed
references to painting. Tim Mahabharata starting
from B. C. -500 refers to the Princess Usha’s raai Chitra-
i

lekha, who painted the portraits of ail the contemporary

young princes so that her mistress could recognise
Aniruddha, the grandson of Krishna, whom Usha saw
in dream without being able to recognise her lover.
The Vi nay a Pitaka of about B. 300 refers to the
pleasure house of king Pasanada containing chittagara
or picture halls. The Ceylonese chronicle Mahavamsa
tells us of the mural painting decorating the relic
chamber of the Euwanwmli dagaba of about B. C. 15C.
VatsSyana’s Kamasfitra dated about the 3rd century
A. D. refers to painting not onh’ as a fine art but
also mentions drawing-panels, paints and brushes for
painting. About this time Bliasa in his play,
the Svapna-Vasavadatta, has referre 1 to the life-
like portraits of the king ar.d M-s^avadatta. The
Silpa-fa'aatra like the ChitraTakshana Silpa-ratna and
others devote some chapters dealing with painting.
 BASIC ARTS 235

These texts as well as the Vishnudharmottara which

is an appendix to the Vishmi-purana, can hardly be
dated beyond 500-600 A. D, T‘ e latter text refers to the
charming portrait of the nymrh Urvasi and gives
definite directions regarding t'-^e art of painting. Abcut
the some time is dated the Sakiintain drama of K?lidasa,
in which t'le hero King Dushyant t is stated to have
painted the portrait of the heroine Sakuntala whom
he had deserred in consequence of a curse. In about
the sixth century A. D. Bhavabhuti in his drama
Uttarai’amachai'ita presented Kama and Sita at the
outset of the play as oxamiiung numerous scenes with
ii’e-like reality ol" their banished life in different parts
01 India and 'eyclon of which the paintings had been
newly executed.
It is quite evident from the library evidences
that painting vras not so mush exclusively ecclesiasti-
cal, but mostly secular, and practised by amiateurs.
It vras a social accomplishment at least among princes
ana ladies of the court or noble families as stated by
Vatsiyana in his Ksmasutra which prescribes the
necessary acco.mphshinents in 64 fine arts. Portraiture
from memory-image was the earliest and the most
popular form of painting in ancient India.
The beginning of painting is closely connected
with writing, hekhs or line drawing might have been
the precursor of lekha or writing, w-hich is the symbol
oi thought expressed in alphabet. The origin of writing
in [i;dia was once traced to the Phoenician merchants
vvlio had 'earnt it from the Semtics in the 9th
century B. C. But this theory is now exploded as the
'wriiing in Mohenjadaro Sign mianuals is ascribed
prior to B. 0. 3600. The archaeological remains of
ancient protrailure will corroborate the Mahenjodaro
discoveries.
The hunting scenes, ciudely drawn on the walls of
a group of caves in the Kaimur range, belong to a time
earlier than the Sign manuals o' Mohe jjodaro of about
B (J. .30^0. Similar crude drawings of hunting scenes
graphically p.^rtraye.i .euicting human beings and
animals like stags, elephants and horses on a series of
caves in the hills near Singhanpur east of the Mand river
must also be ascribed to the pre-Mohenjo ’aro period.
Drawings of liunting scenes and wild animals on a
number of caves in the Mirzapur district of U. P. belong
‘236 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

to a remote antiquity. These early drawings have,

however, no claim to the real art of painting. But they
do indicate the beginning of the art which developed
later quite indeper dently of any foreign influence.
Drawing, it should not he ov^erlooked, is the first step
which the painters adopt in portraying a scene, the
other two e’ements oi painting being colouring and
expression.
Eemains of fully developed paiutiiigs have been
discovered cn the walls of the Jogima,ra cave of the
Ramgarh hill in Sirguja state. They are assigned to the
third century B. C. on account of certain .nscripTiors in
Brahmi character of •‘hat century and al~o because they
resemble the sculptures of Sanchi and Bharhut of that
age. The scences portrayed inclu.ie a male figure
sealed under a tree with danc.ng girls and musicians,
a procession of elephants, sundry geometrical pat'orns,
traces of flowers, trees, animals, and nude human figures,
a horse with the chaitya pattern of windows, a chariot
drawm by three horses and surmounted by an unrbrella,
rows of fishes, shrrks, cioccdiles and other aquatic
animals.
The celebrated frescoes of Ajanta caves a: e dated
between the second and the seventh centuries. Traces of
paintings on the walls ceilings and "illars were found in
1‘=’79 on some sixteen cmt of twentynine caves at Ajanta

in tue Hvderabad state, Deccan. But by 1910 many of

these traces vanished and since then only six caves, viz.
nos I, IT. IX, X, XVI and XVII have retained the
wonderful paintings. Of these caves I and X represent the
earliest period from about to 350 A. D. when the later
.Andhra kings were ruling in the south and Kushans in
the north. The second period of these paintings from
350 to .550 A. D. is re'res-nted mostly by caves XVI and
XVIT and partly by ca."p X also The third and most
important scenes, dated between 550 and 650 A. D., are
contained mostly in caves I and TI pu d also in cave
XVII. During the second period the Vakataka kings
were ruling in the so’ith and the Guptas in the north.
The third series may be assigned to the time of the
Chalukyas in the south aud of the later Guptas and king
Harshavardhaua of Kanauj in the north* The Ajanta
paintings do not, how’ever, show* much direct royal
patronage except that the chaitya halls and other Vihara
caves must have been financed by royalty as they could
 BASIeJ ARTS 237

hardly be carved out of rock by the Bnddliist monks

who were obviously the uainters of bhe'e wonderful
caves. The Yakataka ins jription in cave XVI suggests
the patronage of the kings of that dynasty.

In the first period also rhe paiihings pppear in an

advanced state of d-”elonn eiu. Some of them closely
correspond to the Saiichi scaiptures. The style of the
drapery end the rdmbi'S of he Buddha picture on the
*:
-

pillars of cave X
reminds the sculptures of Mathura
and Gandhara school-; Thio Buddhist p:ct[i'es were
palntel primarily for the colficatlcn of the Buddhists
and not as mere adornmeirs. and the subjects are con-
fined with perh.aps one exceptirn totho-e dra'anfrom the
Buddhist mythology or legends Among them representa-
tions of twelve Jatakas have heen identlfidd. Others
deal v/ith the well known traditio’ial i ‘cidents of his life
on earth, am- ng which the n.orure (t the Temptation
incaveXYI may be spccirdly inenticr.cd. The picture
of the zodiac in cave XYII ’s read by seme a-j represent-
ing the Buddhist doctrine of the wheel of life. The
coronation scenes in the same cave is very impressive
because of numerous re-uark-b-ble patterns of ornaments.
Gave nalso exhibits Indraloka scenes and the great
miracle at Sravasti. The narrative style of cave XVII
renders it a.s truly rern.arked by here'' drown in his
Indian tAiinting “literally a pit. tiire g.di'.jiy i'dustrating
some of the .most engimssinry -^pi-oies in the IBe of the
Buddha”. These pictures are lull of acii-a and replete
with vigoitr. The art of pair ting appems here in its
most graphic form.
An impressive luoture of the Buddlia clepicled in
cave 1 appears to liave influeuGed the Bauuha sculptures
of Barabudur stupa dated about b-Id A. D. Pome s; eues
in cave IT al-io influenced coritemporary pai.hing o:
Khoton^ as revealed by Stei-.. ^and Be h od, p ad. the moie
recent paintings of Tibet ‘vchere tho wal-s o: the monas-
teries and temples ar.e largely decorooted 'with fi'esres
illustrating various speots c<f Bo.-luudmt religion. The
:

Tibetan temple baiiiiers too have f eir res^T'mbianee.

Percy 1 town and others have also recognised some

1 Percy Brown in hU p!?,te 4 ot the Ji'd an Painting has

shewn that the work at Dandan Uaiq aro'ml Tvhown “might have
been from the brush of one of the 4jaat.’. painters, the similarity is
so marked”.
•23 S INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

Persian anti Olunese features. ‘In the gifted hands of

the Chinese artist the Ajanta style reached the high
standard achieved by the founders of the pa^intings of the
Tang dyna,sty. The frescos at Sigiriva in Ceylon during
the reign of Kasyapa I (479-497) comprising repre-
sent-ation of some twenty females and those at Bagh in
the Gwalior state, though inferior, seem to have been
influenced by the contemporary paintings of the caves
XUI and XVil at Ajanta. The scene representing the
rausicat cram-u, Hallisaka, may serve as an illustration’.
The Indian influence over such a wide area is ascribed
to the influenca of the Guptas whose diplomatic rela-
tions reached from xus to Ceylon.

It is possible to discov r in the wall frescos and

picturai scrolls of Khotan at an mrly date and in Tibet
at a luter period “the course the Indian painting
pursued during this medieval period. The process of
time, in the case of Tibet, has transformed and conven-
tionalized ijhe art but nevertheless it may be accepted
as direct discendant of the original Indian Buddhist
school of painting.’

.\mong the Ajanta paintings secular scenes are

numerous anc more attractive. A charming scene
in cave I iliusirates the Darbar of the Chalukya king
Pulakesin li .4-liJ-6-)4) where was received ah embassy
from tile Persian monarch, Xhusru Parviz (G2G-6'2S)
with all the royal pomp and show. The peoples of
different countries almost all over the then know^n
world were represented in their various national dress.
These include European, Chiu'^se and typical I’urkish
caps. The association with Per^^ia is suggested by
other scenes_aIso. Another -vistorioal scene is represent-
ed in cave XUII sho ving the landing of Vijaya Sen
in Ceylon It contains many beautiful scenes of beasts
etc. .A battle scene is also represented in the eastern
wall of cave I. In another &ce'K' in cave I a couple of
lovers are beautifully painted. Lu c ive XVII two beauti-
ful pirls are repiaesenfed peeping through cU lattice
window. Cave X represents a procession of men on
foot, and on horseb tek vindously arm.ed in the middle
;

is siifAvn a prince together with eight female attendants.

The toilet scene in cave If shows a fashionable lady
attended by many atteiide .its engaged in dressing the
hair and other decoration.
 —

BABIO ARTS ‘239

The picture of tj^e dying princess in cave XVI is

considered 'o be the best piece of painting now remaining
at Ajaiita. Griffith describes it in picturesque langUrtge
‘The dying woman, wiGr drooping head, half closed epes
-md lai'jguid limbs, reclines on a bed. She is tenderly
supported by a female attendant; while another with
eager gaze is looking into her face and holding the
sick woman’s arm as if in the act of feeling her pulse.
The expression on aer face is one of deep anxiety, as
she seems to realize how soon life will be extinct in
one she loves. Another female behind is in attendance
with a fan, whilst twm men on the left are locking on
with the expression of profound grief depicted in their
face. Below are seated on the floor other relations who
appear to have given up all hope, and to have begun
*

their mournirg, for one svoman has buried her face in

her hands and apparently is weeping bitterly.”*
“For pathos or sentiment and the unmistakable
way of telling its story, this picmre, I consi ’er”, asserts
Griffiths, “cannot be surpassed in the history of art.
The Florentine could have put better drawing, and the
Venetian better colour, but neither could have thrown
greater expression into it”. Commenting upon this
high apppreciation Vincent Smith says that ‘this is
high praise but not without justification’ The aesthetic
merits of the Ajanta paintings have been appraised by
Mr. Fergusson and Mr. Griffiths, both of whom compare
the later pictures at Ajanta dating from the early
seventh century at the latest with the work of Italian
artists in the fourteenth century. Vincent Smith con-
cludes by emphasising the fact that the Ajanta paint-
ings undoubtedly deserve attention on their merits as
works of art, and not merely as curiosities or pictures of
manners.
‘The Ajanta artists treated women like flowers.
Garlands of girls surround the Kajas and the Princes,
embellish the palaces, dominate the street scenes, and
crown the windows of houses. They painted women at
the toilet, in repose, gossiping, sitting and standing.
They reproduced every turn of her head, every curve of
her form, every glance of her eye. Everywhere the
woman is beheld like the full-blown rose in its pride and

1 See plate appended (from Griffith I. A. iii, 27'.

‘240 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVLIZATION

perfume, nowhere hke the trampled lily.’ Thus erery-

where woman was i-hc finest achievement and obviously
the L'icsu admired tneme.
A practising ar:ist, Sri Apurva Frakas, quotes from
Percy Brown ana remarks that 'the trsaument of the line
in Aianta frescos is so accurate and experienced that
by its varying quality and sympathetic utterance it
embodies modeilins', value, reliel, fore shortening an ail
1

other essentia:, elements of painting’. Another practical

painter asserts that ‘the gentral process of Ajanta artists
was to repesent their group figures as light mass
against a darker back ground They were well aware
of she import nee of attracting to the features of their
subjects and they unobtrusively obtained the desired
result by the use of an emphatic black in the hair, thus
framing the face, a plan which adds not a little to the
animated character of somie of the figures’.
Of the other teolinical treatment of the Ajanta
paintings Griffiths says authoritatively th.j.t the ground
work, which appears to Pe compose of cow-dung with
an admixture of pulverized trap, was laid on the
roughish surface of the rock to a thickness varying from
a quarter to half an inch. To increase the binding pro-
perties of this ground rice husks were introduced in some
instances especially in the ceilings. Over this ground
was laid the intonaco of thin, smooth plaster, about the
thickness of an egg shell upon which tVie painting was
executed. This thin coating of plaster overlaid every-
thing, the mouldings, the columns, the ornamental
carving; and the sculptures and enough remains to show
that the whole has been closed The preservation of
the Ajanta paintings is largely due to the adequately
protected surface ot the imperishable rock.
No light was possible within the dark caves. A
wonderful device was made to have by reflection on
mirror or white cloth the sun light which was regu-
lated in order to illuminate the various parts of walls
and ceilings which are not visible even nov/ without
some strong light.
The celebrated historian Taranath has classified
and traced the origin of Indian painting from an early
time. He refers to three early styles. The Deva style is
stated to have been practised in the country of Magadha
including U. P. from the 0th century B. 0, to the
3rd century B. C. The Yaksha style was practised irr
 BASIC ARTS 241

Rajputana from the 3rd century P.C. which he associates

with king As'oka. And the remains O'" Naga fctyle from
the 3rd century A. D. are traced in the Eastern countries
including Bengal, though the traces of the Naga race are
found in India ‘from Kashmir to Madras because the
stupas of Amaravati shows distinct Naga influs^n.e’.
I ercy Brown h=>s located t’tie '^'est^^rn school n Rajputana
because ‘the Drinci"al artist ^Sringadh ira, was born
i,n Mar war in the reign -.f king Sila who was probably
Si aditya G.hila of Udaiphir of the 7th century A. D. The
paintings of this schcol much res^^mbled those of the
Aaksha school The Yaksha style is the Middle country^
school of painting which covers the United Pro'. inces.
It is stated to have been founded by a creat pain er and
scu'ptor, Bimbisara, who was born in Magudba in the
reign of a king, B iddhapaksha, of about the 5th or 6th
century A. D. Taranath rem.arks that the painters of thi ?
school were very numerous and that the style rt sembVs
the early works of Dev as The Easter xi school of the
Nagas is stated to have flourished in Varendra (Bengal)
under the kings, Dhannapala and Devapala, of the ninth
century A. D. Dhiman and his son Bitpala were the
most famous artists of the Eastern school and they both
appear to have been equally profi'^iert in painting,
sculpture and metal work. He makes a brief reference
to painters in the south also and mentions the artists
Jaya, Purajasa and Vijaya’.
The essential'y realistic character of all these three
styles has been correctly inferred by Percy Brown and
others from the statement of Taranath that ‘tiie works
of the Devas, Yakshas, and Nagas for many ye^rs
deceived men by their reality. In former days human
masiers, w'ho were endowed with miracu’ous powe .

produced astonishing works of art. It is expressly stated

in the Vinayagama and otUer works tliat the wall paint-
ings, etc., of these masters were such as to dvCcive by
their likeness to the actual things depicted.
While architecture and sculpture made a remark-
aV.e progress from thx seventh jentury onwards as shown
elsewhere the art of painting detevi* .rated sinc^theri.
This may be ascribed to certain historical incidents.
Percy Brown remarks that ‘from the time that the
last(Buddhist monk) painter at Ajanta tl rew down bis
brush in 650 A. D., until we come into contact with the
art again as it was revived in the reign of the Mogul
3X
242 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

emperor, Akbar, in the latter half of the sixteenth

century, the story of painting remains, to all intents
and purposes, a blank. This dirk age of painting can
hardly be ascribed only to the unsettled political condi-
tions’- In r is ib possible to agree with Mr. Dutt irorn
whom Percy Brown quotes to snow that during the
period trom yOO to 1^00 A. D. there were no great kings
or 'ty nasties, no empire and no notable works of art.
Chalukyas ant Rashtrakutas^ hai their empires and
great works of sculpture and architecture \ve’’e produced
in this period. This dark age of painting migut have
been duo to the lack of popularity for this feminine art
and the vigorous life the people had to live when the
Muslim invasion 'ommeiimd since the btu or bth century.
Every body had to strugt^le for existence of national
culture despite internal feud and disunion much like as
the Indians feel and act after the second world war.
Thus the Bu Maist mmks who produced the wonderful
Ajant V printings in their retired' and secluded life dis-
appeared in order to take part in the naiional movement.
In this fra ne of mind people would by their habit take
to more vigorous arts of sculpture and architecture
which indeed prospered much more iii this period than
in the proceeding or suceeding periods.

The faint effort of this period is reflected in the

paintings preserved in a few' places. The Bagh caves
in t: e (dwalior state bear striking resemblance to the
later frescos of Ajanta and might have been drawn
by the Ajaiita painters as the distance between these
places IS ordy IbO miles. The subjects ot the bagh
paintings are of mixed order; rebgicus and secular.
The preserved frag nents show that the majority
belong to the later group and include scenes like a
stately procession of horsemen and elephant riders
which are of great beauty.
borne traces of Buddhist .faina, and Brahinanical
paintings miy also b^i found at the rook cut temples
at tiillora, Aurangab lU, in the Nizam’s dominions
and
theso-collel randava guuipha at Na&ik, The ceiling
of the n-aiu cave at Elephanta ut ar t ornbay &ti]l
pr-swves traces of the original painting. In
about
U34 A D, Pulakesi I[ of the Lhilukya dynasty
annexed
Elephanta. Thereafter the Gnalukyas and Yadavas
the latter being overthrown by Alauddin
Khilji m 1-294 A. D. Two Pala palm leaves of the 11th
 BASIC AKTS ‘243

century cantain illustrations of mural paintings like those

cf the Tibetan and Nepal banners. Buddhist deities are
painted in the p";lm leaves of Ashta^ahasril-a Prajna-
parimita belongin^i to the Palas and Nepal kings. At
Nepal the palm leaves also bear the scenes of four
episodes of the Vessantara Jat^ika, a banner illustrat-
ing Knpisa and Piniapatra Avadanas and Gajendra
moksha.
Gujerat works include illustrations from the
Jaina texts. Jaina paintirgs of the llth centurv
are also found on the walls and ceilings of temples at
Tirumalai, One of them is a wheel divide! into twelve
compartments each filled by a crowd of worshippers
mostly men. One no.np.u’tment contains twehm robed
nuns. Another is occupied by oxen, elephants, ’eopards
adoring the deities.
Brahmanical paintings of the latter centuries are
found at temples in Kanchi and Trivandrum. At the
former place the Kaimakshi and Vantharaja Perumal
temples are decorated with geomeirical patterns, floral
devices, and a male archer mounted on an elephant. In
the latter place temple walls contain illustrations from
the Epics, like the Rminya .a and the Mahabhirata.
—
During ihe Mogal period 1530 1800 A. D. Akbar
introduced in India the style of painting from Samar-
khand and Herat where it originally floaiished under the
Timurid kings During the reign of Sdah Jeban Mogbal
painting started ceciining and deteriorated under the
unsympathetic rule of Aurangzeb and lingered under the
Nawabs of c;udh until the enl of the Ibth century and
ceased to exist with the advent of t e British rule.
Emperor ARbar ruled at a time 'when India was prepared
ft-T an artistic revival lercy Browm adds correctly
that architecture and industrial aits cf the age lear
witness of his (Akbar’s) judicious encouragement while
the subject of painting rccelvea his special attention.
The famous Persian painters like Farrukh and Kalmak,
Abd-al-Samad the Sheaazi and viir Sayyad All of Tabriz
came to the Moghal court. A few arti&ts from Samar,
khand also came to the court of Jehangir. Vincent'

Smith quotes exiensively from Abdul Fazl's Ain iAkbari

to show that the Indian painters of mucii greater
ability guided th '
d velipment of Moghal painting-in
India— ‘His Majesty from his earlit st youih ha^ shown
a great predilection for the art (of painting). Hence the
244 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

ait floiiTishfs. The works of all painters are weekly-

laid be. ore his Majesty, he then confeis rewar Is accord-
ing to the excellence ot workn anship or increases the
iLOi.thb salaries The niinutei ess in beta 1, the generhl
finish, the boldness of execution, etc., now observed in
piciures are inconii arable ; even inaiinaie oLjects
lock fis ii they had li e. More than a hnndrf-d painters
have be^onie lamous masters of the art whiLt the
nun her ot those who apprt ach perfection or of those
v.ho are niidcling is very large. This is especially true of
Bine us tLeir pictures surpass our cencept on of things,
;

tew ii.ceec in .he whcle world are equal to them.’

The-famous Hindu painters at the court oc Akbar
ii cluoe Basawan, Baswantn, ai d Kesudas who w^orked
Slue by aide witti the foreign ariistsand their adaptatiili-
ty was reci gniscd by Akbar to such an extent that they
were comnnsioued to i lustrate the works of the Persian
poet, Nizami and other literary productions, usually
foreign to their genius. Thus ‘one style sp-'edily
ii fluenced the other, that each community was ready

to profit by the othei’s experience, and under these

mutually responsive condition it is only natural that a
combination of the two modes was the final result’.
The subjects of the Mogbal painting are la’-gely
drawn from incidents connected with the magnificent
court file of the time. Realism is its key-note. The
ouistanding feature is its devotion to the delineation
of likenesses. But in scale the Mcghal picture is small
‘never attaining the dignity and size of the Buddhist
frecos’.
The miniature painting of the Persian origin was
replaced during the rule of Jebargir when the Europeans
were b ginning to reach the Moghal capital by “proirai-
ture and hunting scenes, unusual flo wers, rare animals
faithfully reproduced, portraits of Europeans obviousiy
facsimiles of occidental paintings and pictures illustrat-
ing incidents in connexon with Christianity. Under
Shah Jehan architecture reached its zenith, the robust
character of earlier painting deciintd, artistic handling
became less vigorous and there w^as an increased sense
of richness and luxury in colouring and composi-
tion’. During Aurangzeb the art of painting ‘‘ceased
to receive the all important stimulus of royal
patronage, and accordingly languished.” One or two
families of artists eventually settled at Patna. It
 BASIC ARTS •245

revived slightly at Lucknow under the Nawabs of Oudh

at che ena of the lith century b'at ‘the work was very
inferior’. During the Ibth century what ren ained of the
art became iuflueaoed by European pictures, especially
niiniAtures. several of the hereditory artists quickly
adopted their style to suit the taste of the “John
compaLy” merchants and executed in a semi European
fashtou their miniature portraits in the mannei fd the
west. Percy Brown correctly conduces that '‘originally
in tlie atmosphere of imperial state its existeni e oepen-
ded largely on aristociat.c patronage and when this
was Withdrawn the end came.”

From the 17th century the true incigenous school

of Hindu painting is rejiesented by the Rajput and
Pahari stv e inducing the Kargra valley branch. It
is “essentially Hindu in expresdon,
indigenous in many
respects and a oirect descendant of the clossic frecos of
A junta. A period of political confusion for about 200
years followed the close of the A junta paintings
of which no concrete records of
painting exist. The
Rajputs who are the descendants of a branch of the
Indo-Scythians of the first century A. D., and who
lingered on as ancient kings of Gujeratj rose in the
ninth century anc held sway over the greater part of
Northern India. Traces of their fresco painting are
seen in the medieval India. Traces of this are found
in Bikanir, Jodhpur and Udaipur, the homes of the
Rajput princes where it is a living craft to this day.
These old examples indicate much individuality but
are mainly decorative and include elements betokening
Persian and Chinese association. They may be regarded,
however, as a visible connecting link betw'een the
classic style of the Buddhist, and the later work of the .

Rajputs. “Delhi, Ayra and Laho e, all maintaired

at different times during the 17th century their local
styles of painting much of which was Rajput in its
character. No true examples of Rajput painting earlier
than the reign of the emperor Akbar have been,
however, preserved but only a few historical references
to the art previous to this period are on record.’ VI Imn

the Arab invader Muhamad Kasim was invading Sinrth

at the beginning of the bth century a chronicle relate-,
that a deputation of Hindus came to ask if tiey might,
pant portraits of him and some of his officers. This
points to the existence of painters if not the paintings
 ‘246 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

in the century following the Ajarta paintings. The

reviva’ of Hinduism ccmmencing in the 4th century
with the reign of Samudragupta ‘broubgt with it a new
order of things- changes in faith and practice’. The
myiht logical literature represented by the 18 great
Purina s which stimulated the worship of personal god
and use of idols, the picturesque ritual, temple proces-
sirns. feasts and festivals came into being from the^4th
ce tury A. D. The two great sect^ of Vishnu and Siva
became cr'ystalized and two t\pes of tem le we^'e
lavishly a iornea with the most elaborate sculptures
representing human and suoerhuma it forms. Hosts of
artisans flourished to manufacture many varieties of
ceremonial implements and utensils, innumerable
attributes ami accessories of goes and temple fittings
and furniture. But the trend of this artistic feeling
'
was expressed in architecture, sculoture and numerous
industrial arts rather than in the delicate and feminine
art of painting which is generally practised by easy
going people and in peaceful time through the royal and
ecclesiastical patronage.

Nevertheless the traditions of painting were

maintained although somewhat indistinctly during these
long years of political unsetikmenc. Mogbals brought
about more peace and confilence than the Pathans ;

at least the people became more used to and resigned to

the foreign rule of the Mognals. Thus the indigenous
painting introduced by the Kajputs flourished following
the Mughal painting. When the Moghai court ceased to
patronise since the time of Auranzeb families of painter
fled to Patna and other places as stated above. Certain
families of Hajput painiers took shelter in the retreat of
the Kangra valleys. Nurpur, Basohli, Jammu and
Chamba were the homes of these ainters. Thus ‘the
i

most virile efishort of the Kajput school manifested

itself in a gr^up of small states in the Punjab and Hi na-
layas. Kangra painting reached the highest develop-
ment under the Katoch Kajas, particularly Sansarchand
in the latter part of the Ibth century- This Pahari (Hill)
Painting, although “uistinct in all other characteristics'’
resemb les the mini iture order of the Moghai school of
the same period. This painting was produced under ci e
patronage of the reigning princes at w^hose order the
artists painted portraits of aristocracy in largf^ numbers.
The Baja of Chamba w^as often depicted with his Eani
 BASIC arts 247

and heir apparent. There is aiso a long series of picture

illustrating the mythological and religious scenes of the
Hindus relating in particular the Krishna cuit which
developed at Mathura, Bnndavan, Govardhar, and the
neighbouring places concerning Krishna, Itadha, cowherds,
etc. Portraiture, however, was the special feature of the
Hill Rajput type of painting. “These likenesses are
altnjst invariably executed in profile". Delicacy of line,
brilliancy of colour and minuteness of decorative detail
are considered by Percy Browm ai'd others as the remark
able features of this painting. But Percy brown com-
ments that “it is an art of patient labour and naive
dev( tion and Pahari painting dees not devote preat
inspiration or display any decided expression of thought
or feeling”.

In the 19th century Pahari painting extended to the

Sikh Gou t at Lahore and Amritsar, and numerous
Sikh nobilities were painted in Kangra style. There-
after it declined rapidly till April 4, 19U5 when an earth-
quake struck aid the prosperous town of Kangra was
reduct d to a mound of ruins. The catastrope killed the
art and artists and ‘with it the last phase of the true
indigenous school of painting in India came to end’.

On the break up of the Moghal empire the British

adminis ration was established in the latter half of the
I8tb century Unlike the Muslim the !riiish conquest
has been more scientific and less perceptible and
aggressive. Besides law and order was more firmly
established Anl an easy going land holders class and a
weU paid and highly devoted civil service came into
being. Vesied interests were ingeneously civated and vast
majjrity of the population forgot the existence of an
alien government and the cultural conquest. And foreign
influence in all spheres of life took root. Macau ey’s
open SI ggestions to convert Indians to British mode of
life were resented by some thinkers but in practice they
have been followed.
Thus a number of artists still carried on their
proftssion but their products were largely regenerated.
Tl'.e Muslim painters of Delhi continued to piocuce
representations of the ir embers of the Moj-bal dynaHy
and conventioial likenesses of no great artistic merit.
At the beginning of the 19th century the Lucknow
artists practised a style of painting “manifesting some
24» INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

of the attractive qualities of the old sch.'.ol, but unfor-

tunately much impregnated with bad European influence.
Portraiture was the main theme, and the actual
likenesses were often successfully rendered But the
acce^series indicate an ostentation and a want cf taste
Esecuied with all the technical care of the medieval
maniatures of the last period, they are spoilt by the
vulgarity of their setting and the strained and debased
treatment of the whole conception. Similarly at Patna
painters produced miniature portraits in a semi-European
maun r at the encouragement of the John Company or
European merchants and Anglo-Indians’’.

In the Punjab also, particular!/ at Lahore and

An ritsar, Eajput; painters
produced at the end of the
19tn century work showing a strange mixture of the
East and West. Percy Brown refers to the work of
Kapur Singh who painted a large number of figure
subjects miniature in size.

India artists who probably came from

the North practised at this time a Persian style. The
earlier examples ‘denote Timurid origin, but 1 her the
work evinced a character similar to the Moghal painting
m the Delhi style’. But the works at Aurangabad and
Daulatabad in the 18th century are smaller than the
northern work and lack in breadth, while their subject
matter is generally semi historic +1 being associated
with the various rulers of Dcccin. These painters still
survive at Hyderabad and Nekonda.

.
Southern painters of distinctly northern origin and
^ style formed little lat^r two schools of aujore
'J

and Vlvsore. Tanjore school of artists of the Rajput

style flourished during the reign of bivaji
1838-lbr>5^
and there wfre eigateen families o painters “all doing
excellent painting on ivory and wooo”. T my also
produced la'ge portraits in oils, some actual life
size,
a collection (f which may be seen in the
Tanjore
palace and the old palace at Pudul ottah.
ith the end
of the dyrasty of Sivaji the r. yal patronage
ceased and
the school dispersed. Most o*' the painters
took up art
handicrafts working as go’dsmiths and
makers of sola
pith. A few families still execute bazaar pictures
snbiects of vbich have little
artistic
embe hshed with much gilding and many merit, beirg
paste gems
buu are throughly good in
workmanship’.
 BASIC ARTS 249

The Mysore school of painters, like the Tanjore

sch'iol,executed much portraiture of ivory and reached
the highest development during the rule of Eaja Krishna
Wodeyar whose keenest delight encouraged the painters
to compete one against the other in depicting some
subjects selected by the ruler. On his death in 1868 this
school became extinct. The style of painting introduced
by Kaja Ravi Verma in early nineteenth century a^so
consisted of portrature of the Maharashtra feature.

In the last decade of the 19th century a small

but earnest group of Bargali Painters led by Abanindra
Kath Tagore of the well known and talented
aristocratic family have inaugurated a new school
with the intention to resuscitate Indian painting
and of rescuing it from the degredation into which
it has drifted. Their policy appears to return to the
point where the Indian painting began to lose its
traditional character as it had been doing by assimilation
of European elements. Thus they have been practising
“the old historic painting of the past, the frescos of
Ajanta and other places, the religious banners of Tibet
and the miniatures of the best artists of the Moghal
and the Rajput school. The subjects selected are largely
illustrative of divine philosophy, as this is presented
in the classical literature of the country. Scenes
are taken from the writings of Kalidasa, the Ramayana
and the Mahabhirata, the Gita and Puranas, and inci-
dents of ancient Indian history.” A great authority
like Percy Brown appreciates their endeavour with
high praise. “The work of the artists comprising
this new school is not a slavish imitation of any of
these historic styles, or a composite creation but is based
on the whole on the contemporary productions displaying
an originality which is a definite assurance of each indivi-
dual’s personal aspirations after a pre conceived ideal. If
each picture is regarded separately it is possible to
—
detect traces of several influences Japanese in this
—
example or Persian in that but taken as a whole the
work of this movement manifests a genuine desire to
express the highest mental conceptions of the artist by
traditional methods’’.
He correctly suggests that “the study and practice of
architecture together with the co-related arts of sculpture
and painting appears in order that the movement may
32
•250 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

develop a constructive character suffic'ent to sustain it

in its course”.
Proportion, syinmetry, uniformity and harmony
are the common elements in all objects of art proper as
in the basic arts of architecture, sculpture and painting
which regulate all other arts including even music,
poetry, cookery, gardening, furnishiog of houses and
dressing and ornamenting of the body, etc. In objects
of art as against craft the primary aim is to create
beauty which, however, does not depend upon
individual liking or disliking. One must have
aptitude and education to discern and enjoy beauty.
As in divine creation unifcrmity is not a matter of
convention, (dod has created species of lower beings
and races of men and women in certain form. If any
one of a particular group looks unlike the other
members he wordd lack in beauty. If a man or woman
is dis-similar in proportion from his or her group there
would be disproportion. If one eye is different from the
other the symmetry would bo disturbed and the beauty
spoilt. Harmony supplies a synthesis. Three other
elements of beauty being perfectly correct individually,
may disturb their harmonious combination bke a single
discordant note in music These four elements are
applicable in all objects of arts as shown above from
desription of the basic- arts.

In the divine creations, showing great intelligence

and skill, there is no room for ordinary craftsmanship by
which something is produced that lacks in beauty, dexteri-
ty and art. When a sense of beauty is deliberately shown
in the preparation of food, clothes, houses, etc., in addi-
tion to their utility, they will be objects of arts. Thus in
fine art there must be a definite design and symbolic
expression. In constructing an object of art it should not
be defective in its design or at its birth. If like a crafts-
man’s creation an object lacks in beauty at its origin no
amount of decoration can turn it into an object of beauty.
Lastly its naked or outline beauty must be enhanced
by artistic ornamentation. The mere eTigineering skill
is required to serve the utilitarian purpose only. For
the love marriage the householder’s utility takes the
secondary place. Beasts of the forest require mates for
the pleasure of multiplication. Hon. anc<r^ --educated
people needs mental ai.d intellectual a
greater degree than the physical one. y
 CHAPTER VI
PEAOTICAL SCIENCES
The literature dealingwhith Hindu thoughts evoked
among historiaus more enthusiasm than the scientific
literature. This wrong notion was partly due to some
preconceived prejudice that in this field, like all other
ancient peoples of the word, Hindus also did not make
much progress until Sir Brajendranath Seal’s ‘Positive
sciences of the Ancient Hinaus’ and Sir P. C. Roy’s
‘
Hindu-Chemistry’ induced the modern scholars for the
first time to undertake an ivestigation even in the field
of medicine of which references are found in the earliest
Veda. Similarly the works dealing with practical
sciences like house-building, food-preparation, dress-
making, manufacture of weapons, articles of furniture,
ship-buildiug, etc., received until very lately scanty
attention of scholars and historians. References to arts
and crafts and other practical science are, however, met
with in the eariies' literature of the world, viz. the
Vedas. The aim of civilized life being epitomized in
the dictum, Kiima, Artha, Dharma and Moksha, only a
few texts under each of these four main heads have been
brought out. Thus is available only an incomplete idea
of the various subjects which must have been grouped
under these main heads. Conseqitently the Kamasistra
is interpreted as the science of love, although it should
include, as is indeed indicated in the Vatsyayana’s text,
all the sixty-four or rather 628 arts each of which played
an important part in Hindu life. Similarly the Artha-
sastra should refer not only to politics but also to all
matters concerning the social and economic life of the
rulers and the ruled. In the Dharma-tsstra we find an amal-
gamation of civil and religious laws, although the latter
should have been confined to the field of Theology con-
cerning the spiritual life alone, and the moral law should
have been in the jurisdiction of the speculative thought
as treated in the Darsana-?astra on philosophy. “The
Vedic literature, permeated as it is with religion, affords
quite a false impression of the Vedic Indian as a person
given to reflection and religious practices without regard
to practical life. Nothing of course can be farther from
26G INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

the truth’’. Two other objects must be added to the

Dharrna (religion and moral duty) which are treated in
the Vedio texts. Already the Hiranyakesi Grihtm-sutra
knows of the three or four objects in life, viz Kama
(practical life in general not only sexual lovel, Artha
(political econorayb Dharrna which is divided into two
sections, namely, moral duty and religious practices
leading to Moksha (salvation) and reflection as in
philosophy, “The epic (Mahabharata 1. -2, 381) recognizes
this set, the Vishnu Smriti (lix. 30'i and Manu Smriti
accept it, it is found in Patanjali (11, 2, 84, varttika 9), in
Asvaghosha and the Pafichatantra.”
These sciencs, it shouM be noted, however, are ex-
pressed indiscriminately by three general terms, viz.,
^astra as represented by Kamasastra, Vastii-Sastra, Jyo-
tisha-^sstra, Ganita-sfstra, Artha-^astra, Dharma-sastra
and others Vidya such as Dhanur-vidys, etc., and Veda
;

such as Ayurveda which deals with both medicine and

surgery.

MEDICAL SCIENCE (AYURVEDA,

VAIDYAKA^ASTRA)
The Ayurveda (science of life), also called the
Vaidyakasastra (science of medicine and surgery) and
styled as Tantras and Kalpas forms a part (upanga) of
the Atharvaveda. Vedas show knowledge of Anatomy
and embryology on which the medical art is based.
The Ayurveda deals with eight principal topics, viz.,
major surgery, minor surgery, healing of diseases,
demonology, child diseases, toxicology, elixirs, and
aprodisiacs. The Vinaya Pi taka and other Buddhist
texts also show a wide knowledge of ‘elementary
medicine, surgical instruments, the use of hot baths
and so forth.’ The sage .Itreya is declared to have
been the founder of the science. Compilations made by
later writers are ascribed to this and other sages
including Kasyapa, Harita, Agnives'a, Bheda, and
Bharadvaja. Buddhist tradition talks of Jivaka who
studied under Atreya and was an expert on child
diseases. Chanakya is also credited with writing on
medicine after his graduatim from Taxila University.
The extant texts of early dates are, however, not
numerous. The oldest Sarnhita is ascribed to Charaka
 PEACTICAL SCIENCES 253

who, according to tradition, was the phvsician of

king Kanishka (third centu^y^, whose wife he helped
in a critical case. This text is based upon a number
of Tantras on special topics written by Agniveia, a
pupil of Punarvasu Atreya and fellow student of Bheda.
Charaka's compilation was revised by a Kashmirian
Briddhabala (8th or 9th century") having added the last
two chapters and written 17 out of 30 chapters of book
VI. At an early date it was rendered into Persian and
in 800 it was translated into Arabic. Written in prose
interspersed with verses it is complete in eight sections
(angas). The first, Sutrasthana, deals with remedies,
diets and duties of a doctor. The second, Nidaiiasthana,
is concerned with the eight chief diseases. The third.
Virnsnasthana, deals with general pathology and medical
studies. It also contains regulations for the conduct
of the new student who is to devote all his energies to
the work, never^ to harm patients in any way. The
fourth section, Sarirasthana, deals with anatomy and
embryology The fifth discusses diagnosis and prognosis.
The sixth, Dharmasthana, deals with special theology ;

the seventh, Kalpasthana, and the eight, Siddhisthana,

with general therapy (cure and treatment of diseases).
The equally famous author, Susi’Uta, son of Visva-
mitra as stated in the Mahabharata, and contemporary of
Atreya and Harita as mentioned in the Bower Manus-
cript, was renowned beyond India, in Cambodia in the
east and in Arabia in the west in the ninth century.
Susruta’s Saiiihita was commented by Jaiyyata,
Cayadasa, and Chakrapanidatta supplemented by Dallana
in the 13th century. It was revised on the basis of
Jaiyyata’s commentary by Chandrata.
Susruta’s Samhita also begins with a Sutrasthana
which deals with general questions and incidentally
mentions his teacher Divodasa, an incarnation of
Dhanvantari. physician of the gods. The second part,
Nidanasthana, deals with pathology. The third,
Sarirasthana, covers anatomy and embryology. The
fourth, Chikitsasthana, deals with therapeutics (treat-
ment of diseases). The fifth, Kalpasthana, discusses
toxicology. The remaining three sections are included
in the Uttaratantra, a later addition, which supple-
ments the work.
The Bhela Sariihita contains the same divisions as
the Oharaka Samhita. It is not well preserved. The
254 INDIAH CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

extant portion mainly in verses with a limited

is
amount of prose. The manuscript discovered in 1890
at Kashgar, known as the Bower Manuscript (4th
century) written in popular Sanskrit affected by Prakrit
and dialect of Buddhist Sanskrit, oites Atreya, Kshora-
pam, Jatukarna, Parisara. Bheda, Hgrita. Charaka, and
indirectly Susruta SaiiihitL The portion devoted to
medical science is divided into sixteen sections which
give information regarding powders, decoction, oils,
elixirs, aphrodisiacs and other recipes including a
treatise on child diseases Tn the first of its seven
treatises one tract deals v.fith garh'c flasuna) and its
valuable qualities for prolonging life, a second gives also
a recipe for an elixir to secure a thousand years of life,
and discusses eye-washes and eye-solves with many
other topics. Another text (m) gives fourteen re-
cipes for external and internal application, while great
importance attaches to the navanitaka cream).
The \shtafiga-Samgraha is ascribed to Vriddha
(elder)Vagbhata, son of Sinhagupta and pupil of the
Baddhi-t Avaloldta, The Ashtanga-hridaya-Samhita is
ascribed to the yonger Vagbhata, probably a descendant
of the older The latter work, a century later, was
translated into Tibetan. Both works cite Charaka and
Sulruta including the Uttaratantra.
The Bogavini=chaya of Madhavakara (8th or 9th
century) is an important treatise on pathology. The
Siddhiyoga of Vriddha-madhava or Vrinda follo’ws in
its order of diseases that of the Eogavinischaya, and
provides prescriptions for curing a large number of
ailments from fever to poisoning. On this work is
based the Chikitsi-sarasamgraha (about 1060' of Cha-
krapanidatta, which is an important treatise on
therapeutics. 1224 Milhana wrote at Delhi the
In
Chikitsimita in 3500 verses. To a Kagarjuna are ascribed
a Yogasara and Yogatataka. The Samhits of Saranga-
dhara was commented on by Vapadeva, son of the physi-
cian Ke^ava and protege of Hemadeva (about 300), who
also wrote a Satafioki on powMers, pills, etc. Saranga-
dhara provides for the use of opiiim and quicksilver, and
the use of the pulse in diagnosi-^. The later works,
numerous and expansive, include Tishata’s Chikitsa-
kalika (14th century), Bhava-Misra’s Bhavaprakasa (16th
century) and Lombikaraja’s Vaidyajivana (17th century).
There are also numerous monographs on different kinds
 PRACTICAL SCIENCES 255

of diseases including Surapala’s Vrikshayurveda on

plant diseases.
There are nirnerous works dealing with the diseases
of the domestic animals also. The Hastyaj urveda on
elephant diseases is of uncertain date. The Matangalik
of Narayana recognises Palakapya as the father ef this
science. The A^vakstra dealing with horse-diseases is
ascribed to the sage Salihotra and is known also as
Asvachikitsa, and A?va-va.dyaka, and Awayurveda,
The extant works of uncertain dates include Asvayurveda
of Gana, the Asya-vaidyaka of Jayadatta and
Dimpankara, the Yogamanjari of Vardhamana and the
Asva-chikitsa of Nakula the Salihoxra of Bhoja treats
;

in 138 verses of the care of houses and their diseases.

The extensiveness and iinportance of the medical
science gave rise to medical dictionaries also. The
extant works include the Dhauvantari Nighantu which
is dated after Amarakosa, the Sabdapradipa written for
Bhimapala of Bengal by Sure-^vara in lOTd, the Raja-
nighantu of Yarahari is dated 1250 and the Madana-
vinodanighantu ot Madanap.Ua written in 1374 is “a
comprehensive dictionary of materia medica”.
The works on terms of dietics and cookery “include
the Pathyipathya-nighautu. There are numerous
smaller works which discuss the qualities of things
(dravyaguna) and form preliminary study for medical
students. One of these is known as the Dravy-guna-
darpana which discusses the food value cf several things.
Haritaki (Harrah) for instance is stated to be ‘as benefi-
cial as the mother, but while mother resents at times,
the haritaki once in the stomach (udarastha) never
does any harm.’
In the field of medicine and of surgery the Hindu
achievements equalled if not surpassed the Grecian
attainments, which in certain respects are quite modern.
“Greece, of course, borrow'ed from India the use of
several medicinal plants” clearly showing Indian
influence on Greek medicine. The origin of disease
is traced to the derangement of three humours, riz. wind
(vayu), bile (pitta-, and phlegm (kapha) not only in all
medical sciences but also in the Atharvaveda, and the
KauHkasutra and is indicated by the Samkhya system of
three gunas (sattva, rajas, and tamas). The influence of
seasons on health was also recognized. The three
 ;

2S6 INDIAN CULTURii: AND CIVILIZATION

stages fever and other disorders, the division of

of
means hot asd cold, or dry and oily
of healing into
the healing r f diseases by remedies of opposing charac-
ter the rules of etiquette and
;
professional conduct
exacted from doctors anticipated the modern develop,
ment and imply a high standard of technical and
moral achievement. Quotidian, testian and quastan
fevers are distinguished and consumption is prominently
dealt with. The knowledge in regard to embryology is
quite modern. “The doctrine of the simultaneous
development of the members is held, the connexion of
the male sex with the right side is noted, and a like
cause is given for the production of twins the viability
;

or capability of living of an eight- month foetus is asser-

ted that of a seventh month is denied.’’
; The method
of removal of a dead foetus is explained.

The achievement in surgery also was not a mean

one. Both Char aka and SusTuta give evidence of the
knowledge of anatomy while menticning the number of
small bones and single bone. Dissection of human body
is probably indicated thereby. Susruta has two chapters
on surgical instruments and one on mode of operation.
There was operation for stone. Haemorrhoids were
properly dealt with. Blood-letting by use of leeches
was practised. The use of the left hand to deal with the
right eye in ophthalmology was known.

The high standard demanded from a doctor in the

Susruta-Samhiti is a clear evidence of Indian Culture in
the field of medical treatment which concerned every
members of the society. The admission of the medical
student is based on the formal initiation of a youth as a
member of the twice-born. “He is to keep purity of
body and life. He is to treat, as if they were his kith
and kin, holy men, friends, neighbours, the widow and
the orphan, the poor and travellers”. But it appears that
bad people like hunters, bird-catchers, sinners and out-
castes did not receive the same treatment. But Charaka
emphasises that a medical student should “help patients
even if his own life is at stake. He is never to entertain
evil thoughts regarding the wife and goods of his
patients he is to devote himself in word, thought and
;

deed to the healing of his charge, not to report outside

the affairs of the house, and to be careful to say nothing
to a patient likely to retard recovery”.
 PRACTICAL SCIENCES 267

CHEMISTEY (EASaYANA)
The texts like L>ravya-guna-daTpara (mirror of the
property of organic and inorganic things) refers to the
knowlege and practice of the sience of chemistry which
developed, as in other countries, mostly in connexion
wath the medical treatment although there are topics
which are non-medical in substance.
The Eassyana-sistra, literally the science dealing
with the preparation of and effects of quicksilver (rasa)
is a symbolic work on the preparation of drugs in gene-
ral. The extant works, however, deals with elixirs to
give perpetual youth, life for a thousand years, invisibili-
ty, invulnerability and other good things. The Rasarat-
nakara of Nagtrjuira is assigned to the 7th or 8th century,
the Rasaraava to about 1200 which refers to the Rasa-
hridaya and the Rasesvara-siddhanta, the Rasaratna-
saihgraha of Vagbbatta or Asvinikumara or Nityauatha to
1300. There are Rasaratnakara of Yity^anstha and a
Easendra Ohintamani of Eamachandra, and a commen-
tary on Rasadhyaya by Merutunga,
George Arthur in his ‘Natural organic colouring
matters’ has mentioned that the Indian knew how to
make lasting colouring of thread in blue and in red.
Gold and steel are mentioned in the Vedas. The Chhan-
dogya Upanishad refers to gold, silver, iron, tin and
lead. In addition to these Kautilya mentions in hi-
Arthasastra mercury (parada). The Easarnava explains
the modern methods of making metallic things. The
manufacture of fine steel is shown by the use of the
finest surgical instruments. Bagbhatta and Ghakrapani-
datta have specified the method of making caustic alkali
(ugra kshara). In his Rasaratnakara Nagarjuna is
credited with the discovery^ of the distillation (patana)
and calcination (jarana). In the Rasaratnakara (12th
century) processes are explained for making mercury
(psrada), copper pyrites (makshika), copper (tamra),
and calamine (rasakal, etc. A little later text, Ratna-
samuchchaya, supplies further knowledge of the chemi-
cal science in ancient India G The famous historian

1 There are uuiuerous later test;; aa chem.stry dealing? with

the various brances, t’a. Rasaratna Samachchaya, Ra&endra Sara,
saiiigraha, Rasendra chudainani, Uasaprakaga sudhakara, Rasendra
kalpadruma, Rasamangala, Rasainnta, Rasasara, Rasa-manjuri, Rasa.
33
258 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

Pliny has noted that the Indians knew from the 3rd cen-
tury B. C. the process of making glass. Thus were made
spheiical (vritta) anl oval (vartula) lenses out of glass.
The Ratnasastra deals with the examination of gems.
Varahamihira (5th century) discusses this subject in
detail. There are other texts of unknown dates which
include the Agastyamala, the Ratna-pariksha of Buddha
bhatta and the Nava-ratna-pariksha of Narayana
Pagdita.

PHYSICS (PADaRTHA-VIDYA)
The knowledge of Physics is indicated by extensive
references throughout Sanskrit literature to heat (tapa),
rays (kirana), sound (sabda), magnetism (chaurabaka)
and electricity (vidyut).
The instruments to measure the rainfall (vrishti)
and the (siladhyaksha) mentioned in the Artha-
officer
sastra indicates the knc wledge and practice of the science
of Meteriology also.
The device of the first instrument to ascertain the
correct directions by the magnetic needle is the further
contribution of the Hindus to the physical sciences.

ASTRONOMY (JYOTISHA S ASTRA)

Astronomy, with which Astrology and Mathematics

(Ganita-kstra) are closely connected, was required both
for Vedic sacrifices (dharma) as well as for various
needs of practical life (kama). In the Jyotisha Vedanga
preserved in tw'o versions for the Yajurveda and
Rigveda we find a calendar arranged on the basis of
a five-year Yuga, with a 366 day year, and notices of the
position of the sun and the moon at the solstices, and at
new and full moon with regard to the Hakshatras.
Some further development is found in works like the
Garga-Samhita of which only fragments are extant, the
Vridda-Girga-Saihhiti, Weber Ms of Panshkarasadin, the
Hakshatras and other Parisishtas of the Atbarva Veda,
the Paitamaha-Siddhanta recorded by Varahamihira,

pradipa, Rasayamala, Rasa-kaumudi. Chemistry also forms part of

medical aad other texts like the Ashtanga.hridaya, .JogAchara-bhu mi
s'astra, Rasa.nakshatra.malika, Dhatu’-ratna mah, Dhatu.kriya, Bhava
prakasa, Anka-prakasa, samgadhara satfigraha, etc,
 PKAGTICAL SCIENCES 269

the Jain Surya-prajnapti, the Epic, the Puranas, and the

Smritis of Parasara and others.
Varahamihira (550-587) preserved in his Pancha-
Siddhantika, the contents of five Siddhantas, viz.
Paitsmaha, Eomaka (connected with Rome), Paulisa
(probably associated with Paulus Alexandrinus), Surya
(revealed by Surya to Asura Maya) and Vasistha, The
Romaka-siddhanta of course need not be interpreted as
an allusion to Rome, the knowledge probably came
from Alexandria which was included in the Roman
empire. The Romaka-Siddhanta adepts a non-Indian
Yuga system, viz., the Metonic period of nineteen years
multiplied by 150 which gives the smallest Yuga exactly
divisible into integral numbers of lunar months and
civil days, and it makes calculations for the meridian
of Yavanapura. The Paulisa Siddhanta does not
adopt a constant Yuga but operates with specially
constructed short periods of time and gives the difference
in longitude between Yavanapura and Ujjain. The
Surya-siddhgnta accepts the Kalpa system and operates
with sidereal revolutions of the sun as in the Paulisa
Siddhanta but unlike the tropical revolutions in the
Romaka-siddhsnta. “It alone gives a general rule
for the equation of the centre, and its full
treatment of eclipses conforms with the meagre rules
of the Romaka and the rough formulae of the Paulisa-
Siddhanta. The Vasishtha-siddhsnta like the Paulisa
has taken some note of planetary anomalies, though
exactly what is uncertain”. ‘None of these five
Siddhantas exist in their original form. A Brahma-
siddhauta forms part of the Vishnu dharmottara-purapa
on which Brahmagupta’s Spbuta Brahma siddhanta is
based. The Sakalya-siddhanta presents the orthodox
modern doctrine.

The Eomaka was touched by Lala (about 505) and

revised drastically by Srisena. The Vasishtha Siddhanta
was first revised by Vi jaya-Nandin before Brahmagupta,
and then by Vishnu-chandra. The Laghu Vasish^ha
Siddhanta is not connected with the original or the
revision, and the Vriddha Vasishtha Siddhanta in Mss.
seems equally far removed. The extant Suryasiddhsnta
in fourteen chapters of Vanas is modernised from the
original possibly by Lala. The treatises of the famous
Aryabhatta (476-499) of Kusumapura show great
development in the field of Astronony and Mathematics.
260 INDIAX CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

His extant works include his Aryabhatiya in the irya-

stanzas, Dasagitikssutra which rasntions his numerical
notation, and Aryashta-^ata of 108 verses which is
divided into the section of Ganita (mathematics) in 33
verses, of Kilakriys (measurement') of time in 25 verses,
andGola (sphere) in 50 verses. His other works are lost.
He is commended for the brevity and elegance of his
composition. ‘His is the first work to show a distinct
chapter on mathematics in relation to astronomy and
the division of Astronomical topics was effective,.’ He
held that the earth was a sphere and rotated on its axis,
which was not approved by Varaha-raihira or Brahma-
gupta. He equated the four Vugas despite traditional
differense of length. He ascribed erlipses not to the
operation of Rahu but to the moan and shadow of the
earth. There was a second Aryabhatta who wrote the
Arya-siddhauta (about 560) wMch differs in its numeri-
cal notation from the earlier Aryabhata.
The works of Siiiaha, Pradyumna and Vijayanandin
mentioned by Varahamihira appear to be lost The
Pancha-siddhantika of Varahamihira is very impor-
tant. He also declines to accept the conjunction of
planets as explaining eclipses. Much more important
was Brahmagupta of Billamalla near Multan, who
wrote his Sphuta-siddhanta in 628_, and in 665 he wrote
the Khan4a-k..andyaka, a practical treatise (karana)
giving materials for astronomical calculation which
was based on a last work of Arya-bhatta. He is sys-
tematic and complete. He devotes one chapter to
solving astronomical problems. Lalla came later and
wrote the Sishya-dhivriddhi-tantra to increase the
pupils’ intelligence, which was commented on by
Bhaskara. The Raja-mriganka (1042), a Karana (practi-
cal) work, is ascribed to Bhoja, and the Bhavati, also
a Karana, to Satsnanda (1099).
The Siddhaiita-siromani of Bhaskaracharya (1150)
is divided into four parts, riz., the Ldavati and Bija-
ganita (algebra) devoled to mathematics, the Graha-
ganita on planets, and the Gola (sphere) dealing with
astronomy proper. The Gola chapter contains a section
on astronomical problems, a treatise on the astronomi-
cal instruments (? telescope, etc), and a description of
the seasons. His Karana-kutuhula with practical
instructions dates from 1178.
Later came the more practical wmrks like the tables
 PRACTICAL SCIENCES 261

of Tithyudipalin of Markanda (1478), and the Graha-

laghava of Ganesa (1520;. “the advent of Persian and
Arabic influences has left Indian Astronomy unchanged,
nor has it ever been extinguished by A'e stern science’’
as declared by Professor A.. B Keith.

The unique achieveuients of the Hindus in Astro-

nomy may be summerized.
briefly Bhaskargcharya
took in consideration the minuest time known as krati
equalling 34,000th part of a second. The Vedic sages
knew that the Sun illuminates the Moon, and that the
Moon comes back to the same position in its rotation
after 27.28th day. The month was counted of 30 days
after noticing the number -30 of the Sun rise from one
full or new moon to another full cr new moon. The year
was counted of 365 days. But it was found out shat 12
liinar me nths of 30 days each do not make up 365 days.
Hence to maintain the accuracy betveen the lunar and
the solar year they added a mala-masa at every 3 years.
That the rotation of the earth causes the distinction
between the day and the night was first discovered by
Aryabhatta (950). Nearly a 1000 years later Coparnic
discovered this in Eu o e. Aryabhatta, \^ho knew the
causes of the solar and the lunar eclipses, declared that
the moon and other planets have no light of their own and
are illuminated by the Sun, that these planets like the
earth rotate round the 8un, and that their path of rota-
tien is not circular but epicycle or ellipe (dirghavritta).
The circular shape of the earth is established by
Bhaskaracharya by pointing that the dawn appears before
the Sun rise. Bhaskaracharya and Brahmagupta have
fixed the diameter of the earth at IS'-i and 1600 yojanas
respectively. Taking one yojana of 3200 cubits or 9Vi
niiles the diameter of the earth is 7905 miles, w'hich
approximate the modern calculation of 7918 miles.
The aerial extent over the earth calculated as 12 yojanas
or 55 miles is almost the same as the modern calculation
of 50 miles. Long before the discovery of the centre of
gravity by Newton (1642-1727) it was stated in the
Siddhanta-b'iromani of Bhaskaracharya (1150) that heavy
things fall on earth on account of earth-attraction
(madhyakarshanai. ^

1 A krishti saktis cha mahi taya yat khastham giiru svabhi

mukhara sva-saktya akrishyate tat patati iva bhati.
262 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

It, therefore, means that the earth, planets, stars,

moon, and sun attract each other and owing to mutual
attraction each remains to its own orbit.

ASTROLOGY
The basis of Astrology is the belief that the celes-
tial bodies exercise influence on the fate of man. It
is m.ore easily noticed that the same influence causes
the change of seasons, rainfall, storm, and the ebb-tide
and flow-tide in the ocean. Thus it is not unlikely that
the human body is similarly affected. How the human
fate is determined by such influence is not fully explain-
ed. The belief that the future can be foretold from
the aspect of celestial bodies is shared in other countries
like Babylon, etc., also. The Brahmanas and the Vedic
Sutras recognise the idea of a lucky star. Thus aus-
picious moment became early an important factor
in the social, economic, political and religious functions.
In marriage, in agriculture, industry, trade, commerce,
and in war also the astrologer foretells the result from
the signs.

Areligious function is not effective if not perform-

ed in right time. A journey is inauspicious if not
taken up in the right moment. A
marriage proves
unsuccessful if not contracted and performed at the
right conjunctiop. The Dharmasastra prescribes for king’s
astrologers like Chaplains but the Arthasastra places them
among the lower court functionaries. Q he Buddhists
denounce the occupation as they do many other Hindu
practices.

Of the numerous text-books of astrology the

standard treatise of Varahamihira makes mention of the
works of AsLta Devala, Garga, Vriddha Garga, Narada and
Farasara, w'hich exist in fragments only and of which
the Vriddha Garga-Samhita or Gargi-Samhita (about 1st
century B.C.) is the most famous containing prophetic
prediction concerning the fate cf all people of the world
boru in India and outside. Varahamihira in his Brihat-
Sariihita divides the science of Jyotisha (astrology) into
thrie branches, liz., Tantra which serves as the astrono-
mical and mathematical foundations, Hora wlich deals
with horoscopes, and Samhita which covers the sphere
of natural astrology. He emphasises the importance
 PRACTIOAL SCIENCES •263

of astrology. He elucidates the effects of the movements

of the sun, of the changes of the moon, its conjunction
with the planets and eclipses. He describes several
constellations and their powers on the fate of man. He
mentions what lands, peoples, and things stand under
the orgies of each planet. The planetary movements
also determine the wars of kings, and each year owes
its fortune or mishap to the planet which presides over
it. He explains the signs of weather and how to foretell
not merely the crop but the rise and fall of prices. The
importance of astrolc^y is emphasised in connection
with architecture, the digging of tanks, the laying out
of gardens and the making of images. In his Brihat-
vivahapatala the question of marriage is further dis-
cussed and his Svalpa-vivahapatala further refers to
this subject. He deals with the wars' of kings in his
Yogayatra (marching out under favouring conditions) .
In his Brihaj-jataka and Laghu-jataka he further deals
with the Hora which name like other terms was bor-
rowed once from Greece ^ There is a Yavana-Jataka
(old and new union) ascribed to Minaraja Yavanacharya.

MATHEMATICS
Mathematics comprising geometry (jyamiti), algebra
(bija-ganita) and arithmetic (ganita or ankakstra) are
direct descendants from Astronomy. The origion of
geometry is traced to the architectural measurement
of altars,which were required for the great Soma sacri-
fice. They were made in ten different shapes as
enumerted in the Sulba-sotras (200 B. C. ) or supplement-
ary portions of Kalpa sutra of Baudhayana and Apastamba
to the Taittiriya Samhitg. These altars refer to the
construction of squares and triangles ; the relation of
the diagonal to the sides ; the equivalence of rectangles
and squares and the construction of equivalent squares
;

and circles.

Aryabhatta was the first to insert a definitely

mathematical section (ganita) in his astronomy. ‘He deals
in it with evolution and involution, area and volumes,
progression, algebraic identities, and indeterminate

l Far instance Panahara, Apoklima, Hibuka, trikona j imitra,

Meshurana, signs of zodiac including kriya, taviiri, jituma, leya,
patbona juka, kampya, tankshika, anokero, Hridroga and Itthya, etc.
264 INDI.\N CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION
equations of the first degree (ax by= c) . It
defines that ‘the product of three equal numbers is a
cube and it also has twelve edges. His notation is
expressed in consonants, xiz. K and M for 1 to 25, Y
to
H for 30 to 100, vowels denoting multiplication by powers
of 100, A being 100 and B 1000.

Brahmagupta’s work covers ‘the ordinary arith-

metical operations, square and cube rules, rule of three,
interest, progressions, geometry, including treatment
of the rational right-angled triangle, and the elements
of the circle, elementary mensuration of solids, shadow,
problems, negative and positive quantities, cipher,
surds, simple algebraic identities, indeterminate equa-
tions of the first and second degrees (in considerable
detail), and simple equations of the first and second
degrees, and cyclic quadrilaterals being specially
treated.’

The Ganita-sara-saiiigraha (9th century) of Mahavira-

charya gives many examples of solutions of indeter-
minates but not the cyclic method of Brahmagupta
introduces geometrical progressions, and alone deals
with ellipses, but has no formal algebra. The Trisati
_

of Sudhana (born 991) deals, in addition, with quadratic

equations. The Bija-ganita of Bhaskaracharya, which
agrees with Brahmagupta, contains the fullest and
most systematic acc'ount of algebra, and his Likvati
includes combinations. The Bakhshali Ms. of the 3rd
or 4th century also refers to Hindu mathematics.

Trofessor Keith does not believe in the Greek

influence on Indian Mathematics. “The facts are that,
as regards indeterminates equations, the Greeks
by the 4th century had achieved rational solutions,
not necessarily integral, of the equations of the
first and second degree and of some cases of the third
degree. The Indian records go distinctly beyond this.
Brahmagupta shows a complete grasp of the integral
solution ax - by -- c, and indicates the method of
composition of the solution of on ^
= q- Bhaskara-
charya adds the cyclic method. The combination of
these two methods gives integral solutions, the finest
thing achieved in the theory of these numbers. ‘- to find an
ultimate Greek origine for these discoveriese, ’ concludes
Professor Keith, '‘seems due rather to a parti pris
than to justice.”
 PRACTICAL SCIENCES 2&5

In regard to Geometry both the Indian and

Grecian mathematics shows from 300 A.D. ‘an absence of
definitions, and does not deal with angles, nor mentions
parallels, nor gives a theory of proportion, while the
traditional^inacGuracies J:re common’. The independ nee
and originality of Indian mathematics have been
defended on the score that the love of dealing with large
nuiiibars ^ and making calculations is recorded early
for India*. The abacus inverted in India and the
nunibers of the west were borrowed from India, words
for numbers are used in the unique system of Aryabhatta.
The figures oi the Brahmi or Kharoshthi notation in
Asoka Inscriptions have not }»’ace value which is
actually found in Inscriptions from the ninth century
onwards. But the Ind’an figures were known in
Syria in 662 A. D. “The probability still remains that
India did render a great service in this regard and in
any case excelled Greece” coacludes Professor Keith.
India has also inspired the Arabic mathembtics.
The Algebra of Md.ibl Musa (782) bears the Indian
influence, Arabian science from 771 “borrowed freely
from Indian astronomy, translating and adapting both
Aryabhatta and Brahmagupta”.
Coincidences with the Chinese mathematics are
numerous and interesting. The so-colled Chinese
invention of the system of Nakshatras found in early
Indian Astronomy is undeniable. Indian influence
on China is “proved sufficiently by the history of
Chinese Buddhism and the discoveries in Central
Asia”.
The
original contributions of the Hindus in the
practice of arithmetic, algebra and geometry may
be briefly illustrated. They discovered the cardinal
numbers 1 to 9, and also the zero (binduh They knew
the eight-fold system of a Idition (yoga), substraction
(viyoga), multiplication (purana), square (varga),
cube 'ghanal,, square-root (vargamiila), ard cube-root
(ghana-mula). T'hey discovered the modern method
of division and the rule of three. They knew the
fraction and its addition and substraction by the method

1 While
the Western system of counting does not .go beyona
some figures
six tbillion)
,
the Indian system counts up to
eighteen or nineteen figures ending s.-igara-
34
266 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

of h. 0- 0,, called NTiruddha in the Ganita-sara-sariigraha

of Mahavira (9th century), Pingala (second century
B. 0.) used in his Ghhanda-sutra the method of permuta-
tion and combination (chhandaganitah A.rya Bhatta
•refers to this and also to arithmetical and geometrical
progression. In his Lilavati Bhiskarachirya has
deraonshated that when a figure is divided by zero the
result is infinite number.

Bija-ganita is the title of the two chapters of the

Siddhanta-siromani of Bhaskaracharya (1150). In English
it is called Algebra because it wms borrowed frorri the
Aljeb-oyal-rnokabela of Md. Musa-al-Khoya-rejrrii (8-2.5).
But the Arabs had learnt it from the Hindus. The
Hindus called this science both Bija-ganita and
Avyakta-ganita. They discovered the positive (dhanai
and negative (jina) numbers. Brahmagupta (6-28)
discovered equation (samiltarana). Its four varieties
were in use :they are known as. simple (ekavar-
na), simultaneous (aneka-varpai, quadratic (madhyam-
aharana) and Bhavita or equation involving products
of two unknov/n quantities. Kuuama first solved the
indeterminate equation of the first degree (eka-varna-
sam'ikarana). Aryabhatta, Brahmagupta, Sridhara,
Padmambha, and Bhaskaracharya solved such equations
of algebra as could be done in Europe as late ns the
17th ,r ISth centuries.

In Jyamiti or geometry Baudh;iyana (second

century B. C. ) actually solved the theorem long before
it was associated with the name of Grecian Pythagorus,
viz ,
the square on the hypotenuse of a right angled
triangle is equal to the sum of squares on the other two
sides. He also proved the theorem that the square on
the diagonal of a rectangle is twice the area of the
rectangle. The Sulva sutras also e.vplain how to draw
a square equal to the area of a triangle, and a circle
eqvral in area of as,iua.re. The Surya-siddhanta (5th
century) found out the area of a trian’gle from its
sides, which in Europe was discovered in the 16th
century by Clo'avius. Brahmagupta and Bhnskaracharya
worked out the area of a quadrangle from its
sides. Baudhayana and Apastamba -worked out the
proportion between the diagonal and sides of a square
(1:1.42156) which corresponds to the fifth decimal
of modern finding (^2 = 1.414-23. ..),
 PRACTICAL SCIENCES 267

In TrikcnamiU or Irigonotnetry, the Hindus

discovered jya (sine), koti-jyi (co-sine\ utkrarnn-iya
(versed sine), of "whlGh there are tables as in Surya-
siddhaiita (5th century) which was discovered in Europe
in the 16th century by Briggs. Bhaskaracharya in the
Lilavati explained the method tc find out the length cf the
sides of equilateral and equiangular triangle, quadrangle,
pentagon, hexagon, septagon, octagon and nine-sided
figure drawn within a circle in comparison with its
diameter. These exactly correspond to the modern
formula.

EUGENICS (KaM A-SaSTEA)

Kama is, generally but inaccurately, counted as
the third aim of civilized life, Bharma or Civil and
religious laws being the first, and Artha or economic
matters being the second. This false notion cf com'
parative importance or precedence of the Hindu aim
of life is based on the assumption that che material
happiness was not the first consideration among the
Hindus. But from the archaeological remains of the
pre-vedio Mahenjodaro of about 3000 BC.it is clear
beyond doubt that more direct attention was paid to the
material progress, and comfort and convenience of house-
hold life than to the spiritual one. Inthe subsequent Vedic
period the same aim of life might have continued despite
the fact that the early Vedic hymns refer largely to
the spiritual life. Nothing short should be expected in
the Veda because the ultimate object of that literature
was a spiritual one. In the later Vedas, like the
Atharvan and in parts of Brahraanas and Sotras, how-
ever, more interest appears to have been taken in the
the material progress of life.
It is clearly stated that ‘as Arthasastra is intended
for kings and ministers, so Kama-Bstra studied by
is
Nagarakas or citizens of taste who desire to practice
refinement and profit to the most by their knowledge
of all that is meant by Kama’, not merely association
with women but also other desires which make the
home life and office life worth living. Women are also
expected “to study (the subject of kama) if they are
such as come into contact with gentlemen, the princes-
ses, and daughters of high officials.” Moreover on the
general principle of Kama that “all’s fair in love and
268 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

war” instructions are included in modes of deceiving

maidens and of seducing the wive? of others, ‘with as
much sang-froid as the Artha-sastra in inculcating-
the benefits of defeating an opponent by guile”. For
the purpose of observing due moderation a student of
K masistra has, however, to remember the claims
of the xVrthasistra, for otherwise, the social equilibrium
will be lost, and also of the Dharma sastra for the sake
of the social and moral discipline. Thus Fama-sastra
corresponds to Eugenics, the science which deals with
“race culture”.
The earliest author of the Ksmasastra is Svetaketu,
the Vedic scholar, who is stated to have composed a
treatise which Pai'chcbsla Babhravya condensed
in seven chapters. Each of these seven sections
is stated to have been elaborated by Dattaka,
Charayana, Suvaina-nabna, Ghotaka-mnkha, Gonardiya,
Gonika-putra, and Kuchumara. All these books must
,

have been once in existence. All these authors afe

mentioned and quoted in later literature.
The first regular treatise on Kamasistra is
however, the Kamasutra of Vatsyayana about 260 A.D.).
l

It is divided into seven parts. The first part deals with

generalities, the second with the purpose of the book,
the three ends of man (kama, artha, dharma), the
sciences, the character of an elegant person and the
description of the friends and go-betweens who held him
in his intrigues. The third refers to the relations with
maidens, giving hints to courtship. The fourth part
discusses relations with married women and the fifth
-
with relations with the women of others. The sixth
relates to courtesans. The seventh deals with the secret
matters to secure love. Yasodbara (about 1243-61) wmote
his commentary, Jayaraangala. Other minor works
includes the Pafichasayaka by Jyotirisvara who came
after Kshemendra. The Eatirahasya was written by
Kokkaka before 1200 and is a compilation from the
words of Fandikeivara, Gonikaputra and Vatryayana
The Ratimanjan of .Jayadeva (may be the author of
the Gitagovinda) and the Anangaranga of Kalyanamalla
were written in the sixteenth century. The Ratirahasya
is ascribed to a Nagsrjuna. There is a commentary,
Smara-tattva-prakasika by one Revanaradhya.
The sciences (fehstra) referred to in the introduction
of the Kamasotra of Vatsyayana deal wdth the traditional
 PRACTICAL SCIENCES 269

list of sixty-fourarts (kak). This list ^is also met

with the mythological works like the Srimad-bhaga-
ill
vata, the Harivaitisa, and the Vishnupurana and the ;

Buddhist-Jain works like the Lalita-vistara and the

Uttaradhyayanasutra. In the Kamakstra group these
•arts are stated to be taught for the refinement of
Nagarakas (citizens) or properly educated men and
women. The mythological groups make menlion of
these sixty-four arts in connexion with the various
kinds of knowledge acquired by the chief heroes, Krishna
and Balarama The Buddhist-Jain group refers to
these arts in connexion with the education of the
respective heroes, Bodhisattva and Mahavira.

This list of sixty-four arts, almost identical in the

various branches of literature, includes various matters
which go far beyond the sex-relations to which the
extant Kamakstras have confined their • discussion.
The list comprises all such subjects as are required
for the real refinement and enjoyment of life. Thus the
vocal music (giia) comes first. Then follows in order
instrumental music (vadya), dancing (nritya), dramatic
perfor'mance (natya), painting (alekhya), tattooing and
facial decoration (viseshaka-chchhedya), artistic arrange-
ment of rice-m-eal, flowers, and dishes (tandula-kusuma-
bali-vikara), making beds of flowers (pushplstarana)
the arts of staining teeth, dyeing cloth, and colouring
the body with powder and paints art of bed-making ;

(sayana-rachana) playing with an instrument on water

;

(udaka-vadya) like the musical glasses art of making ;

fountains pictorial arts (chitrayoga) art of making

; ;

garlands art of putting on ornaments on the head;

;

scenic representation (nepathya-prayoga), painting the

cheeks with sandal, etc, perfumery art of putting on ;

ornaments, art of jugglery ; tricks ; prestidigitation ;

art of cooking preparation of beverages

;
weaving, ;

tailoring or sewinf including embroidery art of playing ,•

with thread and rope playing w'ith lute and small drum
; ;

solution of riddles, charades, etc, modelling and making

images mimicry elocution tableau vivants solution
; ; ; ;

of verbal puzzles crafts like making of sticks, baskets,

;

etc making twist with a spindle or distaff ; carpentry

; ;

architecture (vastuvidya), testing of gold, silver and

precious stones art of setting, purifying and mixing of
;

metals (dhatu-vidyaj colouring precious stones art of

; ;

ascertaining the existence of wines, gardening including

270 Indian culture and civilization

planting, nursing, caring, etc., of plants, flowers, fruits ;

ram-fighting, cock-fighting and quecil-fighting training
;

of parrots arts of messaging and shampooing

;
hair- ;

dressing guessing unseen things and letters held in a

;

closed fist ; usirg secret code, knowledge of languages of

various countries making of flower carriages reading
; ;

of omens art;
of making monograms, logographs, and
diagrams composing enigmetic poetry art of debate
; ; ;

extempore composition of verses; memorising of

lexicons; knowledge of poetic metres; acquaintance
with poetics and grammar; art of personification;
magic like the charging of appearance of fabrics art ;

of gambling ; disc-playing; making dolls for children ;

art of etiquettes; art of archery; and the knowledge
of sports, physical exercises and hunting, etc.^

This list should remove the false notion regard-

ing the scope of the Kamasutra which is not limited to
the sexual Jove alone. It deals with the entire race-
culture and includes all the fine arts and crafts which
are necessary for the cultural and technical perfection
of the life of civilized men and women. This should also
make it clear that of the three ends of life Kama must
have been given the first place in our ancient culture
because, as hinted in the mythological treatises and
Buddhist- Jain scriptures, these arts formed the essential
subjects of primary education of their ideal heroes from
the childhood onwards. Artha was required next and
Dharma or civil and religious- needs were counted as the
third stage of our cultural development. These fine
arts (silpa) developed to such an extent that every one of
them was regulated by a scientific treatise (sastra).
Some of these standard works discussed more than one
of these arts. For instance, the Natyasaslra (drama-
turgy) dealt with, as noted in the next chapter, not
merely with the scenic representation but also with all
the allied subjects, viz., music, songs, dance, poetics,
construction of the stage, dressing,* elocution, in fact
everything connected with the playing of a piece.
Similarly in poeticts are included not only the
composition of poetic sentences but also the accents,
metres, figures of speech, even grammar although the
Vyakarana-sastra dealing with the morphological

1 For further details vide the Writer’s ‘Hindu Architecture

in India and Abroad’, Introduction, pp. 1,35.
 PBACTI'JAL SCIENCES 271

changes of words formed a different science (sastraV

The Vastuvidys (architecture) deals with not ony villages,
towns, houses, but also articles of furniture, carpentry,
conveyances, ornaments for the decoration of the body
as well as making of images although there is a separate
science dealing with sculpture. The Ayurveda (science
of living) deals not only with the means of curing
diseases by the application of medicines, surgery,
dentistry, etc., but also with the preparation? of dugs, etc.,
although there are separate science dealing with mix-
tures (rasiyanasastra), herbs (vriksha), anatomy,
physiology, etc. Minerology and Creology are similarly
included in this list of arts. But unfotunately the texts
on all these sciences have not yet been discovered and
published. .For practical end of life the preparation
of food and drinks is essential and of primary impor-
tance and has been incidentally referred to in various
branches of literature, but unif or innately no standard
text is yet availlable on this subject. Similarly scientific
texts (sastra) are missing on subjects like weaving,
solution of puzzles, discovery of mines, testing of
precious stones, nursing of plants, fighting, making of
weapons, training of birds and animals, reading of
omens, personification, gambling, etiquettes, sports,
hunting and physical exercises, etc. It is obvious that
all these sciences advance the practical end (kama) of
life and should be treated under the general heading of
of Kamakstra. The few texts available on architecture,
medicine, astronomy, astrology and mathematics may
thus be discussed below.

AECHITECTURE (YASTu-SASTRA)
Like other sciences the origin of the science of
all
•architecture is ascribed to Brahma and thereby a
national origin of this science is rightly claimed. From
the four faces of this Indian deity are stated to have
originated the four earliest architects, viz , A^iwakarman,
Maya, Tvashtar and Manu. Their sons were Sthapati
(chief architect), Sutragrahin (designer), Vardhaki
(developer or painter) and Takshaka or carpenter, who
form a Board of buiders.
The standard treatise is named in the colophons
of its seventy chapters as the Msnasara Vistusastra.
It mentions thirty-two preceding authorities, viz..
272 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

Viivakarman, Visvesa, Visvasara, Prabodhaka Vrita,

Maya, Tvashtar, Manu, Nala, Manavid, Manakalpa,
Manasira, Manabodha, Prashtar, Visvabodha, Naya,
Adhisara, Vi&L'la, Visva-Kasyapa, Vistu-bodha, Mahatan-
tra, Vastu-Vidyapati, Paralariyaka, Kalayupa, Chaitya,
Chitraka, Avarya, Sadhaka-sara-Samhita, Bhanu, Indra,
Lokajila, and Sama. Only a few extant fragmentaty
texts, clearly later than the Manasara-Vastusastra, are
available mostly in manuscripts ascribed to some of
these authors, viz., Mayamata^-Silpsastra, Amsumadbheda
of Kasyapa and Visva-Karma-Silpa.^ There are several
other later texts and there are also long chapters in the
Puranas and Agamas devoted to the subject of architec-
ture, besides copious casual references in the Vedic
literature, Buddhist and Jain scriptures, epics, classical
literature and technical work like the Arthasastra, Astro-
nomy, medicine, etc. This Manasira Vastusastra of
unidentified aubhorsip and of provisionally ascertained
date, being near about the Christian era, is completed in
seventy chapters. The first deals with various subjects
treated under architecture. The second deals with the sys-
tem of measurement. Next three chapters classify Vastu
under grcund and site for building ; building (harmya)
which includes palaces, pavilions, halls, mansions, alms-
houses and theatres conveyance comprising cars, cha-
;

riots and palanquins and couch which includes beds-

;

teads, benches, chairs, swings, and nests and cages for

domesticated birds and animals. Under ground, testing
of soil and site for building is discussed. The sixth
chapter deals with gnomons for ascertaining the correct
cardinal points for the purpose of right orientation of
buildings. The next chapter supplies schemes of site plans.
The eighth and last chapter on the preliminaries refers
;o sacrifical offerings in connexion with house building.
In the next two chapters village-schemes and town-plans
‘
are elaborated, which include the layout, roads, bridges,
gardens, ponds, public buildings like temples and assem-
bly-halls, guest-houses, hospitals for men and beasts, •

cemeteries, cremation grounds, etc. The surrounding

walls and ditches are also described. The next chapter

1 For other works not mentioned in ‘this list of thirty .two

authorities vide the Writer’s Indian. Architecture (1927), pp. 100-109.
2 Sketches of some 200 works will be found in the writer’s
Dictionary of Hind Arhitecture, Appendix I, pp. 749-804, and the
Encycolopedia of Hindu Architecture,
VIII
 PEAGTIOAL SCIENCES 273

deals with the principles of dimensions for buildings of

various storeys Chapter XII describes the fundations
to be given to all constiurtions. Chapter XIII-XVI deal
with pillars of free-Sr.anding and supporting varieties
together with their pedestals, bases, shafts, capitals and
entablatures. Chapter XII describes the wood-joining
and other wood works for the buildings. Chapter XVIII
describes the classification of buildings on the basis of
the number of storeys, the styles of buildings, based
chiefly on the shape o^' the top (head' portion known as
Sikhara (dome, pinnacle, spire), sloping roofs and
porticoes attached te Cue main building. Chapters XIX-
XXX describe various parts aad proportion of some
hundred types of buildings furnished with one to twelve
storeyes. Chapter XXX concludes with a descrip-
tion of staircases for all kinds of buildings. Chapter
XXXI describes the various c'-'urts into which the whole
compound of lui edifice, temple or palace is divide 1 for
the purpose of distribution cf various structures.
Chapter iXXXII discusses the court in a temple where
the attendant deities are he use i. Chapter XXXIII
describes the gate-houses attached both to residential
buildings and temples and concludes with an elaborate
desc ription of windows. Chapter XXXIV describes
detached pavilions of various kinds which are not
st(-Teyed and are like the medern bungalows built inland
and on sea shore, river bank, bill to etc Chapter
, XXXV
describes the various clas-es of huge mansions composed
of sever il row-> of buil sings. Location cf such buildings
and their measures are treated in tie next chapter.
Chapter XXXVil describes the ceremonies of house-
warndng or fiist entry into the newly built house.
Chapters XXXVIIi. XXXIX deal with various kinds
of doors an openings.
i Chapters XL-XLII describe the
royal palaces for kings of different ranks and for their
courts and families. Chapters XLIIl-XLY describe the
cars, chariots, couche?, and thrones for kin.ss and gods
and their consorts Chapter XLYI describes decorative
arches for royal an divine thrones and inci :entally
.

refers to the principle of constructive arches for building

also. Chapter XLYIl describes theatres for performance
of drama, inside temples and palaces, and ornamental
trees for decoration purposes. The roj al and divine
structures are described with minute details of construc-
tion in Chapter X lA' il. Chapter XLIX describes
35
274 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

ns for royal and divine wearers and their consorts

cTO'^^
with con.structiv'e details. In the next chapter are
described in detail various articles of furniture and
ornaments for the body of kings, g- cs, their consorts
and other personages. This concludes the description
of architectural objects proper.
With similar elabcrate description and constructive
details the sculptural objects are described in the
following twenty -one chapters L-LXX. Of these cha^pters
LI describes the images of Brahrn;f, Vishnu, and Siva ;

chapters LII-LlIi the phalli of Siva and the pedestal

(Yoni) thereof chapter LIV goddesses nf various grades
;

and measures. The -Iain deities are described in the

next chapter which contains an elabcrate account of
sculptural measures. Chapter LVI describes the
Buddhist images, Chapter LVIl iraages of sages, chapter
LVIII images cf demi-geds, chapter I. IX images of
devotees, chapter LX images cf goose, chapter LXI,
images of (laruda bird, chapter LXII the image of the
bull and chapter LXI II the image of the lion. Chapter
LXIV supplies a general description of all images,
especially their proportion in comparison with the
measure of the house wherein they are installed as well
as with the measure of installer Further principle
of sculptural measure is discussed here. The Tala
measures which supply the proportion between various
parts of the body on the bisis of the head as the unit are
illustrated in cahpters LXY-LXA’I where minute details
of the ten and nine Tala n.easures are given, the other
such measures being illustrated in the preceding chapters.
For further sculptural measures the plumb lines are
described in chapter LX VII, whereby the sidewise
distance from limb to limb of an in age can be ascertained.
The first casting of images in wax is described in
chapter LXA^III. chapter LXIX discusses the defects
in constructing the various parts rf a building and
incidentally refers to the defects in making the images
also. The concluding capter LXX describes the
chiselling of the eye of an image and settirg of precious
stones in different parts of the iaiages.
Of the pcst-AIanasira texts on architecture the
Mayamata iSilpa-sastra is attributed to one G-ennama-
charya who appears to have abridge! this text from
the Mauasara in 3-j chapters. Of tliese the first thirty-
two on architecture bear the same titles as the corres-
 PRACTICAL SCIENCES 276

poniing chapters of the Manasara. Of the remaining

four on sculpture in place of twenty-one of the Manasara
two deal with the Phalli and Pedestals of Siva, one on
minor works fanukarma) of sculpture and one on
images in general. The date of this cempilation is not
known. The Amsumad-bheda of K^syaya comprises
86 chapters of w lich first 45 and the last 2 are devoted
to archilecture. These 47 chapters are similar in many
respects to the first fifty chapters of the Manasara. The
Amsumad-bhela deals much more elaborately with
sculptural objects in 39 chapters in place of some 20
chapters of the Manasara The exact date and rmthor-
ship of this text still remain untraced. There are
several versions of the Yisvakarma-silpa. The one
known as the Visvakarma-prakiAt and Yisvakarma-
Yastusastra contains 13 chapters in which some 36
topics on non-architectural matters chiefly asirologfcal
are discussed. The other version, Visvakarmiya-silpa,
is a Nagari copy nictde in lb72 from an original in the
Hala-Kanadi character. It consists of 17 chapters on
sculpture. The two versions form a complete treatise.
The authorship and the date or dates are not knowrw
The Agastya Bakakdhikara consists of two parts,
one comprising 19 chapter and the other 5 chapcers, all
discussing various sculptural matters including the
technical Tala measures. Several of the chapters are
based directly upon the corresponding chapters of the
Manasara The date and autdiorship are unknowm
The Sanat-kuraara-Vastusistra cf unkn'Vvn da^e
and authorsnip is state! to have been based cn the
works rf Brahmin, Sakra, Ya;ua, Bhargava., .\ngirasa,
Maya, G-autaraa, Gsrgya, Mann. vyisa. Bhrigu,
Vi^VakuMian .an othtrs
i In 8 chapters it briefly
discusses only certain astrological topics conoerniiag
the building .and entering into newly -built houses, and
leaves out the main subject.
Tile SilpaAstra of Maudaiia, otherwise called
llijavaiiabha-Maa.j in i, Sutradhai’a .M.andana an i
Bhupati-Va iabhi. Tdis autdior was in the employ of
king Kumbhakir.ia of Me lapithi an I the husband of
Mirabii (Lil’-Luj'J A. lb). It deals with the architec-
tural disposition of houses, pahices and temples in 14
chapters in the first part and chapters in the second
part which bears the title of Prasada-mandana-Vastu-
276 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

sastra. Most of these appear to have been bc-ised on the

corresponding chapters of the Msnasara.^
Early works on painting (chitravidya) are missing.
The Vishnu-dharmottara of “uncertain but not early
date” contains a section on painting". There are
references to painting in the Sadhanamah.^ On the
remains of painting at several places modern writers
base their comments. They include Havell, Indian
sculpture and painting (I90o) Smith, History of fine
;

art in India and Ceylon (1911) Cnomaraswamy, Arts ;

and Crafts of India and Ceylon (1913) Lady ;

Herringhara, Ajanta Frescos (191 A) Corraarswamy, ;

Eajput Painting (1916) Stella Kramsrisch. Mediavel

;

Sinhalese Art an i the influence of Indian Art '192-1);

G. Eoarich, Tibetan Painting (1925'). There are no
works exclusively on sculpture.
The treatises on music deals ‘c raprehensively
with the whole t pic, the kindred subjects of singing,
arrangements for concerts, etc. These are mentioned
first in the Bharata’s Natyasistra, The later texts
include the Sangita-Ratnakara of Sarangaieva (13th
century), the Sangita-darpana of D&modara (later than
13th century), and the Ragavibodha of Somanatha (16:9)
which deals with musical modes (raga) and ‘includes
fifty pieces of the author’s own compositio:! for the
lute with notation.’
The Ratna-sastra deals vith ti:e examina'ion cf
jewels and give very varied information regarding
them Varahamihira shows in his Erihatsrmhita (5th
century) his acquaintance with the subject. The extant
texts of unknown dates include the Ay;astyamala the ;

Ratna-pariksha of Buddha Bhatta and the Navaratna- ;

pariksha of Nargyana Pandita.

Dhanurveda, dealing with archery, is treated in
several extant texts of unkno vn dates. Their authors
include Vikraraaditya, Sadhiva, and Sgrngadatta
One extant text discussing the science of stealing

There are several such fragineatary work: and compila-

1
tion-: to in the Appendix I of th-
referred ctionary of Hindu '

'

Architecture by the writer.

2 Translated into English by Srella Kranirisch (Calcutta
1925),
3 Edited by Dr. B. Bhatttacharya ( lv)2.')).
 PRACTICAL SCIENCES S77

(Ghauryavidya) as referred to in the Mrichchakatika is

Shan in ukh a - k a 1 p a of unknown date and authorship
insists on a sound knowledge by a thief of nuigic.

POLITICAL ECONOMY (APTPIA-S ASTRA)

The Aiuhasastra (literature concerned with profit)
is equally C-Tied NitiAstra (science of conduct),
Rajaniti (method o: g-overnnirnt or conduct of kings)
including Janianiti (policy of pu ishrnent). The
Mahibhfirata (xii, 5y, 'lb) traces the crigtn of the
ArthaPiStra tc the Creator Bra ;\rna who was the author
of a work in 100,000 sections on the three topics
(dharnut, artha, kiin i), reiucei versions of vhich are
ascribedtoYiALksha andlndro. Indra’s version, called th.e
Bahudanka, w.:S reduced to d.COO sect! uus by Brihaspati
which was again reduce to L.'Uj sections by (Jsauas.
i

The Stan lard treatise, Kaiqilya Arthakistra, also

mentions os its authorities the works cf Brihasptti,
Bahudantiputra, ViPL.ksh.i and IL'ina.'. Yatsy.iy -ina's
Kamasutra also mentions Brihaspati as the author of
an Arthassstra There are traces in the Malisbharata
(xy. 5-7) of the actual use of a formal ArthaPistra out of
which grew its sections dealing with polity such as
Karna’s lecture to Dhrirarashtrr. (i, liO), Vidura’s
speeches (Y, SO-bQj, and other Lcattered sections, “There
is no doubt that the Smritis of Manu (v'TI. lob',
Yajfiavalkya (i, 314, ii, cl), YishvU (iii, Sb- and Nkrada
(^i, 39) male use of texts of this sort in compiling rheir
contents. The ArthaPTstra was respected by the poets
of royal coui’ts such as nn-isa, vaiidTsa, L;hiravi, Mssha
and their followers. 'J'he Buddhists in idie J.itakaintljr
(ix, 10 xxxi. -A), however, condeinued th XitiPisira and
; ?

hotly denounced the Hindu doc urine that “right should

be followed only so far as it does nut conflici with
profit.’' he B rhaspatya Arthasascra as an object of
!
‘

study as staAd by Bhasa and its author Brihaspati as

the founder of the science as staled in the Mahiblurata
does not exist in its original form. A inoaern
production of unctrtoin date bearing the same title
contains littl if anything of the oM doctrines of the
•

s chool.

The Kauiiliya AnhaPistra is the standard, treatise

on the science of economics like the ilacasara VasTusastra
in the field of architecture and sculpture. This earliest
278 INDIAN UCLTURE AND CIVILZATION

preserved text “exhibits every sign of a long prior

development, which by reason of its completeness has
deprived earlier treatises of the possibility of survival.”
It affords a vast amount of detailed information
about the practical side of Indian life as opposed
to the spiritual. In parts it euvers the ground
touched on in the treatises on Dharma. It is divided
into 15 great sections (Adhikarapas) and sub-sections
(r^rakaranas) which are, however, crossed by division
into chapters (Adliyayas).
The first book (adhikaran a) deals with the bringing
up and education of a prince, including general
knowledge, training in the art of government, precautions
regarding safety of his life, conduct of family
members and ministers and officials. Heavy royal duties
are enumerated. Book II gives in detail the duties of a
vast army of inspectors, showing e detailed control
t‘-

of administration. Book III discusses laws of

administration. Book lY deals with police administration
in repression of evil-doers, cheating tradesmen and
doctors, also to prevent use of false weights, adulteration
of consumer’s goods, artificial increase of prices, etc.
Book Y explains how a king can get rid of an unwanted
minister an I how taxes can be collected by igenious
method. It contains a chapter on the remuneration cf
the royal entourage, ranging from iS.OdO to 60 pana-;
yearly. Book \'I describes the seven elements of politics,
riz., Lhe king, minister, land, fort, treasure, army and
ally, and discusses the
_

—
inter state relations in much
detail. Bock Vil deals with the six possible causes of
action peace, war, neutrality, preparation to march out,
alliance and doubtful attitude Book VIJI enumerates
the evils that may arise from a king’s adoiction to
hunting, gambling, women and drink, and the
misfortunes whicn fire, water, or other cause may bring
on a land Books IX and X deal with various phases
of war in which the king himself takes an active part.
Book XL directs how the king is to sow dissension iii
and destroy the cohesion of hostile aristocracies or
warriors. Book XII ceals with means of aggranoize-
inent with the help of spies, secret agents, bravos,
poisoners including women. Book XIII shows how a
king can capture a fortified city by his orainiscient and
enjoyment of divine favour. Book XIY contains a
secret part (Aupanishadika) consisting of recipes to
 —

PRACTICAL SCIENCES 279

enable one to murder, to cause blindness or madness,

and so on. The last Book XV
gives a plan of the work,
and sets forth with examples 32 methodical principles
used in the discussion in place of 5 or 6 elsewhere known.
This standard Arthasatra “accepts wholesale the
Brahmanical theory of the castes and their duties,
economics, agriculture, pastoral pursuits, trade and
industry, and polity”. The ministers of the king and his
council are described, and above all his spies who
serve him to secure a firm hold over all within the
realm, high and low, from the princes of his house
who aim at his death to the humblest people. His
emissaries abroad are spies as well as ambassadors, and
the spies serve to keep him informea of all that happens
to his neighbours. A large number of works drawn
upon include texts on special sciences such as examina-
tion of jewels, agriculture, military matters, architec-
ture, alchemy, veterinary art, and other topics.
As political economy the Kautiliya Artbasastra is
comparable, as stated by Professor Keith and others,
to the much later works of Machiavalli on political
philosophy. But it does not discuss in detail the
Hrndamental issues such as the relation of right and
might, of fate and human endeavour, and the origin of
kingship, which subjects are more expressly discussed
in the Mahabharata and the Buddhist texts. It holds
Arth the
t most important of the three aims of life,
dz., Kama, Artha, and Dharma (Moksha). It assents
“that Artha economn) is essential to tTiem all
(political ;

without it there would be the reign of anarchy every-

where; under the sceptre the four castes and their ordered
ways of life prosper, and Kama, Artha and Dharma
are fulfilled”. While with Macbiavelli and Mussolini the
“state is all in all” in a vague manner, the Arthasastra
means by the state an order of society “which the state
does not create, but which it exists to secure”. The end
of the government, it holds, is the maintenance of a
firm rule. It justifies the means coupled with the
assumption that a reign of peace between the neighbour-
ing states is not to be dreamed of, so that in addition
to maintaining peace in the realm the king must always
be prepared for foreign war’. It recognizes the risks
run by a king from court intrigues, military oligarchical
factions, false ministers and unruly heads of guilds.
It recognizes the king as no more than a servant
2S0 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVLIZATION

of the state. kins with

Tt sumn.f.rises the relation of the
the subjects : “In the happiness cf his people lies the
happiness of the king, in their well-being his well being,
his own pleasure is not the king's w’ell-being. but the
pleasure of his people is his well-being,”
Professor Keith dees not fully share the current
belie regarding the identity of the author and hence
1

his date os the conten'ipor.iry of the Emperor Chanlra-

gupta Maurya (B- G- in whiose court Megasthenes
^

was the Grecian au'brws idor. The author of this

standard ArthaGstra, accor'iing to common belief, was
KciUtilya which apuears to be the professional itick
name of Chandragupta’s min ster Channakya whose
pre-mi nistiial proper name seems to have been Vishnu-
gupta According to the Mudra-Kakshasa this minister
overthrew the Kanda dynasty, enthroned Ghandra-
(iupta Maurya and wrote this Artha:"astra as Bismarch
wrote his Memoirs. His accounts of Chandragnpta do
not, however, -nake clear the boards of town officials
mentioned by Megasthenes '‘Jf we abandon the
unhappy identinoation”, concludes Professor Keith, it
is plausible to think, if it cannot be proved, “that the
work was a product of B 300, written by an official
attached to so ne Court” because later writers frequently
mentioned it.

The KitiTira of Ktmandaki is based mainly on

Kautilya Arthasastra. It is a mere redaction of the
Arthasastra. Jt is divided into twmnty cantos and like
a poetic work is compose! in verses. It is simplified
by the omii^sion of the details regarding administration
in books ii-iv of the text, and of the subject matter of
the last twr books. In ix-xi the theory of foreign
policy is d-veloped into its fullness of theoretical
elaboration. AccorJing to some it is coirtemporaneous
with A arshamihira (about -ICO) but Professor Keith
places it in about 700 A D.
The Kitivakyamrita of Somadeva is a treatise on
royal duties. It is also indebted to the Arthasastra. It
omits the details of administration an war, and advises
)

kings how_ to behave well and prudently rather than

with cunning. Like the Smritis it enjoins the use of
ordeal, not of torture as in the AithaLstra The author,
slightly affected by .Jain views, ‘entirely accepts the
rule of the castes, disapproves intermarriage, demands
 PRACTICAL SC:ENCE3 281

from each caste adherence to its own duties, and can

find a place for a good Sudra who observes purity and
devotion to hii work’.
That the Jain Politicians completely depen-led on
the Brahrnanical science is illustrated by the Laghu-
Arthaniti of Hemachandra (I'fcSTiT'i) which is an
abbreviation rf his large work on this topic in Prakrit.
ritten in sloka iverses) it diads with war (f',
punishments (ii), law (vyavahara) {lii), and penances
(iij). In law he fo 1 ws the eighteen heads of the
Manu-Smriti and in penances he imposes punishment
for taking meals with unsuitab.e ersons. He condemns
I

war involving loss of life, u>e of poisoned or heated

weapons, stones or mos;8s of eartti, and demands
quarters for ascetics, Brahmans, those who surrender
and ad kinds of weaklings. The later Brahmanical texts
include the Yukti-kalpa-taru of Bhoja, and the Niti-ratna-
ktra of Chandeavara, the jurist. Like the h'itiprakisika,
the Sukraniti is a tvork of qu'te late date (ib)Ut 161)0
or PiOU) which mentiors ti^e ‘ use of gunpowder.'’
The text, based largely on ihe Arthas.istra of Kautilya,
is divided into five adhysyas or ’books, dhe book L\ con-
tains seven sections (praicarai.as). Tne duties of princes
are described in B( ok I the functions of the crown
;

prince ana other state c/fficials are dealt with in Book II;
the general rules or morality are elaborated in Book HI;
the seven sections of Booio IV deal respei lively with cha-
racterist.es of friends (i), treasure ni), arts and sciences
{iii\ social cust,oms and 'iistitutions (n ), king's functions
[v), fortresses (ti), aid army (i.ii Book Y deals with
;

supplementc.ry and miscellaneous matters. The wdiole

contents may, howmver, be classified as non-political and
P' litical. The non-poiiiical subjects refer to daias con.
cerning ancient Indian geeg aphy, etiinolrgy,mineTology,
botany, zoology, art compiising archiieciure, sculpture
and painting, morals and manners iiii luaing socio-
religious riles and institiuions, pedagogy includiig
Yiuyas, kalis, and literature and ecouoii ics incluaing
statistics ot prices and wages, etc. The political
sections supply aatas of ancient Indian polity or
constitution, i.e., the lorm of government including
the theory of Kashtra or state, public finance,
jurisprudence and international law.^
1 For Further details see ‘The Sukraniti’ by Professor Benoy
Kumar Sarkar (1914).
36
282 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

MORAL AND CIVIL LxWVS

(DHARMA 8ASTRA')

The Dharmassstra deals in a simple manner with the

functions of the Kalpa-sutra. which comprise? the ^rauta-
sQtra, Grihya-sutra ani Dharmasutra prop r. The Srauta-
sutra deals with the holy writ (Sruti) ccmcerning the
Vedic sacrifices with a spiritual end in view the ;

Grihyasutra deals with domestic rites incluaing marriage,

sacramentS: and other duties of the househoker, which
stare With the Verio sacrifices in some form. Thus
ti.e i unction left for the Dharmasutra should have been
confined to the laws only for the rr-gulatirn of religious
sacrifices an 1 d imestic rites. But as a matter of fact
the Dharma s.istra ‘adopted tne practice of including
in their texts irstructi jus on matters closely akin to
ritual, the daily life of tire people, their duties of all kinds
concerning social nsuge, moral, legal and religious’.
The admiuistraU'm ot all these Mibjects eoncerning the
practu al hfe IS also the functn n of the Anba-bistra.
But there seams ti^ be a distinction between the function
of tne Aithc kistra and the function ot the Dharmasastr t.
The former aims at ihe larger national lile while the
latter confines to the sphere of he indivi .Ual iite. Thus
the Dharmasastra prcstnbtrs for the laws of marriage
concerning the uniLn ot ii dividual nmn ani woman,
ot sacraineiits coricerning the hr nging up of chilcren
by the indiVidm 1 parents, of ihe ciaily dulies concerning
parents dead or living; guests and the helpless by the
inaiviutial lam ily, a nd the fimr stages or iiMers tf lile
also concerning tae individual student, householder,
retire! person, and one vho has renounced all worldly
coiinectioa, Similarly are elabo ated the indi\idual
duties oi a king a teacner, a trader, a servant, a minis ler,
a physician unu so forth In addition to all the indiviciial
tunctions the liharmaLstra Contains a section dealing
with the exclusively spiritual aim of individual life aiM
the means ot attaining emancipation of the imme rtal
spirit or soul, which is known as Moksha (salvation),
the fourth and the ultimate end of life. Thus the
Kamasastra deals with the means of fu filling human
desires (kama) in the economic field of sccial life,
Arthasastra with the political administration of national
life, and the DharmaLstra with the religious practices
for the got d of the individual, and with Moksha (salvation)
 PRACTICAL SCIENCES 283

for the attainment of the ultimate aim cf life. As

IVIohsha and Dh-rma can r irely be attained without
passing through the life of Arth - am Kama the traditi-^nal
order of the four ends of civilized life has to he considered
in a reverse or er On the ether hand Dharma would
educate individuals for an orderly enjoyment of
natural desires in a society which in turn would bring
forth a state that will rub the society, community and
the individuals. Such a causal connection between
the various ends of life gave rise tc the Dai sana-s stra
(phil sophy) ••whi(h seeks to e>p'ain by itasoning the
relation between mortal life and immortal soul, heligion,
h<-wever, assumes an Almighty Power vhich can be
propitiated by devetion, prayer, and offerings.

The ollest extant text is the Gautimiya

Dharmasdstra w'hich seems to belong to the R^nayaniya
school of the Sarnaveda, and may be placed before B. C.
400 or 500 B. C. Another old text is the Harita
Dharniasf stra in 30 chapters extant in one mannscrit.
Both these are mentioned in the Vasishtha
Dharmabbstra preserved in fr igments, wdiich mentions
Manu as an authority while it is quoted in the Mami-
Srariti, which is the staniarl DharraasMstra. The
Paiidhayana Dharmaiatra is inlerpo ated and the
Apastambiya Dharm a'litra is well preserved; ‘both of
these cannot be place later than fourth or fifth century
I

B C. The Vaishiava Dharinalistra which is in the

shape of adialotiue between YisPnu and the Earth belongs
to the Dharmasutia of the Kaihaka school of the Black
Yajurveda. The Vaikharasa Dharma&'astra in three
chapteis deals with the duties of the castes and of the
different stages of life, predominantly with tho
period of life w'hen asceticism should be practised. Of
doubtful antiquity^' are the DharmasQtras of the sages
S.nkha and Likhita attached to toe Atharvaveda, and
of Usanas, Kab'yapa, Brihaspati and others attached to
the White Yajurveda.

The Manava Dharmab'astra or Manu-Smriti (B, C.

200 to 2J0 A.D.) is a complete and standard text of
Dharmasistra. It is divided into twmlve books. Book i
contains a semi-philobophical account of creation.
Book, ii deals wiih the sources of law and describes the
'

duties of the student life (Brahmacbari). In Books iii-v

the life of the householder tGrihastha) is elaborated with
2^4 INDIAN CULTDBE AND CIVILIZATION

reference to his marriagre, flaily rites, funeral oiTeringrs

(iii). occupation anrl general rule of life uv lawful and
,

forbidden food, i-npurity anil purification, an rules as 1

to woman (v) Book vi deals with the two further

stages o' life, the hermit in the forest (Vnuaprastha) and
the ascetic (Ssnnvisa), Boiik v.i def-cribes thedutio
of the king and develops the g ene'^a pc litical max' u’s.
i

Books viii and ix give an acc nut of civil and criminal

laws incluiing pro.celnre, evidence and crdeals and
eighteen topics recovery of delp's deposit and p edge ;
; ;

sale without owuers' ip partnership concern';

;
substrac-
;

tion of gifts; non-payment of wages nr n-perfcrma nee of

;

agreement rescission of sale and pmrebase masters and

; ;

herdsmen; disputes as to boundaries; defamation; assault

and hurt theft; viclence; adultery; duties of husband and
;

wife inheritance ani parti’.ion gan b irg and wrgers.

; ;

Book X adds an account of the duties of kings, Vaisyas,

and Sudras of the mixed castes and tlie ru’es of caste-
;

occupations in normal and abnormal times Bock xi

deals with ru’es for gifts, socrifi -es and penances. And
Book xii follows the sinner to his retribution in the
next life by the rules cf transmigration, and deals
with the means of attaining release (Moksha). Of th.e
numerous coiumentators of the .Muru Sraxiti Medhatithi
belongs to earlier than ninth century, oevindar^ja to
the twelfth, and the popul it KuUuka to the fifteenth
ceiitnry. Its great influence is aitcsted in Burma, Siam,
and Java also where it is authoritative.
The Karada Smriti subdivides titles of law into
132, has 15 kinds of slaves, 2! ways of acquiring
property, 5 ordea's, 11 classes of wdtnesss, and lays great
stress on records in pr< cedure and written proofs. It
exists in two recensions including a Nep-^lpse one.
Asa hays commented on it in ihe eighth century and
Bana knows it in the seventh. Because of the mention
of the Persian c^in Din,ra it is placed in the secend
century A. D altho' gh , aravse’ inscnptiti s in In 'ia
!

d-ttes Iroiu B. C. 4 0 The Lrihaspati Smriti exists in

fragments. It is like a Variika (c; n n.eiii) on Aanu but
it approves the practice of widow burning. It is assigned
to the sixth or seventh century.

The Yajyavalkya Smriti cerres after Mar.u. But

its arrargerr, cut is better.Three chapters are devoted
to the rules of conduct (schara), law (vj avahara, usage)
 PRACTICAL SCIENCES 2S5

onfl penancfs fprpyaschitya). The eighteen tcpics of

l^lanu, though not enumerated are adhered to a nd two
rnore are added, viz, rtrlaticns of servi:e and another on
niiscella neons top es. It adds \M'itten dccumen‘'s to
Mann’s meat s of proof. New is an embriology taken
fr( m son e n'edical irealise. But the general cutlook
is largely similar and Moesha irelease) is wcnliyihe
know lee ge of self It is assigned to dCO A. D There is
a very large number of in poitant commentaries on it.
The Mitaksbarn (f Vij-anesvara written in the south
in the eleventh century, constitutrs an important
treatise on law, was accet ted in the T eccan, in Be’"ares
aid in North In ia. Bn’abbatta Vaidycnatha and his
wile Lakshmi Devi cemmeated on it.
The hmritis of Katytyana and VNasa agree often
wi’h Narada and Briha^p,^tl. A Paritsara is mentimed
as an authority by Y:i j.uivaikya and ivledtiatithi, but
tie Partsara Smriii, cn which Midnava wrote in Lith
century an elaborate comment, is a later treistise Other
Smrit’s exist in indefinite liumber;, one list n entions
lod. The nun'berof fcmritis can be augmented from
tt e Epic and the Pur.inas which contain long sectiens
wh.ch might as well be Srnritis.
As a result of the numiber of these Smrttis kinns
erdered f.'r pract.cal ])urpose the eon pilations which
from ti e tw'elfth century aitpearel as Dharma-nibandha
(cigests of law). d'be Sn.rui-Kalpatciru cd' Lakshmi-
ohara, the foreign minister of Govindachan ra of
Kanauj U lOh- 1 14d), includes religious as well as civil and
criminal laws, and the iaw of pTocfdure Ibe Br.ihma.r.a-
karvasva written by Halayudna for kii g Lakshana^ena
(Idih century) of Bengal reals with law and whole
duty of a Brahman. Simi'ar in chaiaoter are Devanna
Ehatta’b Siiiiti-ci andrika (about 1200’, taid Henindri’s
C hfcti.rvarga-cbintimani written between 1-6C and IT 9
fer Yadava princes, wi.ich contaii s rules cf vows m
enoimous cetail, (fftinn^s to nods- pi’gTtn age, offerings
to the nead, and attainment <f M.ksha (itle.se , The
Madena i^aii j ta written ly V sves^aia for Madaiap la
(hj60-li>7tij deals with religions duties and the law of
succession. Similary were written the Smriti-ratuakaia
of Chardesvara for Hardsimhafeva about 132o), and
Chintamani of Vacliaspaii for Ilari Narajaiia of
Mithila (about 1610). Jimutavabana (before l-'th
century) produced his legal work, Dharmaratna,
•286 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

containir^ the famous Diyabhaffa which dominates the

views of Bengal on inhe'^itan^e Tn the tollowing contury
Raghunan ifina wrote his ‘^8 Tattvas (treatise) which
were snec'ally accepted as regar 's ordeals, procedure and
inheritance In the 17th centurv were prrdaced the Nirna-
yasindhu nf Kamalakara, which is still an authority
in the Maratha country, the Bhagavanta-Bha'-kara of
Nflakantha and the encyclopedic treatise, Viramitrodaya
of Mitra Misra, which touches on astrology, medicine,
and the doctrine of emancipation.^
The Manu-Smriti may be considered as importint
for the Hindus as the Bible for the Christians alth' ugh
Nietzsche gave preference of it to the Bible. It is nnt
merely important as a law-book. It ranks as the
expression of a philosophy of life. The work has
developed on the principle that ‘all is perfecily ordered
ill a world created by the divine power, and regulated
according to the principle of absolute justice b / that
power.’ Heretics enisted but they are passed over
with cr ndemnation. In a simple kingdom the Brahmans
take the first place and in ckse accord with them
abides the king; Vaisyas and Sudras forming the balk
of the leople are recognized. There are the mixed
cartes al o in which the Vavana and Saka are press-ed.
A narrow sense of religion accounts for the treatment
of small trai egressions of etiquette as crimes requirii g
grave penalties hereafter, if not in this worl"', hut
reraeciaole bv penances. In the administration of law
•
not n erely the act but also the motive of the d( er is
leccgnized. Unlike the doctrine, held in the Arthasastra
and in the Buddhist seripture, of a social contract which

1 The original distinction between the Dhormasntra,

Dharmaibastra, Smriti, and Dharma-Nibandha'J does not seem to have
been mamtuned. The Dharma^utras are wntt n in pro-e and all
other-m verse. But the subject matters of Dhann isastra and Smriti
instead of confining to the ca«te duties include the duties of kings
al-o. They deal with both religious law as well as enm nal and c.vil
laws which latter were the excirtsive function of the DharmasCitra.
Although k^ruti tholy writ) is the basic authority of the Smriti, the
latter under the influence of the Epic deals with the practical
m
illusir ,tion of principle.- of polity addition to the usage ol experts
(bisLtachsra) and the customs ot places, castes, and tam.lies as sources
oi l.w. In order to secure the acceptance the Smnti proclaims divme
provenance and assumes the utterances of the old sages. The same
method has been followed by the Nibandhas also.
 PRACTICAL SCIENCES ^87

makes the king a mere wage-earner as in the modern

time, Manu makes the king a divine creation. The
work insists throughout on preferring the high to the
low because in high place a nobler standard ot conruct
exis s.’ But the law is exercised on ethical consic eratioi s
whereby the maximum good of the largest number is
aimed at.
ilanu’s high standard and earnestness for truth
is upheld in the Narada smriti as in the admonishmenis
directed to witnesses warning them that “truth njade
of winning purity, truth the ship that bears men to
heaven, truth weighed against a thousand horse sacrifices
outweighs them, truth is the highest cblation, the
highest morality, the highest asceticism, the truth
the summit of bliss, by tfrlling truth man attains
by hiniself the highest self which is itself truth”.
Yajfi'vall'ya in his Smriti shows the high sense of
Hindu Dharma irighteousness) in summing up the whole
duty of man. “Truth (sat\ a), honesty (asteya), mil ness
(akro:iha\ modesty (hri), purity (.saucha,', wis om
(^dhi), firmness (diriti), sell control (dania), restraint
of the senses (saniyata-inuriyata), learning (vid\a , all
thes^ make Uharnia”. In defining the duties of kings
the highest place is given in creating freedom from
want and from fear which is wrongly considered to be
the most modern idea.^ The c aims ol woman to
property rights, which also looks like a mo!e:n
development, was emphasized by Balabhatta Vaidya-
natha and Ins wife Lakshmi Devi in commenting on
the Mitakshari if Vij.'.aiieavara which is a famous
commentary on Yajnavalkya Smriti.
Thus like all other branches of our literature the
Bharma-sastra also indicates a high standard of
morality.

1 Natah paratai'o dharmo nripaniiii yad ranivjitam,

Viprebhyo diyate dravyam prajabhyas chabliayara sada.
 CHAPTER VII

CRIGIHAL LITERATURES
(Sanskrit, Palf, Prakrit^

Human thoughts are expressed in articulate so nds

which form ih*:* s: ee hand tue spoken language.
These are recorded in written langntge cr liter.i^ture by
symbols kiiDwn as scripts or letters cf an alphabet
Human thoughts have ct so been preserved in a’’ts,
especiady pai iitings, sculp tires and architectures. The
cultural conlition and achievements concerning the
state of civilization of a society are best shown by the
quality variety and the quantity of these tnree groups
,

of recor is.

i.on.77/af7e— The speech cr spe rhes of the Mohenje-

daro nod vB. C, tOb.-Idb) must remain obscure until
pt
the scri I't and the language o. the sign manuals are
deciphered. But tl e speecli cf the Vetic perio from I

B. C. dOLO is clear from the language in which the

Vedioani the post-Vedic literature are found written.
Tnere is no doubt ihat Sanskrit is the language in
which the Ytdic Aryans used to fpeak. But ‘‘Unlike
Medieval Latin Sanskrit undtrgoes important charges
in ihe course of its preknged literary existence which
even to-cay is lar Irom ended "‘
Allhough ‘the true home of the Sishtas (Sanskrit-
'

speaking peoyb) is given by Pataljali as Arvavarta the

Deco in was aiSo a home of Sinsknt. Even in Southern
Inlia. despite the existence of a vigorous Kanarese and
Tamil literature, Sanscrit Inscripti. ns appear from the
sixth century onwards, often mixed with Ikavidian
phrases, attesting the tendency of Sanskrit to become a
Koine (of the Greeks), and Sanskrit lett a deep i mpression
even on the virile Dravidian languages. Ceylon fell
under its influence, and Sinhalese shows marked traces
of its eperation on It. It reached the Suiida islands,
Borneo, the Philippines, and in Java produced a
remarkable develo.ui eat in the shape of the Kavi speech
and literature. Adventurers cf high rank founded

1 A. B. Keith, History of Sanskrit Literature (1928), p. 17.

 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 289

kingdr ms in Further India, where Indian names are

already recorded by the geographer, Ptolemy, in the
second century A. D The Sanskrit inscriptions of
Champa begin perhaps in that century, those of
Catr bodia be 'ore 6^0, and they bear testimony to the
energetic study of Sanskrit grammar and literature.
Of greater in portance still was the passage of Sanskrit
texts to Central Asia and their influence on China,
Tibet and Japan’^.
This Aryan speech was the ancestor of all the
speeches of Inaia and Irati. “From the language of
the Bigveda we can trace a steady development to
Classical Sanskrit through the later Samhitas and the
Brahm anas The development, howmver, is of a special
kind it is not the spontaneous growth of a popular
;

speech unhampered by tradition and unregulated by

grammatical studies The language of the tribes whose
priests cherishel the hymns of Rigveda w’as subject
doubtless to all the ncrmal causes of speech change,
accentuated in all likelihood by the gradual addition to
the community of non- Aryan elements as the earlier
inhabitants of the north. Munda or Dravidian tribes
fell under their control. Bat, at least in the upper
classes of the population, alteration was opposed by the
constant use of the sacred language and by the study
devoted to it. The process was accentuated by the
remarkable achievements of her early grammarians
whose analytical skill far surpassed anything achieved
until much later in the western world”^.
We must not, however, exaggerate the activity of
the grammarians to the extent of suggesting with some
writers that Classical Sanskrit is an artificial creation,
a product of the Brahmans wRen they sought to
counteract the Buddhist creation of an artistic literature
in i ali by recasting their own Prakritic speech with
the aid of the Veiic language. It is, in point of fact,
perfectly obvio‘ s that there is a steady progress
through the later Saiiihitis, the Brahinanas,
and the Aranyakas and Upanishads, and that
the spoken language of 1 anini’s grammar
is closely related t( though not identical with, the
.

language of the lirahmanas and the older Upanishads.

1 Keith, Ihiil, p. lo-lli.

2 Keith, Ibid, pp. 4-5.

37
230 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATIONS

Nor in point of fact does classical Sanskrit present

the appearance of an artificial product simplified as ;

it is in comparison with the redundant luxur 3^ of the

Vedic texts, it yet presents no artificial symmetry,
but rather admits exceptions in bewildering profusion,
showing that the grammarians were m t creators,
but were engaged in a serious struggle to bring into
handier shape a rather intractable m-aterial.” ^
'‘Prakrits are clearly the derivatives from their
prime source Sanskrit.”^ Prakrits were clearly
i^prakriti)
dialects at their origin before they became literary
language. Magaihi originated at ivlagadha^ and
had two lower branches Chandfii and Bakari.
Sauraseni had its centre at Ujjain and its
varieties are Dakshinatya, Prachya, Avanti, and
Dhakki or Takki. Maharashtri had its centre at
Maratta country. Paisachi originated in the North-
Western province. Sir George Grierson classifies
Prakrits in three great s' ages. Primary Prakrits are
stated to be represented by the literary forms of the
Vedic language and its successor Sanskrit. The Secon-
dary Prakrits are represented in literature by Pali,
by the Prakrits of the grammarians, of the drama
and literature generall> ; and the Tertiary Prakrits
by the modern vernaculars.
These vernaculars, according to Pischel and
Grierson, are collectively known as Apabramsa.
Thus the modern vernaculars are derived from the
various local Apabhramsas. From Sauraseng or Nagara
ApabhraiBb'a came Western Hindi, Kajasthani,
and Gujrati from ;
Maharashtra Apabhramsa
Maratti ;
from Magadha Apabhramsa Bengali,
Bihari, xAssamese and Oriya from Ardha ;

Magadhi Eastern Hindi; from Vrachada Sindhi; an 1

from Kaikeya Indra.

1 Keith, ibid, p. 7.

3 Tliere is, liowever, a difference ov opinion^- :

L'i'cdiel (Ctrammar. 1900,

], the position where he
16) reverses
holds that Prakrit what comes at once front nature and what
i.-^

all people without special instruction can understand. Keith

is unable to decide and surtniscs ‘speeches other ilian Sanskrit
received tlie name’. Urammarians think Prakrits as artificial
literary dialects. They are also thou-jiht to he the Indian vernaculars
prior to the period when the modern vernaculars became fixed.
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 291

Thus from the Vedic period till the present time the
spoken language are Sanskrits, Prakrits, Apabhramsas,
and the modern vernaculars. There are als literature )

varying in extent and qualit\ in all these languages.

All these are regulated by their respective grammars.
Thus as spoken languages they are much above the
speech of the primitive people, which has no discernible
laws. As Sanskrit is the prime source (prakriti) of the
subsequent civilized speeches, a brief account of the
laws regulating the Sanskrit speech should be enough
to show the cultural importance and the level of Hindu
civilization so far as language is concerned.

The Vedic Sanskrit speech had its accent in as

many as three forms, viz Udatta, Anudatta, and Svarit.
Faulty utterance was terribly punished as indicated
by the well-lrnown story that a devotee who underwent
great penance for a son got one to be killed by, instead
of killing, Indra, for which he prayed.^ The precision
of prcnunciation regulated by accents has, however,
been given up since the Vedic Sanskrit changed into
classical Sanskrit, Prakrits, Apabramsa and Vernaculars
(modern languages).
The classical Sanskrit and the Prakrits,
Apabhramsas and vernaculars to a certain extent have
retained, however, the division of sound of speech
into vowels and consonants.’^ Further distinction
of vowels into short, long and dipthong, and the
grouping of consonants according to the organs of
production (the nose tongue touching
;
different parts of
velum, palate, gum, teeth and lips) show the scientific
knowledge of phonology on which there is a class of
treatise known as Siksha. Morphology deals with the
analysis of words as they undergo changes by prefixes and

1 Accent differeittiates meanings; thus Indra-satru may be

pronounced to mean the killer (.satrii) of Indra, or one of whom
Indra is the killer (satru).
3 Vowels (and some consonants) are produced by the
vibration of the vocal chords. Thus theoretically the number of
possible vowels is limitless, >f all languages Sanskrit possesses
(

some fourteen vowels. The difference between a, i, u, eic.. is the

difference of quality caused by the special configuration adopted by
the resonance chamber of pharynx, mouth and nose. Consonants
are produced mainly in the oral and the nasal passages. Sanskrit
possesses fouiieen vowels, and thirty.three consonants grouped
most scientifically according to the organs of pronunciation.
G92 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATIONS

suffixes indicating thegenders and numbers of nouns

and cases; numbers and times of veibs are elaborately
treated in innumerable grammars. Semasiology or the
history of the meanings of words is discussed in a large
number of lexicons. The syntax or t ie order ol word in
a sentence, which is the fourth aspect of the modern
science of language, is, however, missing in both Yedic
and classical Sanscrit, but is retained to a certain extent
by Prahrits, Apabhramsa, and Vernaculars.

VEDAS
The word Veda meaits ‘knowledge’, the knowledge
par excellence, the sacred and religious knowdedge.
It does not iinplj^ one single literary work like the
Koran of the Muslims, nor a complete collection of
books compiled at some particular tin e like the Bible
of the Christians or the Tripitaka of the Buddhists.
It is on the other hand “a whole gieai 'iterature”
wffiich developed in the course of mm.ny centuries. On
account of its great age and contents it was finally
declared as ‘sacred knowledge and divine
revelation. Throughout at least 3,000 years millions
of Hindus have w'orkei on the word of the Veda as the
word of God, and that the Veda has given them their
standard of thought and feeling.” Professor Winternitz
declares that “ as the oldest Inic-European literary
monument, a prominent place in the history of wmrld
literature is due to the Veda.”

The Vedic literature consists of three different

classes of literary works. The Saihhitas are ‘collections’
of hymns, prayers, incantations, bene 'iciions, sacrificial
formulas and litanies. Brahmanas deal wuth theolgical
matters like observations on sacrifice and the practical
significance of the separate sacrificial rites and ceremiO-
nies. The Aranyakas in the forest texts of the Brahmanas
contain the meditations of forest hermits and ascetics on
God, the world, and the mankind. The Upanishads there-
of deal with the secret doctrines and contain a good deal
of the oldest Indian philosophy. There is another class of
works connected with the A'edas. They are not considered
as ’revealed and known as the Sutra> or manuals on
ritual. Of these the Srauta-sutras contain rules for the
performance of the great sacrifices. The Grihya-sotras
contain directions for the simple ceremonies an I
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 293

sscrifical acts of daily life birth, marriage, death

at
and so on. The Dharma-sutras are the eldest law
books and deal with spiritual and secular la-ws. The
Kalpa-sutras combine the Sranta and Grihya sutras.
There once existed a laige number of Samhitas
originated in different schools of priests and singers.
Many of these ‘collections’ were, however, nothing
but slightly divergent recensions (sakha or branch)
of one and the same Samhiti. Four Samhitas are in
existence preserved in one or n ore recensions; which
differ clearly from each other
The Rigveda Saihhita exists in the recension of
Fakala school. It consists ef 1028 hymns (suktas)
divided into ten Mandala or eight Ashtaka. The
majority of the eldest hymns are found in Mandala
II to YII w'hich are known as the family books because
each is ascribed to a particular family of singers or
seers, viz.. Gritsamada, Yi^vamitra, Ysmadeva, Atri,
Bharadvaja and Vasishtha. Book YIII is ascribed to the
race of Kapvas and ^ ngirasas. The Anukranianis (Yedic
index) gives the names of the seers of every single
hymns of Books I, IX and X; this list contains the
names of women also. Book IX dedicated to Soma
contains exclusively hymns which glorify the drink
of Sema. The latest hymns are found in Books I and
X which are composed of very diversified elements.
The lihilas are supplement ; the eleven Balakhilya
hymns are found at the end of Book VIII, The
antiquity of the Eigveda is indicated by its language and
geographical and culforal conditions of the time The
Aryans still domiciled the river land of the Indus.
The songs refer to battles with the Dasj ns or aborigines.
I he famous river Gangs in the east was still unknowm.
The lotus flower was not yet a subject of metaphors.
The fig tree Xyagrodha was still missing Rice is
not yet mentioned. The prayer for cattle and horses
occurs. Mention is made of wood-werkers and metal
workers including carpenter, carriage-builder, cabinet-
maker and smiths. Shipping is mentioned. Trade
was carried on in which oxen and ornaments were
the medium of exchange. Despite extensive trade and
commerce, and agricultural and industrial workers
there was yet no caste-di vision aLhough in a late hymn
cf Book X Brahman, Kshamiya, Vaibya and Sudra
are mentioned. Certain hymns refer to incest, seduction,
•-94 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZAT'ONH

conjugal unfaithfulness, forced abortion, deception,

theft an 1 robbery. The Aryans are shewn as an
active, joyful and warlike people of both simple and
polished habits and of the effiminate, ascetic and
pessimistic trait which grew later in Indian literature.
Yaska of about B. C. 403 explained in his Nirukta
the Vedic verses on which Sayan-r in the 14th century
A. D. wrote his commentary. ‘-As works of poetic art
the hymns deserve a prominent place in the world
literature’.

The word ‘Saman’ implies melodies. The melodies of

Samaveda were looked upon as possessing magic p.ower.
The Sama-Vidhina Brahmapa prescribes various Saman
for magic purposes. The recitation of the Eigveda
and Yajurveda is stopped at the ‘tones of Saman and
noisemade by donkeys, wmlves, jackals, owls, weeping,
musical instruments, and chanting of Saman.’ Thus
Sama-veda is important for the history of music.
Of the traditional ICOO Samkitas of the Sama-veda
only three exists, viz ,
the recensions of Ransyaniyas,
Kauthamas and Jaiminiyas. It comprises 1810
verses of which 261 are repeated twice. Thus of the
total of 1619 verses all but 75 are taken from books Till
and IX of the Rigveda. These 75 also are pieced
together out of sundry verses of the Eigveda. There are
however seme divergent readings in the Samaveda.
It consists of two parts, Archika and Uttara-Archika.
The emotional melody is prescribod for the former part
and singing at sacrifi-es for the latter, Archika consists
of 585 verses wherefrom melo.ly or tune proceeds and
Uttara-Archika contains 100 Samans or chants, that
is, songs, tune and melody. There are songs to be
sung in the village (grama-geya-gana) and forest songs
(aranya-gana) The metre is mostly Gayatri and partly
Pragatha which is a combination of Gayatri and
Jagati,
The word Yajus implies sacrificial prayer. Hence
Yajurveda the prayer book. It is formed partly < f
is
prose formulas -w hich are rhythmical and poetical and
partly of verses. Single verses but not the whole hymns
are taken from the Rigveda but there are different
readings-
Prayer refers to offerings only to Agni, Indra, etc.,
under numerous epithets like Sata Rudra as mentioned
 ORIGINAL LILERATURES 295

in Bcok XVI, while prayer is made the wife of the

priest, Adhvaryu joins the husband being tied together
by a rope, There are spells also and the mystic 'formulas
like svaha, svadha, vashat, om, bhuh, bhuvab, etc.,
as in the Katha-upanishad (11-16) are found used for the
first time. The later Tantras also use such mystic
formulas. Thus this Veda shows the oriein, development
and significance of prayer, science of religion, origin
of prose, source of Upanishads, and Brahamanas.

Panini refers to 101 schools of this Veda, five of

which exist an' are ascribed to the seers Kathaka,
Kapisthala, Maitrsyaniya, Taittiriya of the Black
sectic'ii ant Vajasaneyi of the White section. Ihe
former section is called Black (krishna) because there
is a mixture of Mantra (hymn) and Brahmana
(corarrentary). The White (Iveta) section contains only
Mantras consisting of prayer and sacrificial formulas.
It has 40 sections of which last 15 are of late origin.
The first two deal with prayer to New and Full Moon
sacrifices (das'apurnamasa) and oblations to fathers
(pitripinda). Section III refers to prayer to daily fire
cult (Agnihotra) and season (chaturmasya). Sections
IV to VIII deal with Soma and animal sacrifices, IX
and X refer to the Vajapeya (drink of strength) and
Rajasilya sacrifices XI to XVIII describe fire altars
;

(agni-chayana) made of 10809 bricks laid in various

order XIX to XXI deal with Sautramani sacrifices
;

to Alvin, Sarasyati, Indra, etc.; to XX XXV

describe
the horse sacrifice (asvaraedha) XXVI to XXXI are
;

Khilas or supplementary to prayers; XXX

deals with
human sacrifice (purushamedha) ; XXXI
contains a
version of the Puru&ha-sukta of the Rigveda, XXXII
refers to the secret doctrine (upanishad) of the
human sacrifice XXXIII to
;
XXXIV
deal with all other
sacrifices (sarvamedha) of which XXXIV
refers t i all
the secret doctrines (sarva-kalpa-upanishad) ; XXXV
refers to funeral prayers ; to XXXVI andXXXIX XL
contain the secret doctrine of God, the Isa-upanishad.
The Black Yajurveda is the same for the first
half. Thus the sacrificial characteristics of this Veda
is clear.

The word Atharva implies holy magic and

Angiras dei otes hostile magic. The Atharva-Veda
is the Veda of Atharvans and Angiras priests.
296 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATIONS

It consists of '^•31 hymns comprising 6,000 verses

divided intj 20 booirs. I he whole of the 20th book
and about one-seventh of the rest are taken literally
from the Rigve ia. Books 1 to XIV in prose is of
the Brahmaaa style. Books II, lY, V and VII contain
theosophicai hymns at the beginning. Bock XIV
contains only marriage pra.yers, and Bcok XVIII only
funeral hymns Metres are like those cf the Kigveda
but language show- later trait The lateness of this
Veda is further indicated by the mention of animals
like the tiger of eastern countries, of four castes, of
gods like Agnii Indra, dtc., being represented as demon-
killers;
theosophy and cosmogony of the later age.
But Professor Winternitz would place this Veda before
the Bamaveda and Yajurveda.
Here the purpose of the hymns appear to be to
appease demons, to bless friends, and to curse enemies.
The importance lies in taking more practical steps for
worldly go )d. Thus songs and spells are used to remove
diseases like fever and cough of which symptoms are
described. Th’s is the oldest system of medical science.
Prayars are, however, made for health and long life;
and benediction is sought for farmer, shepherd and
merchant. There are formulae and spells for cleansing
from guilt and sin. There are also spells for the
restoration of love and harmony between husband and
wife, and for success of marriage. There are songs
and charms for sacrifices also. The philosophy and
cosmogony of this Veda are of the saine type as of
the Upanishads

The Piigveda has been recognised as the earliest

literature of the world. The chronology of the other
Vedas is, however, uncertain. General consensus cf
opinion is that the Bamaveda," the Yajurveda and the
Atharvaveda followed in cr ier the Rigveda. No
precise dating of the Vedas is possible. The main three
sources of information, viz. Archaeological, Geological
and Astronomical, do not help in ascertaining the
Vedic age. No antiqxxities of the Vedic age have yet
been discovered. Of the (reological evidence reference
to the sea, land, mountains, rivers, plants, etc, do not
show any chxe. It appears that when the ludo-Aryans
came here India was of the same geological and
geographical conditions as it is now. Pegarding the
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 29?

ildgarding the Astronomical evidence mention of certain

constellation which takes place periodically might have
helped to ascertain the vedic age. But the astronomical
passages of the Vedic texts admit of various interpreta-
tion. However correct the astronomical calculations may
be, owing to ambiguous interpretation Bala Gangadhara
Tilak’s theory referring to the existence of the Rigveda
in B. C. 6000 has r.ct been accepte 1 by many scholars.
Of the internal historical facts mention of the Vedic
gols in cuneiform inscriptions and the relationship
of Vedic antiquity to the Aryan or Indo-Iranian and
Indo-European period is also uncertain. Most divergent
and contra iictory conclusions have been drawn from
them. Nevertheless the relations between ancient
India and Western Asia or Asiaminor point to the
Vedic culture being traced back at least to the second
millennium B. C. as stated by Professor W'internitz.
But the linguistic facts shewn by a comparison of the
language of the Veda and that of the Zind Avesta and
that of the classical Sanskrit literature do not yield
any positive results. The siuest evidence in this
respect is still the fact that ParsVa, Mahavira, and the
Buddha presuppose the entire Veda as a literature to
all intents and purposes completed. Thus the end of
the Veda must be earlier than the seventh or sixth
century B. C. The development of the whole of this
great literature must have taken at best 20C0 years.
Thus Professor Winternitz concludes that “ We shall
have to date the beginning of this development about
2003 or 2500 B. C. and the end of it between 750 and 500
B. c:*
This conclusion is suggested and supported by
the Mchenjo-daro discoveries of the chalcolithic or
mixed stone and metallic age between B. C. 5250 and
2750. Clear literary references in the Vedas to the
articles of food, clothes, orniments of precious metals,
house and furniture, and to the agricultural and
industrial implements and objects show the later and
improved period. On the basis of the same conclusions
scholars have allotted the period of B. C. 2500 to 1500 as
the time when the Vedic hymns were composed and
the next 500 years till B. C. 1000 for the compilation
of the hymns into the four Vedas and for the growth
of the commentaries known as the Brahmapas. During
the third and last period of the Vedic age covering some.
38
29 MDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

260 years and endin'^ B C. 750 developed the early

Sutra Glass of literature written in unaccented w(,rds
resembling the classical Sanskrit style.

BBaHMANAS
Biahrn nas are the commentaries of the Vedas.
The word means explanation or utterance of a learned
priest upon any point of ritual and exposition. All these
treatises are divided into two distinctive parts known
as Vidhi or rule aid Arthav,:da or explanation. For
instarrre the Satapatha-Brahmana lays down the rule
that the priest should touch water for purification
before ho commences an>‘ priestly duty, because people
are impure c n account -of speaking untruth, etc., and
water purifies the body and the mind. This is followed
by a discussion e. if the priest seould fast for the
<.; ,

same purpose of purificatior'. Thus the discussion

leads to the tracing of etymologies of terms like
Upasatha (fast). Discussion also includes how the
sacrifice is identified with the Prajapati (creator) or
Vishnu or which prayers (mantras) should be selected
;

for utterance for a sacrifice performed with a view to

getting a sou who woul I he able to kill an enemy.
Sexual morality, etc.; are also discussed. By way of
illustration of the ^success or failure of a sacrifice stories
like those of Sunahsepha, king Haiischandra and
'

others are related.

Each of the Vedas has its own
first three
Brahmanas. The Brahmapas
of the Eig-Ve da emphasise
the duties of the Hotri priest, those of the Yajurveda
that of the Adhvaryu prsest, and those of the Sainaveda
that of the Udgatri priest. The Aitareya and the
Kausitaki or Snnkhyayana are the chief Brdrmanas
of the Efgveda. The Aitareya consists of 8 Panchakas
comprising 4 adhysyas or chapters which deal with the
^

Soma sacrifices like Agnihotra and- Rajasiiya. The

Kausitaki or Saiikhyayana in 38 chapters deals, in
chapters I-VI, with food sacrifices performed on the
occa.sion of the new and the full moon and seasons, and
in t'l'Laplers Vil-XXX with Soma sacrifices as in the
.\it'--rrya. Of the Erahmans of the Snma-Veda the
'J'n.i ’ya, 1iio Sh l ivinma and the Jaiminiya Talavakara
are wed known. They deal with the same subjects as
the Brahmanas of the Eigveda. But the Tapdya, otherwise
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 299

called Pancha-Yiitisa because of its 25 chapters, contains

the oldest legends and describes the Vratya ceremonies
dealing with the purification of these who were not
initiated in proper time. Tim ^haaviuGa of 26 chapters
being a supplement to the Pauchaviili'a of 2") chapters
deals in the last chapter called Adbhuta or wonderful
with miracles and omens. Of the Brahmapas of the
Black Yajurveda the Kathaka-taittirtya is in continuation
of the Samhita itself and deals among other usual
objects with the Purusha-medha or human sacrifice.
Of the white Yajurveda the Satapatha Brahm.ana is the
most famous. It is so called because it consists of
100 chapters, of which chapter XIV is ascribed to
Yajnavalkya, and chapters VI and IX to Sandilya. Among
other things it describes the Asvamedha or horse
sacrifice, ceremonies of Pravargya, Agni-chayana,
upanayana or initiation, veda-vratas or duties of
student life, sraddhas or ancestral worship, etc. Under
the Atharva-veda no Brahmana exists.
Thus the main function of all the Brahmanas
proper is the laying down of the precise rules
and ^regulations for the performance of a sacrifice
The Aranyakas (or forest books) though independently
belong to the Vedas form the first part of the speculative
portion of the Brahmanas. They generally discuss
theology and are meant for the Vsnaprastha stage of
pious men who have retired to the forest (aranva) and
are no longer required to perform all the five daily
sacrifices like the householders of the Garhastya stage
of life. Similarly the Upanishads \vhich also exist
independently form the last portion of the Brahmanas.
They are so called because they were originally intended
to deal with the secret or esoteric doctrine to be
communicated to the pupil by his teacner in the solitu le
of the forest instead of at the village, and the relation
between the individuals and the Creator.
The Brahmanas, therefore, are records of both
the sacrific'al deeds, and theolcgical and philosophical
thoughts. The former function is predominently
concerned with ‘matter’ and the latter with ‘spirit’,
thus the Brahmanical literature has no beauties of its
‘form’. The earlier portion, however, contains accent
marks but the latter parts are devoid of this nicety
of pronunciation and approach the ‘form’ of the
classical Sanskrit
300 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

Regarding the age of the Brahmana literature

scholars have agreed to p^ace the old and genuine
Brahmanas to the pre -Buddhist period.

ARAN YAK AS AND UPANISdIADS

The Aranvakas or forest texts are the appendices
to the Brahmanas as stated above. Originally they
were intended to be the guide b^oks for the retired
Vanaprastha or forest life. They were of a secret
character and for that reason might only be taught
and learnt in the forest, and not in the villages. Of the
four Asramas (stages) of the Brahmanical ideal of life,
'dz. Brahmacharya for student life, Garhastya for the
house holder life, Vanaprastha for the retired life in
forest, and Sannyasa or life of complete renunciation,
the importance of the forest life was emphasised by
the separate existence of the Aranyakas or the forest
texts. The Aitareya and Kaushitaki Aranyakas belong
to the Rigveda. Tittiriyato the Black Yajuiveda, and
the Madhyandina-Vajasaneyi and Ksnviya Brahmanas to
the White Yajurveda. No Brahmanas of the Samaveda
and the Atharvaveda exist. The n.ain contents of these
texts deal no longer with rules for the performance of
the sacrifices and the explanation of the ceremonies
but elucidate the mysticism and symbolism of sacrifice,
and priestly philosophy.
The term ‘upanishad’ literally implies ‘sitting near’.
Hence its original meaning is ‘the sitting down of the
initiated pupil near the teacher (guru or preceptor) for
the purpose of a confidential communication of the
secret doctrine (rahasya) concerning the relation
between the Creator and the created individuals. This
secret knowledge was not intended for the masses but
was communicated only within a narrow circle of
privileged persons. This system is still continued espe-
cially among the various classes of hermits and ascetics.
The secret and mysterious doctrine of the Upanishads
took, however, various forms. Generally it is a profound
philosophical doctrine, but at times it refers to ‘some
futile symbolism or allegory, and a symbolical sacrifice
serving as magic which are actually jumbled up in the
Atharva-veda-upanishads. As stated in the Grihya-
satra of Asvalsyana (i. 13, 1) certain rites connected with
conception, procreation of male child, etc., are taught in
 OEIGINAL LITERATURES 301

a ‘upanishad’. Kityayana in his Sarvanukranianika calls a

charm in the Rigveda (i, 191) as a ‘upanishad’. The
chapter XIV of the Kautilya Arthasastra (manual of
politics) is called the ‘Upanishadic chapter’ where are
taught magic rites for the purpose of arson, assasi na-
tion, blinding, etc. Similarly in a upanishadic chapter
(Vll) of the Karaasastra (manuals of erotics) Vatsvayana
discloses secret prescriptions relating to sexual inter-
caurse and to cosmetics. The Paficharatna-sistra is
called a great ‘upanishad by Ramanuja (on Brahma-
sutra, II, 2, 43).

The oldest and more authentic Upanishads,

however, ate in part included in the Aranyakas only,
and in part appended to them. It is, therefore, difficult
to draw the line between the srapyakas and the
Upanishads proper both being supplements to the
Brffimanas. These are the Vedanta proper, both in the
sense of ‘the end’ or concluding portion of the Veda and
of the ‘final aim' of the Veda Thus ‘vedanta’ originally
implied only the Upanishads, the word, being later used
to mean a particular system of philosophy based on the
Upanishads.

Thus the Aitareya Aranyaka of the Aitereya

Brahmana of the Rigveda includes the Aitereya Upanisha
and the Kaushistaki Brahmana of the same Veda
contains the Kaushitaki Upnishad. Similarly the
Taittiriya and Mahanar.iyana Upnishads, Svetisvatara
and Maitrayaniya also belong to the same Veda The
Satapatha Brshmaria of the White Y ajurveda contains
an aranyaka in Book XIV which includes the Briha-
daranyaka Upanishad. The Isa Upanishad also belongs
to the same Vedi. The Kena Upanishad and the
Jaiminiya Brahmana anl the Chhandogya Upanishad
of the Tandya Mahabrahmana belong to. the Samavela.
The MuiKlaka, the Mandukya, and the Prasna Upani-
sha Js_ belong to the Atharvaveda. The six e.irliest
Upanishads known as the Aitareya, Brihadaranyaka,
Chhandogya, Taittiriya Kaushitaki, composed in clumsy
prose and Kena otherwise called Tavalkara partly in
prose
and partly in verse contain pure Ve lanta doctrine
in
original form are dated in the same period in which
the
corresponding Aranyakas and Brihinanas are
placed
before the Gautama Budiha. About the^same period
but
later in date are also dated the Katha, Svetasvatara
and
30G INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

Malianirayana (Jpaiiisliads of the Taittiriya Aranyaka

of the -Black Yajurveda, Isa Upanishad of the White
Yajurveda, and tiie Muriduka an Brashia Upanishads of
i

the Atharvaveia The ficst five of these six are

composed mostly in verse ani the last partly in prose-
These also contain the Vedanta doctrine which is,
however, mixed with the dmctrines of the Saiikhya and
the Yoga philosophies Sankaiacharya mentioned in
his commentary on the Brahmasutra twelve upanishads,
as sacred, and excluded the mention of the rest. The
MaitrayanTya Upanishad of the Black Yajurveda which
is written in classical Sanskrit prose, and the Mandukya
Upanishad of the Atharva-veda composed partly in prose
and partly in verse are placet in the pest Buddha period.
These fourteen are considered as the Vedic Upanishads
ani the sources of the earliest; Indian philosophy.
There are some SOO non-Vedic Upanishads of
uncertain later dates. They are more related to the
Purinas and the Tantras. They deal mure with religious
dogmas rather than the philosophical doctrines of the
earlier Upanishads. In consideration of their contents
Professor Winternitz has classified the non-Vedic
Upanishads into six groups, viz., those which present
the Yeiinta doctrines, those which teach the Yoga
philosophy, those which extole the life of renumciation
(sannvasa), those which glorify Vishnu, those v.'hich
praise Siva as the highest ^divinity, and those which
-

glorify the mother go Idess S.=)kti of the Tail trie wor-

shippers. These are written partly in prose and partly in
verse. For instance the Juvala Upanisha 1 deals with
cosmogony, physiology, psychology ani metaphysics.
The Garbha Upanishad, which reads like a treatise on
embryolog}^, refers to the meditation on embryo in order
to prevent rebirth in new womb. Similar subjects are
treated in tlie Up.ynishads like the Atharvab'iras, and the
Yajrasuchika which defines a Brahman as one knowing
the god Brahman. Another collection of 50 Upanishad
was translated in Persian in 16-56 under the title of
Oupnek’hat.
The philosophy of the Upanishads, in other word
the fundamental doctrine which pervades all the
genuine Upanishads and which has made them so
popular, has been summed up in the sentence that ‘the
universe is the Brahman, but the Brahman is the
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 303

Atman.’ Philosophically the same idea is expressed by

another sentence that ‘the world is God, and God is my
soul.’ The entire thought resohms around the two
conceptions of Prahmam and Atman. Brahman is
interpreted as the craving and fullness of Atman, hence
it is the will of man In the Vedas it is tised in the
sense of prayer, formula, sacred knov.dedge. Thus it
means the Divine principle v\hich is the cause of
existence aiui roseinb'es the Jewish I'ivinitju It is the
creator God. Atraan of unknown etymology, may ha.ve
been derived froin a root meaning to breathe. Hence it
means breath, self, and soul. Tt denotes “one’s own
person, one’s own body in contrast to the outside world,
sometimes the trunk in contrast to Ihe limbs, but mcst
frequently the scul, the true self, in contrast to t’ne
body.’’ These two conceptions of Brahman and Atman
have been united in the philosophy of Upanishads.
Thus SanJilya declares th it Brahman and Atman are
one, and ‘truly, this All is Brahman.’ Professor Decssen
in his ‘Philosophy of the Upanishais’ elucidates the
conceptions by stating that “The Brahman, the power
which presents itself to us materialised in all existing
things, which creates, sustains, preserves and receives
bade into itself again all woilds, this eternal infinite
divine power is identical with the .-ttm ,n, with that
'Which, after stripping off everything external, we
discover in ourselves as our real most essential being,
our individual self, the soul”. This Upanishad dictum
holding the doctrine of the unity of the world with the
Brahman and of the Brahman with the Atman was
later expressed in the well known words ‘tat tvam asp,
that art thou, that is, the universe and the Brahman,
that art thou thyself. In other words the world exists
only in so far as thou thys-lf art conscious of it. This
confessed faith of millions of Indians still continues
amongst us.
SuTRAS
The Sutra class of literature is treated as un-
revealed though it has deveb ped from the Yidhi or rule
portion of .the Brahmana class. Thus their main
function is to cempliie rules conceinirg the sacrifices,
sacrainents and secular and religious custom and
iisage. Sutras are divided, into three main classes known
Srauta, Grihya, and Dharma but there is a further
304 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

division called Kalpa of which a portion is known as

Sulva. The Srauta-sQtras deal generally with the Vedic
sacrifices compiling the rules for practical purposes of
the priests in doing sacrificial rituals in a shorter and
connected form than in the Vedas and the Brahmanas.
Thus there 'are rules, for instance, concerning the laying
of sacrificial fire, etc. The Grihya-stitras similarly deal
with the Grihya rites or domestic ceremonies Thus
there are rules in connected form concerning the
sacraments including marriage, five-fold daily sacrifices
of the householder, the duties of the student life (Brahma-
charya\ of the forest life (Vaiiaprastha) and of the
renunciation (Sanyasa). The Grihya sutras of Gautama,
Angirasa and Asvalayana are well known. The Dharma
Sutras like those of Manu and others deal with dharma
or right, duty and law derived from religion, custom and
usage. Thus there are both religious and secular laws
governing the duties of four castes, four stages (asrama)
of life, and of the king and ruler. The laws of public
administration includes the system of taxes and revenues,
the machinary of government, the court of justice, the
method of punishment, etc. In some Vedic schools the
Srauta and Grihya Sutras are combined and jointly known
as the Kalpa-sutra. The Sulva -sutras like those of
Baudhayana and Apastambha are supplements to the
Kalpasutras. The terra Sulva means measuring string.
They deal with rules of mensuration and geometry
which were required for the construction of the place
of sacrific and fire altars. Full particulars about the
shape of different altars^ and the bricks which were
employed for their construction. Every one of these
altars was constructed of five layers of bricks, which
together camp up to the height of the knee in seme ;

cases 10 or 15 layers, and the proportionate increase in

the height of the altar were prescribed. Every layer
in its turn was to consist of two hundred bricks, so

1. The types of altars are described. They are known as

Syenachit of the falcon shape m-ade of square bricks. Kanka chit of
the heron'hape, Alajachit without the additional wings. Praugachit
of equildtei'dltriangular shape, ubhayatah Praugachita made up of
two such triangles joined at their bases, Ratha-chakra-chit in the
turiii of a wheel with sixteen si'.okes or without .'-pokes. Drona-chit
otsquare or circular shape, Parichayya-chit or where bricks are
placed insi.x concentric circle, Saniuhya-chit in circular shape, and
Kunud-clht in triangular or circular shape.
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 305

that the whole altar coiit •ine 1 a thousand.

Of the existing Siilvas the A^vyalsyana and Sankha-
yana, both Kalpa sitras, belrng to the Eigveda. To the
Sainaveia also the oaly Kalpa-sCtras are known as the
L'ltyuyana, Gobhila and Jaimimya. The Kalpa-sutras
of the Black Yajiirveda are known as the Baudhayana,
Apastamba, Hiranya-kesi, and Bharadxaja, The Manava
Dharma-sutra also belongs to the sanie Veda. The
Kityayana Kalpa-sutra belongs to the White Yajurveda.
The Kaushitaki Kalpa-satra and the Vaitana-irauta-
SLitra are placed under the Atharva-veda.

YEDaNGAS
The Vedaiigas or limbs or members of the Veda
are works composed in the Sutra style and deal with
‘matter’ rather than ‘spirit’ or ‘form’ and have, there-
fore, no claim to scriptural sacredness and poetic beauty.
They are known as Siksha or phonetics, Chhandas or
metre, Vyakarana or grammar, Nirukta or etymology,
Kalpa or religious practice and ritualistic precepts,
and Jyotisha or astronomy h The first aids the
correct reciting and the understanding of the sacred

ghraniiii tu ve^a'^ya luif^tau Kalijo’tha pathyate !

nayanaiii niukhun'i vyakaranaiii smritam !!

• pS’Liu U' Wda-ya !!
Thi lira’j- of cao Vc i-purU'ha con<i?-t of metres as the feet
I ;

one cannot '..-al!.: or proceed on •vidiov' feet, so al'O no progress in

the understanding oi' th.e Veda is possd le without a knowledge of the
Vedic metres in which tlie ef'ic verges are composed, and which
measure the step^ or Jinoe of tlie voi'ses.
J’he K.iipa-'Ciir 15 d.eanng with rules on rituals arc like hands
and arms of the Veda because the ved c sacrifices, wliich are the main
purpose and iiicans c'f gctrii'.g die chief object, y/r. salvation, can be
correctly perldjrr'ied only ilirioogh tiie direcri('ns tn the Kalpa-sutras.
The Sik-lij j.- lihe the lu se through which the smell
lted to
oL the swoetiiC'S (jf \ cU.c sounds can ho realised.
Tile Vyak.ivaua or g.umm.ir really includes the Nirukta which
deals with one pha-e oi the .vorti-analysis ('(;?. etymology) only. It
is called the moatii o. tlio Veda, because tiie real taste of Vedic
words can bm-eal is, d llir,m.;h the anily'isof Vedic words in all its
aspects.
Lastly Jyotisha or astronoiiiy is stated to be the eye of the
Veda t!ie function of the eyes Is to i-ee and astronomy leads one
:

to gaze beyond this limited world as it explains the relation of this

world with the whole universe. |
39
 306 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

texts and the last

;
two deal with religious rites, and
their proper seasons.
The Siksha (phonetics) class of literature is referred
to in the Taittiriya Aranvaka 1) dealing ‘‘with
letters, accounts, quantity, pronunciation, and eui)honic
(sandhi) rules. Several works having the title of Siksha
have been preserved. They are short manuals contain-
ing directions for Yedic recitation and correct pronun-
ciation.
The treatises known as Piatilil hyas more exclu-
sively deal with Tedic phonetics as they are directly
connccred with the Saihnita pstha and I’adapitha of
the Vedic hymns. They furnish an account of euphonic
combination (sandhi) ar.d rules of phonetics. Of the
four of these tretises one belongs to the Rigveda, one to
the Atharvaveda and two to the Yajur-veda being
attached to the Vajasaneyi and daittiriya saifthita
respectively. The Pratis.ikhyasutra of the Rigveda,
ascribed to Saunaka, the teacher of Ah'alayana, is an
extensive work in three books it was later epitomised
;

in a short treatise Upaiekha. The Taittiriya ITatsakhya

is ascribed to twenty authors and the Vajasaneyi
Pritisakhya to Kttyayana. The Atharva PrStisakhya
belongs to the school of Sauudkas, contains fottr chapters
and deals with grammar more than the other works.
There are Anukramar.i or indices, lists and catalogues
of all metres, sages, etc.
Chhandas or metrics deal chiefly with metrics
which are treate.l in tlie Sauikhyayana Srauta-sutra
(/,27), lUk-Prati;akhya, xhe Nidgna sutra of Sumaveda,
Chh'iinda satra of Piiigala, and two Anukramanis (indices)
of Katyayana.
A yakaraya or grainniar deals with grammatical
analysis which is shown by the Padapathas, for they
separate both the parts of compounds and the prefixes
of verbs, as well as certain suffixes and terminations
of
nouns. The lOur parts of speech (j^adaiitani), which
had already existed, was first mentioned by Yaska as
mman (nouns) including Barvanmian (pronouns)
Akhpta (predicate including verb), upasarga (preposi-
tion), and Nipata (particle). Varna (letters), Vriban
(masculine) \ achana (number), and
Vibhakti (case
ending) had already been mentioned in the
Brabmanas
Aranyakas, Upanjshads and Sutras. Thus
before Yaska’s
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 30?

time (B. 0. 400) grammatical studies had been cultivated

and he mentions twenty grammarians including
Sakatayana, Gargya, and Sakalya. Yaska mentions the
personal terminations and the tense affixes of the verb
and the primary (krit) and secondary, (taddhita) nominal
suffixes. In fact on Bakatayana's theory of the verbal
origin of nouns the whole system of Paninl is founded.
Eules of Panini deal with the Yeiic forms as exceptions
to the classical forms. He is considered “an infallible
authority’’ and has superseded all his predecessors whose
works have consequently perished, and his work entirely
dominates all the subsequent grammatical literature.
Nirukta Yedanga is represented by Yaska alone of
the fifth century B, C. But his Nighantus or collections
of (rare or obscure) Yedic words were based upon five
such precejing collections. The first three of these
contain groups of synonyms, the fourth difficult w^ords,
and the fifth a classification of the Yedic gods _
Yaska
explains in twelve books. The first deals with the
principles of grammar and exegesis;
the second and
third elucidate synonyms, the fourth, fifb, and sixth
comment on the difficult words, and the seventh to
twelfth on the Yedic gods.
The next and only other Yedic commentary is that of
Sayana’s Bhsshya which was composed in the fourteenth
century A, D. Kalpa-vedanga is different from the Kalpa-
sutra which combines the functions of Srauta-sutras wffiich
deal with the sacrifices and of the Grihyasutras which
deal with the sacraments. As a Yedanga the Kalpa is
more properly called Parisish^a (supplements) which
both elaborate and supplement subjects of the Kalpa-
satra. Thus the Eigveda has the Ahmlayana Grihya-
parisishta in four chapters. The Samayeda has the
Gcbhila Grihya BaiUgraha-parisishta^ with a special
leaning towards magical rites 4 he Y' bite Y ajurveda lyas
a similar supplement ascribed to Kaytayana andGobniia,
and called variously Chhaudogyagrihya-parifishta,
Chhandogya-pai’b'ishta, Gobhila-sranti and a^so Karma-
pradipa it deals with the same matters as the Saiiiaveda
;

supplement.
There area few more treatises wl ich besr the
supplementary character. The Prayogas ate the
manuals which describe the course of eacly sacrifice and
functions of the priests as indicated in the Srauta-sutras.
30S INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

They exist in manuscript only. Pad hatis are the

guides which sketch the contents ol the Grihyasutras.
They also exist in manuscript, Karikas are versified
accounts of the ritual. Thej^ are fnrtb.er supplements
to the Prayogas and tne Puddhatis. The first Karika is
attributed to Kumarila of 0 A. Ik
Anukamanis are the Vedic Indices. They give
lists of the hymns, the authors, the metres, and the
deities in the order in which they occur in the various
Sarnhitas. To the Rigveda belong seven of these works
in metrical verses, attributed to Saunaka. Five of them
have been preserved. The ore known as Arshsnukra-
mani which gives a list of the seers (lishis) of the
Rigveda. The Chhandaniikramapi enumerates the
metres in which tlie hymns of the Rigveda are
composed, states for each book th-e number of verses in
each metre and the aggregate in all metres. The
Anuvakanukramani states the iiritial words of eighty-five
lessons (anuvakas) into which the Rigveda is divided
and the number of hymns ‘‘lOlf hymns, 10, 080} verses,
153. 82G words, 43d, uOO syllables” besides other statisti-
cal details. The Padanukramaui existing in manuscript
is an index of lines (pada) of the Rigved.a. The
Suktinukramaui, which does not exist, ‘probably
consisted only of the initial words (pratikura) of the
hymns”. The Devalanukran.ai.fi, not existing bin
whereof quotations are available, is an index cf gees.
It has been superseded by the Biihaddevata which
states the deity ter each verse, and comains a large
number of illustrative m,yths and legends and serves as
an early collection of stories. It refers to a number of
supplementary hymns (khilas) t( the canonical text of
the Rigveda, And the Sarvanckranuiifi, a general index,
states the initial word or words of every hymn in the
Rigveda, as well as the author (rishifi the deity (devata)
and the metre (chhandas) even for single verses.
To the Ssmaveda belong two indices, called Arsha,
and Daivata, They enumerate respectively the seers
(rishi) and deities (.devati) of the text of the Raigeya
branch of the Hima-veda.
To the Black Yajnrveda also bclonp, two indices.
The Anukramaai of the .\treya sehcol contains an
enumeration of names referring to the contents of its
Saiihitr. The Anakramai.fi of the Charayaniya school
of the Kathaka-sarifiiitd is an index of the authors of
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 309

the various seotions and verses. Tt has a different list

of passages borrowed from the Kigveda than that given
in the Sarvanukramani. It is attributed to Atri from
whom Laiighaksbi got it. The Anukramani of the White
Yajurveda of the MaJhyandina school, attributed to
Katysyana, comprises five sections. The first four are
an index of seers (rishis), deities (devata) and ii elres
(chlandas). The fifth section gives an account of the
metres of the text.
Of the several other Parisishtas of the White
Pajurveda three are important. The Nigama-pari^'ishta
is a glossary of synonymous words and serves as a
lexicography. The Iravaradhysya is a list of Brahman
iamilies. The Charana-vyuha enumerates a smaller
number of schools of the various Vedas than found in
the VishnU and Vayu Puranas.

the Atharva-veda belong some seventy Parisi-

To
shtas. of those called also Charana-vyoha states
One
that the Atharva-veda oontais 20f0 hymns and 1"2380
words.
Astronomy or the Vedic calendar is concerned with
the proper seasons for the Vedic sacrifices There are
twm recensions of Vedic astronomy available. One of
these belongs to the Kigveda and the other to the
Vajurveda. But they, however, date far on in the
post-Vedic age when from the fifth century A-D. several
of these treatises came into being. The Jyct^.sha
A'fdanga in verse numbers 43 in Yajurveda and 36 in
Kigveda. They generally deal with the position of the
sun, the mcon, sclstices, zodiac, 27 planets and the new
and full moon, etc
These Yedangas, Parisishfas, and Anukramanis like
the Aranvakas, Upanishads and Sutras, though attached
to the A'^ediis, are written in classical Sanskrit and bear
no accent marks of the Vedas and Brahmanas proper.
Excepting the prayer hymns containing a poetic
description, the rest of this huge amount of the Vedic
liteTciture are scientific records of what the Vedic
Indians actually composed. The varieties of the A edic
literature are smaller compared with those cf the
Romans and the Grecians and of the most advanced
literature of tlie present age. There are no treatises in
the A'edic literature devoted exclusively to history,
geography, moral and physical sciences, mathematics
310 INDIAN- CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION
proper, and various arts, although all these subjects are
occasionally referred to
But the germ of most of the later and modern
developments can be detected in the Vedic records of
thoughts and deeds, which form the earliest literature
of the world It is amazing that at that remote past
a literature of this magnitude and of such a wonderful
scientific basis could have been at all developed. The
supplements to the main literature, of which a brief
survey has been given above, would be a great feat and
test of patience even for the modern age. In point
of fact nothing like these indices exist anywhere even
today.
It is, therefore, not necessary to discuss further
in order to be convinced that the Vedic liierature shows
a high degree of intellectual and cultural development
and a unique state of civilization.

DARSANA (MOKSHA S.dSTRA)

The earliest beginning of Darsana (speculative

philosophy) is traced to the Nfsadiya sokta of Rigaveda
(Mandala, X, 1-29). But the philosophical treatises have
developed directly from the Upanishads. Darsana (seeing)
implies realizati- n of the ultimate truth. According to
the theistic schools of thought that is the avowed object of
life. This ultimate object of life arising out of the practice
of Kama, Artha and Dharma may be achieved through
theology oir the science which treats of God and of man’s
duty to Him. The method is two-fold, namely, the
natural one, as discoverable by the light of reason alone,
and the Positive or Revealed one. The former is the
field of philosophy (darsana'. which deals with the
knowledge of the causes, anl the laws of all phenomena,
and the latter is based on the st’idy of divine revelation.
In the field of religion proper e. Theology) faith
predominates reasoning which is the basis of philo-
sophy (.iar(ana), “Religion means the recognition
of some supernatural powers, of the sense of mafi's
obligation to them, and of the need for propitiating
them by obedience, love and worship through prayers
and through offerings’’. These religious and philosophi-
cal ideas already have appeared in marked development
in the Rigveda before they found m ^st brilliant
exposition in the Upanishads. At an unknown date the
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 3!1

Hindu philosophy was frame 3 by various schools rf

thought into a number of Sutras. Siiuilarly the Jains
and Buddhists founded their schools of philosophical
reflection Eventhe materialists formulate [ their
doctrines ignoring the realization of- God, the avowed
object of theistic philosophy. Each of Hindu schorls
took up, after the period of he Upanishads, the ideas of
earlier thinkers and made into a definite system. Then
came the desire to fix in definite form the doctrines of
the school, and this led to the composition of the Sutras
The Upamiti-bhava-prapancha-kathi 906 A. D.) of
Siddharshi grouped the six orthodox systems, which
accept the Veda as authority, into pairs, viz., Purvami-
msmsa an Vedanta, Ssinkhya and Yoga, and Nyaya ard
i

Vaiseshika. This traditional number of six was upset in

Haribhadra’s shad darsana-samuchchaya (8th century)
vihich deals with Buddhist views, Nyiya, Samkhya, Vai-
seshika, and Purva-mimaiiisa, as well as Jain metaphysics
and very shortly with the Cbarvaka views. The Sarva-
daiflana-siddhanta samgraha, erroneously ascribed to
Sankara, supplies accounts of the Loksyatika, the Jain
system, the Buddhist schools, Madhyamikas, Yogacharas,
Sautrantikas and Yaibhashikas, Yaiseshika-nyaya,
Purva-mimamsa according to Prabhakara and Kumarila’
Samkhya, Fatanjali (Yoga), Yeda-Vyasa and Vedanta
which is the author's own view. The Sarva-dariana-
samgraha of Madhava, son of Sayana (14th century),
deals with the systems arranged from the point of view
of relative errors in it the Chsrvakas are followed by
;

the Buddhists, Jains, Baimnuja, various Saiva schools,

Vaiseshika, Eyaya, Purva-niimarasa, a grammatical
school ascribed to Panini, Samkhya and Yoga ;the
chapter on Vedanta being added latter. The Sarvamata
saibgraha of unknown authorship and date ‘sets three
Vedic schools against three nm-vedic, describes Jain,
Buddhist and materialist views, and then sets out
Vaiseshika ani Eyaya as Tarka and the theistic and
;

atheistic Subkhya mimaibsa and Vedanta as Mlmaiiisa.

;

“These indigenous histories of^ Indian Philosophy

indicate the extensive field of philosophy and its popu-
larity among the intellectual giants.’
The date and order of origin of the original Sutras
in which the various schools developed their doctrines
cannot, however, be ascertained with any certainty.
According to Jacobi (JE AS, XXXf, 1 i) the Nyaya and
^ 1-2 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

Brahma Sutras (vedanta) were composed ‘‘after the

school of Buddhism but before the appearance
nii'iilistic
of the Vii'auavadi idealism <c. 200-450 A, DO, while
the Pui’vau imathsi and Vaimshika might be a little
older The Yogasatra is assigned to the period after
the Vijn-inavada school, and the Saiiikhya to a late date.
Professor Keith does not agree with Jacobi’s views that
the Anvikshikaof Lokayata, Sfrakhya ani Yoga had
definitely developed by 300 B, C. but not the others.
Keith would place all these schools between ‘the dates
of the chief Upanishads and the third or fourth centurv
A.D.’
PuRVAMImaMSa of JAIMlNJi
Performers of Vedic rites found themselves in need
of rules of interpretation (nyayas) to guide them through
the maze of texts The Sutra of the school of Jaimini
essentially_ aims at laying down principles regarding
interpretation of texts in their connexion with carrying
out the sacrificial ritual Man’s duty is the performance
of sacrifice in due manner, and the Veda is the one
authority. The Sutra develops a method, according to
which “the subject is posed the doubt is raised the
;
;

prima facie view is set out then the correct decision is

;

developed, and the matter brought into connexion with

other relevant doctrines.” This method of reasoning
was adopted by Medhitithi and others in deciding legal
difficulties, such as arose from the recognition in the
law schools of many conflicting texts as all having
authority, just as the Vedic texts.
The twelce books of Sutra were commented on by
Upavarsha and later by Sabarasvamin, both of wffiom
wrote also on the Brahmasutra of the Ve ianta.
Sabarasv.Train seems to have known the nihilistic school
of Buddhism, perhaps also the idealistic, and he has a
definite tlieory of the soul which seems to regard it as
produced from the absolute Brahman, but as thereafter
existing independently for ever. This view recurs in
Ramanuja. On the Savara Bhashya two different systems
were founded. The Brihati of Prabhffiara is assigned

1 Referenc 0 is made in the Sutra to itreya,

_ Badari and
liadarayana. Jaimini may not be the originator of this school
bat
lie is no doubt one of the authorities who expounded
-
e system as a
'

whole.
 OEIGINAL LITERATURES 313

to 600 A.D. Kumarila wrote about 700 A.D. in three parts

the Slokavartika, the Tantravartika, and the Tuptika.
Prabhakara^ and Kumarila differ considerably, but both
agree with Sabarasvamin in holding ‘that the individual
soul in seme sense is immortal’. Kumarila complains
bitterly that the ‘Buddhist are the chief enemies of the
\'eda’ he deri les the doctrine of Buddha as the omni-
;

sjient and also the followers of the Buddha Pie decdares

regarding the Lokayatas that the empirical means of
knowledge is worth'ess and illustrates by sayig that ‘if
right be julgel by causing pleasure to others, then the
violation of the chastity of the wife of the teacher as
giving her pleasure would be right instead of a heinous
crime.’
A pupil of Kuiiiirila, Manvlaua Mibra, wrote the
klimiihsauukram ini and Yidhiviveka. On the latter
VaohasputL Milra (3 ;0) wrote a comment, Xyava-
kanika ;
also sets forth Kumarila’s views in his
Tattvabiudu. Tlte later commentaries include the Nyaya-
mata-vist ira of Mil lhava (14th century), the Mlm.Tiusa-
nviiya-prakiha of .dpadova, anl the ArthasaiLgraha
of Laugbakshi Bhaskara. In the Miimeyodaya (160-')
of Naravana Bhtatta the epistimology anl metaphysics
of Kumarila are interestingly summarized.
Uttara-miniainsi or Vedanta of Badarayana Vyasa
is known as the Brahma-sQtra of Bidarayaria, the Uttara
inimamsa, or Sarirak-i-mmiauisT, and the Yelanta. The
last, Vedanta, is the most popular title, because the
system represents the compilation of the philosophical
doctrines of the Upanishads which form the last (outer)
portion of theBr dmiana, the commentary of the A'eda.
The doctrine of Badaiuyapa appears strongly^ against
the Sanikhya system and the atomism of VaisO'hika.
Badai'ayana was not a believer in the illusion (mays)
doctrine of Sankara’s school. He held “that individual
souls, if derived fr^m the absolute, remaine i distinct
from it and real, ard that matter derived also from the
absolute had a distinct reality of its own ’’ The verbal
explanations which origins. lly accompanied the text
cannot be recovered and so permitted the rise of different
interpretations. Thus for a clear expos ioi an of th->
system the commentaries became more important and
popular.
The Gaul ipi iiya Karika of dl5 memorial verses
written by Gan-lapaUa of Bengal (7UU) holds the view
40
3U INDIAN CULTURE AND CIYILZATION

‘that all reality, as we know it, is a mere illusion’. This

is known as the doctrine of Maya which is illustrated
by numerous popular examples such as the phenomena of
dxearrs. the reflection in the n irror, the rope mistaken
in the dark for a srale, so ^oilh. The nenifesla-
tion O'f unreal phenomena from the real absolute is
beautifully illustrated in the lost section (Alatasanti'i by
the brilliant picture of the circle of sparks which a boy
makes when he swings a torch without altering the
glowing end cf the torch. For the source of the
doctrine Mandukya and Maitrayaniya are specially
mentioned This view is found in the nihilistic school
of Buddhism, and the brilliant dlalectLc of Nagarjuna.

In the Sankara Bhashya (788-S-20) on the Brahina-

sutra is found “the full defence and the exposition of
the illusion (niaya) theory wTth^its insistence cn
Advaita, absence of any raiality. Sankara’s system is
more popularly known as the doctrine cf non-duality
(Adyaitak This doctrine is alluded to in the commentaries
of Sankara on the Bhagavadgita, in his Upadesa-sahasri
comprising shorter w'orks including lyrics (like the Dak-
shipamurti-stotra and Mohamudgara) and his Atmabodha
in 67 stanzas, and his Hastamalaka w'hich asserts ‘that
the self as the form of eternal apprehension is all in all ’

His logic starts by denying the truth of the pro] csition

A is either B or not B. Bis dialectical skill is great. He
misrepreseits Eadarayana but he does mere justice to
the Upanishads in holding ‘that at death the soul w’hen
released is merged in the absolute and does not ^continue
to be distinct from it.’ Further expositions of Sankara’s
Advaita system (non-qualified dualism) is attributed to
his pupils. Padmiapada wrote the Pafichapadika cn the first
five books, which was commented on by Prakasatman,
Suresvara wrote the Naishkarma-siddhi in prose
and verses to prove ‘that knowTedge alone achieves
release’, ard the Manasollasa to paraphrase Sankara’s
Dakshinamurti-stolra, and Sarvajfatman^the Samkshepa-
sariraka as a summary of the Sankara -bhashya.
Vachaspati MiiJra (.B.'O) wrote the Bhamtai ‘which is
invaluable for its knowledge of Euddhist views inter alia.
Madhava in his PanchadaB, w Inch was written in part
with PhLrati-liitl a. and Jiva^ra n vkii-vivd a’ definitely
supperts S.artkaia’s view Sril .‘'isha. the poet, wrote
the Khancjana-khanda-khadya and sought to prove the
doctrine of Sankara by proving that all other views are
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 816

contradictory and that all knowledge is vain. Of the

ocher innumerable
. treatises the Vedantasara of
Sudinanda (1500) shows the elaborate confusion of
Saiiikhya tenets with the Vedanta. The Vedanta-
paribhasha of Dharmaraja is a manual of the modern
school of Vedanta.
Kamanuja 'ILOOj of Kanchi, who studied under
the Advaita philosopher Yfidavaprakisa and was the
head of a Vaishn. i .'.a sect, held a different view of the
Upanibhads and of the Brahmasutra of Badaroyana.
He wrote his Sribhasyha on the Brahmasutra, Gita-
bhashya, Vedartha-samgraha where the theory of illusion
(Miya.i was criticised, and Ved,antadipa which contains a
summary of his own doctrine. His views were defended
against those of Saukara in the Vedanta-tattva-sara of
Sudarsana Suri, and expounded in the Yatindra-mata-
dipika of Srinivasa. Ramanuja himself cites the
A'akyakara, the Vartikakara Baudhayana and relies on
the ?ar.ulilya sutra for the true doctrine of the Brahraa-
SQtra. Differirg from Sankara in essentials Ramanuja
holds the view “that if in a sense there is an absolute
whence all is derived, the individual souls and matter
still have a reality of their own, and the end of life is
not the merger in the absolute but continued blissful
existence”. This blissful existence can be attained
not through ,the true knowledge (Jnsnamarga) of the
absolute as Sankara held but through faith in and
devotion to God (Bhakti-marga) which is the true
Vaishnava principle. Thus the system of Ramanuja
is known as the Vibbshtadvaita (qualified non-dualism).
Nimbarka, a pupil of Ramanuja, wrote the Vedanta-
Parijata-saurabha commenting ^ on the Brahma-sutra,
and the Siddhinta-ratna in 10 Slokas summing up his
syste.n. h'allabha (1376-1430) w’rote the Anubhashya
on the Bidarayna- sutra, in which Vishnusvamin’s new
aspect of theory was developed, and a doctrine of
Bhakti, in which the teacher on earth is regarded as
divine and receives divine honours, is propounded.
‘More distinctive is the dualis.m of Madhava or
.vnandatirtha who commented on seven of the important
IJpanishads, the Bhagavad-gita, the Brahma-siitra, and
the Bhigavata Purina His principles are briefly set
out in the Tattva-sarnkbyina and a number of inde-
pendent tracts He insists on the existence of five points
of fundamental dualism (dvaita) whence his system
31G INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

derives its name, as opposed to^Ad\^aita of Sankara

and Visishtidvaita of Ramanuja. Srinivasa suniinarizes
the vie vV of Ramanuja, Vishnu Svamin Nimbarka and
Maclhava in a Saiiigraha work.

XYaYA-SuTRA of GAUTAMA
The Mnnaiiisa school appears to ha^m givmn an
impulse to the logical method. The process of reasoning
and laws of thought were methodically developed in
the Nyaya system. The term Nj^aya signifies going
into (a subject) taking it as it were into pieces. Thus
the system aims at a correct' method of philosophical
inquiry into all the proofs through which the mind
arrives at the true knowledge of all the objects and
subjects. It holds matter and souls as eternal and
uncreated. It mentions God (Rwara) once but does
not recognize His moral attributes ant the govermrient
of the world.
The beginning of the Nyayasutra is ascribed to a
Gautama (oOO B.C ) while the true Nyaya ascribed to
is
Akshapada (150 A.D). The Nysyabhashya of Pakshila-
Svainin Vstsyayana (-200 B. 0.) propounds modifica-
tions of the Nyayasutra into short sentences comparable
to Vai'tikas. The Nyayavartika * 0! Udyotakara
Bharaclvaja (620), a fervent sectarian of the Pasupata
belief, defended 'i'dtsayana and explained the Nyaya-
sutra and Bhishy^a. The Nyriya-Vurtika-tatparyatika
of Vrichaspati-Misra (850) is a further comment on it.
In the tenth century IJdayana wrote the Tatparya-
parisuddhi as a further comment, the Kusumafijali in
Krudkas with a prose explanation, wherein the existence
of God was proved, and the Baiiddha-dhikkara wherein
the Nihilistic Buddhist system was assailed.
The chief Buddhist logician Digiiaga (before
ICO) wrote the Pramana-samuchchaya-Nyaya-pravesa
and other texts preserv'ed onU in translations. He
developed a doctrine of knowledge which in certain
aspects influenced the views of Kant as there is a close
affinity. In the Nyayabindu Dharmakirti vindicated
Hignaga. This work was commented by Dharmottara
(800) and by Mallavadin in his Nyayabindutika-tippani
of the Jain works on Nyaya. Biddha-Sena-Divakar’s
Nyayavatrira is assigned to 5'53 and Manikyanandin’s
Pariksh?i-mukha-sutra to (800) on which Anantavirya
 ORIGINAL I.ITERATURES 317

commented in the 11th century. Hemachaiidra (1033-

1172) wrote in siitra style the Framana-mircrur.sa,
Jayanta (bth century) wrote the Nyaya-mafijari which
comments on the Xyriya-sntra and criticises the
Buddhists and the Jains, Bhusarvajna’s Nyayasara (900)
which shows a marled Saiva tendency and embodies
Vaiseshika doctrines and VaradaiTija’s Tarkika-raksha
which knows Kumarila were mentioned in the Sarva-
darlana-saiiigraha (13d0)
The Tattva-chintamani of Gangesa (IdOO) appeared
in four books ;
it expounds with much subtlety the
means of proof permitted in the Nyaya, incidentally
expounling the metaphysics of the school at the
same time. Ganges'a’s followers include, his son Vardha-
mana, Jayadeva, and Raghunatha-Siromani (1500).
Under his inspiration Icgic (Nyilya) rose to “a developed
and able scheme of inference based on' universals and
the formation of universals it explained by a well
thought out metaphysical theory”. In the 16th century
the Navya-nyaya “Sanskrit schools of Navadvipa (in
Bengal) formed the centre of intellectual life in the
country.”

YAlSESHlKA-SuTRA OF KANADh
The Ahiiseshika-sutra is ascribed to an unknown
author or school wdiose nickname is Kanada, atorn-eater,
because the system is based on the uncreated and
eternal atoms of which the Creator, individual souls and
matter are formed. hile Nyaya-sutra deals essentially
with logical reasoning, the A^ais^eshika-sutra (200 B. C.)
represents a naturalistic view rvhich finds in atoms
the basis of the material world. Both Sutras accept in
some measure the view of the other. The Vaib'eshika
doctrine agrees in many points with the Jain philoso-
phical views. Thus it believes that^ the real activity
of the soul, denied by the Vedanta of Sartkara, holds the
effect to be different from the cause, the qualities from
the substance, and accepts atoms. It is not clear if
the A'aibhshika ever was materialistic in the Lokayata
sense of “deriving the soul from the matter”. The
original view of the two Satras as to God is disputed,
both say very little on the topic “But the title may be
due to working over at the time when they had become
definitely theistic schools.”
3!S INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

The Paclartha-dhariiia-samgraha of Prasastapada

(oth century A DO is hardly a comment on the Vaideshika-
Sutra because it gives “a completely new exposition of
the same subject-matter, with additions of importance.”
The Nyayakandali of Sriihara (991) is a commentary
on it it holds the same view of theism and adds the
;

non-existence as a seventh to the six Nyaya categories-

substance, qualicy, action, generality, particularity and
inherence, whence the name of the system is usually
derived, and its inseparable relation. Udayana also
wrote a comment, Kiranavali, on Prasastapada’s
Pdiashya, andean independent text, the Lakshanarali. The
Upaskara of Sankara Misra (I6u0) is a formal comment
on the Yaiseshika-sutra but not an adequate one.
There are a number of short handbooks which deal
with the (ioctrines of both as a whole and present a
fusion of the tw6 traditions, atvi serve as the guide books
to'the two schools. They inclu ie the Saptapadarthi of
Sivaditya whiclt is date! earlier than Gaugesa the
;

Tarkabhasha of Kebava Misra which is assigned to the

13th or 14th century the Tarka-kaumudi of Laughakshi
;

Bhaskara which dates after 1100 the Tarka-sarhgraha of

;

Annam Bhatta of southern India which has an important

commentary before loSo ; and tbe Tarkamrita of
Jagadlb'a (1700). The Bhasha-parichcheda of Yisva-
natha (l634) consists of 166 memorial and borrowed
verses. In this period the divergence of view between
Nyaya and Vaiseshika had reduced to minor points. The
schools were now fully theistic; Udayana like Udyotkara
was probably a Saiva and identified God with Siva.

B.dMKHYA-SijTRA OF KAPIL A
Both the authorship and date of the rrimkhya-
Jacobi and other European scholars
SCitra are uncertain.
do not accept Kapila as the founder of the system.
They also doubt the traditional date, 300-550 B. C.
because the development out of it of the Buddhist
doctrine is not admitted, both the doctrines Ivcing'
ascribed to some Upanishads. The Katha Upanishad
is regarded as a preliminary stage in the development
of the Simkhya system. But the Saiiikhya system does
not adopt the authority of the Veda. The Absolute of
the Upanishads tends to become meaningless with the
Samkhya. It postulates only an infinite number of
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 319

spirits ;
similarly divorces matter from tie absclute,
it
ascribing to it the power of evolution consciousness is
;

explained by seme form cf contact between spirit and

matter and release (moksha) is attained when the
;

unrealiiy (/f any connexion between the two is appre-

ci-cted. This is “undoubtedly an illogical and confused
sjstem, for in it spirit is meaningless, and its connexion
with nature, being nonexistent, cannot serve as the
motivo for bondage.” On the basis of the XJpanishads
where water, fire, and earth appear as the three
fumla mental elements uerivod from the Creator or
perva led by him, the Bsiukhya admits the cenceptiou of
three principles or properties (gunas) which are consti-
tuents rather than qualities, as pervading nature and
man alike, liz. Sattva (germ of creation), Kajas ('desire
for creation) and Tamas (ignorance of tlie effect of
creation) Prakriti and Purusha are the two primary
agencies of creation. But the eternal and unchangeable
Purusha, coinprising countless souls of individuals, is
without ’qualities and properties, mnd inactive until
combined with Prakriti.
The extant Simkhya-sutra is considered to be a
later text, because it is not used in the Sarva-darlana-
saiiigraha and is commented on by Aniruddba (14501
The Sutras given by Sildharsbi in the Upamiti-
bhava-prapaficha-kathi are not in it. The system
here is fully developed and scripture is invoked in
support of it. EecogPxition of the distinction between
spirit and matter comes by instruction as in case of the
king's son brought up by a hunter (bubara) when the
truth cf his origin was disclosed to him at once assumed
the princely bearing and mien. That the forgetting
of truth brings sorrow is similarly illustrated by the
story of the king who married a frogmaiden who
turned into frog at the sight of water. In addition to
Aniruddha’s comment, the work of Vijnana-bhikshu seeks
to deal with Sariikhya, not as opposed to the Vedanta but
as representing one aspect of the truth of that system. He
also wrote the Sariikhyasara (10.50). The Tattva-samasa of
not much philosophic interest is ascribed before 1600.
Tlie Baiiikhya-karika of I^vara Krishna (32() is the first
delinito text on Saiiikhya. Varshaganya according to
ParamaiTha, wrote a Shas’ititantra on the Saiifichya who.se
views w'ere corrected by his pupil Vindhyavasa in a
sot of Golden Seventy verses which were (riticized
3-20 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

by Vasubandhu (H20) in his Parniartha-saptati.

Vindhyavasa is identifiei by some with Is vara
Krishpa whose Kiriki with a commentary was
translated into Chinese by Paramartha in 357*569.
The Samkhya-tattva-kaumudi of Vachaspati Misra,
who cites a Kaja-Vartika of Rana-raagamalla or
Bhoja shows traces of the distinctive feature of
Saihkhya exposition.

YOCASbTRA OF PATANJALi.
The author and date of the Yoga-sutra are also
uncertain. This Patanjali is not the same person as
the author of the gramatical commentary Mahabhishya,
This system is closely allied to if not a direct descendant
of the Samkhya and should therefore be placed to a
later date. As a system Yoga has been developed
under Samkhya influence, because the aim of the former
is to find union (yoga) with Cod, hence it insists on
finding a place *for the deity as the twenty-sixth
principle in addition to the twenty-five of the Samkhya.
Thus God of the Ycga doctrine is a soul different from
the individual souls. The union (yoga) between the
supreme and individual souls is obtained by eight ascetic
practices including suppression of the breath leading to
deep concentration. This doctrine is adopted in
'

Buddhism and Jainism and Yoga can, therefore, figure in

all philosophies. The relation of the indiviiual spirit
to God is treated as a part of the ethics of Yoga or
Kriya-Yoga.
The Yoga-Bhashya of Vyasa appears to have
moulded the original sense to his own views. It was
commented on by Vachaspati Misra (850) and by
Vijiianabhikshu. Another important comment on the
Yoga-sQtra is the Haja-martaricia ascribed to Bhoja,
The work falls into four parts, dealing with the nature
of concentration, the means towards it, the winning
by it of supernatural powers, and the state of Kaivalya
(absolutism) which results from complete concentration.
The late works such as the ITatha-yoga-pradipika of
Svatmmrsma Yogindra, the Goraksha-sataka of
uncertain authorship, and the Gheranda-samhita also
of dubious age and authorship supply the information
in detailregarding the practices followed to induce the
trance condition.
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 321

charvakas or LOKAYATAS
The Lokayata (papular) philosophy of common
sense is known as the Charvgka school. The term
Ohai’vaka applied to it may have been due to a teacher
of that name, or may be an abusive nickname. No
books of these materialists exist but the works were
current under the name of Brihaspati who was the
teacher of the Asuras or infidels. From the summaries
of their doctrines by their opponents only it appers
that “they enleavoured to prove the birth of spirit
from matter by analogies from chemistry, and contended
that as this was the origin of the body, so when it
dissolved in death, the spirit ceased to be,” Thus
this system asserts that soul is not different from body,
and that the phenomena of the world are produced
spontaneously. It admits four eternal principles
(tattvas), viz., earth; air, fire, and water. It rejects
all sources, of true knowledge except the sense-perception
(pratyaksha). It is purely materialistic and openly
atheistic.

JAINISM
Jainism, unlike the Hindu schools of philosophy,
is partly philosophical and mostly religious. The
traditions ascribe the original doctrine to Psrsvanatha
who died about ”75 B. C. When the two sects of the Jains
came into being about the 4th to 2nd century B. C,
the Svetambara sect who put on white (Sveta) clothes
(ambara) carried on the inspiration of Parsvanstha.
About 230 years after this traditional originntor, Jain
Vardhamana (who died at Pava about B. C. 546) founded
the actual Jain doctrine. He was born of a Kshatriya
prince, Siddhirtha of Vai.sali and of Trisala, sister of a
Lichchhavi prince of Nepal. He married, had a
daughter and then renounced the world and became a
Nirgrantha (tieless, nude) ascetic and died at Pava
between B. C. 675 and 467. His followers adopted the
more austere asceticism and are known as the
Digambaras (clad in space, i e. nude) The two sects
own their slightly different canons and scriptures.
The philosophical categories of Jainism resemble
the materialistic principles of the Vais'eshika school
of thought, who adopted atomic theory to explain
41
322 INDIAH CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

creation without the agency of a personal God, The

categories (dravya) comprise animate conscious (jiva)
and inanimate (ajiva), akasa (space), pudgala (matter),
dharma (energy), and adharma (motionlessness). All
these consist of atoms (anu and paramana), an atom
and a combi nation of atoms. The release according
to them is an outcome of the simultaneous action of
right observation, right knowledge and right conduct.
Thus Jainism is dualism, not of individual souls and
sripreme soul, but of individuals (human actions\ and
matter (natural forces). Human il's are the result
of former acts. The misery of existence is due to the
ignorance of these facts. This ignorance can be
removed by a guide or sa’viour. The salvation or cure
for sufferings lies in the prevention of new Karnmn
(acts) from encumbering our fundamental freedom,
and in the dissolution and elimination of the Karman
accumulated in it. “ The warmth of asceticism hastens
the ripening of the results c f Karman and effects a
cleansing which returning each substance to its place
restores us to our native purity.”
The Jain contribution to philosophy, so far as
itwas original, lies in the effort to solve the contrast
between what is abiding and what passes away. It
insists that there isan abiding reality, which, however,
is constantly ending change. This is a doctrine of
the Syadavada school of logic which asserts ‘that in one
sense something may be asserted while in another it
may be denied. But in Jain philosophy no serious
development of metaphysics could take place because
the Jain traditional philosophy could not be rationalized.’
The Sutras and commentary of the Tattvarthadhi-
gama-sutra of Umasvati supply a very careful summary
of the system. This view was_ supported by Samanta-
bhadra (7th century) in his Apta-mimaiiisa on which
Akalanka commented. Both were attacked by
Kumarila and defended against him by Vidyananda
in his comment on the Aptamimarusa and by Prabha-
chandra, a Digambar Jaiji, in his Nyaya-kumuda-
chandrodaya and Prameya-kamala-martanda. The
other works include Subhachandra’s Samuchchaya,
Loka-tattva-nirnaya, Yoga-drishti-samuchchaya, Yoga-
bindu and Dharma-bindu which give a review of
ethics for laymen, monks, and the blessings of Nirvana ;

Hemachandra’s Yogassstra, and ATtaragastuti on which

 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 323

Mallisena wrote in 1292 Syadavada-mafijari; Achadhara's

Dharmainmrita (13th century) which contains a full
account of the whole subject ; and Sakalakirti’s (15th
century) Tattvaitha-sara-dipika which supplies a
full account of the Digambara sacred books, and
Irasnottaropasakachara which in the form of question
and answer deals with the duties of laymen.

BUDDHISM
Buddhism turned into pure metaphysics on the
one hand and developed on the other into a religion
with a growing likeness to Hinduism. It made its
appearance as a younger brother, if not the descendant,
of Jainism. It had its origin in the same parts ;

it developed in the same circumstances and its ;

inspiration was always fundamentally similar. In the

earlier years the Buddhist apostles imitated the
Nirgantha (tieless, naked) Jainas. In the later centuries,
however, it was rather Jainism that modelled its
legends and dogmas, and rules of life on Buddhist forms,
whose reputation and power of attraction were far
greater.

Following the Hindu doctrine of Karman (action)

before his final birth Buddha transmigrated innumerable
times as Bodhisattva who had been miraculously
born without ‘parental intervention.’ Siddhartha
Gautama Sakya* was born in -550 B. C. of a Kshatriya
prince Suddhodana and queen Mayadevi (divine
illusion) in the Lumbini garden in the valley of Nepal.
He married Yasodhara who bore him a son Eahula.
He renounced the world on the birth of his son at the
age of 29 years. He was disturbed at the sight of an
old man worn with years (jara), an incurable invalid
(duhkha), a death-scene (marana) and an ascetic (morti-
fication). His mission was to seek remedies for these
four miseries. He practised austerities for seven years
at Urubilva under a fig tree and received full and
complete enlightenment (samyak-sambuddhi) and
assumed the title of Buddha (enlightened). He
preached his first sermon, known as the Dharma-chakra-

1 Gautama was thu name ol' a sectu’iu uf the Sikya clan to

which Siddh:\riha belonged.
321 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

pravartaija (setting in motion the wheel of law) at

deer-park in Sarnath, north of Benares. He died
and got the Nirvana (cessation of further birth) at
Kushinagar, east of Gorakhpur, at the age of 80 in 477
B. C.

On the assumption that early Buddhism followed

the philosophical categories of Jain'sm. it also resembles
the materialistic principles of the Vaiseshika school
of thought, who adopted atomic theory to explain
creation without the agency of a personal God. The
transmigration as Budhisattvas implies the existence
of individual souls, and force of Karman (action) which
causes the transmigration indicates another entity
which is equivalent to the supreme soul of the orthodox
systems. The metaphysical doctrines of Buddhism
consist of four noble truths (arya-satyani), viz., all
that exists is subject to suffering ; the origin of
suffering is in human desires suppression of suffering
;

and the way which leads to that suppression

of suffering cornes from the suppression of desires ;

and the way which leads to that suppression is the

eight-fold path comprising rightness of intention, of
will, of speech, of action, of life (living\ of aspiration,
of thought, and of concentration. This path led Buddha
himself to rest, knowledge, illumination (bodhi) and
salvation (nirvana). Buddhists like the Hindus believe
in heaven and hell, and the force of Karman (action)
whose reaction causes rebirth. Buddha himself refused
to decide whether Nirvana (salvation) is complete
extinction or an unevading state of unconscious bliss,
which is the view of the Vedanta philosophy according
to which the individual soul is merged into supreme
soul (Brahman) on attaining salvaticn. Thus it is
difficult to accept the interpretation that “ the Buddhist
doctrines consist in the denial of soul, momentary
existence of all things, and the a-nnihilation of self
amounting to salvation.” The authorities quoted below
will justify the conclusion that at some stage of its
development the Buddhism had to admit the self-
existent Adi Buddha who is equivalent to the Creator
(Tod) of the orthodox systems. There were also the
individual souls who were born and reborn, who went
to heaven and hell, who ultimately emerged into the
Creator (Go!) and escaped the miseries of life. The
third entity, rH. force of Karman (action) which
 OBIGIMAL LITERATURES 3-25

causes migration of individual souls, is really the

same as the Creator God who through the agency of
h arman ;,action) regulates the individual souls. Thus
like the Yedanta Buddhism appears to accept two
truths, viz “ the higher which en<is in the vacuity
(sunyata) of all conceptions; and -the lower which
allows for ordinary life.”
The Mahavastu, a Vinaya text, supplies a partial
Buddha biography including many Jataka stories of
the Buddha in previous births, an account of the ten
stages through which a Bodhisattva, miraculously
born without parental interventions, must move to
achieve Buddhahood. The Lalita-vistara gives a
biography of the Buddha which has been altered in the
sense of the Mahay ana development of Buddhism and
reveals the portrait of the Buddha in the Gandhara
sculptures. The Mahayana-sraddhotpada of Asvagcsha
develops a complex system of philosophical thought
in which the influence of the Brahmanical absolute
appears distinctly operative. “ The Divyavadsna,
Avadana-s'ataka and several other works explain certain
ritual vows. Of the Mahayana-sutras proper the most
prominent one, the Sad-dharma-pundarika, displays
throughout the ideal of the Bodhisattva and glorifies
the Buddha as a being of inaffable glory and might.
The Avalokitesvara-guna-kai’anda-vyuha in prose (before
270 A. D.) recognizes an Adi Buddha or (Jreator God
and contains the story of the visit of Avalokitesvara
to the abode of the dead. The Sukhavati-vyuha glorifies
the paradise of Amitabha. The Amitayurdhyana-
sutra, extant in a Chinese version, explains hew by
meditation on God to attain this paradise. The Karuna,
pupdarika, translated into Chinese before 600 A. D,
describes another heaven known as Badmottara. The
Avataihsaka-stitra also called Ganda-Vyaha, the chief
work of the Ke-gon sect of -Japan, rendered into Chinese
by 420, records the worship of Manju-s'ri.
The Lankavatara-sutra before 443 i^ more philo-
sophical and develops the nihilistic and idealistic
doctrines. The Dasabharailvara^mahayana-sutra deals
with the ten stages to Buddhahood. The Samadhi-raja
deals with meditation. The Prajna-paramitas, the
most famous of w’hicb, the Vajra-chhedika, spread over
Central xlsia, China, and Japan, assent that
intelligence, the highest of perfections (paran)itas)
b-26 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

of the Buddha consists in the recognition of the

vacuity (sunyata of everything). These views are more
clearly brought out in the Madhyamikasutra of
Nagarjuna, a Biahmin of southern India, whose
nihilistic or negativistic doctrine accepts, as does
the Yedanta, two truths, the higher which ends in the
vacuity of all conceptions owing to self-contradiction,
and the lower which allows for ordinary life.
The Yijiiana-vada school (of Mahayana) is
represented by Asanga’s Bodhisattva-bhumi, the
Yogachara-bhomisastra, and the Mahayina-sutralankara,
The tenets of the Sarvastivadin and the other schools
of the Hinayana are explained by Asanga’s brother,
Yasubandhu, in his Gatha-sariigraha and the Abhi-
daarmakosa. His Paramartha-saptati is an attack
on the Sariikhya system.
The Dharanis implying spells of all kinds occur
in Chinese version of the 4th century. They include
magic, eroticism and mysticism in the usual Tantra
manner of Hinduism. The Shin-gon sect in Japan
rests on Tantras, Japan preserved since 609 the Prajna-
paramita-hridaya-sutra where the philosophical
doctrines were condensed.
Following the Jainism and the Buddhism a few
minor schools arose out of the crthodox systems, which
were predominantly religious in character. Thus Eama-
nuja as already referred to combines three separate doc-
trines of unity, duality and plurality as he admits three
independent existences, viz., the supreme Being, the
individual souls, and the visible world (drisya-jagat).
Madhava-sayana held in their Porva-praina sysj;em
Yishnu to be the one eternal Being and Brahma, Siva
and ^individuals as the individuals subject to decay.
The Saiva system as expounded in the .Agamas admits
the existence of their separate entities, viz., the Lord
(pasu]:ati), individual souls (pasii), and matter (pasa or
fetter), but Nakulesvara excluies matter and admits
the Lord and individual souls. How the system of
philosophy can degenerate into curious religious
observance is illustrated by the mercury (rasa) system
w’hich hoi Is '
that liberation results from knowledge,
and knowledge from study,- and study from a healthy
body. After the acquisition of a divine body by
application of mercury (rasa) the light of pure
 '

ORIGINAL LITERATURES 3-27

intelligence shines forth and one can get liberation

from the erivel^ping illusion and attains the absolute.
In the Bhagvad-Gita on the other hand a synthetic
system was foll''wed. It harmonizes the doctrines
of the Yoga. Samkhya, and Vedanta, combining with
them the religious dogma of faith *bhalvti) in L.rishna
and devotion to duties (dharma). The composite
character is revealed in an attempt to establish the
three paths of emancipation of individual souls, viz.
karman, jnana, and bhakti. In the first six chapters
the benefits of the Yoga is shown, pointing out that
asceticism and self-mortification or Yoga should be
joined with action in performing caste duties (dharma).
Thus annihilating individuality one can see God in
everything and everything in God. In the second
section of six chapters the pantheistic drctrines of
the Vedanta are illustrated by admiring Krishna
as the great universal spirit. In the last six chapters
the Satiikhya and Vedanta doctrines are interwoven.
It accepts the doctrine of a supreme spirit as the
first source of the universe and asserts that Prakriti
and Purusha both emanate from the Supreme Being.
It also maintains the individual souls.

To sum up it may be reiterated that the Samkhya

system starts with 04 categories, the Nyaya with
16 categories, the Mimaitisa with 8 categories, the
3
Vaiseshika with 7 categories, the Ramanuja^ with
categories and the Vedanta with two categories (chit
and achit) L The Nyaya assumed a personal Creator,
Vedanta an impersonal Brahman, Mimarasa an eternal
Veda (or sound) Vaiseshika derived all creations from
;

atoms, and Vedanta from universal spirit. The deduction

of Nyaya- Vaiseshika tended towards materialism and
disbelief, and those of Mimaiiisa and A^edanta fowards
mysticism.
Striking similarities between Indian and Greek
philosophy are well worth noticing. The parallelism
of Vedanta and the Eleatics of Plato has been esta-
blished. The claim that Pythagoras learned philosophic
ideas from India is widely accepted, A wide influence

1 Western systems of philosophy had their own categories,

for instance, Aristotle’s ten categories include substance, quality,
quantity, relation, place, time, iortune, property, activ-ity, and
passivity.
328 INDIAN CULTUEE AND CIVILIZATION

of the Simkh'j a on Greece is not dubious to many. The

influence on Ileraklietos, Empedokles, Anaxagoras,
Deni okritos, and Epikuros is undeniable. An influence
of Indian thought on the Gnostics and Neoplat mists is
also plausible to a certain extent. On the ot.ier hand
‘suggestions are so often made to fix in Greece the
origin of Indian logic or strong influences on its develop
ment, or again the source of the atomic doctrine which
is accepted by the Jains and the Vaiseshika Bchool’.
“We may regard such influences as reasonable”, says
Professor Keith, “but we must admit its real proof is
wanting. If India borrowed, she had the power to give
her indebtedness a distinctive character of its ownl and
a certain argument against indebtedness can be drawn
from cases in which Indian borrowing is undoubted.”
Indian influence is noticed elsewhere also. “In Persia
Indian doctrine doubtless had considerable influence
but it is extremely difficult to assign to India views
which may not have been originated in Persia or Asia
Minor.”
Theology, it may be noted, is the science which
treats of God, and of man’s duty to him. It is known
as Natural when it is discoverable by the light of
reason
alone ; it is Positive or Revealed when it is based
on
the study of divine revelation. As a science proper
It has afhnity with the orthodox schools or
the Theistic
systems of philosophy. The various forms of
religion
developed out of the Positive or Revealed theology
The treatises on theology are ‘often closely
allied
with Vedanta ideas, powerfully affected by the
Ssmkhva
and have strong affinities to the conceptions of
the Yoga philosophy is an ordered exposition.’
which
earliesf text is the Yogavasishtha which
The
is reputed as
an appendix to the Ramayana. It is not
much dis
tmgmshed from the Vedanta. It deals with all manner
of topics including final release. The
Yogava^isbtha-sara
^^.^^^^"^bhinanda (9th century) is a summary
m oWer text. The Jaimini Bharata, an imitation of
.u®
the Mahabharata, rs intended as the of
earliest text-book
of a Vaishnava sect.
The Pancharatra school of Vaishnavas
is repre-
Samhita-s (compilations) of
very early ap.
eL^lv aJe^® The Ahirbudhnya which probably
belongs to the period of the
Mahabharata mixes
 ORIGINAL LILERATURES 32Q

\'edraita and Satnkhya ideas. The Naraia-paacharatra

(IGth cent-iry) gives the best account of the schorl.
The Isvara-saiiihita which is quoted jn the 10th century
and the Brihat-Brahraa-sauihita allude to the doctrines
of Pu'iraan'ija
; these doctrines gave rise to divergent
schools of thought whose differences were based on
minor points such as the necessity or otherwise of
activity by the soul which sought salvation or as the
position of Lakshmi, wife of Vishnu. The doctrines
of Ri na luja as already -tated admit of three indepen-
dent existences, viz i\\Q Supreme Being (Vishnu), the
,

iniividual souls, and the visible world. The system

of Madhava-siyana is on the other hand a doctrine of
duality, Vishnu being held to be the one etern-il Being
and the spirits of men being distinct fiom the spirit
of Goi. The Bhaktisastra ascribed to Nar r :1a, and the
Bhakfcisutras of Sandilya are late production. The Hindi
Bhaktimala which is quite modern is interesting as it
supplies the technical explanations of the doctrine of
faith which is the chief feature of Yaishnavism,
Two schools of Saivism with close affinity to the
Vedanta developed in Kashmir The Siva-Sutra of
Vasugupta (9 th cemury) on which Kshemaraja
commented in the 11th century, and the Spandukarika
of Kallata represent the first school. Here God (Siva)
appears as Creator without material cause or the
influence of the past action (karman) ;
He creates by
the mere effort of His will. The other school is
represented by the Pratyabhij ladastra which owes its
lame to the Sivadrishti and the Pararaartha-'astra of
Somananda (900) and the dsvara-pratyabhij la a-sutra
of his pupil Utpaladeva. It is also briefly summerized
in the Virupaksha-panchauka of Virupakshanatha.
According to this system it is necessary for man to
realize that he has within him the perfections of God,
so that he may enjoy the delight of identity with God.
Of the other Saiva system Srikantha Sivacharya who
wrote a Saiva-bhas lya on the Brahn.a-Sutra of Vedanta,
and Appayya Dikshita ;16th century) belonged to the
Vira-Siva or Lingayata ^school of Southern India, in
which Bhakti towards Siva is specially^ inculcated.
According to the system of the Siva Agamas there are
,

three entities, liz., the Lord (l^asiipati or Siva), the

individual soul (paHi). and the matter (pasa or fetter) ;

the liberation of soul (pab'u) is obtained by its four feet,

12
330 INDIAN CULTUEE AND CIVILIZATION

jnana (knowledge), krlyfi (ceremonial action), yoga

,

(meditation), and charya (practical duty). The Pasupata

system of ISlakulei^ara as noted above excludes matter
and holds the Lord (pati) as the Creator and cause of
all things (p?Ou). The RasebVara system as stated above
holds that liberation results from knowledge, knowledge
from study, and study from healthy body. The divine
body is obtained by applicaticn of mercury (rasa), on
which the light of pure intelligence shines forth.
Thereafter one can get liberation from the enveloping
illusion and attain the absolute.

,
Like the Vaishnavas and Saivites, there are the
Saktas who are the worshippers of Sakti, the female
energy. They are divided into two classes, viz, Dakshina-
charis and h amachavis The latter group derived their
authority from the Tantras and followed the fierce form
of the Saktis and the licentious form of worship with
wine, woman, fish, flesh and mystic gesticulation
(mudra). The other group represents the real Saktas.
They personify the two fold nature, gentle as Urn a- and
and fierce as Kali.

The
essen'ce of the Tantras, however, is to clothe
in the garments of mysticism the union of the soul
with the Go or the Absolute. The Tantra literature is
i

sufficiently old cf which mamiscripts existed from 6 J9

onwards. They includ" the Ivuki-chuciamani-tantra, the
Fulari.iava, Jiiauarnava, Tai traraia, Mahanirvac.a, etc. The
Lingayatas of the fc’outh have a Vira-mahebVara-tantTa

CLASSICS
The
literature m
classical Sanskrit also supplies
the records of thoughts and deeds cf the descendants
of the Indo-Aryans, more generally known as Hindus.
This later literature has greater varieties but lacks in
purely scrip ku’il works except the Tantras and the
canonical works of the Buddhists and Jains. Epics
appear in their proper form of heroic poems and legends
concerning kings and dynasties. Furaiias dealing with
legends of Gods and dynasties are partly historical and
mostly mythological in character and cover ;in extensive
field. Tantras, Saiiihitas, Agamas and Nigamas deal
with the worship of female deit es side by side with
biva and \ isnnu of the Purauas. The Kavyas or poems
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 331

show greater intensity of imagination and more

conscious effort to beautify the form of language in
artificial poetry. Rom antic tales in prose ani verse,
and didactic fables in prose and ethical lyrics in
verse, the dram.as in prose, verse, both in
Sanskrit and Prakrit, form a distinct addition to the
artificial poetry. Directly from the later speculative
portion ,of the Brahrnanas the philosophical treatises
have developed, which combine speculation with theo-
logy. All these are records of thoughts. Science of
language, science of civil and religious laws, sciences
of politics, economics ani practical life, science of
love, science of medicine and surgery, and the sciences
of astronomy, astrology and mathematics, and guides
on various arts ani crafts supply the records of Hindu
deeds.

The Buddhists and Jains have canonical treatises

which are partly practical But there are also a few
sciences or treatises on fine arts and crafts. The
Vedic literature is essentially rel’gious. The classical
literature, abundantly developed in every other direction,
is not so sacred but largely secular in nature. The spirit
of the former is optimistic while that of the latter is
permeated with the doctrine of transmigration according
to which all beings pass by gradations from the Creator
through men and animals to the lowest form of
existence. As regards the form the classical literature
contrasts with the Vedic literature. While prose was
employed in the Yajurveda, the Brahmanas and the
Sutras and Yedangas, classical literature including even
the sciences is disproportionately metrical. Grammars
and philosophies are in prose of cramped and enigmati-
cal style. Literary prose is found in fables, fairy tales,
romances, and partially in dramas and inscrip-
tions.

EPICS

Epics are heroic poems in an elevated style, which

recount great events. In point of fact in this literature
only the praise of the heroes is recorded, the darker
side being overlook<='d entirely. The genesis of this
hero-worship may be traced to the Vedic poems
which for instance elevate the Gcd Indra even for
his drunkardness. Similarly Yudhishthira in the
38-3 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

Maluibhatata is never blamed for havirg indulged in

gambling in dice-playing whereby complete ruin of the
family and of the country was brought about. Nor is
the hero of the Eamayana critisized for the cruel and
unjust banishment of Sita, wherefrom terrible personal
miseries and disruption of the kingdom followed.
Thus the epics are a kind of histories and as such are
concerned more predominantly with ‘matter’ rather
than with ‘form,’ the ‘spirit’ being the blind praise of
the hero.
falls into two n ain classes.
Sanskrit epic poetry
The one called Kavya (heroic poem) and the
class is
other is known as Itihasa (history), Akhyana marrative),
or Puraua (pre-history). The former is represented
by the ha:i ayana and the latter by the Mahabharata.
There might have been such other epics which are
however, entirely lost. The liamayana is attributed
to the great poet Valrniki. Jn its present form it
must have been in existence before the Gautama
Buddha of century B. C. It consists of about
fifth
24,000 verses divided into seven books (ksnda)^ where
the heroic deeds of Rama, the king of x\yodhya,
are described. As an history it contains a short
reference to his predecessors. It is known as the first
poem (adikavya). The poetic inspiration of the pcet
is ascribed to a athetic incident of a male bird being
[

killed by an arrow of Rama’s father Dasaratha, when

the bird was mating with its partner. The spirit of
hero-worship reached the climax in the first book
where Rama is extolled as an incarnation of God
Vishnu. The rest cf the poem describes how Kama
won bita by a feat of strength, how he abdicated the
throne of Ayodhya in favour of bis half brother Bharata
in order to redeem the pledge of his father to his
step-mother Kaikeyi, and how in banishment Sita was
stolen by the demon king Ravana of Lanka (Ceylon),
how the ocean was bridged with the help of the monkey
forces of the south, how Ceylon was conquered and
Sita recovered, how he resumed the throne and banished
Sita as his first royal act without any consxrltation
with the elders and ministers, and how ultimately
a weaker kingdom was handed over to Sita’s sons born

Adi, Ayodhya, Ai-anya. Kishkindha, Sundara, Lanka,

and I ttara.
 OEIGINAL LITERATURES 333

in banishment at Valmiki’s hermitage who, curiously,

composed the poem to glorify Kama.
The actual author or authors of the Maliabharata
are notknown. The compiler is known as Yyasa. It
is post-Bud thistic and later in origin than the
Biamayana. The compTation is supposed to have taken
a thousand years from B. C. 500 to 500 A. D. Thus
it is surmised that at the first stage it consisted of
8800 verses, at the second 00/ oo verses and at the
third stage 24,000 verses. But ip its present form it
consists of over 100,000 verses. It is divided into
eighteen or nineteen books (paTvans)B It describes the
eighteen days’ fight between Duryodhana, the leader of
the Kurus, and Yudhishthira, the chief of the Fandus,
who were cousins, “Within this narrative frame
has come to be included a vast number of old legends
about gods, kings, and sages ;
accounts of cosmogony
and theogony disquisitions on philosophy, law, religion,
;

and the duties of the rulers (kings),” Hence ‘the

Mahabharata claims to be not only a heroic poem
(kavya), but a compendium of teaching, in accordance
with the Veda, the four-fold end of human existence
(spiritual merit, wealth, pleasure, and salvation),
a Smriti or work of sacred tradition, which expounds
the whole duty of man, and is intended for the religious
instruction of all Hindus. ” Thus .in its final form the
epic kernal forms only, about one-fifth of the whole
and it is an encyclopedia of moral te.i clung rather than
an epic proper.
Besides its language is not so elevated as that
of the fiaraayana.Thus it deals more with matter than
form, and concerns more wuth the spirit of a scripture.
The epic story runs as f. Hows. In the country of
Bharatas (whence the name Bharata-varsha arises)
known as Ivurukshetra (land of Kurus) there lived at
the capital Hastinapura two princes, Dhritaraslura and
Pandu. The older being blind Pandu succeded to the
throne. On the premature death of Fand.u the eldest
of his five sons, Yudhishthira, was appointed heir-
apparent by Dhritarashtra. But the five princes had
to escape to Padchala to escape from the plots their

1 Adi, Sabha, Vana, Vimta, Udyoga, Bhishma, Drona,

Karna, Salya (gada\ Sanptika, Stri, J^rnti, Am^s.isana, Asvamediia,
Asrama-vasin, Mansala, iialiaprasthana, ancj Svargarohana and ;

the supplement Harivamsm.

 334 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

hundred cousins led by Duryolhana had made to

assasinate them. There the five princes made
alliance vvith the Panch^la king by marrying his
daughter Draupaii, and with Krishna, the leader of the
Yadavas. Tnereafter Dhritarashtra recalled the Pandu
princes and divided the kingdom between them and his
own sons, the former having their new capital at
Indraprastha and the latter retaining the old capital
Hastinapura. Then Yudhishthira accepting the
challenge to pUy at dice with Duryodhana lost every
thing— his kingdom, his wealth, his army, his brothers
(Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula, Sahadeva) and the common
wife (Draupaii) -and agreed to go into banishment for
twelve years and to remain incognito for a thirteenth,
after which the lost kingdom was to be returned to
them. In the meantime Duryodhana tried further to
injure but the Paridavas passed thirteen years success-
fully and made further alliance with Matsyas and others.
The message demanding back theif kingdom receiving
no answer, they prepared for war. The battle took
place at Kurukshera, near present Delhi. The people of
Kosala, Yideha, Anga, Banga, Kalinga, Sindhu,
Gandhara, part of Yadavas, Sakas and Yavahas
joined the Kurus. Psnchalas, Matsyas, part of the
Yadavas under Krishna, kings of Kasi, Chedi, Magadha
and others fought on the side of Pa-ndus. The battle
raged for eighteen days till all the ICurus were destroyed.
Only the five Pandav is and ‘Krishpa escaped alive. •

Yudhishthira was crowned king at Hastinapura.

Blnshma, the leader of the ICurus, on his death bed,
instructed Yudhishthira on the duties of kings and other
topics in about ;20,0d0 verses (chap XII-XIIT) disclosing
the political life of Hindus. But weary of life they
enthroned I^arikshita, the grandson of Arjuna, and
retired to the forest dying as they wandered towards
Meru, the abodes of God, which Yudhishthira was able
to reach.
King Pardcshita having died of snake bite, his son
Janmejaya initiated a great sacrifice to annihilate all
serpents. At that sacrifice the epic, Mahabharata, is
stated to have been recited by Vaisampayana, who
had
learnt it from Vyasa who is stated to have
cornposed the
epic to elucidate ‘the excellence cf the
Pandus the
greatness of Krishna, and the wickedness of the
Kurus.”
The supplementary book, Harivaihisa, contains
an
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 3 3 -5

account of Krishna in 1600 verses which are divided

into three sections. The first describes the history of
Krishna’s ancestors down to the tin e of Vishpu’s
incarnation in him the second gives an account of
;

Krishna’s exploits and the third treats of the future

;

occupations of the fourth (Kali) age of the world.

This brief survey should show that this epic deals
more with matter than the forrc. Besides the language
of the Mahabharata is net so poetical and elevated as
that of the Kamayana. Moreover the instructions on
the royal duties, spiritual merits, wealth, pleasure and
salvation for all, and moral teachings in addition to the
story do not supply much scope for pcetic im.agination.
Thus matter being the main object beauties of the form
are lacking even the strict gramn atical correctness
;

is also wanting^ which became more prominent in the

Furar.a class of literature.
The epics Kamayana and Mahabharata, are truly the
national poems of everlasting interest and value.
They are not produced by any individual authors.
Valmiki and Vj asa are not persons like Kalidasa and
Banabhatta. Nor they deal with stories concerning
heroes of any particular time and locality. They deal
with the whole country and the lasting national culture
a.nd history. Thus the Ramiyana is being read from the
time immemorial daily in every household and in
every village and town, in the trader’s shop and king’s
palace without any slack of interest. The ideal of
national life is indicated by the Kamayana in the' garb
of the family incidents of king DaTiratha. Unlike
Homer’s llliad and oddessythe Kamayana is not intended
to show the heorism of Rsma in subduing the demon
king Ravaga It shows the fundamental nature cf
domestic life (grihastha). It extolls the obedience
of sons to parents, sacrifice among brothers, unbreakable
attachment between husband and wdfe, and the ideal
treatment cf subjects by their rulers Rama was more
cruel towards Sita than Kavana showing the human
nature of Rama who was not recognised as an incarna-
tion (avatara of God) by Valmiki but as Naramhandrama
(best of men). Thus the Kamayana is daily read as a

1 Fur instance there is a confns.on beiwoeij the use of ilie

fifth and sixtiicase-endings which are as.-^uciatcd with two distinct
cases, VIZ. ablative (apadma) and possessive (sainbodluina).
336 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

Dharma'bastre» (guide book of practical religion) rather

than as the Adi-ksvya {first poem). The Eaghu-vaibsa
deals with the same story but it is read for poetic
beauties of alankara {figure of speech) and rasa (senti-
ment) of language and not for any religious lesson.

Similarly the Wahabharata devotes four-fifths of

its one lakh slokas to moral lesson by way of describing
the feui between the Kauravas and Pandavas and ends
in the gaining of heaven by Yudhishthira alone who is
recognised as the Dharmaraja (king of religious
ideal). Concerning linguistic beauties, it is, therefore,
inferior to the Ra nayaua not to speak of the Kavya
proper like the Eaghuvamla and others. In both these
epics victory in battles is not the ideal both ends in
;

renunciation which is our national ileoland cultural

aim.

PUEanAS

Tiie term Turana’ is already found in the

Brahma nes, designating cosmogonic inquiries generally.
It is also used in the Mahabhsrata to express ‘ancient
legendary lore’, implying didactic as well as narrative-
matter, and pointing to an old collection of epic stories.
In Book XVIII, as well as in the Harivarti^a, mention
is made of ‘eighteen Puranas’ w^hich are connected by
many thre ids with the old law books and the Velas.
This set of e'gut-en old epic Puranas are entirely lost.

There a rew set of eighteen or nineteen Puranas^

is
which are latiu in origin than the Mahabharata and
for the most, part derive their legends of ancient days
from the Jlahabhirataitself. ‘Nevertheless they
contains much
that is old’. In that part of their
contents which is peculiar to them, the Puranas agree
so closely, being often verbally identical for pages, that
they must be derived from some older collection as a
common source.

1 \ ayu, MdWya, S.^d.]if1a (Kuniira), Vi^inu, Lhavisbya,

iJhiy.ivatd, Uada'i.v, CTarvxI.A, Agni, Siva Brahma, Nirada, Varalia,
M ! kan Ivya,
1 \ ainana,
,

Linga, Karma, Bramhanda, and Brahma,

vaiv-arta.
 —

ORIGINAL LITERATURES 337

Most of these new Purapas are introduced in

exactly the same way as the Mahabharaia. Ugrasravas,
the son of Lomaharshana, is stated to have related their
contents to Saunaka on the occasicn of a sacrifice in
the Naimisha forest in the district of Sitapur in Oudh.
They deal with cosmogony, description of the earth,
the doctrine of the cosmic ages, the exploits of ancient
gods, saints and heroes. Accounts are given of the incar-
nations (ava-tarai of Vishnu, the genealogy of the kings
of the Solar ani the Lunar races, and the enumeration
of a thousand names of Vishnu and of Siva'. Puranas
contain rules, as they should being primarily scriptures,
about the worship of the sods, especially Vishnu and
Siva as cult, by means of prayer, fasting, offerings,
festivals and pilgrimage. Although the Vedic sacri-
fices did not altogether disappear this cult worship
became more popular with the advent of the Puranas
between A.D. 800-800 or 1000. Thus the Puranas are
still treated as sacred literature like the Vedas. The
hero-worship of the Epics also was still recognised
but the heroes at the Puranic age were the gods rather
than the earthly kings whose dynastic histories
however are incidentally described.
The Puranas are a sort of encyclopedia endeavour-
ing to deal with the histories of five independent
subjects, viz., creation and recreation of the universe,
gods, reigns of fourteen Manus or fathers of man, and
the kings of the Solar race as Rama and others, and
of the Lunar race as Fan4 -vas and others. Similarly are
mentioned the dynasties of the Sisur.agas, Nandas,
Mauryas, Guptas and others. In no other country or
civilization such gigantic attempt was ever made to
treat of so many subjects in such single volumes
Puranas distinctly aim at ‘matter’, and have thus
no poetical ambition to beautify the ‘form’ of language
though written in clumsy verses. The grammatical
accuracy is missing here more than in the
Mahabharata. Their ‘spirit’ is religious and they are
taken as sacred literature like th.^ four Vedas and
Brahri.anas, and considered as the fifth eda. ^

1 The definition in Sanskrit runs as follows :

Svargascha pratisargascha vamso manvantarani cha,

Vaihsanucharitaih chaiva pursnan'i pancha-lakshanara.
43
3SS INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

TANTRAS
The Tantra class of literature comprise the Tantras
proper which are the scripture cf the Shcta sects of
worshippers the Saiiihitas which are the sacred books
;

of the Yaishnavas and the Agamas and Nigaraas of

;

the S-iivas. In the Agamas the goidess Parvati as a

pupil asks Siva who answers the questions as the
teacher (guru), while in the Jligamas Siva asks ques-
tions and i'arvati answers and solves them. The Veda,
Srnriti, and Purana-Itihasa being scriptures of the
bygone ago?, this class cf sacred literature is stated to
have been revealed for the tvelfare of the people of the
Kali (modern) age. As a matter of fact although Vedio
sacrifices and sacraments ars still practised by the
higher casles the Tantrik form of worhip is more
popular. All the branches of Tantras are purely theologi-
cal works touching technicalities of cult v orhip and
metaphysical ani myshcal principles. There are four
common p.irts iu each branch. The first part deals with
Jfiana or knowledge comprising philosophical doctrines,
monism, occultism, i. e., the secret powers of the letters,
syllables, formulas andfiirures (mantra-sastra and yantra-
sistra). The second part deals with Yoga, i. e., medita-
tion and concentration required to acquire magic power.
The third part treats of Kriys or action and gives
instructions for carving idols and constructing and
consecrating temples. Ani the fourth part known as
IJharva or conduct lays down rules regarding rites and
festivals and sacial duties. “Though in reality all these
four branches are not treated in every single one of
these works, they all contain a medley of philosophy
an-, ocoulidsm, mysticism and magic, ani rituil and
ethics”. The secret doctrines are disclosed by the Guru
(preceptor) after_ a ceremonial Dikshi (initiation). The
figures like the Btriyantra, the irmeus diagram, made
ui nine triangles and nine circles, one within another,
is stated to bear a special mystic significance.

^There are^ d- Agamas of the Saivas of south India,

which are stated have been proclaimed by Siva himself
to
after the creation of the world, and each Agama has a
number of Up;gainas. The treatises like the Karaika-
gama, Suprabhedtgama, Kiranagama deal extensively
with architecture and sculpture. The traditional list
of the Samhits enumerates lOB Paf.cbantra Saikhitas
 ori^jinal literatures 3a9

but there is actually mention of more than 21 > of which

about a dozen is published. The Ahjibudhnya Sa-hbitT
in the form of a dialogue between Siva and Nirada is
a Kashmiri work of about the fourth cent.nry .A D.
Though probably originated in the north the Saibhitis
are circulated largely in the south. The I4w ra Sa.ul it.i
is quoted by Ranisnuja’s teacher Yamuna in about
1010 A, D. Ramrnuja himself mentions Panshakaraj
Parama, and Srttvata Sanihito The [ lunnnolca-sfira-
Saitihita of about 16th century agreeing in the maPier
of cult with the AaDabhacharya sect is devoted to tno
glorification of Krishpa and Radhi
The Tantra proper seems to have originated in
Bengal whence they soread throughout Assaju and
Nepal and to Tibet and Clur.a through the agency oi
Buddhism. They are known aU over India including
Kashmir and South, T-v.tras take the forms of dialogues
between Siva and Pirvatm When the gcdiess asks
the questions like a pupil and Siva replies like a
teacher Tantras are called Agamas, ani wlien the
G-oddess is the teacher and ans wers Siva’s q\iestions they
are called Nigamus as stated above. In the Tantras, the
great Sakti bearing CAuntless epithets like Durna., Kali,
Cbaudi, etc,, is the great mother Goddess. The Saktism.
the religion of the Saktas, “presents a curious medley
of the highest and lowest, the suhlimest anl the
basest conceptioirs ever thougiit out by the mind
of man.” In the Tantras there are loftiest ideas on
the Deity and profouni philosophical speculations
side by side with superstition and some confused
occultism. There is a faultless social cole of
morality and rigid asceticism disfigured by wild orgies
inculcating extremely reprehensible morah. 'Thus
some people laid a stress only on the worst aspect cf
this religion until Sir John Woodroffe under the
pseudonym Arthur Avalon published the most iiapoiTanfc
Tantra texts and elucidated an objective hist^ rical idea
of this religion and its literature.

According to the list contained in some Tantra

texts there are 61 Tantras or “* 4 Tantras each in three
different parts of the wcrld.” The klahanirvina-tantra,
though not the oldest, is the most representative of
the superior d'aniras showing tlm best aspect of
Saktism, This speaks of Brahman, ihe highest
divine principle, in the sane way as the Upanishads,
340 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

who accerdir.igto Saktism is rothing Lut the

e'ernal and primeval force (Sakti) out of which
all things h ive been creat d. This great universal
mother, Jagan-mats, is repre'-ented by Durga, Kali, etc., as
well as by Lal'vsV mi and Ka lha and other divine mothers,
Tne Moksha or s:hation resuhs in Mahanirvana or
great extinction. The five grosser essentials of worship,
intoxicating drink, meat, fish, parched dainties in
milk with sugar and butter, and the nectar of the
womarr flower (stripushpa), otherwise, bells, incense,
flowers, candles and rosaries, symbolise the spiritual
devotion of the devotee to the Devi “by bestowing the
lotus of his heart as her throne, the nectar which
trickles from the petals of this lotus-flowers as water
wherein to wash her feet, his mind as a gift of honour,
the restlessness of his senses and his thoughts as a
dance, selflessness, passioulessness, etc., as flowers.” Its
philosophy corresponds to the systems of Vedanta and
Samkhya. Castes are recognised. It teaches for Kali
age only the Asramas of the householder and the ascetic
only. The Kularnava-tantra emphasises the Kuladharnia
or the family custom. Similarly does the Kula-chuds-
mani-tantra, as a Kigama the Devi proclaiming the
doctrines. The Prapaachasara-tantra is ascribed to
Sankara, dealing with the essence of the universe. The
Tantraraja-tantra treats of the Striyantra, the diagram
consisting of nine triangles and nine circles one within
the other. On meditating on this diagram one attains
the knowledge of the unity of everything in the world
with the Devi. The Kalivilasa-tantra, a ‘prohibited
Tantra’ refers to Krishna as the lover of Kadha who
is identical with Kill. The Jnanarnava-tantra refers to
the worship of young maidens kn^wn as Ivumaripujana
as “the highest sacrifice”. The Saraditilaka-tantra of
eleventh century treats chiefly of Mantras, Yantras and
magic though begins with the theory of creation and
origin of human speech.
All these works like the Puranas are written is
ungrammatical Sanskrit. N. Mukhopidhyciya supplies
in Bibliothica Indica (p. XV) a correct comparison of
Tantras with the allied literature. According to him
‘•The PuTauas form an iraportan!; portion of the religious
literature of the Hindus, and together with the Dharma-
§Mras and Tantras, govern their conduct and regulate
their religiojs observances at the present day. The
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 341

Vedas are studied by the antiquarian, the Upanisliads

by the philosopher, but every orthodox Hindu must have
some knowledge of the Puranas, directly or vicariously,
to shape his conduct and to perform the duties essential
to his worldly and spiritual welfare”.

HISTOKIOAL TREATISES
It possible that the genealogies of the Puraanas
is
were inspired by the lists of teachers recorded in later
Vodic texts. These genealogies in their turn must have
induced the production of histories ard historical poems
in Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrits. Like the ‘controlled’
war news, press communiques, and the present day
histcries, the ancient chronicles were hardly accurate
records of facts. Even a.t present deliberate inaccuracy
is published. The discrelible social news is suppressed
by the ruling race while such news is exaggerated to
denounce the subject races, Therefore discrepancy in
dates, etc, in ancient ohrouicles should not take away
their historical worth as we have to sift fact from
fiction even nov/-a-days.
Inscriptions like that of King Kharavela of Kalinga
(B. C. 165)', Kudradaman (1st Century A. D.'), Samudra-
gupta (4th century), Harsha of Kanauj (7th century),
Chalukyas, Rastrakutas, Pa las and Senas supply much
historical information with reliable dates and genea-
logies. These inscriptions are either eulogies u'rasasti)
or deeds of gifts (dana-patra), and supply genealogies of
reigning kings ani donors, activities of the rulers,
conditions of gift, and set out the histories of the
architect wdio constructed the gift, the priest who
consecrated it, the poet who composed it and the scribe
who engraved the letters The Western Chalukya kings
of Kalyani (A. D, 973-1189) derived from Dynastic
archives knowledge of the earlier Chalukya dynasty
of Badami (A. D. 650-557). And the Silahara princes of
southern Konkan kept record of their paramount
soverigns, the llashtrakutas (A. D. 762-973), as well as
of themselves.
“The preservation of pedigrees and successions
1 It tells us that he spent 15 years in princely sports ; that for
9 years he enjoyed as heir-apparent ; that he '.vas crowned to the
succession at the end of his J-lth year; and then it brietly enumerates
year by year, the principal events cf his reign, and certain large items
of expenditure on public works and charity, as far as the 13tii year.
34-2 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

has evidently bean a national characteristic for many

centuries. And we cannot doubt that considerable
attention was paid to the ‘matter’ in connexion with
the royal families, and that Vamsivalis and Eajavalis,
lists of lineal successions of kings, were compiled and
kept from vers^ early times. In fact, the matter is not
one of speculation, but is capable of proof.” The
introductory passages of the grants of the Eastern
Chalukya series, for instance, name the successive
kings beginning with the founder of the line who
reigned centuries before that time. Again the Eastern
Gangas of Kalinga supply in their grants from 1058
Vatiisavalis which give the same details about the
kings of that line including a coronation-date of 1741. A
long VamA'ivali from Nepal gives an unbroken list of
the rulers of that country with the lengths of their
reigns and the date of an accession in an era from 1763
(even from 1182 B C. i. e., six or seven centuries before
the Kali age in 3102 3. C.h The Vauisavalis from
Orissa present an unbroken list of kings of that province
back from 1371 to the Kali age in 3102 B, 0. with the
length of the reign of each, and with certain specified
dates as epochs. Kalhana in his Eajatarangini
(1143-49 A. D.) mentions lists of kings of Kashmir which
had been put together by Kshemendra and Helaraja.
The Jains have Pattavalis or successions of pontiffs
which run back to the death of the last Tirthankara
Vardhamana Mahsvira in about -527 B. C. The palm-
leaf archives f the temple of Jagannath at Puri give
;

certain definite and reliable land marks in the early

history,’
The and colophons of literary works,
introl actions
as compiled by
Professor Peterson and Dr. E. G.
Bandarkar in their Sanskrit manuscripts contain definite
historical matter including dates. In the colophon of
his Yasastilaka, for instance, Somadeva tells us that
“he finished that work in Chaitra, Saka year 881 (A. D.
959) during the rule of a Chalukya prince Krishna-
I’aja deva (L e. Krishna III, 9.J-I A. D.). We learn more
1 The Bower manuscript on l>iruh-bdrk discov'ered by Lt.
Bower at Ka=;h;|aria. on the north of Kas-hnur through excavations
at the foot of an old erection of wliich several are to be found in
the Kachar district slio.vs that even manuscripts are yet to be
discovered which may suttply historical records.
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 343

about the family of this prince, Aribes'arin, from the

Vikia marjuna-Vijaya or Pampa-Bharata of Pam pa
(A. D, 941) which mentions as his patron Arikesin and
gives his pedigree for seven preceding generations.
Again in the introduction to his Subhashita muktavali
(written in 1247-1-260) Jalhana details his own pedigree
and mentions the Devagiri Yadava Kings Bhillama,
Singhana, and Krishna, and their ancestor Mallugi.
Buddhists supply legendary history of the Buddha.
The Mahavaiiisa is an history of iiahanaman (oth
century A. D.); and Bvupavamsa is an history of Ceylon.
There still exist some fourteen treatises in history.
The Harshacharita of Bjna is a real attempt to depict
the history of king Harshavardhana of Kanauj
(606-643 A, D.) recording the contemporary events
of the country, This record on the whole is
supported by his three inscriptions and the Chinese
historian Hiuen-Tsiang. The Gauciavaha of Vakpati-
raja is a poem in Maharashtra Prakrit, recording the
defeat of an unnamed Gaucia king by the poet's patron,
Yasovarman of Kanauj (A. D 750). The Nava-saha-
sanka-charita (A. D. 1005) of Padmagupta (also called
Parimala) in eighteen cantos alludes to the history of
king SindhuTaja Navasahasafika cf Malava, The
Virkaniaiikadeva-charita of the Kashmirian poet
Bilhana (1-023 A.D.) is an epical work in eighteen cantos
describing the history of the Chalukya king of Kalyana,
Yikramaditya VI (107 6-11-27) In this work there is
however no real character-drawing, but merely the reflex
of the epic.
The Kajataraiigini of Kalhana(12th century) is a
full and critical historical treatise relating to the
chronicles of the kings of Kashmir. It is in the author’s
own words based on his own studjr of eleveir works of
former scholars as well as the still extant Nilamata-
purapa, Kripivabs of Kshemendr-r, Padmamihira,
Chhavillcikara, also of inscriptions, coins, temples, local
traditions, family records, and on his peisonal
knowledge. The treatise is completed in eight books the
first four of which contain more or less traditional
accounts which Kalhana himself frankly admits But
in these real historical kings like Asoka, Kushanas
(Huvishka, Jushka and Kanishka) and Hunas (Toraman
and Mihirakula) are also n entioned. The last bocks
344 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

(v-viii) Gommencing with the first Karkota dynasty

in the seventh century approach historical account, and
ending at his own time in the thirteenth century.
Jonaraja (who died in 1459) continued the history
of Kashmir to the reign of Sultan Zainu 1-abidin. His
pupil Srivara covered in the Jaina Eajatarangini in
four books the^ period 459-1486 A. D. Prijya Bhatta
i

and his pupil Suka in the Rajavalipataka carried on

the tale to some years after the anrexation of Kashmir
by Akbar in the sixteenth century.
The sixth historical treatise of minor importance
h the Somapalavilasa of Jalhana who wrote an account
of the king of Rajapuri, Somap,ila, who was conquered
by king Sussala of Kashmir. The Jain monk Hema-
chandra (1033-1173) wrote (1163) an account of the
Chalukya king, Kumarapala, of Anhilvad, in the
Kumarapala-charita, otherwise, called Dva^raya-kivya
which consists of two parts, one in twenty cantos in
Sanskrit, and the other in eight cantos in Prakril;, and
is intended to illustrate the rules of Sanskrit and Prakrit
grammar. The Prithvirsja-Vijaya by an unknown
Kashmirian author in manuscript gives ‘an account
of the victories of the Chahamana king of Ajmer and
Delhi, Prithviraja, who won a great victory over Sultan
Shahabuddin Ghori in 1191, though he was shortly
afterwards ruined and slain. There are two panegyrics
relating to the Vagheias of Gujerat, princes Lavana-
prasada and Virodr.avala. The first is the Kirtikaumudi
of Somesvaraddtta GP^9-1334) which contains the eulogy
of Yastupala and throws a good deal of life on various
aspects of Indian social and political life. The same
author in his Surathotsava in fifteen cantos supplies a
‘political allegory’ and gives an account of the poet’s
own history. Another panegyric is the Sukritasamkirtana
of Arisimha in eleven cantos, which belongs to the
thirteenth ceirtury. The Jagadu-charita of Sarvananda is
a panegyric of a Jain merchant who aided his townsfolk
in the terrible famine of 1356 1268 in Gujarat. The
Raraapala-charita of Sandhyakara Kandin describes
the leats of the powerful king Rsmapala of Bengal
(1034-113 ') who recovered his ancestral throne from
an usurper, Bhima, and conquered Mithila. The last
and the fourteenth historical poem is the Rajendra
Karnapura of Sambhu which is a panegyric cf Harsha-
deva of Kashmir (108-1101 A, D.).
 OEICINAL LITERATURES 345

This brief introduction to the long list of historical

poems should suffice to remove the false and widespread
notion that in the Hindu culture there was no sense
of history. It is assumed that the Hindu civilisation
did not care to recall to mind the past events and derive
lessons from them or because the Hindus were so
engrossed with the thought of future salvation that -the
past or the present were of no importance to them.
The family life of sacraments and sacrifices! including
numerous services (Sraddha) for ancestral worship
should refute this notion entirely.'

POEMS (KaVYAS)
Poems in Sanskrit are composition of high beauty
of language and thought in verse or prose. The art
consists in expressing in melodious words and metres or
styles the thoughts which are the creations of feeling and
imagination. Thus in such compositions, long or short,
the ‘form’ is the primary object, ‘matter’ being of
secondary interest. For the exhibition of a garment,
for instance, a bust of a male or female is necessary
but the chief object is to demonstrate the beauty of
the dress. In Sanskrit poetry in particular there is an
internal or objective beauty also which is known as
the sentiment (rasa) produced in the reader. The
external or subjective beauty consists in melodious
words (pada-lalitya), gravity of sense (artha-gaurava),
metre (chhandas), and figure of speech (alankara).*
These qualities are variously demonstrated in the

1 however, true that following the method of the

It is,
Cpics and Puranas, the ancient historical works excepting the
Harshacharita were written in metrical verses mostly in the form
of eulogy, Kalhana was, however, critical enough. But the defect
lies in their desire to embellish ‘form’ in subjects'concemed with
‘matter.’ Another defect is the carelessness in exaggerating or
suppressing facts as the modern historians more ingeniously
do. The number and variety of historical treatises and a number
of facts do certainly “attest a degree of sense for history’’ among
the ancient Hindus. There were no historians of the Sanskrit
literature although Kalhana and some inscriptions made casual
mention of a few Sanskrit poets and their works, before the
Western scholars made a historical survey of our vast literature
bringing order in the chaos.
2 All other qualities remain in prose composition also
excepting metre which is substituted by style (nti),
44
346 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

big poems (mahakavya), small poems (khaada-kavya)

or lyric (glti-kavy), anthologies (saiiigraha), maxims
(gnomics), didactic poetry ; and in prose fables (hitopa-
desa), romantic and instructive tales (katha), great
romance (upanyasa) and mixed compositions (champu),
and dramas (rupaka).

BIG POEMS (MAHaKaVYA)

There are certain common characteristics of the
higher class of the large poems (mahakavya''. Their
subjects have to be derived from the epics (itihasa-
purana), ‘they should he extensive, and ought to be
embellished with descriptions of cities, seas, mcuntains,
seasons, weddings, battles fought by the hero, and so
forth. This class is represented first by Asvaghosha’s
(350 A. D ) Saundaraiianda in eighteen cantos describing
the conversion of his half brother Nanda by the Buddha
and the Buddha-charita in seven cantos of which the
last four were added by Amitananda, describing the
life ofthe Buddha ; it is “essentially the work of an
artist” both in choice of incidents and arrangement of
matters. Then comes the greatest poet Kalidasa (450
A. D.) with his Kumarasambhava in seventeen cantos of
which the last nine may be of later addition describing
in a fascinating manner the courtship and wedding of
god Siva and goddess Parvati and the birth of Kurnsra,
It “appeals more deeply by reason of its richer variety,
the brilliance of its fancy and the greater warmth of
,

its feeling.” It abounds in that poetical miniature

painting in which lies the chief literary strength of
the Sanskrit poetry, affording the poet free scope for
the indulgence of his rich and original imaginative
powers ;
it is conspicuous for wealth of illustration.
That the seventh canto is the conclusion of the Kumara-
sambhava is shewn by the great commentator
Malliiiatha, who did not comment upon the subsequent
cantos added by some one^ ooher than Kalidasa whose
theme ends in the union of Siva and Parvati. The great
author has fully illustrated Manu's dictum that
women are great object of honour and light of house-
holds because they give birth to children (prajananartham
mahabhagah pujarha griha-diptayah) whereby God’s
creation is continued. Herein, as in Sakuntala, Kalidasa
has demonstrated that the love for sex gratification
depending on youth and beauty and inspired by cupid
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 347

is a cursed one and never lasting, and that the love of

the hearts based cn religion'’ ground sustains in social
welfare because wife is the root of it (kriyanam khalu
dharmyapam sat-patnyo mula-karanam). The yoga
(asceticism) of Siva could not fully achieve its end
without the aid of Uma who could win him by her own
asceticism. The efforts of minor gods with the aid of cupi I
in the exciting spring season and the fascinating youth
and beauty heightened by charming decoration of
Urna accosting Siva in the solitude of forest of
penance ended in the very destruction of cupid.
But undecorated and emaciated^ by ascetic practice
Uma struck the heart of asectic Siva because the holy
look of the ideal wife, xArundhati, had already generated
a desire of Siva for a partner. The union of Siva and
Parvati in wedlock attracted even the great seven sages
(saptarshi) who came accompanied by Arundhati to
witness this wedding. Parvati herself blamed the
efforts of gods and cupid and her own beauty and
determined to make her charms successful by means of
asceticism^. This is cur ideal love of heart ending in
social welfare by birth of children the foreign ideal of
;

marriage for sex gratification terminates in failure and

separation when the short lasting youth and beauty dis-
appears by birth of children. Birth control cannot
prevent the decaying youth and beauty of the body.
Kalidasa’s best poem is, however, the Raghuvarhsa in
nineteen cantos, describing the life of Rama together
with an account of his forefathers and successors. Its
style is simple, its sirailiesare apt and striking “ it ;

contains much genuine poetry it “may rightly be

ranked as the finest In iian specimen’’ of large poems.
Next comes Bharavi (600) with his Kiratarjuniya in
eighteen cantos describing the combat between Siva
in the guise of a Kirata (hunter) and Arjuna the ;

author’s “ style at its best has a calm dignity (artha-

gaurava) which is certainly attractive. While he
excels also in the observation and record of the beauties
of nature and of maidens’", but at places it contains
number of stanzas illustrating all kinds of verbal tricks
and mannerisms.
The Bhattikavya of Bhatu (Skt. Bhartri, died

? yrr rrJTi^T

I
ciqlfntRiT;!: I
 .

348 INDIAN OtJLTURE AND CIVILIZATION

story
651 \.D,) in twenty-two cantos describes the
the forms of Sanskrit
of Rama by way of illustrating
grammar : ‘the absence of the longer metres explains
larger stanzas
the comparative ease cf the style, for the
expression
encourage development both of that and
in the
He was imitated by Magha (seventh century) describes how
Sisupalavadha which, in twenty cantos
cousin
the Chedl prince Sisupala was slain by
his
poetical
Krishna ; as a whole ‘it does not lack in
there are
beauties and striking thoughts,’ although
The Naishadhiya or hfaishadha-
metrical puzzles.
charita of Sriharsha, son of Hira and IMamalladevi
under Vijayachandra and Jayachandra of Kanau]
(second half of twelfth century), describes in twenty
cantos the story of Nala and Damayanti. Despite tne
too many Yaniakas and rhymes there is eleganci) and
skill in the use of language in it. These aie
great
considered to be the great poems because the
commentator Mallinatha did not care to write commen-
taries on other lesser poems.
The Janaki-harana of Kumaradasa (earlier than
Magha and later than Kalidasa) preserved only in a
Sinhalese word-for-word translation describes the story
of the stealing of Sita by Ravana in twenfy cantos;
it was largely influenced by Kalidasa in style as
well
as in subject the author adopts
;
the Vaidarbha form
and develops in a marked degree the love of allitera-
tion.
There are a number of poems of exetensive size
but of much inferior quality. The Hayagrivavadha
of Mentha (also called Bhatri-mentha and Hastipaka)
probably belongs to the latter half of the sixth century.
The Ravanarjuniya or Arjuna-Bavaniya of Bhima,
Bhuma, Bhumaka or Bhaumaka of about the same time
(seventh century), in twenty-seven cantos describes the
strife between Arjuna Kirtavirya and Kavana (as ^iven
in the Ramayana) by way of illustrating the rules of
grammar The Kavirahasya of Halayudha
(like Bhatti).
(about tenth an eulogy of the Rashtrakuta
century i

king Krishna HI (940-956) also illustrates the modes of

formation of the present tense in Sanskrit. The
Buddhist Kapphanabhudaya in Pali of Sivasvamin
(ninth century) describes in twenty cantos the conver-
sion to Buddhism of Kapphana, a king of the south, who
 OR 1 Gil? A L LITERATURES 349

had an evil design against the king of Sravasti. The

Hatavijaya of Kashmirian Katnakara (ninth
century) c escribes in fifty cantos the slaying of the
demon Andhaka. The Kadambari-kathasara of
Abhinanda (ninth century) is a metrical epitome of
Bar.a’s Kadambari. The Kamacharita of another
Abhinanda of unknown date deals with the story of
Kama from the stealing of Sita by Kavana. To the
Kashmirian IGshemendra (td eleventh century) are
ascribed three poems of worthless pcetry but of great
industry and dreariness, riz., the Kaniayana-mafijari
being an epitome cf the Uamayana, the Bbarata-manjari
*
(l‘(37) an epitome of the Mababharata, and the
DaAivatm*a-Ghari(a 1066', the ten incarnations of Vishnu,
(

The Ghitrakaiita-charita of another Kashmirian,

Mankha ( wveli'th century), describes in twenty-five cantos
the ov^erthrow by Siva of the demon Tripura. The
ilaraolmrita-cbintamani of the ^Kashmirian Jayaratha
(twelfth century) describes the Saiva myths, practices
and beliefs, and is of some religious interest but of no
poetical wmrth. The Jain author Eolimbaraja (about
1050) wrote in four cantos the Haravilasa, and
Amarachandra (1250) wrote Babharata both these are
;

religious poetry in epic style but “in an unpretentious

and pedestrian Sanskrit.” The Eamapala-charita of
Sandhyakara Nandin (twelfth century) of Bengal
describes simultaneously the stcry of Kama and the
king Bamapala of Bengal. The Eaghava-Papdaviya of
Kaviraja (Suri, Papdita), probably same as Madhava-
Bhatta under the Kadamba king Kamadeva (1182-1197),
also of the Jain writer Dhanafijaya (probably between
1123-1140), describes simultaneously the stories of the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Such poetic feat is
unique, wonderful and incredible. This is imitated by
Haiadatta Suri of unknown date in his Eaghava-
naishadhiya where the story of Rama and Kala is
simultaneously told. And the climax is reached by
Chidambara in his Haghava-Pandaviya-Yadaviya where
the stories of the Eamsyana, the Mahabharata, and the
Bhagavatapnrapa are simultaneously attempted with
some absurdity. The Jaina Kanakasena Vadiraja of
the Diavida country (about 950) wrote his Yah-odbara-
charita in four cantos. The same story is told by
Somadeva (of a later date) in his Yab'astilaka. Another
version of the same is told by Mapikya Suri (of eleventh
century) in his Yaaodhara-charita, To the great Jain
 360 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

poet Heinachan Ira (1088-117-2) is ascribed the enormous

work (^written between 11601172) Trishashti-salaka-
purusha-charita which in ten cantos handles the lives
of the sixty- three best men of the Jain faith, the twenty-
four Jinas, twelve Chakravarfcins, nine I'asudevas,
nine Baialevas, ani nine Yishnu-dvishas, It
is lonely and wearisome but the language is simple.
Harichandra (of unknown dale) describes in his
Dharmasarniabhyulaya in twenty-one cantos the life
of the fifteenth Tinhankara, Dharmanaiha. Yagbhata
(twelfth century) describes in his Neininirvana in
fifteen cantos the life of the Tirfchankara -Neminatha.
‘^The rrmiiava-charitra and Mrigavati-charitra of
Devaprabha Suri thirteenth century) describe the story
of the Mahabharata and of Mrigavati respectively.
Gharitra-sundara Ganin fourteenth century) describes
the story of the king Mahipala in his Mahipala-charitra
in fourteen cantos of 1169 verses. These poems
have not much literary merits. There is more poetry
in the Padmachudarnani of Buddhaghcshacharya (not the
Pali scholar Baddhaghosha of the third century).
The Nalodaya describing the restoration to power
of king Nala does not probably belong to K alidasa but
an unknown inferior poet. Similarly the Setubandha
or Ravanavadh.-.i in Prakrit relating the story of Eama
is not the work of Kalidasa and belongs to an unknown
author.

SHORT POEMS (LYRICS)

The essential difference between great poems (maha-
kavya) and short poems (kharida-kavya) consists in point
of ‘matter’ rather than of ‘form’. There is a running story
in the former while in the lyric-poem proper a complete
idea may be expressed by a single poem. The great poems
are like big chains (hura) consisting of several strings
of gems. The lyric poems are file in iividual gems;
they have the purpose cf a ’ecoration when used as a
chain of several cr as a locket of a single piece. The
matter is erotic, ethical, or religious.
Kalidasa’s Meghaduta is an erotic poem which
consists of 115 to 118 stanzas divided into two parts.
The short story is running. An exile in central India
sends through the cloud a message of hope and devotion
to his beloved wife in the Himalaya, mountains. “It
 ORIGINAL TNTERATURES 3 Cl

is difficult to prais3 too b.ighly the brilliance of the

description of the cloud’s progress cr the pathos of
the picture of the wife sorrowful and alone,” It ranks
highest among Kalidasa’s poems for brevity ef expres-
sion, richness of content, and power to elicit sentiment.
Mallinatha has written his commentary only on this
among tlie short poems. Knhidasa's Uitusaihbara, consist-
ing of 153 stanzas in six cantos is a highly poetical des-
cription of the six seasons into which the year is divided.
“Perhaps no other work of Kalidasas’s manifests so
strikingly t’ue poet’s deep sympathy with nature, his
keen po wers of observation, and his skill in d^epicting
an Indian landscape in vivid colcurs.” The Sringara"^
tilaka of twenty three verses are also ascribed to him ;
these have some merit but nothing about authorship
can be stated definitely. Jinasena (eighth century)
worked the verses of the Meghaduta into an account cf
the life of the Jaina saint P;.rivanatha The Meghaduta
exists in a Tibetan version in the Tanjore library and in
a Sinhalese rendering. It was repeatedly imitated from
the time of Pavanaduta of Dhoi in the twelfth century
onwards.
To Bhartihari (first half of seventh century),
grammarian, philosopher and poet, a Buddhist monk
and layman, are ascribed three sets of a hundred verses
each, ^ringara-sataka, Vair-gya-sataka and Nitisttaka
depicting respectively pictures of love, of renunciation,
end of moral condu 't. The first of these comprise
graceful ani meditative verses depicting the charms of
w:.'.riOn and their arts of captivating the hearts of men.

The Amaru-bataka of Amariika (750 A.D.) show

“delicacy of feeling and refineri.ent of thought” in
painting lovers in all their moods, bliss and dejection,
anger and devotion, estrangement and reconciliation.
The Ch aira-panchasika of Kashmirian Bilhana (later
half of the eleventh century) in fifty verses describes with
gkwing enthusiasm the joys of secret love cf a princess
which the author may have experienced. The Ghata-
karpara of twenty two stanzas, ascribed to Ghatakarpara
of unknown date (one of the nine traditional gems of
a mythic.al king Vikranuiditya) describes how a
young wife sends a message by the cloud to her absent
husband

1 Suarau'r, viii', aiuimin, (heimnta', wiater and

spring.
353 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

To Maylira, the father-in-Tiw of Bana (seventh

century) areaUribatoi two short poems. The
Suryasataka of a hundred verses celebrates the Sun
god for removing leprosy of the author originating
from a curse of his daughter for describing very
minutely her beauties and the Mayurasataka in eight
;

verses describes the appearance of a maiden who has

secretly visited her lover and is returning from
his side.
The Sattasai of seven hundred verses in (Maha-
rashtra) Pnkrit, of Hda (of ah mt dOO A D.)is a collection
of folk-poetry depicting common realities of life,
especially of the “homeliness and rough good sense
of the Maharashtra people”, and simple loves set among
simple scenes which are gentle and pleasing. The
Saptasati of Govardhana is a bad imitation in Sanskrit
arranged alphabetically and without inner connexion.
Another similar imitation is the Arya-saptasati oii
which was based the Hindi Sat ^ai 1662 )^ of' Bihanlal.
(

A further and later imitation is the Sringara sapta-

satika of Para nananda showing the author’s weakness
.

an I repetition to complete the seven hundred verses

which his brothers Udayana and Balabhadra attempted
to correct in a second edition. Another later Prakrit
anthology, the_ Vajjalagga of .Jain JayavaUabha of
uncercain date, is a collection of matter to illustrate
the three ends of man, ciz., conduct, practical wisdom,
and love.
The best of the romantic lyrical poems is the
Gitagovinda of the Bengali poet-king (Kaviraja-raja)
one of the five jewels of the king Lakshmanasena’s
court (twelfth century)- the other four being Govardhana
Bhoi ( Ohoyi), Saraua, and XJmapati. It is variously
classified as a lyric drama (Lassen, Macdonell
Keith)
pastoral-drama (.Jones), refined Yatra (von Schroeler)
song and drama (Pischel and Levi). The ‘form’
is
extremely original. In ‘matter’ it depicts the love
of
Krishna for the beautiful Bvadha, the estrangement
of
the lovers, and their final reconciliation. A
mystical
religious ‘spirit’ is discovered in the Eidha-Krishna
stoiv
by an orthodox school of thought “the separation
Knshpa and Eadha, their seeking for each other of
;

and
their final reconciliation is stated to represent
allegori-
cally the relation of God to the
human soul” Thp
great perfection of ‘form’ by combining
grace and
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 355

diction with an ease in handling the most difficult

metres has no naralltd anywhere ‘‘The songs are
given to us iii the manuscripts with precise indication
by technical terms of the rrjelody (raga) and time (tala)
of the music and dance which they were to acconjpany,
and the poet definitely bids us think of songs as being
performed in this way before our mental eyes. To
conceive of writing such a poem was a remarkable
piece of originality, for it was an immense step from
the popular songs of the Yatrasto produce so remarkably
beautiful and finished a work.”

SHORT ETHICAL POEMS

Short poems including anthologies, maxims and
proverbs (gnomic and didactive pcetry) describe “wise
and noble, striking and original thoughts, appearing
in a highly fiaished and poetical garb”. They are
spread over the Sanskrit literature. These are
plentiful in law books ;
in the epic and tie drama they
are frequenly on the lips of heroes, sages, and gods and
;

in fables (like ra'.chutantra and Hitopade^a) are

constantly uttered by tigers, jackals, cats, and other
animals. " They are “more abundant in Sanskrit than
the literature of any other nation can boast of.’’
The most famous collection is variously called the
ChanakyauUi, Chanakya-rajamti, Yri ffiha-Chrinakhya,
or Rajanitisamuchchaya. There are more than seventeen
recensions of this work. This may be another
_

Cha.nakya, and not probably the same as Kautilya, the

minister of Chandrrgupta Maurya of the fourth
century (B, C.) One recensiou has 340 stanzas in
seventeen chapters, another by Bhojaraja in a manus-
cript in Sgrada character of Kashmir has 576 verses in
eight chapters. ‘Tts contents deal with general rules for
the conduct of life, for intercourse among men, general
reflections on Tidiness and poverty, on fate and human
’
effort, on a variety of ethical, and religious topics.
Bhartihari’s Yairagj a-s'ataka in a hundred verses
deals with reiiiuiciation and Nitisataka in a hundred
verses wi&h ethical luaxims. The Santisataka of Silhana
(who may be same as Bilhana) of twelfth century, on
!

tranquility, borrows matter from Bhartrihari and deals

with asceticism common in Hinduism, Buddhism, and
45
354 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

Jainisir ; “his matter is more interesting than his

manner (form)”.
The Nitiratna, Nitisara, and Nitipradipa of Vara-
ruchi, of uncertain date, contain some excellent verses
on ethical matters. The Nitimanjari of Dya-Dvivedi
(1494) of two hundred verses on moral maxims, collected
mostly from the Brihad-devata and Sayana’s commen-
tary on Bigveda. The Bhallata-sataka of Bhallata under
Sankaravarman (883-90-4) of Kashmir who carefully
elaborated in varied metres a hundred verses not ^ wholly
original. The Anyokti-muktilata-sataka of Sambhu
under king Harsha of Kashmir (1089-1101) collected
from others (anyokti) 108 verses instead of a hundred
(sataka) and elaborated them with no special merit.
The Drishtanta-sataka of Kusumadeva of some later
date illustrates (drishtsnta) each of the hundred maxims
by an example it is simple and unpretentious. Of still
;

later dates are the Bhava-sataka of Nagaraja on ethical

reflections, and the Upadesaka-sataka of Gumani on
moral maxims as well as many other works. The
Bhaminivilasa of Jaganiiatha of seventeenth century
is “admirable in many respects both as an erotic poem,
an elegy, and store of gnomic sayings. There are a
number of brief poems of which the most famous is the
Chatakash itaka of uncertain date contains lyric stanzas
rich in gnomic matter and of great beauty. Jain
Dhanapala wrote (972) his Rishava-panchahka in fifty
Prakrit verses.
To Sartkaruchaya are ascribed the Moharnudgara
featuring also as the Dvadah'a-panjarika, with
relinquishment of wordly desires, and Satadoki in 101
verses setting out “with some wealth of imagery
the principles of the ^Vedanta philosopy. The
Bodhicharyavatara of Santideva is “ the most
distinguished effort known to us to adapt the elegances
of Sanskrit poetry to the exposition of a complex
philosophical and moral theme.”
The Sringara-jnsna-nirnaya of unknown author
and date gives a contrast between the claims of love and
of knowledge in thirty-two stanzas. The Kuttanimata of
Bamodara Gupta, minister .Jayapada of Kashmir
of
(779-c>13) on pornography, shows how
a young girl can
win gold for herself by flattery and feigned love. The
Samaya-matrika of Kshemendra deals with the same
 ORIGINAL LIl’ERATURES 355

subject and describes how a regular go-between should

instruct a public girl in her exacting profession iiis
Eamavilasa in ten sections describes the various
occupations and follies of mankind. His Darpadalana
in seven sections shows the folly of pride on noble
birth, wealth, knowledge, beauty, courage, generosity,
and asceticism. His Sevya-sevakopadesa in sixty-one
stanzas deals with the advice regarding servants and
their masters ;
Chaturvarga-saibgraha describes the
four ends of life, morality, practical life, love and
release and Charu charya-sataka in a hundred verses
;

lays down the rules of good behaviour. Kshemendra’s

influence is evident in the Mugdhopadesa of Jalhana
in sixty -six stanzas which w'arn against the wiles of
betairai (prostitute).

The Hubhashita-ratna-samdcha (written in 994) of

Amitagati, in thirty-two chapters, describes various
aspects of Jain ethics assailing Brahmanical gods,
women and hetairai. His Dharma-pariksha (written in
1014) deals with the same subject. The Yogaiastra of
the Jain monk Hemachandra (^twelfth century) in simple
verses with no poetical merit describes Jain philosophy
in the first four chapters and the various duties and
ascetic practices of Jainism in last eight chapters. The
Sringara-vairagya-tarangini of Somaprabha (1276) in
forty-six verses denounces the love of women.

The Kavindra-vachana-samuchchaya edited by F.

W. Thomas from a Nepalese manuscript of the twelfth
century is a compilation of 525 verses by many poets
(earlier than 1000 A.D.), dealing with a “wide variety of
subjects, love and other passions, the conduct of life,
practical wisdom, and moral and political maxims. The
Saduktikarpararita (1205), otherwise called Siikti-karna-
mrita of Sridharadasa under king Lakshmanasena of
Bengal is a compilation from 446 Bengali poets including
Gangadhara and others (1050-115''). The Hubhsshita-
muktavali of Jalhana under Krishna (1047), in two re-
censions, describing such subjects as riches, generosity,
fate, sorrow, love, royal service, etc. The Sarangadhara-
paddhati (written in 1363) of SCirangadhara is a famous
compilation, arranged in 163 sections, containing 4689
verses mduding some by the author himself but of no
i

distiiwtion. The Subhashitavali of Vallabhadeva

(perhaps in the fifteenth century) in 101 sections “gives
 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

3527 stanzas of over 350 poets. Tbe Subhashitavali of

Srivara (fifteenth contnry’: cites from more than SS,}
poets. There are many other anthologies in manuscripts.

SHORT HELIGIOUS P013.I3

Religious poems, like the ethical on- s, comprise

prayers, praises, and psalms, and describe hew the
Hindus prayed to the one Supreme l.ord cf the
‘

Universe and in what words they derived solace in the

hour of their trial or gave praise in the hour of their
so-called triumph,”^ They are spread over the whole
of Sanskrit literature. They have been gathered together
in several collections from the Vedas, the Aranyalcas,
the Upanishads, tbe^ Raionyaua, the Mahabh'rrata, the
Ehagvad-gitt, tb.e Srimad-Bhagavata, the Paran-iis, the
Agamas, the Tan:vas,_ from th-» classical poetry of ^

Kalidasa, Bhfiravi, Mrgha, ’vtayiirr, Bana, Subandhu

Bhavabhuti, Krishna^AIisra,. SriTIarslia, Vaidya Gada-
dhara, tihavananda, Sankarschtrya, Utpaladevaoharya,
|ri Kauthacharya, Yammvacharya, Raminujacharya,
Srivatsanka Iviisra, Parifsara-Bhatta, Vecacharya,
Vedantadesika, Yenkatadhvarin, N ailabhachaiya,

VitthalefeVara, Haridasa, Madliavacharya (Anai.da-tirtha),

Vadiraja, Chaitanyadeva, Kupagosvamin, and fifty other,
praises (stotra) to the gods and goddesses, of which the
authorship is uncertain.^
The gods and g'oddesses who received adoration
in the Hindu period however, different from those
tvere,
praised jj the Yedic Aryans. Besides the old gods Siva
Vishnu, Surya, there appeared new goddesses and geds
like Dnrga, Ganeila, and the cult c+ Krishna and Rama
became prominent The Gollections of a hundred or
thousand names of a god or goddess became numerous.
The number of Htotras preserved are vast.® The higher
poetry invaded this field also. The philosophers also
took part in the composition of the songs of praise
(stotra) and lent dignity to the art. But many are of no
poetic worth.

1 AT'ilKtiiii.i M. K. CkiT’ilhi (iiii'ov.'oiil ill N.-Pi - m’s colli-clioni.

2 I''!’ 1 1 1 ri- 1 iMi II 111 '! \ i(’r ‘i'l't;. ‘I’ , I lairi, utlil P-aiin'
j.iildHueii !>y <1. .V lU- dti iK i \ '.’.nl t (lU vS),

3 1 our Keiil, t'a^ ill,, ..at,!. , r a - tn i,

ibid pp. Cle-'321).

 ORIGINAL LITERATURES

The Chandi^ataka of Bana (seventh century) is a

collection of 1U3 verses in praise of Durga for slaying
the demon Mahisa. The Subhashitavali of Mayura
contains verses in praise of Siva and ParvatL The
Bhaktamara-stotra of Jain Manatunga who is probably
same as IMatanga Divakara also called Chapdala of
Harsha’s ccurt is in honour of the Jain saint Kishabha.
The Kaly^acia mandira stotra of Jain Siddhasena Divakara
is of less poetical value. The Ashta-Mahabhl-chaitya-
stotra and the^Suprabhata-stotra attributed to Harsha-
vardhana and Sriharsha of PTaishadhlya are Buddhist
hymns. The Sragdhara-stotra of Barvajnamitra is in
praise of the Bud'ihist deity Taivi, the mother goddess
and saviour. The Vakrokti-Padchahka ,of Kashmirian
Batnakara in praise of parvati and Siva “shows a
remarkable power of illustrating the ambiguities of
which the Sanskrit language is capable The Siva-
paradha-Kshaniapar.a-stotra of Sankaracharya contains
hymns to Devi, the moti er-go !dess whom the Saktas
adored as the expression of the highest power in the
universe his other Devi hymns are collected _in the
;

Bhavaiiyashtaka in eight verses and the Ananda-

lahari in twenty verses. The Ambashtaka and the
Pancha-stavi in five hymns of unknown authorship
contain praises of Durga, The Sy^amalandaka-
mainly in prose in praise of the goddess Kali, the
Sarasvati-stotra in praise of the Goddess of learning,
and the Manga] ashtaka in eight verses of the Devi of
unknown authorship are wrongly attributed to Kalidasa.
The Pa'cha.sati of some Muka is a book of hymns in 5U0
verse^^. The Devilataka of Anandavardhana (850) in
praise of Durga contains a hundred verses of no poetic
merit. The Stotravali of Utpaladeva (93y) consists of a
series of twenty verses in praise of Siva of no outstand-
ing merit. The .Mukundaraala of Vaishnava Kulasekhara
(tenth century) is in praise of Vishnu. The Krishpa-
Karnainrita or Krishna liliinrita of Lila«uka of
Biivamangala (eleventh century) in 110 verses in praise
of Lord Krishna exhibits some merits and is very
popular. The ’Padyavali of considerable poetic merit
of Rupagosviimi n. contemporary^ of Jay.adeva at the
court of [.akslmianason.a (twelflli century), in praise
of Ikidlii airl Krishi.ia, contaias ([lU atoms
f, frimi
Dhoyi, tlm yrutadhara or Srnrddliara (^oi strong
memory) and Kaviraja (poet-king) and others. The
358 INDIAN CULTUEE AND CIVILIZATION

famous Mahimnah-Stava of Pushpadanta is in praise

of Siva as well as Vishnu. The Chandi-kucha-Pafichi-
sika of certain Lakshmana icharya in praise of Durga
contains in verses
religious^ fervour of a peculiar
fifty
kind. The Bhikshatava-^Kavya
of Sivadasa or Utpreksha-
vallava in praise of Siva ‘‘describes the feeling of
Apsaras when Siva in the garb of an ascetic comes to
seek alms in Indra’s heaven.’’

There are numerous other and later works on

praise (stotra) of gods and goddesses mentioned here
and there without historical particulars. Of these a
mere reference may be made to the Stotra^ of Malhana,
Bilhana, Dandin, Haliyudha, and to the Charchastava,
Ghatastava, Sakalijani-stav.i., Stuti-kusumanjab of Jagad-
dhara, Kuvalayanatida’s Varadarajastava. Atmai’papa-
stuti, and Manollasa, Nilakantha-dikshita’s Ananda-
siigara-stava, Jagannatha’s Karuna-lahari, Sadahva-
Brahmendra’s Kirtanas, Rainabhadra Dikshita’s Rama-
stava-Karna-rasiyaria, Rama-Prasada-stava, Visvagar-
bha-stava and Brahmananda’s Bhagavat-Sarana-
;

stotra.^

This short surv^ey should be enough to refute the

false notion that the “Vedic literature is essentially
religious and Sanskrit literature is profane.”^ In fast
the Hindu society is still essentially religious and their
literature in Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, including those
of the Buddhists and the Jains, as well as the modern
languages including Hindi, Bengali, Gujerati,
Maharashtri, Tamil, Telegu and Canarese, etc., give
abundant evidence and retain the religious nature
although developed in every other direction.

NOVELS AND STORIES

The Da.Vikun'ara-charita of Dandin, the Basavadatta
of Subandhu, and the Kadambari of Bana are generally
classified under “prose romances.” The novel is defined
as “a fictitious prose narrative cr tale presenting
a picture of real life especially of the emotional crisis
in the life history of the men and women portrayed

1 lH<!' 1 1 i u ’ - rat D Jil V idn, .lil, iltnl, pp. ^ri2’4l0.

'-i Macdonvil, History of Saii-krii la toraturo, p. 2?7.
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 359

and the romance as “a fictitious narrative in prose and

verse which passes beyond the limits of real life.’’
Thus the real difference between the ‘novel’ and the
‘romance’ lies between the pictures of ‘real life’ and
the ‘imaginary life.’ On the authority of Professor
Macdonell the Dasakurnara-charita “contains stories
of common life and reflects a ccrrupt state of society’’,
the Vasavadatta relates ‘the popular story of the princess
of Uj jay ini and the king of Yatsa’, and the Kadambari
descrbes the love of the princess Mahasveta and the
prince Pumlarika, and of the princess Kadambari and
the prince Ghandrapula ^ Thus in these stories there
is nothing ‘beyond the limits of real life’ and may,
therefore, be designated as ‘novels’ rather than
‘romances’ because our ordinary reader is more familiar
with the term novel than romance, although the
ancient narratives were different in presentation from
the modern ones.^
The Dasakumara charita is earlier in date than
the other two narratives because its author, Daiidin, is
earlier than liana and Subandhu and is placed in the
sixth crntury A. D. It is written in the Yaidarba
style of Sanskrit, the other two styles being Panchala
and Gauda. There are ten stories concerning the
adventures of the ten princes (dasakumara) covering
all provinces and ending at the meeting of all of
them, each one of whom relates how' he secured his
partner in life.
The main interest romance lies in the
of the
substance ii.e., ‘matter’), with its vivid and picturesque
account of life and adventure, of magicians and
fraudulent holy men, of princesses and ruined kings, of
hetairai, of expert thieves, of fervent lovers, who in a
dreaTTi or by a prophecy are urged on to seek the beloved.
The world of t’ne Gods is regarded with singularly
little respect, and the ministers to holiness are
equally far from finding favour.’’ Professor Keith with

1 Mdcdonell History of Sanskrit Litoraturo, p. 332.

:

2 I'he Agui-puraua p'hap. 337) ola'-.-'Lfie< the story literature

into five groups, viz Akhy.iyika, kathe, khanda-katlui, par.-katlia, and
kathamka. The noveis are known as upaiiyaea, ralionyasa, navonyasa,
ramonyasa and kautukanyasa of these Hie upanyasa is stated to
;

have nine subdivisions, viz. katha, kathanika, kathana, alapa,

akhyana, akhyanaka, khanda-katha, pari-katha, and saukirna.
360 INDIAN CULTUEE AND CIVILIZATION
there
convinoing illustrations reassures, however, that^
was no ‘total disregard of moral considerations.’^

But the author's “distinctive quality is the applica-

tion to the simple tale of the grand manner
{i. e,

‘form’) of the poetic style (kavya). He exhibits his

‘talent and the command of the language in descriptions
in the Vaidarbha style and excels in pleasing sound
He aims both at exactness of expression and
eSects.’
avoidance of harsh sounds
clearness of sense, at the
and exaggeration or bombast ; he attains beauty,
harmony of sound, and effective expression of senti-
ment. “He makes free use but with reasonable
moderation of the right in prose to construct ^nng
compounds but they in the main are not difficult of
comprehension,” No higher praise from an authority
like Professor Keith can be aspired by any
novel-writers
Dandin is a glory to Sanskrit prose
of the present age.
and represents an important phase of Hindu culture.

‘'Dandin is unquestionably masterly in his use of

language. He is perfectly capable of simple easy
narrative, and in the speeches which he gives to his
characters he avoids carefully the error of elaboration
of language.’’"' This indicates the standard of perfec-
tion in Sanskrit prose of the sixth century. This even
excels the prose of the pillar inscription of Samudra
Gupta by Harisena in the fourth century (345 A. D ),
ant of the Mandasor inscription c_f Kumara Gupta by
A'atsabhatti in the fifth century (4/3 A. D.)- Dandin is
a glory oi Sanskrit prose both in regard to ‘matter’ aiai
‘form’. Like Kalidasa in his poems and dramas Dandin
in his singl prose novel represents an important phase
^

of the cultural development of the Hindus in their

civilization.
The Vasavadatta of Subandhu is earlier than the
Kadambari because Baga mentioned Subandhu, and
later than Kalidasa who is mentioned by Subandhu.
It is placed in the early seventh contury. There is no

1 Keirh, Hi.'-tory of San.-^krit Literature, p. 300. Compare

Bernard Sha.v’s famou's novel ‘Adventure.s of the Black Girl in her
search for God’ (1932) which depicts the similar story regarding
the present Christian society.
2 Prof. Keith also illustrates {ibid pp. 306-7) Dandin’.s extra-
ordinary familiarity with grammar.
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 361

originality claimed in the plot as the story appears to

have been known before. Prince Kandarpa, the
beautiful son of king Chintara ini of Vatsa and the
Princess Vasavadatta, the prearless daughter of king
Sringarasekhara fell in love,, met secretly at Pataliputra,
ran away to avoid her marriage to the Vidyadbara
chief, Pushpalietu, whom her father had selected lor her.
Ihe couple to...,< shelter in the Vindhya hills. There
Yasavadatta inadvertently entered a hermitage, was
cursed by the hermit and was converted into a stone.
After long wandering Kandarpaketu found a statue
which at his touch awakens to life as his beloved, and
in reunion they live in great happiness in his capital.
The matter is not of muc,h importance as ‘the
aim of the poet is not to trouble himself with the plot
or the charactors but to display his virtuosity in
language’. It is obviously written to illustrate the
Gauda style of prose ‘‘With its enormous compounds,
its love of etymologising, its deliberate exaggeration
its love of harsh sounds, its fondness for aliiteration, its
attempt to match sense closely with sound, its research
for recondite results in the use of figures and above all
in paronomasias and cases of apparent incongruity.’
Subandhu’s Vasavadatta is ‘an exercise in this style
applied in descriptions of mountans, rivers, streams, the
valour of the prince, the beauty of the heroine, and the
strife of the contending armies.’*
Danclin certainly is very different in style.
Subandhu’s “ work would indeed be unbearable, were it
not for the care taken by the author to vary his long
compounds by occasional short words in order to permit
the reader to breathe and gain some comprehension of
what has gone before, and notably in occasional short
dial ogue passages, as when he describes the talk of
lovers at iiiglit, he realises the necessity of the use of
short sentences.”
TheKadam bail of Bina is the latest of the three great
novels in Sanskrit and is placed in the seventh century
after Subandhu's Vasavdatta, whiclrls later than Lardin’s

1 Subandhu cannot be bpecially accused ci indecency oi;

savagery for minnif liescripiion.-; of the beauty of wonitn and the
delights of love which are against modern conventic ns of aste i

because many ancient and modern writers like even Kalidasa

and tihakespeare indulged in such descriptions.

46
£62 INDIAN CULTUEE AND CIVILIZATION

D.isakiimira-charita.. Rnna mentions the Yqsavadatti

a mi the r5rihat-k itha of Guri dhya whence the story of
the K darab iri is la-j^elv’ derived. Like the Dasakun ara-
charita and the Vasivadatti the Ka la mbiri belongs to
t e Katbs class of st my whose main charac-
teristic is the ‘inclu-iion of one tale within the otl er’,
while the Akhyayika class of stcry like Eana’s other
pTJse and historical work, the Haisha-charita, is a
running and contmucus tale. The siory of Kadan bari
il iistrates its fundamental characteristic feature,
Mahssv eta, the fairest daughter of the Ganciharva king
Hci’usa and Apsaras Garni, fell in love wnth an ascttic
youth, Pundarika, the son of the goddess Lakshmi and
Bvetaketu. Put Pin. dartka suddenly died of iove-fever
and his body disappeared. On the assurance of re union
with her lover, iVJahabvela waits for him assuming
asceticism herself in a hermitage on the bank cf the
Achchhoda lake. Pupdarika is reborn as Vaisampayana,
the son cf the minister of the kiig TaraUida of Ujjain!
Vaifampavana w'as of same age and companion of the
prince Ghandraptda, the son of Ik i a pi da and his queen
Vi’asavati. The two young friends went out in a party
on a hunting expedition. Chandrapida being separated
from the rest went to M abase eta’s hermitage and
suddenly fell ill. He was, therefore, taken by Mahasveta
to the palace of the king Cbitrara-ha at the Hemakuta
mountain, flhere he made his acquaintance with
Kadambari, the princess of Chitraratha and his queen
Asparas Madira, and they feh in love at first sight.
But Chandmpi a was called back to the lake Achchhoda
where his party came in his search. At the command
of his parents Chant.rapida w'ent to Ujjain leaving the
cam p in charge of tiis friend Vaisampayana. During
the absence of Caaiidrapkla, Va.sarapayana seemed to
recc guise something of his previous birth ami as if
seeking wiiat was lost. Perplexed he entered into the
hermitage of Mahasveta and seeing her lost control of
his love for her in his previous birth and tried to
embrace her and was curse! fur immodesty and con-
verted into a parrot and disippeired for the second
time. Then Mahasvet was to id by a heavenly voice
that she had lursei the person for whom she had been
waiting and as<ed her tj wait again. Chandrapida
on his return frm Ujjain learns of this sed incident
and feels sick and drops down as dead. On hearing
 ^

ORIGINAL LITERATURES 363

her lover’s death Ksdnmban hurried to the ecer.e and

laments bitterly aid Chandra maid Patralekha
out of unbearable grief jumps iiTo the lake^to kill
herself. Kadambdi’i then picl-s up Chandrapida’s dead
body cn her lap and embraces it and as a result of her
touch Chandrapida coxes b iCK to life. And out of the
drowned body of Patralekha, ]\Jahas\ eta’s original lever
Pundarika reappears as the ascetic youth. The two
couples were thus re-united and married and lived
happily ever since.
Thespeciality of the Kadan.bari is the elaboration
of language and ideas though not at the cost of
characterisation. Those who are imp .tient and eager
for brevity and the rapid progress of the novelic story
cannot enjoy the unique beauty of it. Banabhatta is a
painter and his Ka lambari is a painting hall wherein
the various pictures are drawn to show their glowing
colours rather than to lead the onlookers to the rapid
development of the story. The onkoker gt>es on
drinking cups after cups forgetting his dinner, like the
expert music lover who enjoys the tana (tune) rather
than the wording of the song. The author indicates
that his qualified readers must be like the members of the
king Sudraka’s council where the Chandala girl related
the story of Kadambari. “ Thus the reader must be
iitoxicated like Oiuai Kheyara and look at the language
as a charmingly deccrated young woman. Then he
will not be frightened at the long compounds like the fat

1 To tho.<e who have no belie*^ in rebirth, or even in a

rf-union after this mortal life, the real inttrest of the story would
be diminished and it would seem an idle romance with uninterest-
ing characters living in an unreal atmosphere. But from our
Indian point of view b.v which we can explain all incongruities
of Lfe “the story may jm-tlv be deemed replete with the tenderness
of human love, the beiitficeiice ot divine con.-olation, the pathos
and sorrow of death, and the abiding hope of reunion after death
as a result of unswerving fidelity to love.”
The story was, however, left unfinished when B^na di d.
His son, Bhushana, completed it. but the son was unque-tionab.y
inferior to the father. BhO'hana 'prolongs the descnp.ion of
Kadamban’s love-1 om condition out of reason, while he is
deficient in his father’s fertile imagination.”
364 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

king dazzling with his jewels on the head, ears, neck and
fingers. In such a mocd the reader enjoys the individual
topics of charining colours and thoughts, and forgets
the progress of the story. Indeed such is the aim of our
Sanskrit poetry almost everywhere. So in Kalidasa’s
Kuraara-sambhava the reader is not anxious to know
if Kumara killed the demons (asuras) to save the gods ;

but he is entirely lost in the description of Una’s

efforts to win the asectic Siva, destruction of the cupid
by the fire from Siva’s angry eve, Rati’s lan;entation and
Uma’s asecticism vhich ultimately drew Siva to Uma,
which her youth and beauty and trap made by cupid in
exciting spring season failed to achieve. True to his
policy Sana opens his story with the description of
the sun-rise with charming cokurs^ which enchants
the reader at the outset and keeps on his interest even
at the sunset at the- hermitage.®
The popularity of Bana is indicated by a dozen
imitations of his Kadambari and Harsha-charita. These
imitations are given a new name called ‘Champu’ of
which the etymological sense is unknown but it implies
short novels using prose and verse indifferently for the
same purpose.^ But the verses of Champus are generally
intended to summarize the context of the story or to
lend greater effect to some point in the narrative or
a specially important idea.
The Damayanti-katha on Nalachampu of Trivi-
krama Bhatta mentioned in the Sarasvati-kantha-
bharana is the oldest short novel where, the story of
Kala and Damayanti is descrived. His second tale is
the Madalasa-champu dealing with the Nala story and
ascribed to his amateur son.
The third short novel is the Yabhstilaka (written
959 A.D.) of Somadeva, a Digambara Jain and protege of
the Chalukya king Arikesin ll’s son. Its aim is to

3 eirrie?fRqr cfhqqNgRq q.fq^T qfiqqJTRr e?-^qr-" I

'6
Bana alto ut€(l verse at the opening of the Harshacharita
and liie Kadambaii which are essentially in prose. Ihe combination
or vei-te and prose is also noticed in the Jatdkaniala,
Allahabad
pillar ii-scripiion of Bamudragupta, and other epigraphs, and invari-
ably in dramas.
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES -565

establish salvation by the Jain faith, and the story

describes how the animal sacrifice to the goddess
Char.damaridevata was stopped by Jain ascetics’ in
Rajapura in the 'Yodheya country ruled by Maridatta. A
similar Jain Champu is the Jivandhara-Champu which is
based on the Uttara-purana of Gueabhadra ; it is
ascribed to Harichandra who might have been the auther
of the Dharma-sarmabhyudaya in twenty-one cantos.
The Brahmanical Ramay ana -Champu is ascribed
toBhoja and Lakshmaqa Bhatta, Bharata-Champu to
Ananta dealing with the stories of the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata. They are of uncertain date. The Udaya-
sundari-katha, in imitation of the Harshacharita, of
Sodnhala (lOOU A.D.) relates the story of the queen of the
king Mummuniraja of Konkan. The Svaha sudhakara-
Champu of Rarayana of seventeenth century describes
the love of Agni’s wife Svaha and the Moon in an
idyllic n^anner which has been compared by Pischel
with Homer’s picture of the love of Aras and Aphrodite.
And lastly the Sankara-sveta-vilasa champu of a poet
Sankara describes a Cheta Sinha whom VJarren
Hastings mentions.
The Tilakamafijari of Jain Dhanapala (972 A.D.) is
in imitation of the Kadambari and describes Tilaka-
mafijari’s love of Samaraketu. Another Jain Hdayadeva,
alias Yadibhasinha flagrantly imitated the Kadambari
in his Gadya-Chintamani. There are several other bad
imitations of Baca by the Jain writers.

STORY BOOKS
Like the novels stories in Sanskrit are variously
myths, and fables. It is vain to try to
called fairy tales,
discriminate them. ‘Tt was, however, a distinct and
important step when the mere story became used for a
definite purpose, and when the didactic fable became
definite mode
of inculcating useful knowledge”. A germ
of our stories may be traced to the famous hymn of
the Rigveda (vii, 103) in which Brahmans are compared
to croaking frogs as they sing at their sacrifice. A
certain kinship between man and animals comes out
clearly in the Upanishads (Ghbaudogya, 1, 12; iv, 1; 5, 7 )
where we have the allegory or satire of the dogs who
search out a leader to howl food for them, the talk of two
366 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATIOfl

flamingoes whose remarks call attention to Eaikva, and

the instructioES of the young Satyakama first by a bull,
then by a flamingo, then by an aquatic bird. In the
epic, Mahabharata, a clear recognition of fables is
noticed, and in the Purapas and elsewhere stories are
often related to illustrate an idea.
Whether known as Akhyana or Akhyayika(narrative)
or Katha (conversation) in ‘spirit’ some stories are
essentially connected with Nitisastra, some with Artha-
sastra, and others with Dharmasastra intending to bear
lesson on general go>">d conduct, economics, and royal
duties. In ‘form’ the stories are related in prose, but the
moral is fixed in the memory by being put in verse form,
and other didactic verses are strewn in the tale. In the
structure of the story there is a distinctly artistic touch
in complicating and enlarging the theme, not merely by
combining a number of fctbles to form a book, but in
interweaving the fables so that the whole would become
a unity. The subject matters of the stories are naturally
various and are intended to entertain both the adults of
various temperament as well as children who are fond of
animals and birds behaving like human beings.
The Panchatantra and the Hitopadesa are the earliest
and the most popular of the Brahraanical story-books
which have influenced the Buddhist and Jain story-
books like the Jataka-msla and also t’ne Dasakumgra-
charita, Brihat-katha, Kathssarit-sagara and several
others.
The Panchatantra must have been written after
the Mahabharata, and it is not later than 200 A.D. It is
Brahmanical in spirit throughout with Vaishnava
tendency. It is ascribed to Vishpu?arman who was
engaged by king Araara-dakti of Mahilaropya, a city of
the south, on his promise to teach in six months the
three idle princes moral science (nitisastra) and the
royal polity (dharma-sastra) and probably economics
(arthasastra). The book of five (paficha) subject-matters
(tantra) comprises five parts, liz mitra-bheda (separation
of friends), mitra-samprapti (winning of friends), Kako-
lukiya (vigraha, sandhi, war and peace), Labdha-pranasa
(loss of one’s gettings), and Aparikshita-karaka (karitg,
inconsiderate action).
‘The frame-work of the first book is the story of a
bull and lion, who are introduced to one another in the
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 367

forest by two jackals and become fast friends. One of

the jackals, feeling himself neglected, starts an intrigue
by telling the lion and the bull that each is plotting
against the other. As a result the bull is killed in battle
with the lion, and the jackal, as prime minister of the
latter, enjoys the fruits of his machinations. This book
gives ample room for political discussions. It contains
a number of interesting fables. For instance the fate
of the ape who pulled out a wedge and was split up by
it is recounted to prove the folly of interfering with
what does not concern one. Again there are three
cases of evils brought on oneself ‘in the tales of the
foolish monk W'ho took a thief as pupil and had his cash
stolen, of the jackal who ran in betv^een and was killed
by the impact of two hutting rams, and of the procuress
who took the place of a weaver’s wife in order to further
her intrigue with a patron, and suffered in consequence
of the loss of her nose.’
The second book, named, ‘winning of friends’’ is
meant to illustrate the advantages of judicious friend-
ships and deals with the adventures of a tortoise, a deer,
a crow, and a mouse. It contains more attractive
stories. For instance there is the tale of the clover kirg
of the doves who saves his retinue from the hunter’s net
by making them all fly up with it and then has the bonds
cut by the mouse, being careful to have his cut last.
Again the story of the Brahn.an who bade his wife
prepare food to feed Brahmans at the change of the moon,
and to override her objecticns on the set. re of economy,
tells the story of the overgreedy jackal who, having as
food a boar, deer, and hunter, nibbled the end of the
bowstring which killed him by splitting his throat.
The third book, named, ‘war and peace’, points out
the danger of friendship concluded between those who
are old enemies. An illustration refers to the tale how
the stronghold of the owls was burned by the crow’s.
‘The origin of the war is explained as due to an error
in speech and this elicits the tale of the ass in the
panther’s skin, which by braving lost its life. Again,
an ascetic rescued a mouse and made it a maiden, when
she became ripe for marriage he sought a meet husband
the sun declined the proposals as the cloud was stronger
than he, the cloud admitted inferiority to the wind, the
wund to the mountain, and it to the mouse, so that the
sage turned the maid to a mouse again.’
368 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

The fourth book, named, ‘loss of what has been

acquired’ is meant to illustrate how fools can be made
by flattery to part with their possessions. The main
story of the monkey and crocodile illustrates the point.
Both of them lived in such amity that the crocodile’s
wife becaine jealous, and falling sick would be content
with nothing save her riaval’s heart. The crocodile,
though sad, seeks to entice the ape to visit him but the
ape finds out his plan and saves himself by saying that
his heart is kept on a fig-tree, escaphig when the cro-
codile seeks to obtain it from the tree. Thecroco .ile
seeks to renew the friendship, but is told instea that i

the ape is not like the ass who came back this leads to
;

another story.
The fifth book, named, ‘inconsiderate action’, con-
tains a number of stories connected with the experiences
cf a barber, who came to grief through failing to take
all the cirGumstan3es of the case into consideration.
For instance, a Brahman goes to the king’s palace leav-
ing his pet mongoose in charge of his baby son who
has been entrusted by his wife to his care. On his
return he finds the mongoose rushing to meet him with
bloody paws and mouth in a rage he deems his son
;

killed and slays the beast, only to find that the blcod
was that of a cobra which the faithful guardian had
destroyed’.'

^
“The reconstructed text is unquestionably a text book for
the instrucuou of kiners in politics and the practical conduct of
everyday life, but it is also a story-book, and the author was net
inclined to cut down his stories merely to the bare ra.nimitni necessary
of his task of instruction.”
The chief characteristics consist of the embod'ment of and
the intermingling of prose with gnomic stanzas and Imle stanzas
giving the moral in each tale. “The language of the author is
dhtinctly elegant. There can be no doubt that the work was the
production of an artist.”
In addition to Pahlavi and South Indian versions many
mixed versions of the text is found in Sanskrit. It was also rendered
into old and modern Gujerati, old and modern Maharashtri, Braja.
bhasha, and into Tamil. It was used freely by ^ivaris.sa in lus Vetala-
paBcha-viiiisati, the Sanskrit texts ot the Sukasaptati, and the
Dra-trimsat-puttalika. “its tate in western lands has been still more
brilliant. The Hitopadesa, of Naxayana (900), the Bengal descendant
of the Panchatantra, is the test known and most popular work
of Sanskrit literature. It comprises four books, viz. Mitra-libha
(winning of friends), Suhridbheda (separation of friends), Vigraha,
(war), and Sandhi (peace).
 OEIGINAL LITERATURES 369

The Brihat-katha (long story) of Gimadhya does

not exist in its original form. It was written at an
uncertain date and locality in Paisachibhasha which
is etymologically the language of those who live on
eating uncooked meat, and applied to a number of low
Prakrit dialects spoken by the most ignorant and
degraded cUsses, which are identified by Grierson with
dialects spoken in Kafiristan, the Swat valley, Chitral
and Gilgit where the people were cannibals and called
eaters of raw flesh pisacha)
The date of Gunadhya cannot be definitely
ascertained. It maybe that Bhasa’s dramas drew some
inspiration from this source, but we have no strict
proof. The Brihat-katha is alluded to in the Dandin’s
Dasakumara-charita and Bapa’s Kadambari. Thus the
date may be placed between 400 B, C and 500 A. D,
The locality is also indefinite owing to the fact that
there is one Pratishthana on the Godavari and another
at the junction of the Ganga and the Yamura at Jhiinsi
near Allahabad. What is clear that Ujjain or Kausa-
mbi was the scene whence Giuwdhya derived much of his
inspiration, which is a very different thing from the place
where he got royal patronage and completed his work^
The source of the Brihat-katha cannot be deter-
mined with precision. It is, however, clear that Giipadhya
drew upon three sources, “ihe Rimayepa gave him the
motif of the search of a husband for a wife cruelly
stolen from him soon after a happy marriage. From
Buddhist legends and other traditions of Ujjain and
Kausambi he was deeply familiar with the tales of
Pradyuta or Mahasena and the gallant and dashing hero
Udaymna, whose love-ad ventures were famed for their
number and variety. He was also in touch wAh the
many tales of sea-voyage and strange adventures in far
lands which were current in the busy centres of Indian
trade, and with the abundant fairy-tales and legends of
magic current in India,’’
The original plot of Gupadhya’s Brihatkatha
appears to be simple. The king Udayana had a son
named Naravnhanadatta who was a model of his father
and was born with thirty-auspicious signs which
indicated either asceticism of the Buddha’s type or
universal dominionship of the world. In his youth
Naravahanadatta fell in love, despite other wives, with
47
370 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

Madana-mafichuka (manjuka) who was a hetaira. She

hated her position and wanted to be recognised as a
woman of family (kulastri), and avoid her compulsory
polyandry. But soon after the happy marriage she was
stolen by Manasavega, a Vidyadhara. Karavahanadatta
with the aid of his faithful minister and a number of
friendly princes was successful in discovering and
rescuing her and simultaneously winning the empire
of the Yidyadharas who dwell beyond the formidable
defences of the Himalayas. Naravahanadatta and other
princes set out to different directions in their expedition,
intimately they were reunited and they recounted the
adventures to one another. The reports include reference
to Harav hanadatta’s other loves and many a tale of
adventurous journeying as well as love-story and fairy
lore. A series of adventures were drawn from low life
and allied to marvellous happenings of every kind^.
The disappearance of the Brihatkatha of Gunadhya
is a serious loss in Indian literature because it was “a
work which ranked beside the Mahabharata and the
Eamayana as one of the great store houses of Indian
literary art.” But his enduring memorial is furnished
by the versions of the Brihatkatha which exist.
The earliest of the four versions is the Brihat-
katha-^loka samgraha of Buddhasvamin of uncertain date
(from eighth or ninth century A,D.)_ The manuscripts of
his work are from Nepal. “It is divided into cantos of
which twenty-eight survive, probably a mere fraction of
the original, though it extends to 4,639 verses.” The
story in the main is the same with a lengthy introduc-
tion and the mention of a number of Yidyadhara
girls whom the hero married in rescuing the heroine
Madanamanjuka, the daughter of a hetaira, Kalingaseng.
Buddhasvamin followed far more faithfully his original
than the Kashmirian authors of the later versions.

1 The author Gunadhya was clearly the poet, not of kings

so much, as of the merchants, the traders) the seafarers, and even
the handicraftsmen of his day. “His epic was a bourgeois epic.”
The story of the Ramayana is thus.jtpeated. The Dasakuniara-
charita repeats the adventures of the p.-inees. Madanamanchuka
the heroine, called Kalingasena in Buddhasvamin’s Brihatkatha-
sloka-samgraha, i® repeated^ in Bhasa’s Charudatta and the
Mrichchhakatika of a king Sudraka of uncertain identity and date.
The fantasy of Gunadya lives on also in the Yasastilaka of
Somadeva Suri and in the Tilakamanjari of Dhanapala.
 OEIGINAL LITEEATURES 371

The Bfibat-katha-manjari of the Kashmirian poet

Kshemendra (much before Somadeva, 1063 A.D.) in
verse comprises eighteen books of which four, (xiii,
xiv, XV, xvi) are interpolation containing extra matter.
The original story of Gupadhya has been retained and
the influence of Euddhasvarnin is not absent. But the
source of Kshemendra (and Somadeva) appears to be a
lost version of the Brihatkatha. The “dry and sober”
abridgement of the main story by Kshemendra (and
Somadeva) has deprived it “of all life and attraction.”
The greater interest of the Brihat-katha-mafijari lies in
its extra matter which includes both the versions of the
Pafichatantra and that of the Vetala-pancha-virhs'atika
which have no real connection with the story of
Naravahanadatta. There are a series of additional
episodes w’herein lies the real interest of Kshemendra ’s
work.

The Katha-sarit-sagara was written by the Kashmi-

rian poet Somadeva, a considerable period after that of
Kshemendra, between 1063 and 1081 in order to divert
the troubled mind of Suryamati, a princess of Jalan-
dhar, wife of Ananta and mother of Kalasa, In addition
to the eighteen books (lambhakas) he has divided
the work into 25 Tarangas comprising 2 ,388 verses.
1

The object and method of his composition in verse is

related by Bopadeva in a verse which in Keith’s trans-
lation reads “literary convention and the connexion of
topics have been presented as best as I could, as well as
the arrangement of a part of the poem so as not to
offend against the sentiment of the story (or the story
and its sentiment).” Thus there is a change of order but
there is no change in the first five books as given in
Kshemendra’s work. The source of Somadeva is
common to that of Kshemendra and is a lost Sanskrit
version of Gunadhya’s original work in Paisachl. Lite
Kshemendra Somadeva has also retained the main story
with additional information regarding Udayana’s love
affairs including the episode that he himself was about
to marry the hetaira, Kalingasena, the mother of Madana
manchuka, the heroine of Naravahanadatta, whose wives
included over a dozen Vidyadhara maidens. His addi-
tions also included both the versions of the Pancha-
tantra and that of the Vetala-panchavirtisatika and a
series of episodes.
372 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

The Vatala-pancha-vimsatika was originally part

of a distinct cycle, but it is preserved in its oldest form
in Kshemendra’s Brihat-katha-manjari and Somadeva’s
Katba-sarit sagara. The frame-work of this collection
of twenty-five stories is as follows. ‘Trivikramasena,
or as later accounts have it, king Vikramaditya of Ujja-
yini, used to get annually a fruit from an ascetic contain-
ing a jewel In gratitude he offers to aid the ascetic
who asks him to go to a cemetery and bring down from
a tree a corpse which is on it. without uttering a single
word, to a spot in a gravey ard where certain rites for the
attainment of high magical powers are to take place.
As tne king is carryii g the corpse along on his shoulders,
a ghoul (Vetala, Vampire) which has entered it,
begins to speak and tells him a fairy tale. On the king
inadvertently replying to a question the corpse at once
disappears and is found hanging on the tree again. The
ki n.g goes back to fetch it, arid the same process is repeated
till the ghoul las told twenty-five stories. Each of these
is so constructed as to end in a subtle problem, on wTiich
the king is tempted to express his opinion, d he king is
thus finally defeated and is silent. The demon then
reveals to him that the evil ascetic is seeking in
realitv to slay him (king), and at his bidding the king
ai-ks the ascetic to show him how to perform the prostra-
tion required in the rite which is to be performed with
the corpse, and hews f ff the evil-doer’s head.’
The stories are interesting. One. for instance, ends
with the question of relationship of the children of a
father who marries the daughter of a lady whom his
son espouses. Another relates to the question of the
marriage of a girl “when she has been rescued from a
demon by the united work of three lovers, one of whom
finds by his skill the place where she is hidden, the
other by mygic provides an aerial car to seek for her,
and the third by valour slays the demon the king gives
;

the palm to valour. “Which again is the nobler, the

husband-to-be who permits his beloved one a last
asfignation, the robber who lets her pass him unscatted
when he knows her mission, or the lover who returns
her unharmed when he learns of the husband’s noble
deed.’’ “A king desires a human sacrifice for his own
benefit, parents and Brahman priest seek to carry
out, the demon is ready, but the little child to be
offered laughs at their shameless folly in ignoring the
 ueigiNal literatures 373

transient nature of all earthly things, and his life is

spared,”^
The Siihh.isana-dvatrimbTka, otherwise known as
Yikrarna-charita, is a book of thirty-two tales of un-
known date and authorship. It is later than Vetala-
panchavimsatika and comprises both verses and prose.
The tales are told by thirty -two maidens. The throne
(simhasana) was presented to king Vikramaditya by
Indra. After the death of the king in battle against
SaTivahana it was hurried in the earth where thirty-two
spirits bound there in statue form. It is alleged to
have been discovered by king Bhoja of Dhara in the
eleventh century when that king desired to seat himself
on it All the stories reiate to king Vikramaditya,
After relating the tales the spirits got released.
The most interesting of the stories is that of a
king who gives to his dearly beloved wife the fruit that
dirives away old age, but she gives it to the master of the
house who gives it to a hetaira and the king in disgust
abandons his throne.
In the Jain recension of Kshemamkara the stories
are framed to make out the king a model of generosity
“who spent his substance in gifts to the priests of what
he won by his great deed of valour. In it there are
narrative verses at the beginning and end of each prose
tale. The South Indian version contains like the origi-
nal form maxim verses and narrative verses mingled
in its prose. In a North-Indian recension the stories are
lost in the morals. There is another version consisting
entirely in verses. The Bengal version ascribed to
Yararuchi is based on tne Jain recension.
There are a few imitations of this work, all dealing
with Vikramaditya ’s adventures. One of those is the
Viracharitra in thirty chapters of Ananta “whose real
hero is rather Sudraka, once co-regent of Balivahana,

1 ^There are several

recensions of this book of twenty-five
stories. Sivadasa’s edition cannot bo earlier than twelfth century;
it is in prose and ver.-e and may represent the original form of
the tales, but some of the verses are taken from Kshernendra’s
Brihat-katha-mafijari. Another anonymous recension is mostly
in prose also based on Kshemendra. The late recension of Jambhala-
datta has no verse maxims. An abbreviated version by Vallabha-
dasa “has been freely rendered into modern Indian vernaculars and
also exis ts in the Mongolian Ssiddi-kur,”
374 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

but later a supporter of the decendants of Vikramaditya.

Another is the Sajivahanakatha in eighteen cantos,
partly in prose by Sivadasa. “The third one is known
as the Madhavanalakatha” in simple prose with
Sanskrit and Prakrit stanzas by Ananda. The fourth one
is anonymous called Vikramodaya in verse, where the
hero appears as a learned parrot. The fifth is a Jain
compilation of the fifteenth century, Pancha-danda
chhatra-pravandha, where the hero appears “as a
magician and m^aster of black magic.”
The third collection is theSuka-saptati w^here a
parrot narrates seventy stories. The frame-work is
interesting. A merchant, Haradatta, had a foolish son,
Madanasena, who spends his wholetime in making
love with his youngman. In order to make the son
wise the father presents to the former two wise birds, a
parrot and a crow, whose talk converts the son. Thus
when he goes out on business he entrusts his young
wife to the birds. She regrets the absence of her
husband but is ready to accept a substitute. The advice
of the crow enrages the lady who threatens to kill it.
The wiser parrot seemingly approves of her plan but
w'arns her of the risks she runs and makes her promise
not to go and meet any paramour unless she can
extricate herself from difficulties as Gunas'alini did.
The curiosity of the lady is thus aroused- The bird
tells one story but only as far as the dilemma when he
asks the woman what course the person concerned
should take. As she cannot guess, the parrot promises
to tell her if she stays at home that night. Seventy
days pass in the same way maintaining her virtue
till the husband returns.

About half of these seventy stories deal with

breaches of the marnage-bond and the rest ‘exhibit
other instances of the cunning usually of hetairai or
clever decisions of arbitrators. Religion plays its
parts in helping immorality ;
religious processions,
temples, pilgrimages, marriages, sacrifices, all are
convenient occasions for assignations.’ One story refers
to Muladeva who is asked to decide which of two
.

hideous wives of demons is the better-looking.

There are other less known collections of tales in
Sanskrit,.Prakrit and vernaculars. The late Katharnava
of Sivadasa is a collection of thirty-five tales including
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 375

stories of fools and thieves The Purusha-pariksha of

Vidyapati of Mithila is a similar collection of forty-four
stories, dated fourteenth century. The Pravandha-
chintamapi of JainMerutunga and the Pravandha-kosa of
Jain Rajasekhara, both, belonging to the fourteenth
century, deal with legends of authors and other important
persons. Another Jain story book is Bharataka-
dvatrirhsika of which the thirty-two tales are intended to
deride Brahmans. The Parnishtaparvan of Hemachandra
deals with the oldest Jain teachers in a folk-ta'e form,
including the myth of the incest of brother and sister,
children of a hetaira, of Chandragnpta Maurya dying
as a pious Jain. The Jain Charitras and Puranas which
“do not attain the level of literature, contain elaborate
allegory of human life in the form of a tale written in
906 A. D. by Siddha or Siddharshi. The Upaniti-bhava-
prapancha-katha in Sanskrit prose with a number of
verses is an allegory of “unrelieved dreariness due to the
dry and scholastic Jain tenets and the somewhat narrow
views of life prevalent in Jain circles.”

The Samyak-tattva-kaumudi of unknown date and

authorship contains the story of the picus Arhad-dasa
who relates to his eight wives and they to him how they
obtained true religion and how overhearing them a king
and a thief were converted. The Kathakosa of unknown
date and authorship is “a series of tales without
connection, in bad Sanskrit with verses in Prakrit,
which gives a poor Jain version the story of Nala and
Damayanti”.

The Champaka-sreshthi-kathanaka of Jinakirti of

fifteenth century is in frame a story containing three
tales, one of Rsvana’s vain effort to avoid fate. H he
Pslagopala-kathanaka of the same author contains the
tale of a woman who accused of attempts on her
honour the youth who has refused to yield to her
seductions.

This brief survey of the story class of literature

will illustrate the large variety and number of stories
dealing with almost all phases of Brahmanical, Jaina,
and Buddhist faith. Among all classes of literature the
stories supply a clear state of our civilization and
culture in the different grades of the society.
376 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

DRAMAS AND PLAYS

The drama is an important branch of Sanskrit
literature. ‘Tthas had a full and varied national
development, quite independent of Western influence, and
it throws much light on Hindu social customs during the
centuries preceding the Muhammedan invasion.” The
essential elements of which the drama is composed had
been in existence before drama in a complete form
came into being. The hymns of the Rigveda contain
dialogues, such as those of Sarama and the Panis, A^ama
and Yami, Puraravas and Urvasi. Tradition describes
Bharata as having caused to be acted before the gods a
play representing the wedding (svayambara) of Lakshmi
with Purushottama (Yishnu). Tradition further makes
Krishna and his cowherdesses (gopikai the starting
point of the sarhgita, a representation consisting of a
mixture of song, music and dancing, which are the other
elements of the drama. The Gitagovinda of Jayadeva
and the well-known Bengal Yatras represent this type of
play. The other elements include the blending of lyrics
and dialogue in prose and also in Prakrit. The Maha-
bhashya refers to the full-fledged acted dramas dealing
with the episodes of Krishna, n>., Kamsavadha and
Balibandha.
Of the two kinds of literary composition, viz.
Sravya and Prekshyha, tl.e latterare the dramas which
may be for the purpose of refutation (pathya)like the other
literature or for the play (geya) proper. Of the Pathya
variety of drama there are twelve branches, of which
the first are known as Pmpakas (representative plays), viz,

nataka, prakarana, natika, samavakara, ihamriga. dim, a.

vyayoga, utsrishtikaPka, prahasana, and Bhana, Viihi and
Sattaka. Similarly the Geya variety of drama comprises
eleven branches, viz. dombika, bhana, prasthana, singaka
bhanika, prerana, ram^akrida, hallisaka, rasaka, srigadita,
and tagakavya.
The art of playing (abhinaya) consists of body-
acting (angika), verbal acting (vachika), acting with the
help of costumes and make-up (aharya) and emotional
acting (sattvika). Dancing which is an element of
drama is a form of body-acting only (angabhinaya) with
the help of the six major limbs (head, two hands, chest,
two sides, waist, and two feet) and the six minor limbs
(two shoulders, two arms, back. beth% two thighs, two
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 377

shanks or elbows, two knees and neck). The head acting

includes twelve parts, eyes, eye-brow, eye-lids, eye-
balls, cheeks, cheek-bones, nose, lower lips, rows of teeth,
tongue, chin, and face. The acting of the feet includes
the movement of heels, ankles, soles, and fingers. The
movements of the single hand comprise twenty-eight
kinds of gestures and of the combined hands twenty-
three kinds of gestures.
Generally the plays are divided into scenes and
acts. The scenes are marked by the entrance of one
character and the exit of another. The number of
acts in a play varies usually from one to ten. Every
play begins with a prologue or introduction, which
regularly opens with a prayer or benediction (naiidi).
Before a new act an interlude (vishkambha or pravesi-
ka), consisting of a monologue or dialogue, is introduced.
In this scene allusion is made to events supposed to have
occurred in the interval, and the audience are prepared
for what is about to take place. The whole play closes
with a prayer for national prosperity which is spoken
by one of the principal characters numbering four to
five. The duration of the events is to be identical with
the time occupied in performing the play on the stage ;

but occasionally the interval is much longer. The

unity of place is not observed. The Natyasastras supply
details of the stage.'
The three earliest playwrights before Kalidasa are
Bhasa, Sudraka, and Asvaghosha. Scholars do not yet
agree about the relative position, and dates of these
playwrights. Professor Keith places Bhasha and
Sudraka between Asvaghosha (300 A. D.) and Kalidasa
(400 A. D.) According to others Bhasa may be placed as
far back as between B. C. 300 and 350, and Sudraka
about B. C. 250.
Fragmentary manuscripts discovered at Turfan
have brought to light three of Buddhaghosha’s Buddhist
dramas of allegorical character. The first of these is
known as Sariputra-prakarana, otherwise called, Sarad-
vatl-putra-prakarana. It belongs to the Prakarapa type

1 For illustrations sen Amritabazar Patrika, Puja number,

October, 194'i, pp. 165-166.
3 For illustrations see the writer’s Encylopedia of Hindu
Architecture sub-voce,
48
378 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

ofdramas and comprises nine acts. The story ‘deals

with the events which led up to the conversion of the
young Maudgalyayana and Sariputra by the Buddha.
Sariputra had an interview with Asvaiit. Then he
discussed the question oc the claims of the Buddha to
be a teacher with his friend, the Tidushaka, who
raised the objection that a Brahman like his master
should not accept the teaocirg of a Ivshatriya. Sari-
putra repels the cbjection by reminding his friend
that medicine aids the sick; though given by a man
of inferior caste. Maudgalyayana greets Saputra,
inquiring of him the cause of his glad appearance, and
learns his reasons. The two go to the Buddha, who
receives them, and who fcreteils to them that they will
be the highest in knowledge and magic power of his
disciples’. The end of the play is m.arked by a
philosophic dialogue between Sariputra and the Buddha,
which includes a polemic against the belief in the
existence of a permanent self. It terminates in the
praise of his two nevr disciples by the Buddha, and a
formal benediction.
Fragments of the second drama is recorded
along wdth tlie manuscript of the first one. Its title is
missing and the full story is not available. In it ‘we find
the allegorical figures of Buddhi (wisdom), Kirti (fame),
and Dhriti (firmness), appearing and conversing. This
is followed by the advent of the Buddha himself. In
the other dram. a also the title is missing; the fiqures
comprise the heridne Magadhavati, the Yidushaha
Komudha-gandba and the hero Somadatta, and a prince,
a maid servant and Sariputra and Maudgalyayana.
A series thirteen dramas are ascribed to the
of
great poet Bhasa. He is mentioned (along wdth Sarmilla
and Kaviputra and others) by lAilidasa (fifth century)
in his Malavikagnimitra, by Eapa (seventh century^),
by Vakpati (eighth century) and by Kajalekhara (900)
as a great poet and playwright. Tiie writers on poetics
also refer to him Yamana (ei.ghth century) mentions
;

the Svapna-y.^savadatta and the Charudatta Bhamaha

;

criticises the plot of Pratijila-yaugandharayana and

;

A-bhinavaguata (900) refers to Svapna-vasava-datta and

the Charudatta. It is uncertain if Bhasa belongs to
Ujjayini or be lived under the Western Kshatrapa kings.
The story of the Madhyama-Vyayoga in one act
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 379

is based on the Mahabharata and reminds one of the

talk of the love of the demon Hidiniba for Bhinia, the
third (madhyama) of the Pandavas and their marriage
resulting in the birth of Ghatotkacha.

The Dutaghatotkacha in one act also belongs to the

"'^’yayoga type of plays. The main story refers to the
Kurus being jubilaiit over the defeat of Abhimanyu,
Arjuna’s son, at the hands of Jayadratha. Dhritarashtra
warns them of the dangers that overshadow them.
Ghatotkacha appears to them and predicts their punish-
ment at the hands of Arjuna.
The third play is Karnabhara in one act which
deals with Karna’s armour. He makes himself ready
for his fight with Arjuaa. He tells Salya, the Madra
king, of the trick by which he won it from the great
Parasuraraa. The latter retaliates for the deception by
the curse that the arms should fail him in the hour of his
need. The curse is fulfilled. Indra comes in the guise
of a Brahman and obtains from Karpa his weapons
and ear-rings. Karna and Salya go out to battle,
and the sound of Arjuna ’s chariot is heard. The fourth
play is urubhaaga in one act. In it the fight between
Bhima and Duryodhana is described. It ends in the
breaking of the thigh of the latter who falls in agony.
The Paiicharatra is in three acts and belongs to the
Samavakara type of plays, where there are more than one
hero. The main story deals with the efforts made by
well-wishers to save the Kurus and the Pandavas from
the fatal conflict which ends in the ruin of the former
and grave loss to the latter. The common preceptor who
has undertaken a sacrifice for the benefit of Duryodhana
demands of the latter as the fee for the sacrifice the grant
to the Pandavas of half the realm- Duryodhana promises
on condition that they are heard of within five days. In
Act II Virata is found missing from tliose present at the
offering. He has to mourn the loss of a hundred Kichakas
including the chief one who attempted to insult Draupadi
in Virata’s palace. Blnshma suspects that Bhima
must be at the bottom of this traaedy. In his instiga-
tion it is decided to raid Virata’s cows, as he hopes thus
to bring the facts to light. The foray, however, fails,
for the Pandavas are with Virsta in disguise. Abhi-
manyu is taken prisoner and married to Virata’s daughter
Uttara. The charioteer in Act III brings back the
380 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

news, showing clearly that Arjuna and Bhima have

taken part in the contest. Duryodhana, however, decides
to ]reep faith.
The sixth play, Dutavakya, in one act belongs to
the Vvayoga type, deals with the Krishna legend from
the Mahsbharata, who came as the ambassador (duta)
seeking peace with Duryodhana, At that time Bhishma
has been made the chief of the Kuru forces. The
ambassador demands the half of the realm for the
•

Papdavas. Duryodhana refuses and seeks to bind the

envoy. Enraged, he calls for his magic weapons. But
finally he subdues his wrath and receives homage from
Dhritarashtra. The seventh play, Balacharita, in five
acts deals with the life of Krishna from his birth until
he kills king Kamsa of Mathura. This is a lively and
vivid picture, full of action. There is much originality
in it because it differs from the similar stories of
Krishna in the HarivarUsa, Vishnu and Bhagavata
puranas which are of later growth than the Bhasa’s play.
The next two dramas, Pratima-nataka, and Abhi-
sheka-nitaka, are based on the Ramsyana. The Pratima-
nataka in seven acts belongs to the Nataka type of
plays. It shows the story of Rama from Dasaratha’s
death to his return to Ayodhya after recovering Sits
from Lanka. It opens with the statue (pratims) hall
where Dasaratha’s statue is added to those of his
predecessors after his death at the banishment of Rama
together with Lakshmana and Sita as a result of
Kaikeyi’s plot to enthrone Bharata.
The Abhisheka-nataka in six acts also belongs to
the Nataka type and is based on the Eamayana. It deals
with the coronation (abhisheka) of Rama after his
return from Lanka without any reference to the second
banishment of Sita.

The tenthone, Avimaraka, is a play in six acts.

It isbased not on the epics but on some unidentified
stcry. ‘The daughter of king Kuntibhoja, Kurangi, is
saved from an elephant by an unknown youth, who
in reality the son of the Bauvira king, is living with his
father as a member of a degraded caste for a year as
the outcome of a curse- His low status forbids his
union with the princess. But love triumphs and the
lovers secretly meet, the youth coming in the guise of
a thief. The news leaks out and the youth flies awajr.
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 381

In despair he seeks to burn himself to death but Agni

repulses him. He attempts to throw himself from a
rock but a Vidyadhara dissuades him giving him a ring
which enables him to enter the palace unseen and save
Kuraiigi, likewise desolated, from suicide. Then Narada
appears and reveals the identity of Avimaraka who
is not in fact the son of the Sauvira king, but the son
of Agni by Sudarsana, the wife of the king of Kasi,
who gave him over on his birth to Suchetana, her
sister, wife of the Sauvira king. The happy marriage
thus takes place with the approval of all those connected
with the pair.’
The Pratijna-yaungandharayana is a Prakarana in
four acts. The story resembles the one in the Brihat-
katha of Gunidhya and is referred to in the Mahabharata.
The Vatsa king Udayana goes on an elephant hunt, but
is taken prisoner by his enemy, Pradyota Mahasena of
Ujjayini, a counterfeit elephant being employed for his
overthrow. Yaugandharayana, the minister of Udayana,
who is the hero of the play, determines to revenge the
king. In Ujjayini Mahasena discusses with his wife the
question of the marriage of their daughter, Vasavadatta,
when the news of the capture of Udayana arrives. They
decide that she shall take lessons in music from the
captive. The two fall in love. Yaugandharayana comes
to Ujjayini in disguise with his friends. Through his
machinations the king is enabled to escape with Vasava-
datta. But the minister is captured after a gallant fight.
Mahasena, how’ever, appreciates the cleverness of the
ministers and approves the marriage of the pair.

The Svapna-Vasavadatta or Svapna-nataka, which

belongs to the Nataka type, is a play in six acts, the
masterpiece of Bhasa and the most mature of his
dramas. It is in continuation of the Pratijna-yaugan-
dharsyana. ‘The minister is anxious to secure for
Udayana, the Vatsa king who has married the princess
Vasavadatta of Ujjayini, an extension of his power by
wedding him to Padiuavati, the daughter of the king of
Magadha. Udayana, however, refuses as he is unwilling
to leave his beloved Vasavadatta. The minister induces
Vasavadatta to aid in his scheme. Taking advantage of
a temporary separation from the king, he spreads the
rumour that the queen and he have perished in a
conflagration. The king is thus induced to consider
382 INDIAN CULTUEE AND CIVILIZATION

marriage with Padmavati, The minister has entrusted

to her care the queen, giving out that she is his sister.
Padmavati is willing to accept the love of the king, but
learning that he has never ceased to cherish the
memory of Yasavadatta she is seized by a severe
head-ache. The king comes to comfort her but does not
find her and lies down, sleep overcoming him. Vasava-
datta sits down beside the sleeping person considering
him to be Padmavati. But as he begins to speak in his
sleep about Yasavadatta she rises and leaves him, but
not before he has caught a glimse of her, in a dream
(svapna) as he thinks. He awakes and goes to the palace.
Then he finds the good news that his foes have been
defeated. At that time a messenger comes from Ujjayini
bearing the picture of nuptial of Udayana and
Yasavadatta. Padmavati sees this picture and recognises
that Yaugandharayana’s sister left with her was really
Yasavadatta. The minister arrives to explain to the
satisfaction of all the plan he has devised to secure
Udayana’s ends.

The thirteenth and last of the existing plays,

Gharudatta.is in four acts without the Nandi verse at the
opening and the Bharatavakya at the close, ‘Chsrudatta,
a merchant whose generosity has impoverished him,
has seen a hetaira Yasantasens at a festival, and
they have fallen in love. Pursued by the king’s
brother-in-law Samsthana, Vasantasena takes refuge in
Charudatta’s house. When she goes she leaves in his
care her gold ornaments, and ransoms for his creditors
to a servant of Charudatta, who renounces the world
and becomes a monk. In the night the ornaments are
stolen by a thief Sjjalaka, in order to gain the means to
purchase the freedom of a slave of Yasantasens with
whom he is in love. Charudatta is overcome with
shame at learning of the theft of goods deposited in his
care. His noble wife sacrifices a pearl necklace, which
she gives to Yidushaka to hand over to Yasantasena in
lieu of her lost jewels. He takes the ornament to the
hetaira, who has learned of the theft, but accepts it to
have the excuse of visiting the merchant once more.
Bhe starts out to Chanviatta’s liouse after handing over
the slave girl to Sajjalaka. At this point the play ends
abruptly. It seems, however, that Charudatta was
accused of theft and Yasantasena was in grave danger
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 383

of life through the machinations of the king’s brother-

in-law.^
The Mrichchhakatika, a Prakarana in ten acts, is
ascribed to an unidentified king Suoraka to v/hom no
definite date could yet be assigned, although he would
be after Bhasa and before Kalidasa. The first four
acts of the play are a reproduction with slight changes
of Bhisa’s Chifudatta. The names are slightly changed ;

the king’s brother-inlaw is called Samsthanaka, and

the thief Sarvilaka. Act 1 carries the action upto
the deposit of the ornaments by < Vasantasena. Act II
relates Vasantasena’s generosity ir releasing the shara-
pooer who turns monk and the attack made on him
by an elephant from which her servant Kamapuraka
saves him and gets as reward a cloak which Vasanta-
seiia recognises as Charudatta’s. Act III describes
Sarvilaka’s success in stealing the jewels and the
resolve of Charudatta’s wife to give her necklace to
replace them. In Act IV Sarvilaka gives the stolen
jewels to Vasantasena who is, therefore, pleased with
him, gives him permission to marry her slave girl
although she is aware of his theft. At that time he
learns that his friend Aryaka, who was imprisoned
by the king as according to a prophecy the former
was to get the kingship, has escaped from captivity.
Thus Sarvilaka leaves his newly made bride with
Vasantasena in order to help his friend. At that time
Vidushaka comes with the necklace of Charudatta’s
wife which Vasantasena accepts in order to use it
as a pretext to see Charudatta once more. Act V
further describes Tidushaka’s visit, her departure from

^ It will be noticed that thefe dramas have certain features

which are to be s-een iiowliere else. First, no other
playwright has
written so many dramas. Secondly, the \ariety is also missing
elsewhere. Of these thiiteen dramas the first seven are based on
the Mahabhavata, the next two on the Ra may ana. the following
three on the Katha class of literature, ami tlie last one on the
hctdira stories. Blia^a’s originality in creating a sustained interest
even on iireviou-ly known stories of the audience is no where
lacking. Thirdly, of all Sanskrit playwrights, Bhasa appears to
have ncognised to a certain extent the distinction between a play-
[iroper and a dramatic literature, the former being more suitable for
enacting and the latter for recitation or reading at leisure. Even
the dramas or Kalidi -a are ie.'S suitable for the stage while some of
the later dramas of Bhavabhuti and others can never be enacted in
their entirety and with success.
384 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

her house, and the storm which forces her tc spend

the night in Chirudatta’s house. Act VI reveals her
next morning offering to return the necklace but her
gift is refused by Charudatta’s child to replace his clay-
cart (rarith-sakatika) with a golden one. She is to
rejoin Charudatta in a neighbouring park, the property
of Samsthanaka. But by an error she enters the cart
of Samsthanaka. And Aryaka who has been seeking a
hiding place leaps into the cart of Charudatta and is
driven away. Two policemen stop the cart, and one
recognises Aryaka and protects him from the other
with whom he contrives a quarrel. In Act VII Charu-
datta sees his cart drive up, discovers Aryaka, permits
him to go off in it, and he himself leaves to find
Vasantasena. In Act VIII Saiiistanaka with the Vita
and a slave awaiting A^asantasena in his park meets
the shampooer turned monk washing his robe in the
tank, insults him and beats him. Then Vasantasena
arrives. Shamsthanaka tries but fails to win her and
beats her apparently to death and buries her under
leave-cover. For this cruelty the Vita and the slave
leave his service and go to Aryaka. The monk re-
enters to dry his robe, finis and restores to life Vasanta-
sena, and takes her to the monastery to be cared for.
In ACt IX Samsthanaka as the chief of Police accuses
Charudatta as the murderer of Vasantasena. Her
mother is summoned as a witness but she defends
Charudatta. The Police officer testifies to the escape of
Aryaka, which implicates Charudatta. Vidushaka en route
to return to Vasantaseni her jewels given to Charudatta’s
child visits the court but in his anger with Samsthanaka
lets fall the jewels. This fact taken together with the
evidence that A^asantasens spent the night with
Charudatta and Iqft next morning to meet him in the
park, and the signs of struggle there deceives the judge
who condemns Charudatta to exile, but the king Pslaka
at the instigation of Samsthanaka converts the sentence
into one of death. Act X reveals the hero led to death
in a procession. Getting this news the monk appears
with Amsantasena just in time to prevent Charudatta’s
death. While the lovers rejoice at their re-union, the
news is brought that Aryaka has slain Pslaka and
succeeded to the throne and granted a principality to
Charudatta and approves cf his legal marriage with
Vasantasena. The crowd demands Samsthanaka’s
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 385

death but Charudatta pardons him. The monk is

rewarded by being appointed the chief of Buddhist
monasteries in the realm.
Three dramas are ascrided to the famous poet Kali-
dasa who placed during the reign of the Gupta king
is
Ohandragupta TI, Vikramaditya of UjjayinT, at 400.
“The Malavikagnimitra is unquestionably the first
dramatic work oi Kalidasa”. The play in five acts is
a Nataka. Act I. shows the heroine Malavika as Vidarbha
princess, destined as the bride of Agnimitra, escaping
and seeking Agnimitra after her brother }J3.'lhavasena
has been captured by her cousin Yajfjasena, tier escort
was attacked by foresters on the way but she reaches
Yidisa, the Mitra capital, and fi.nds refuge in the home
of Dharini, the senior queen of Agnimitra and learns
dancing. In Act II king Agnimitra hanpens to see a
picture in which Yalavika is depicted, and falls in love
with her. All ends in happiness after the usual palace
incidents.®
The Yikramorvasi in five acts, a Trotaka or Nataka,
falls in the interval between the author’s youthful
Mala vikagni mitra and his mature perfection of the
Sakuntak. Here is shown the love of Pururavas, a king,
and {jrvasi, a heavenly nymph (apsaras). The prologue
is followed by the screams of the nymphs from whom
Urvash on her return from the Kailasa mountain has been
torn away by a demon- The king Pururavas hastens to
her aid, recovers her, and restores her first to her
friends, and then to the Ganoharva king, but not before
both have fallen desperately in love. Urvasi and a
friend appear in the air and drops a letter written on

^
As d mat'ar of fact it is the piay in San-krit svuTa=.sing
even Kdlida^a’.s jsakuntal.n While F.ai'iPisa .-rands hiahest in poetioal
refinement, in ter-derness and depth o. feePrp. Sfi'iraka is pre-eminent
among all play-wrigliTs tor rhe dr.imrtic (piaiitie- f vig-nir, life and
(

action and sharpness, and of excelling m g-enius tveii Snakc^pearo.

2 This love story is similar to that of Ph.i-a’.-- Svapitav.i-ava-
datta wherefrom Kalida.-a might have taken rhe ti.eine. rit-^hya-
mitra, Agnimitra, and Vastiimtra are clearly of the Sunga dynasty
formed by ^I'-e fir-t thia urh the deiiO'- ii-ia of the la'-t Maurya king
in 178 B.C. The contact with. S avana- i- al-o hi-torical. The lieroic
sacrifice reflects that of Samud''agapta tm-nliontd in Allahabad pillar
inscription. ‘The M.UavikagtiimLira is the pr.-mature attempt of
Kalidasa at dramatic art. It is e-smtially a wmk of youthful
pruiiiise and achievement’.
49
386 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

birch bark breathing her love for the king. Urvasi’s

friend appears and finahy Urvati herself, but after a
brief exchange of love passages Urvahi is recal ed to
play a part in heaveii in a drama pioduced by Bharata.
Two pupils of Bharata report that Urvabi played her part
badly in the piece on Lakshmi’s wedding asked whom ;

she loved, she answered Bururavas instead of Puru-

shottama (Vishnu). Bhara.ta cursed her but Indra inter-
vened and gave her leave to dwell on earlh with
Pururavas until he had seen the face of her child.
Angry at her husband for some trivial cause Urvasi
entered the grove of Kumara and was cursed to be
converted into a creeper. The king laments at her
disappearance and in his madness for her grasps a creeper
which in his embrace turns into Urvasi. The king and
his beloved are back in capital. At that time an arrow
falls with an inscription “arrow of Ayus, son of Urvasi
and Pururavas.” While the king is amazed because he
knew nothing of Ayus’s birth and concealment by
Urvasi, a woman comes from a hermitage with a
gallant boy to return him to his mother as he has
violated the rules of the hermitage by slaying a bird.
Urvasi admits the fact of concealment and weeps to
think of their severance, now inevitable, since the king
has seen her son. But while Pururavas is ready to
abandon the realm tc the boy and retire to the forest in
grief,Narada comes with a message of good tidings.
A battle is raging between the gods and the demons
' ;

Pururavas’s arms will be necessary, and in reward he

may have Urvali’s society for life. ^
The Sakuntala in four or five recensions but in
all in seven acts is the most popular drama The
prologue leads up to the picture of the king Dushyanta
in swift pursuit of an antelope entering the hermitage
of Kapva. There on civil dress he enters the grove and
hears Priyambadi and Anusuya joking with Sakuntala

1 in this drama ‘Ka!ub>a sliuws a marked advance in imagi.

nation. His s(5uroe is not precisely known. 'J'lie story is old. It
occurs in the lligveda ;
it i^- i.egraded to sacrificial ap/plication in the
^atapatha Uraiimana ; it is aSo tound in a number ot Puranas, and
in the Matsya tliere i= a parallel to Kihdisa’s version, for the
motif of the nymph’s transformation into a creejier, instead of a
swan, is already present ; Pururavas’.s mad search tor her and her
rescue from a demon are known. The passionate and undisciplined
love of Urvasi is happily displayed.
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 387

who is troubled by a bee and ask her to seek the help

of the king. Thereupon Dushyanta reveals himself
and elicits that Sakuntala, born of Visvamitra and
Menaka, a nymph, is but a fester daughter of Kapva and
is intended^ to be married to a suitable groom. At that
time both Sakuntala and Dushyanta fell desperately in
love. The king gives order for the hunt to end, sends
back the army and Yidushaka to the capital but he
himself stays back and secretly marries Sakuntala, In
Act IV Priyambada and Aniisoya report that the king
has left after his secret marriage with Sakuntala and
that in her sadness she forgot to receive properly the
harsh ascetic Durvasas who has cursed her to be
forgotten by her beloved but may recollect at the sight
of a signet (sakuntala \ A voice from the sky has
informed Kanva at the moment of his return to the
hermitage of the secret marriage and of Sakuntala’s
approaching maternity. Under the malign influence
of the curse the king does not recognize his secretly
married wife and cannot receive her. The hermits
reprove him and insist on leaving her, refusing her the
right to go back with them, since her duty is by her
husband’s side- The king’s priest is willing to give
her the safety of his house till the babe be born, but a
figure of life in female shape appears and bears Sakuntala
away, leaving the king still unrecognizing, but filled
with wonder. It is reported that policemen have
arrested a fisherman accused of theft of a royal ring
found in a fish which he has caught it is Dushyanta’s
;

ring which Sakuntala had dropped while bathing en

route to the king’s palace. The sights of the ring
reminds the king of his marriage with Sakuntala and
grief and repentance overcome him. From his despair
the king is awakened by the screau.s of the Yidushaka
roughly handled by Matali, Iiidra s charioteer, who has
come to take the king as the gods nee 1 his aid^ for
battle. In Act All Dushyanta is revealed victorious
and travelling with Matali in a divine car to Hemakuja,
where dwells in the place of supreme bliss the seer
Maricha and his wife. Here the king sees a gallant
boy pulling about a young lion to the terror of two
maidens. They ask the king to intervene who feels a
i o his amazement
pang as he thinks of his sonlessness
he learns that this is no hermit’s son, but his own.
revealed to him in the dress of an ascetic.
Sakuntala is
Maricha crowns their happiness by making it clear to
388 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

Sakuntala “that her husband was guiltless of the sorrow

inflicted upon her.”*
An ordinary author of Western temperament would
have concluded the story of Sakuntala like the story of
Eomeo and Julliet, at the fifth act where she was
rejected. The master mind of Kalidasa prolonged the
story not only to keep up the rule of dramaturgy not to
end in tragedy but to demonstrate the Indian national
principle of conjugal love being based on Dharma
(religionl. The union based on external attraction does
not last as was shown in the union of Siva and Parvati.
Kushyanta was at first fascinated by Sakuntals’s youth
and beauty and site herself easiij’ yielded contrary to
the tradition of Kanva’s hermitage which was retained
by Anusuya and Priyambadt, because Sakuntak had
in her blood the weakness out of which she was begotten
on her mother nymph by a sage. This ideal is missed
in Shakespear’s Tempest and in all Western d/amas of
similar circumstances. The rejection of Sakuntala
was natural for Dushyanta despite Durvasas’s curse
which was devised to save the face of the king. His
queen Hamsapadika had been singing the heart-rending
song that the king neglected her as sqon as the junior
queen Vasumati came into the palace. Sakuntala if even
accepted wouM bave been similarly treated at the in-
evitable presence of a fourth queen. But by the rejec-
tion Kadidasa purified the king’s basic lust"^ for beauty
and youth :ind revived the sagely inheritance in Sakuii-
tala herself. It is for this reason that after rejection
Sakuntala was taken to the peaceful heavenlj hermitage
of Maricha rather than to the Kanva’s earthly hermitage

1 The tory of Sakuntdid ba^cd on that of the Mahabharata.

i.s

Jt'it rh-3 iukU:io;i ur.d aittr^aui. hdve

i ile the V'lc.y a perfect one.
'’K.Ji'kaa t/.ctT'; hero, in depicting .0 eiiiotions of love, from
the fir-’t ^'a,eV aii mill Cent laiinl to the perfection of
pas.'ion he is iiarcI)-.- le-tf evnei in patho
; the richnes=; of
creative iaiii-y and his 1
in t'l'j ex.Te'^ion (.f tender feeling
ti-sign hi'u a higii pl.ice song the cri:;.ati-t'. of the -vvorld. The
iiarm 'iiy ot :he ojctic se men: is nowhere disturbed by anything
violiiit or errity in V.
' Jivci’y rs.-ion is soitened without being
enfeebled, i^e ardour of love never goes beyond ae'thetic bounds
'i
;
It ne\tr inaddeiis to wild je.ilou^y or hate, 'llie torments of sorrow
are toned down to a j.uotouwl and touciuno; melancholy.” Hence
it V as tnat Sakuiuala exercised si great a ta-.cmatiou on the calm
^
intellect of Goethe. Sir William Jones -peaks equally highly of it.
1 rotessors Keith and Alacdunell share the praise as shown by the
above quotations.
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 389

where it was but natural to send her back. The repent-

ance of the king at the sight of his signet ring removed
his perpetual sin, and the ascetic practice of Sakuntala
in the quietness of the heavenly hermitage of Maricha
unlike her fcst life at Kanva's hermitage prepared
herself for a lasting union of hearts through the agency
of her son Bharata.
This may bring home^the remarkable comment of
Gcethe th.it the drama of Sakuntala combines in itself
‘the fljwer of youth and the fruit of advanced age, the
earth and the heaven.’ Poet Eabindranatb Tagore
admires and endorses Goethe’s insight of this unique
production of Kalidasa and after comparing the Tempest
and the Ptom.eo and Juiliet with the Sakiuitalaiu comes
to the correct conclusion that ‘no drama of Shakespeare
or any other Western or Indian author attained the
height of Kalidasa’s drama’.
The wellknown dramas, Ratnavali, Privadarbika,
ani Naganarda are definitely ascribed to the same
author Harsha. Professor Keith identifies this dramatist
Harsha with -‘unquestionably the king llarshavardhana
of Kanauj” (COG-hlS).
The Eatnavali in four acts is a Katika. The- story
relates to king Ud.'.yana of Yatsa already celehratel by
Bhasa in his Svapna-Yasovadatta andPratijna-yaugjudha-
rayapa. The minister Yaugandharay" ea has planned
tha marriage '-'hthe Yatsa king Udayana wi^b tlie
daughter of the king of Ceylon. He spreads the ne ws that
the queen Vasavad.'..tt-i has diedi in a fire at Lavanaka.
The king of Ceylon then yields the haiul of iiis elaughter
and sends her in the care of Udayana’s chamberlain
and his own minister Ya.subhuti to Vatsa, but, wrecked
at sea, she is rescued by a merchant of Kau3ambi,t, ken
there, and handed over to Visavdat^a. The queen seeing
tne beauty of the princess, now named Sagariki, decides
to keep her away from her innocent husbaud. But at
the spring festival which sue celebrates wi'i.h Vatsa,
bagarik.! appears at the queen's train, watches the
ceremony of the w'crsbip of love god (Kama) and falls
in love with the king. Bui the queen herself appears
before Siigarika, meets tlie king cind listens to his
confession of love toSjgarika,ar.dthen bitterly reproaches
him. At the plight of king Sagarikj attempts
the
suicide wherefrom Yidushaka saves her and hands her
over to the king. When a magician is displaying his art
390 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

Vasubhuti escaping the shipwreck appears and relates

the tale of disaster. News suddenly comes that the
qiaeen’s quarters are on fire and Yasavadatta reveals
that Sagarika is there. The king rushes to aid her and
emerges with her. Yasubhuti recognizes in Sagarika
the princess and Yaugandharayana arrives to confess
his plot. Vasavadatta gladly gives the king to Katnavall,
the princess of Ceylon, since her husband will thus be
lord of the earth, and Ratnavali is her full cousin,
Ihe Priyadarsika in four acts, also a Natika, shows
the same old story in a slightly different form. It is
reported that the king of Kalinga has driven away the
king Dridhavarman, during Yatsa’s imprisonment at
the court of, Pradyota, because of his refusal to marry
his daughter to him. The princess is given shelter by
her father’s ally, Yindhyaketu who, however, offends
Yatsa and is attacked and killed by Yatsa’s general
Vijayasena. The beautiful princess (Priyadarsika) is
taken as a part of the booty and the king allots Arapyaka,
so named because she is picked from the forest. Act lY
reveals Arapyaka in prison, the king in despair, and
the queen in sorrow, as she has learned from a letter
from her mother that Dridhavarman, her aunt’s
husbani, is in bondage needing Yatsa’s aid. Vijayasena
and Dfidhavarman’s chamberlain bring the news of the
defeit of the Kalinga king and re-establishjnent of
Dridhavarman. Then it is represented that Aranyaka
has poisoned herself. Yasavadatta is filled with remorse.
The chamberlain recognizes the princess. But Yatsa’s
magic art revives her. Yasavadatta recognizes her
cousin, and grants her hand to the king.
The Nagananda in five acts is a ^Nitaka. It is
dramatization of Buddhist legend which was told in the
Brihatkatha and in the Vetalapaficha-viiribati. Jimuta-
vahana is a prince of the Yidyadharas and Mitravasu,
the prince of the Siddhas. Mitravasu’s sister is told
by Gauri in a dream that Jimutavahana would be her
husband. She discloses the dream to a friend, which
he overhears. The Yidushaka forces a meeting between
the timid lovers who slyly confess their affection. But
an ascetic comies and takes away the maiden to a
hermitage In Act II Malayavati is love-sick in a
garden where the king enters and declares his love to
her. Mitravasu comes to offer him his sister’s hand.
The king declines being ignorant of the identity of the
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 391

cffer. She deems herself disdained and seeks to hang

herself. Friends rescue her, Jimutavahana appears
and proves that she is his love by showing a picture.
The two exchange vows and are married. In Act lY
Jimutavahana w^hile strolling with Mitravasu sees a
heap of bones of serpents daily offered to Garuda. He
resolves to save the serpents by offering himself to
Garuda, The mother of Sankhachuda, a snake, refuses
the substitute but Garuda bears away Jimutavahana.
Act Y opens with the anxiety of the parents and
wife of Jimutvahana, to whom a jewel from his crown
is borne Sankhachuda appears and reveals to Garuda
his crime in giving the substiiute. The hero expires as
his parents arrive. Garuda is ashamed. Gauri appears
to cut the knot, revive the riiice and re establish him
(

in his realm in order io fulfil Malayavati’s dream. By

a show’er of ambrosia the snakes slain by Garuda revive,
and he promises to forego his cruel revenge.’-
The Mattavilasa is a Prashasana, farce. Its
author is king Mahendra Yikrama-Yarman, son of the
Pallava king Sinha-Yishnu-Yarm.an, and contemporary
of the king Harsha of Kanauj. He ru’ed in Kafichi in
the first quarter of the seventh century A.D. In the
play he is alluded to bear the titles of Avanibhajana,
Gunabhara, and Mattavilasa.
The play opens wTth a Ifapalin of the skull-bearing
order and his damsel, Devasoma, intoxicated and
unsteady and helplessly falling down. In remorse he
proposes to foreswear strong Orink but is persuaded by
her not to break their penance and praise drink and
their roles of life. In a description of Kaachi a parallel
is drawn between a tavern where the pair is seeking
charity and a scene of sacrifice. The two get alms but
the skull serving as begging bowd is lost. Suspicion of
theft falls on a Buddhist monk, S.Ayabhikshu, who
laments that despite the excellent fare he has received
the law^ forbids the enjoyment of strong drink and
women. He ccncludes that the true gospel of the Buddha

1 Tn comparison w ith and earlier dramatists Har-ha

is much inferior in art and There is not mucli originality,
.style.

hut he' isa? fcfitctively devised the plot in both tile Ratnavali and the
Priy adarsika. The emotie'ii of love is nol'le and gay. In the
N.lgananda ‘Harsha rises in depicting the emotions of Self-.sacri6ce,
ediarity, magnanimity, and resolutii'n in the tace of deatln’
392 INDIAN CULTUEE AND CIVILIZATION

contained no such ridiculous restrictions, and expresses

his desire to benefit the whole community by dis-
covering the authentic text. When challenged he denies
that his begging bowl is that of the Kapalin. His
arguments do not convince the Kapalin. The Buddhist
picks up Davasoma when she falls to the ground after
trying to pull out locks of hair from his shaven head,
the Kapilin accuses him cf taking her in marriage
and invokes punishment on the vioLator of the rights of
Brahmans. A kaiupata worshipper of Biva is appealed
to as an arbitrator but he finds the task too difficult.
Beth claimants proudly assert their adherence to a
creed which forbids lying, and the Buddhist recites in
addition the whole list of moral rules which makes up
the Sikshapada. Pahipata suggests that they must take
the matter before a court. En-route, however, a mad
man who has rescued the skull from a dog appears and
offers it to the Pasupata who haughtily rejects the
horrible object, but suggests the K.apalin as the recipient.
The Kapalin accepts the skull and turns away the nunl
man. The Kapalin apologizes to the Buddhist monk.
The drama closes with the usual benediction (Bharata-
vakya) referring to the ruling king and the author.^
Three dramas and some other unknown works are
ascribed to Bhavabhuti whose full name is Srikantha
Kiiakantha Bhavabhuti, son of Xilekantha anl Jatiikarni,
grandson of .Bhattagopala, of .Kasyapagotra and of
Taittiiiya school of the Black Yajurve.ia. He belonged
to Padmapara, apparently in Vidarbha but he shifted
toUjjiiyini \>'here before Haliakala his dramas were
played. Kalhraua mentions him as a member of the
court of Yasovarmau of Kaiiyakubja w’ho was defeated
by Muktapida Lalitaditya of Kashmir in about 736 A. D.
His earliest play is the Ivlalati-Madhava, which is
a Ihakarana in ten Acts. A Ifuddhist nun, Kainandaki,
plans to unite in marriage her two fa.vourite pupils,
Malati and Madhava, who are respectively the daughter

1 The puhject is trivial. The author merely shows his

acquaintance witli the Buddhi.-^t teners. The style is simple and
cT.gant and appropriate to the subject matter. Ver.-e.s are not
wiitiout force aiui beauty. Ii> prose speeches Unwieldy compounds
of ihiiavdbhuti muster their a-ppearance occaaionully. Iho author has
the merit of avoiding the gross vulgantj. A variety of metres and
a number of Prakrits are use<i in this .short play.
 OBIGINAL LITEBATUEES 393

and the son of two friends, Bhurivasu, the minister of

the kin? of Pad navati, and Devarata, minister of the
king of Vidarbha. The king of Padmavati, however,
presses his minister to marry Malati to his friend
Nandana who has a beautiful sister, Madayantika who
is a friend of Malati. Madhava with his friend
Makaranda goes to a festival and MMati also is sent
there by Kamandaki. Both see each and fall in love.
Both are further enamoured by seeing the pictures
drawn of each other by them. When the lovers are
meeting in a temple of Siva, Madayantika is in danger
of death from an escaped tiger, and is rescued by
Makaranda. These two are then deeply in love.
The king, however, resolved on the mating of Malati
and Nandana. Madhava, despairing of success through
Kamanlaki’s aid alone, decides to win the favour of
the ghouls of the cemetery by an offering of
fresh flesh. From the cemetery he hears cries in a
Chamunda temple nearby. He rushes ]ust in time to
save Malati who was abcut to be offered as a sacrifice
to the goddess Chamuncla by the Kapalika, Aghoraghaiita
and his consort Kapalakundala, for which purpose he
has stolen Malati from the palace. A struggle follows
between Madhava and Aghoraghanta and the latter is
slain. Kapalakundala swears to avenge her companion’s
death. Malati’s marriage with Nandana is, however,
fixed. Before the ceremony Kamandaki takes her to
the temple of Love-god wherefrom Malati and Madhava
are sent away to a secret place, and Makaranda
dressed as Malati goes back to the palace to marry
Nandana. It is shewn how poor Nandana has been
turned out by his false bride. On hearing this Mada-
yantika comes to rebuke her newly married sister-in-law.
But removing the bed-cover under which the false
bride was lying down she recognizes her own lover
Makaranda in the garb of Malati, They are both happy
and elope to the hiding place of Malati and Madhava.
The fugitives were succoured by Madhava and so
splendidly routed their fees that the king, learning of
it, gladly forgives the runaways. But in the tumult
Malati has been stolen away by KapMakundala. Act IX
shows the wild search of Madhava for MMati. Saudamini,
a pupil of Kamandaki, rescued Malati from Kapalakundala
and with the good news the life of Madhava is saved
who was about to commit suicide. Act X opens with
50
 b94 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

a scene of lament by Kamandaki and others. All become

happy when Saudcmiin arrives with Malati and
Madhava and with the news that the king approves
their marriage.^

The Mahavrracharita is a Kataka in seven acts.

It describes the main story of the Ramayapa ending
with Rama’s return from Lanka.'^

The Uttara-Rama-Charitra is also a Rataka in seven

acts covering a period of twelve years. It concludes
the story of Riina and Sita commencing with the
banishment of Siti and with her re-appearance with her
sons Lava and Kusa. Sita is sad after the departure of
Janaka, who came to them after their return from
Lanka. Rama consoles her. News is brought from
NTasishtha that Rama should meet every wish of Sita
as she is an expectant mother but rank first of all duty
to his people. Lakshmana shows them the picture
containing scenes of their wmnderings. Sita wishes to
revisit the hermitages on the Ganga. Rama prays that
his magic arms may spontaneously pass to his sons to
be born soon. ISita, wearied, fails asleep The Brahman
Durmukha brings the news that some people doubt
Sita s purity at Havana’s place, Hama decides to banish
Sita and commands Jjaksbmana to take away Sita and
leave her at the forest on the plea of her visiting the old
scenes. In Act li a conversation between an ascetie
.itreyi and the spirit of woods, Vasanti, reveals that
Hama, celebrating the horse
is sacrifice, and that
\ alraiki bringing up two fine boys to sing the Rama-
is
yana. Rama appears-, sword in hand, after slaying an
impious budra, Sambaka,who is purified at death by
iiama and appears inspirit form and leads his benefactor
to Agastya’s hermitage- In Act ill two rivers, Tamasa
and Huraja, report in a conversation that Sita abandoned

1 The main story, wiih die "episode of the two pairs of

lover.-:, endingin elopmeiits occurs in the
Kathasarit-sagara and
odier collections ot stories together with the
raotits ot the sacrifice
of a maiden by a magician and the offering
to obtain their aid.”
of flesh to the demons

" dhavabhuti lack-s the novelty of his Praka-

r.n
rana. ,
The effort to give some unity to the plot covering fourteen
error is the narration of events in long
speeches in lieu of action.’
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 395

would have killed herbut Ganga preserved her and

entrusted her two sons, born in her sorrow, to Valmiki
to train. Then Sita in a spirit form appears unseen
by mortals under Tamasa’s care to revisit the scenes
of her youth. Kama also appears. At the sight of the
scene of their early love, both faint, but Sita, recovering
touches unseen Rama who recovers only to relapse
and be revived again. Finally Sita departs leaving
Raaia fainting. Act IV shows a hermitage where
Janaka has retired from his kingly duties owing to
the grief on Sita’s banish'uent by Kama. Kausalya,
ham’s mother, who ha.s aho left the palace life, meets
Janaka. Both forget seif in consoling each other. They
are interrupted by the merry noises of the children of
tne hermitage. One, especially pre-eminent, is Lava
who has a brother KiLa and who knows Rgraa only
from Valmiki’s work, ’I’he horse for Rama’s sacrifiice
approaches, guirced by soldiers. Undaunted by the
royal cdaira of sovereignty Lava decides to oppose it.
•Act V shows exchange of martial taunts betw'een Lava
and Chandraketu, Lakshman's son, who guards the horse
for Hama, though each admires the other. In Act VI,
a Vidyadhara and his wife, flying in fte air, describe
the battle of the youthful heroes and the magic weapons
they use. 'LTie arrival of Rama interrupts the conflict.
He admires Lava’s bra eery, whicn Chandraketu extols ;

he questions him but finds that the magic weapons came

to him spontaneously. KiRa enters from Bharata’s
hermitage, whither he has carried Valmiki's poem to be
dramatized. Rama admires the two splendid youths
who are, though he knows it not, his own sons. In Act
YII all take part in a sv.pernat.nral spectacle devised
by Bharat a and played by the Ap^arusas. Sita’s
fortunes after her abandcnnient are depicted. She
weeps and casts herself in the Bhagirathi. She reappears
supported by Prithvi, the Fjarth goddess, and Ganga,
each carrying a new-born infant, t'rithvi declaims
against the harshness of Rama, Crai.ga excuses his acts.
Both ask Sita to care for the children until they are
old enough to hand ever to Valmiki, when she cair act
as she pleases. Ran: a is carried away. He believes
the scenes real. Kow he iiitervenes in the dialogue,
now he faints. Arundhati suddenly appears with Sita,
who goes back to her husband, and brings him hack to
consciomness. The people acclaim the queen. Valmiki
396 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

presents to them Eama’s sons, Kusa and Lava, and Sita

disappears underground.^

The Venisariihara of Bhatta Narayana is dated

before 800 because the author is cited by Vamana and
Anandavardhana (800 A. D.) and was the grantee cf a
copper plate inscription of 840. The play is a Nataka in
six acts. The story derived from the Mahabharata deals
with the redressing (samhira'i of Diaupadi’s braid
(vepi) by Bhima who avenged Draupadi’s insult in
being dragged by her braid by slaying Duksgsana.
Draupadi vowed never to braid her hair until the insult
is avenged.

Bhima reveals his bitter anger by declaring that

he will break with Yudhishthira if the peace be made
with the Kauravas for which Krishna has been sent
as an envoy, before the insult to Draupadi has been
fully avenged. Sahadeva fails to appease him. Draupadi
adds to his bitterness by relating a fresh insult in a
careless allusion by Dnryodhana’s queen Bhanumati.
Krishna returns unsuccessful in making peace and
escaped detention in enemy’s camp by the use of his
magic arms. Bhniiumati relates an ominous dream a ;

Nakula (ichneumon, also, the fourth Pandava brother)

had slain a hundred serpents irepresenting all the
Kaurava brothers). Durycdhaiia at first suspicious of
betrayal inclines to fear but shakes of the depression,
consoles the queen, and indulges in passages of love.
He makes light of the fears of the mother of Jayadratha
of Sindhu, slayer of Abhiraanyu, son of Arjuna, who
fears the revenge of the Pandavas. He despises the
resentment of the Pandavas, gloates over the insults
heaped on Draupadi, and mounts his chariot for the
battle. Act III shows a demoness and her husband feed

r The UttaraTamacharita, the best of Bhavabhuti’s plays

“reaches no higher level as a drama” than the other two. He has
made no serious effort to produce effective unity of events covering
twelve year.s. The characterization is similarly uneffective. Lengthy
descriptions and long compound' injure the dramatic effect. “As
a poem the merits of the L) ttararamacharita are patent and undeni-
able.” The author hini.self proclaims as his owu merits “richness
and elevation of expres.sion.” There are also ‘depth of thought and
grandeur.’ But Bhavabhuti was not content with simplicity, but is
often too fond of elaborate and overloaded descriptions.
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 397

on the blood and flesh of the dead on the battle-field.

They have been summoned thither for Ghatotkacha,
son of Hidimba by Bhima, is dead and Hidimba has
bidden them attend Bhima in his revenge on the Kuru
host. They see Brona’s death at the hands of Dhrishta-
dyumna, when he lets fall his arms, deceived by the
lie of his son’s death. They retire when Asvathaman
advances filled with grief for his father’s treacherous
death. His uncle Kripa consoles him, and bids him
ask Duryoihana for the command in the battle. It is
refused and given to Karna who has poisoned
Duryodhana’s mind by falsely repeating that Drona
had fought only to win the imperial authority for his
son and sacrificed his life in disapprintmefc. Asva-
thaman quarrels with Karna and a duel is barely
prevented. Asvathaman accuses Buryodhana of parti,
ality, and will fight no more. In Act IV Buryodhana
is shown wounded- Recovering he learns cf Buhsasana’s
death and a Kuril disaster. A n;essenger from Karpa
reports the death of Karna’s son and gives an appeal
for aid written in Karna’s blood. Buryodhana makes
ready for battle. His aged parents, Dhritarashtra and
Gandhari, with Sanjaya advise him to make psace.
Act V shows Buryodhana refusing the advice of his
parents and Sanjaya and is ready to go to the b.ttle-
field on hearing of Karna’s death, unaide1 Arjuna and
Bhima appear. Bhima insists on their saluting with
insults their aged uncle; Buryodhana reproves them,
but Arjuna insists that it is just retribution for the
acquiescence of the agei king in Braupadi’s ill treat-
ment. Buryodhana defies Bhmia, who would fight, but
Arjuna forbids. Yudhisthira’s messenger take them
away. Asvathaman arrives and seeks reconciliation
with Buryodhana, but receiving a cold reception with-
draws, followed by Sanjaya bidden by Bhritarashtra to
appease him. In Act VI a report comes to Yudhishthira
and Draupadi of Buryodhana’s death at Bhima’s hands.
But a Gharvaka brings a false report that Bbima and
Arjuna are dead- Yudhishthira and Braupadi resolve
on death and the luikshasa, Gharvaka, departs in
glee. When they are about to die a noise is heard.
Yudhishthira deeming it Buryodhana rushes to arms,
while Braupadi runs away. She is, however, caught by
her hair by Bhima, \vhom Yudhishthira seizes. The
error is discovered, and Braupadi binds up at last her
398 INDIAN CULTURE CIVILIZATION

locks (veni).Nakula has slain the Oharvaka. Arjuna

ani Vasudeva arrive, and all is well.^
The Mudratakshasa of Visakhadatta, son ot Maharaja
Bhaskaradattta or the minister Prithu, and the grandson
of the feudatory Yatedvaradatta, is of uncertain date
which, however, comes after the Yenisarnhara of Bhaua
Narayana.
In Act I Chanakya in a monolcgue expresses his
detestation of the Mandas ani determinstion to secure
Eakshasd as minister for Chandragupta. His spy,
Nipunaka, enters and reports that he has found a Jain
Jivasiddhi hostile to Chandragupta, who is in reality
Chanakya’s agent. The scribe Sakatadasa is a real
enemy. The jeweller Ghandanadasa, who has sheltered
Kakshiisa’s wi'e and child, is also an enemy. The
signet ring of Bakshasa dropped by his wife at
the doors in pulling in her child gives a chance to
Chapakya^who w'rites a letter, has it copied in good
faith by Sakata iasa and sealed with Eakshasa’s seal.
Sakat idasa is then arrested but sud-^.enly rescued by
Siddharthaka, another spy of the minister, who flees
to Rikshasa. Jivasiddhi is banished and Chandanaiasa
is flung into prison to await death for having harboured
Rakshasa’s family which has escaped. Chapakya then
receives the news calmly that Bhigurayapa and others
of the court who are his emissaries have also fled. Act
V shows Kakshasas counter plot. Yiradhaka in a
serpent-charmer’s disguise reports that the scheme to
murder Ghandranpta as passed under a coronation arch
has failed, Yaivoahaka, uncle of Malayaketu, who had
been crowned as the lord of half the realx being slain
in lieu of Cna iragupta. Abhayadatta, who offered him
poison has been forced to drink the draught. Pramodaka,
the chamberlain, who was bribed is dead in misery.
The bold spirits who were issued frmu a subterranean

1 ‘'Th'! play is on the whole Uiidraniatic, for the action is

choked by narrative, and the vast abundance of detail served up m
this form oonfu.>os and destroys intewo't, yet the characterization
is good. (J.i I'.ij other haad, we find in Bhatta Narayana .many
of the defects of Bhavabhuri, in special the fondness for long
compounds both in Prakrit and Sanskrit ])roso and the same
stxaming after effect” in the lengthy descriptions. Nonetheless
tlie author has the merit, shared by Visakhadatta in the Mudra"
rakshasa, of fire and energy in dialogues.
 OEIGINAL LITERATURES 399

passage into the king’s bed cbambeT have been detected

and burnt as ants in tbeir biding place. Jivasiddhi
is banished and Sakatadasa and Chandandasa have
been condemned to the stake. But Sakatadasa returns
with Siddharthaka who restores bis seal to Rakshasa
saying that he picked it up at Chandanadasa’s house
and begs to remain in his train. Tiridhaka appears
and reports that Chandragupta is tired of Chanakya.
At this moment Eakshasa is ^asked to buy seme precious
jewels and he hastily bids Sakatadasa see to the price,
little knowung that they are sent by Chanakya to entrap
him. Act III displays that the minister has forbidden all
feasting without telling the king. The monarch upbraids
him the minister taunts him with ingratitude and
;

insolence, resigns office and leaves. In Act lY

Bhagurayana explains to Malayaketu that he and his
followers who have taken the monarch’s side desire
to deal direct with him, because Rakshasa is no real
foe of Chandragupti and if Chapakya were out of
the -way Rakshasa himself will ally with Chandr.agupta.
Malayaketu is perplexed and his doubt increases when
he overhears a conversation between Rakshasa and a
courtier who reports the split betw-een Chandragupta
and Chanakya. Rakshasa appears and explains that
Chandragupta is now in the palms of his hands which
may mean alliance with Chandragupta. .vialayaketu
feels half-hearted for au advance for he is suspicious
of Rakshasa. clakshisa, however, consults Jivuasiddhi
about the suitable time about an advance but receives
mmch astrological lore presaging a disaster. In Act V
Jivasiddhi approaches Bhagurayana who grants permit
to leave the camp. Bliagursyana tells that he fears
Rakshasa who seeks to slay bin), although Rakshasa
formerly used him to poison Parvatesa. Malayaketu
overhears this and is wild with rage, because he
deemed his father s'ain by Chanakya. With difficulty
Bhagursyaqa persuades Malayaketu t.> wait to
punish Rakshasa if he proves guilty. Siddharthaka
gives false evidence against Rakshasa and tells that
he was to bear from Rakshasa to Chandragupta the
sealed letter written by Sakatadasa, a jewel given by
Malayaketu to Rakshasa who in his tur« gave it with
his sealmark to Siddharthaka to rescue Sakatadasa, and
a verbal message stating the terms demanded by the
allied kings for their treachery against Malayaketu
and the demand of Rakshasa himself for the removal
400 INDUN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

(i Chanakya. Malayaketu confronts Rakshasa who

admits that he has assigned the allied kings to guard
the king’s person which Malayaketu interprets as a
device to facilitate their treachery. Rakshasa can deny
the message but the seal and writing are genuine.
Besides Rakshasa wears a fine jewel purchased from
Chanakya’s spy, which belonged to the king’s father ;

Malayaketu considers this as the price of Rikshasa’s

treachery. Rakshasa is bewildered, Malayaketu is
incensed and befooled he gives orders to bury alive
;

the allied kings who craved territory as their reward and

trample them under elephants. In this confusion Rakshasa
slips away to rescue his friend Chandanadasa. Act VI
shows Rakshasa in tbe capital deploring the failure of all
his ends, and the fate of his friend. A spy of Chandra-
gupta approaches him and passes himself off as one
seeking death for Chandanadasa’s fate on which
Chandragupta’s mind is relentlessly set. He
warns Rakshasa not to attempt a rescue of Chan-
danadasa because the executioners may slay him quicker
in that case. Rakshasa sees that nothing save self-
sacrifice is left for him. Act VII shows Chandandisa
being led to death, his wife and child beside him. The
wife is determined to die also, but Rakshasa intervenes,
Chanakya and Chandragupta come on the scene.
Rakshasa decides ta accept the office of minister pressed
on him by both. Thus he can save the life of Chan-
danadasa and his friends Malayaketu’s massacre of
the allied kings has broken the host into fragments
and apparent rebels have captured him and his court.
As m.inister of Chandragupta Rakshasa is permitted
to free Malayaketu and restore his lands, Chandanadasa
is rewarded, and a general amnesty approved.^

The Ramabhyudaya mentioned as a drama by

Anandavardhana in his Dhanvaloka, and Dhanika and
1 “The interest in the action
never flags. The characters
ofChanakya and Rakshasa are excellent foils. Each is in his own
way admirable. The minor figures are all interesting. The kings
Chandragupta and Malayaketu represent the contrast of ripe
intelligence with youthful ardour. Visakhadatta’s diction is
admirable, forcible and direct, the martial character of the drama
reflects itself in the clearness and rapidity of his style.
As an
artist he uses images, metaphors and similies with
tasteful
moderation. He is unique among later dramatists in
writing a
real drama, not composing sets of elegant extracts.” This
is a high
and well deserved praise from Professor Keith.
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 401

Vis'vanatha has not yet been found. It is ascribed to

Yasovarman of Kanyakubja who is mentioned by
Kalhana and who has patronized Bhavabhuti and
Vakpati, Many Natakas, Natikas, and Prakaranas where-
from quotations have been made in anthologies, are
ascribed to Sivasvamin, who, according to Kalhana,
lived under Avantivarman of Kashmir (955-983), These
plays are entirely lost, The Tapasa-Vatsaraja-charita
of Anangaharsha Mahsraja, son of Narender Vardhana,
is dated after the Ratnavali of Ilarsha. The author was
known to Anandavardhana and Abbinavagupta. The
story deals with the well-known theme of Vatsaraja.
The Uttara-Raghava of Mayuraja is known only by
reference.
The Parvatl-paripaya, once ascribed to Bana, is
now allotted to Vamana Bhatta Bana (1400). The
Mallikamaruta, wrongly ascribed to Dandin, is the work
of one Uddandin (17th century). The Ohhalita-Rama is
referred to by Dhanika in his commentary on Dalarupa.
Its author, date, and full story are not known. The
Pandavananda is similarly mentioned by Dhanika, but
nothing more is known about it. The Tarafigadatta is
mentioned by Dhanika. Its author and date are
unknown. It is a Prakarana of the variety where the
heroine is a courtesan. The Pushpadushita or Pushpa-
bhushita as designated in the Sahitya-darpana is
similarly mentioned by Dhanika. Its author and date
are not known. It is a Prakarana of the vaiiety in
which the heroine is the married wife of the hero and
is, therefore, a lady of good family. The Samudra-
manthana is mentioned in the Dasarupa as a drama of
the type known as Saraavakara. The author, date, and
particulars are unknowm. The Anargha-Raghava, a
Nataka in seven acts, is ascribed to Murari, son of
Srivardhanianaka and Tantumatl. His date is uncertain
but must be later than Bhavabhuti from whose Uttarara-
macharita he cites. Besides the Kasmirian poet Eatnakara
(middle of ninth century A. D.) mentions Murari in his
Haravijaya. In Act I while Dasaratha is engaged in
conversation with Vamadeva the sage Visvamitra arrives
to take Rama and Lakshmapa to subdue the Rakshasas
who have been troubling his hermitage. The king
reluctantly agrees and the party depot ts and Dasaratha
retires and mourns the departure of his sons. A cry
behind the scene announces the approach of the
51
402 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATICN

demoness Tadaka. Rama hesitates to slay a female but

finally departs for the duty. He returns after slaying
the demoness and describes the rising of the moon.
Yisvamitra then suggests a visit to Janaka and Mithila
after description of both. Janaka’s daughter Sita
is now ripe for marriage and Havana seeks her hand,
Janaka accompanied by 5atananda receives Rama, but
hesitates^ to put him to the severe test involved in
bending Siva’s bow. Havana’s envoy arrives to demand
SitYs hand, but indignantly declines the request that
his master should bend the bow. Rama is allowed to
make the trial. Report con es that Rania has wonder-
fully broken the bow. He is promised Sita’s hand and
other sons of Dasaratha also are awarded consorts.
Eavana’s rriinister Maljavant laments the failure of
his scheme to win Sits. SOrpauakha arrives from
Videha and reports the union of Rama and Sita.
Surpapakba assun es the disguise of Manthara in order
to secure the banishment of Rama and Sita to the forest,
wherefrom Sita may be stolen. Dasaratha resolves to
transfer his kingdom to Rama. But Manthara bears a
fatal message from Kaikeyi, bidding Dasaratha grant
the two boons of the banishn.ent of Rama and the
coronation of Bharata. In Act V ^a conversation
between Jambavant and an ascetic Sravana report the
advent and doings of Rama in the forest. Sravapa
goes to Sugriva to bespeak a kindly welcome for way-
farers. Jambavant overhears a dialogue between
Eavana, disguised as a juggler, and Lakshmapa. The
vulture Jatayu then reports the appearance of Havana
Maricha in the forest. Jambavant goes to warn Sugriva
of the danger, while Jatayu sees Sita being carried away
by Eavana and pursues him. Hama and Lakshmana
then appear Wandering in grief in vain search. They
hear a cry and see the friendly chief, Guha, being
assailed by the headless Kavandha. Lakshmana
rescues him, but in doing so, knocks off the tree the
skeleton of Dundubhi. This enrages Valin who challen-
ges Ramia to battle. Lakshmana and Guha describe the
fight and death of Valin. Voices from behind the scenes
report the coronation of Sugriva and his determination
to aid Eaina in the recovery of Sita. A^oices from
behind announce the departure for battle and death of
Kumbhakarna and Meghan ida. Then Havana goes for
the battle. The struggle is described by two Vidyadhara.
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 403

Act VII shows the departure from Lanka by Kuber’s

car of Eama. Sita, Lakshmapa, Vibhishana, and Sugriva.
They travel by the celestial regions and go to Ayodhya,
where the priest Yashishtha waits with Eama’s brothers
to crown him king.
The Balararnayana, the Balabharata, the Viddha-
sala-bhanjika,and the KarpQra-manjari are ascribed to
Eaja-Sekhara. The Balararnayana is a mahanataka as
it has ten acts. The story is the old one, and shows
the heroic deeds of Rama’s early life. The act closes
with the consecration of Rama to the throne of
Ayodhya.
The Balabharata is an unfinished Mahanataka in
ten acts. It relates the old story of the Mahabharata.
It covers the marriage of Draupadi and the gambling
scene with the ill-treatment of Draupadi at the court of
the Kauavas. It was written for Mahipala of Kanauj.
It is equally unsuccessful as a play. It has also no
poetic merits.

The Karpuramanjari is a Natika in four acts but it

;

is known as a Sattaka because it is in Prakrit, none of

the characters speaking Sanskrit. It is also an old
story ; it deals with the king Ohandapila of Kanauj and
his beloved KarpQramanjari, the Kuntala princess, who
is a cousin of the queen. A magician displays the
damsel to the king and queen. The apparition tells her
tale, and the queen takes her as an attendant. The
king and the maiden fall at once in love. In a letter
the maiden avows her passion. The queen has found
out the love and has confined the maiden, while the
king has made a subterraman passage giving access to
her prison. In Act III the princess and the king enjoy
a flirtation in the garden, when the queen discovers
them. Act IV shows that the end of the passage opening
on the garden has been blocked, but another passage
has been made to the sanctuary of Chamunda, the
entrance being concealed behind the statue. Thus the
prisoner can play a game of hide-and-seek with the queen
and this enables her to carry out a clever ruse invented by
the magician to secure the queen’s blessing for the
wedding. The queen is induced to demand that the king
shall marry a princess of Lata who will secure him
imperial rank. She is still at her home, but the magician
will fetch her to the palace. The wedding goes on merrily,
404 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

but the princess is no other than Karpuramanjari. The

queen has unwittingly accomplished the lovers’ desire.^
The same motif is repeated in the Yiddha-s'ala
bhanjika. It is a Natika in four acts. The Lata king
Chadravarman sends to the court of his overlord Vidya-
dharamalla his daughter Mrigankavati in the guise of
his son and heir. YidyadharamalJa recounts a dream
in which a beautiful maid had cast a collar of pearls
round his neck. He is haunted by her. He finds her
in sculptured form (salabhanjika) in the picture gallery.
He has a further glimpse of her in the disguised La^a
prince. The queen proposes to marry Kuvalayamala of
Kuntala to the pretended boy. Her foster sister,
Mekhak, has promised Yidushaka a lady Amabaramala
(air garland). To his disgust she turns out a mere
slave. The king calms him. Together they watch in
hiding Mrigartkavati playing in the garden and hear
her reading a letter of love. Act lY shows a plot of
the queen to punish the king. She induces him to
marry the sister of the pretended boy, meaning that
he should fine that he has married a boy. The marriage
IS completed. Hews comes from Chandravarman that
a sen is born. The queen is, therefore, requested to
dispose in marriage of his daughter, who may resume
her sex. The queen is thus tricked and deceived. With
dignity she bestows on her husband both Mrigankavati
and Kuvalayamala. Hews is brought that the last rebels
are subiued and the king’s suzerainty is recognized
everywhere.’^
The Svapna-daknana and four other unknown
dramas are ascribed by Rajasekhara in a verse to
Bhiraata who is decribed as Kaiinjarapati and may,
therefore, be connected with the Chandella king Harsha,
a contemporary of Mahipala (914) of Kanyakubja and

^ Tiiih play was produced

at the request of Kajasekhara’s wife.
Tlie ?tory of the atsa king and Vasavadatta is borrowed and spoiled.
N
“The author is devoid of power to create character. The heroine is
without merit. The Vidushaka is tedious. The intrigue is poorly
managed. The confubion of exits and entrances is difficult to
follow and unsuitable for acting.”
“ The borrowed story of the Karpuramanjarl and Viddha-
sala-bhanjika is the same and similarly spoiled the original
story
of Vatba king and Vasavadatta. In both these dramas the power
of creating a character is lacking. ‘‘The ta<=te of giving two
brides to the king at once is deplorable.”
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 405

the patron of Rajasekhara, Nothing more is known

about the author and his dramas.
The Naishadhananda and the Ohandakausika are
ascribed to KhemisvaTa or Kshemendra (not the
Kashmirian poet of that name) who asserts his patron
Mahipala (914) of Ksnyakubja’s victory over tlie
Karnatas -.probably referring to the contest against the
Rashtrakuta Indra III who also claims victory over
Mahodaya or Kanyakubja. The Naishadhananda is
a Nataka in seven acts. It deals with the epic story
of Nala and Damayanti as given in the Mahabharata.
The Chapda-kausika enacts the well known story of
the king Harishchandra in seven acts. It opens
with the scene where Harish Chanlra rebukes the
Kausika Visvamitra for the apparent sacrifice of a
damsel on the fire. As the sage was merely bringing
the sciences under control became irritated (chanda)
at the interruption by the king and cursed him. The
king secures the sage’s pardon at a heavy cost, the
surrender of the earth and a thousand gold pieces. To
secure the money the king sells his wife and child to a
Brahman at Kafi and himself to a dead-body burner
as a cemetery keeper there One day his wife brings
the dead body of their child, but it turns to be a trial
of his character. His son recovers from the effect of
a snake-bite. His wife is rescued- The sage being
highly pleased with the unique observance of truth
(satya) returns the kingdom ot whole earth to the king,
who, however, transfers it to his son.^
In addition to these dramas of the classical reputa-
tion there are numerous plays of lesser importance
and of later age which are briefly noticed below under
the nine or ten groups.
Of the Nataka type several later dramas and frag-
mentary ones exist. The Prasanna-Raghava in seven
acts is ascribed to the logician Jayadeva (I -00), son of
Mahadeva and Sumitra, of Kundina in Berar. The
story of the Piamayana is repeated here.
The Adblmta-darpana
in ten acts is ascribed to
Mahadeva. bears influence of Jayadeva. “Its ten
It
acts cover only the period from Angada’s mission to

^ The plot is as poor as the execution of the piece.

406 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

Ratana to the coronation of Rama. It introduces the

Vidushaka contrary to the rule in Rama drama.
There are several dramas dealing with the Krishna
legend. The Pradumnabhyudaya is ascribed to the
Kerala prince Ravivarman (1266), The Vidagdha-
madhava in seven acts and the Lalita-madhava in ten
acts are ascribed to Rupagcsvamin (153 -2), the minister
of Husain Shah. The theme of these dramas is the
love of Krishna and Radha. 3 he author supports here
the movement of Chaitanya of Navadvipa.
The Ka riisavadha in seven acts is based on Bhasa’s
Balacharita as well as other plays. It was written by
Sesha Krishna for Todar Mall, the minister of Akbar.
The Rukmiri-parinaya was written by Rama Varman
of Travancore (l/'3.5-1787'). The Smdama-charita was
written by Samaraja Dikshita (1681) depicting Krishna’s
generosity to a poor friend. The (Jhitrabharata of
Kshemendra of Kashmir (middle of eleventh century)
is yet untraced. The Subhadra-Dhanafijaya and Tapati-
Samvarana (about eleventh century) are ascribed to the
Kerala prince Kula-sekhara Varman.
The Partha-parakrama, a Vyayoga, is ascribed to
Prahlada na-deva, brother of Dharavarsha, king of
Chandravati (about 1200). The Harakeli-nataka is
ascribed to the Ohamana king Visaladeva Vigraharaja
(1163). The Parvatl-parinaya, once thought of Baaa,
belongs to Vamana Bhatta Bana (about 1400). The
Hara-gauri-vivaha is ascribed to Jagaj-jyotir-malla of
Nepal (1617-163'^). ‘It is rather an opera than a play’.
In it the vernacular verses take the place of Prakrits.
The Bhairavananda is ascribed to the Nepalese poet
Manika (_end of fourteenth century). The Bhartrihari-
nirveda of Harihara (fifteenth century) represents the
poet Bhartrihari as desolated by his wife’s death and
through despair on a false rumour of his own death. But
being consoled by a Yogin(asGetic)he attains indifference
(nirveda). And when his wife is recalled to life neither
she nor their child has any attraction for him.
The Lalita-Vigraharrija-nataka is ascribed to Somadeva
who wrote (about twelfth century) in honour of
the Chahamana king, Visaladeva Vigraharaja. It is
preserved only in part in an inscription. The Pratapa-
rudra-kalyana was w^ritten by Vidyanatha (about 1300)
ta celebrate his patron, a king of Warangal. The
Hammira-mada-mardana was written by Jaya-sinha
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 407

Suri (between 1219 and 1229). The author was a priest

of the temple of Muni-sukrata at Broach. He claims
that it includes all nine sentiments. It was, however,
written to celebrate Jayantasinha, son of Vastupala,
brother of Tejabpala, minister of Vigrahadeva of
Gujarat. The contents of the Kajaraja-nataka are not
kncwn. It is stated, however, that the play was annually
perforn ed in a temple of Siva by order of the Chola
king Rajaraja I of Tanjore (eleventh century). The
Gafigadasa-pratapa-vilasa of Gangadhara celebrates the
struggle of a Champanir prince against Muhammad II
cf Gujarat (144-3-1 152). The Visantika-svapna is an
adaptation by R. Krishnamachari (in 1392) from the
Shakespear’s Midsummer ISight’s dream.
Of the allegorical Natakas the Prabodha-chandro-
daya of Krishna Misra (1042) is a play in six acts.
It is devc ted to 'the defence of the Aivaita form of the
Vishnu doctrine, which is a combination of Vedanta
(Jnana) with Vaishnavism (bhakti). In act I Love in
conversation with Desire that the Supreme reality
being united with Illusion, has a son spirit who again
have two children, Dis irimination (viveka) and Con-
fusion (moha). The offspring of the latter gained
strength and menaced the former and his offspring.
The former, however, is sure to conquer but the danger
is the prophecy that there will arise knowledge (pra-
bodha) and Science (Vidya) from the union of Discri-
mination I viveka) and Theology (CJpanishad) ;
but
these two are long since parted and their union seems
unlikely. The two flee while Discrimination (viveka)
talks with one of his wives Reason (mati). She favours
and brings about his reunion with Theology (Upanishad).
Act II shows Confusion in fear of overthrow hastens
by use of Falsity (dambha) to Benares as the key of
the world. Egoism, grandfather of Falsity, visits
Benares and discovers Falsity. Confusion enters trium-
phantly his new Capital and the Materialist Charvaka
supports him. But Duty rises in revolt. Theology
wants reunion with Discrimination. Confusion sends
Piety, daughter of Faith (sradihg) to prison and orders
Heresy (mithya-dfishti) to separate Theology and Faith.
Act lil shows t iety in sad plight having lost her mother
Faith and about ta co.mmit suicide from which Pity
dissuades her. She searches in vain for her mother
Faith in Digambara -Jainism, Buddhism and Soma-ism
408 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

(Brahwanical sacrifice) each ;

appears with a
wife Faith, but she cannot recognize her mother in
these distorted forms. Buddhism and Jainism quarrel.
Soma-ism enters and makes them drunk with alcohol
and pleasure, and takes them in search of Piety. Act
IT shows Faith and Duty escaping being devoured by
a demoness through trust in Vishnu. She induces
Discrimination to muster his leaders. Contemplation,
Patience and Contentment, to go to Benares and to
start the battle. In Act Y the battle is over Confusion
and his offspring are dead. Spirit, however, mourns
the loss of Confusion and Activity. The Vedanta doctrine
of Vyasa appears, disabuses his mind of error, and
resolves to settle down as a hermit with one wife. Inacti-
vity. Act VI shows the Ancestor of all Being still under
the influence of Confusion, because his Companion Illu-
sion supports the Spirits whom Confusions dispatched
before His death to confuse him. But his friend Eeason-
ing sho vS him his error and he drives them away. Peace
of heart reunites Theology and Discrimination. She
tells of her mishaps with Cult and Exegesis, Nyaya
and Saiiikhya, and reveals to Being that he is the
Supreme Lord. Ife feels doubtful but his difficulty is
cleared away by Judgment (Science), the immediate
supernatural child of the re union of the spouses. Trust
(Bhakti) in Vishnu appears to applaud the result.^
The Maharaja-para jay a in five acts, an imitation
allegorical play, is attributed to Yasahpala, the son of
minister Dhanadeva and Rukmini, of iModha Bania
caste, who probably as governor to the king
served,
Abhayapdla (II:i9-l23-2). It describes the conversion of
the Ghalukya king of Gujarat, Kumarapala,. to Jainism
at the efforts of Hemachandra. Hemachandra and
Vidushaka in the play are personifications of good and
evil qualities.

1 It isindeed very clever of KrishnaiiiisAa to combine the

plot based on the strife of races in the Mahabharata and the love
story ot a Natika, There is also the ingenuity of fitting in the
Vedanta doctrine of the Absolute the devotion of the Vaishnava
creed, i here is also some comedy in the exchange of views of
Egoibin and Falsity and fun in the scenes between Buddhism,
daiui'^m and b>oina-i-m. Ills Sanskrit stanzas are effective and
stately in Sardula Vikridita and Vasantatilaka is effectively used
in his rhymed Erakrit stanzas. The play, however, has no dramatic
force and can hardly be performed successfully.
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 409

Of the same type is the Sariikalpa-suryodaya of

Venkatanatha of the fourteenth century which is
“excessively dreary.’’ More so is the Chaitanya-
Chandrodaya of Kavikarnapura. It is an account of
Chaitanya’s success, which wholly fails to convey any
suggestion of his spiritual power. Similarly the Siva
allegory is dramatized in the two Saiva dramas, the
Yidya-parinayana which was written at the end of the
seventeenth century, and the Jivanandana which was
written in the eighteenth century. As plays they have
no merits.
The Karnasundarl, a Natika (small drama) of
Bilhaiia (1080-1090), was written to celebrate the
wedding in advanced age of Karnadeva Trailokyamalla
of Anhilvad (1064-1094) with Miyrmalladevi, daughter of
the Karnata king Jayakes'in. The story is a jumble of
reminiscences of Kalidasa, Harsha and Rajasekhara.
The Chalukya king is to m.arry Karnasundarl, daughter
of the Vidyadhara king. The minister brings her into
the harem. The king first sees her in a dream, then in
a picture. He falls in love, and the queen is jealous ;

she breaks into on their meeting, and at once assumes

Karnasundari’s guise to present herself to the king.
Next she tries to marry the king to a boy in Karna-
sundari’s clothes, but the minister adroitly substitutes
the real one. The usual tidings of triumph abroad
ends the play.
The Vijayasri, otherwise known as Parijatamanjari,
is attributed to Mada-Bala-sarasvati, the preceptor of
the Paramara king Arjunavarman of Dhara (thirteenth
century). Two acts are preserved on a stone at Dhara.
‘A garland falls on the breast of Arjunavarman after
his victory over the Chalukya king, Bhimadeva II, and
becomes a maiden. She is the daughter of the
Chalukya. The usual sequence of events leads to her
wedlock with the king.
The Vrisha-bhanuja of Mathuradasa (of a later
date) deals with the love of Krishna and Radha. Radha
is jealous of a portrait which Krishna has. It, however,
turns out to be one of herself and the play ends happily.
The Siva-narayana-bhanja-mahodaya of Narasimha is a
philosophic play in honour of a prince of Keon jhor.
No later writer attempted to imitate the master-
piece, Mrichhakatika. But there is a slavish imita-
tion of Bhavabhuti’s Malali-madhava. The Mallika-
r.-_>
410 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

mai’uta, in five ascrifed to one Uddandin or

acts, is
Uddandanltha (not the famous Dan.din), a. court poet of a
Zeuiiiidar of Calicut (Kukkurakroda) in the seventeenth
century. A magidian Manddldm is eager to arrange
a marriage between Mallikd, daughter of the minister
of a Vidyfidhara king, and Mdruta, son of the
minister of the Kuutala king. They meet and fall
in love but match is disturbed as the Ceylon king
wants to marry Mallikd. Mdrnta’s friend Kalakantha
also loves Kamayantikd. The usual temple scene
follows elephants frighten the two maidens and rescues
;

take place. An emissary of the Geyion king falsely

report Kalakantha’s death, Murnta attempts suicide but is
prevented by his friend’s appearance. Mallik.a is stolen
by a Edkshasa,. IvL'iruta rescues her, but he is himself
stolen and finally overcomes the demon. 'The king of
Ceylon is deceived in marriage Maruta and Mallika
;

elope, and Kalakauhta and Ramayantikd follow tl.eir

example. The second abduction of Mallika takes place,
the search for her follows, ard at last she is dis-
covered. All are united and the king and parents accord
their sanction,
The Kaumndi-mitrarjanda in ten acts is ascribed to
the Jain writer Bimacbanira, the pupil of Hem.a-
chandra (between 1173 and 1170). It is in the form of
a modern pantomime being tiie play of a number of
Xatba incidents and whole nndramatic.
The Prabuddba-ranbiaeya, in six acts, was written
by .Jain Rrimabbaclra Muni, pupil of Jayaprabha Suri
(about IICO) as referred to in llemachandra's Yogasastra
for performance in the temple of Tirthaiikara ilishava
on rise occasion of a procession festival. A bandit,
Haailiineya, steals away a married woman Madanavati
and commits other robberies but being liberated by
penitence is iilUm-itely reformed The Mudrita-kiimuda-
ohamdra of Ya'-kis-cbandra, describes the controversy in
1124 A. D. between the Svetambara Jain teacher Deva
Srad, aiul the Digambara Kiimuda Chandra. The title
of play is derived from the defeat of Ivumnda Chan fra.

Of the J'rahasanas,the Larakamaleka orLatakamal-

ika w.is wu'ittenby t?ankbadhar.i Ifavirrija under Covinda
Chandra of Kanauj in the twelfth century. Lovers of
Madanamanjari seek the aid of the go-between Dantura.
The comic is supplied by the dentist Jantuketu who
 OEIGINAL LITERATURES 411

is called to extract a fishbone from the throat of

Madanamanjari. His aiuics caused laughter by which
the bone is dislodged. The bargaining of the lovers is
satirized. The marriage between the go-between herself
and a Diganibara also causes mirth and laughter.
The Dhurta-samagama is ascribed to Jyotirisvara
Kavi-sekhara, grandson of Dbnresvara who wrote under
the Vijayanagara king Haxasimha (148T-Io07) or son of
I)hira Siiirha who flourished under Harisiiirha Simraon.
The play relates the contest of the religious mendicant
Yisva-nagara (lover of everybody) and his pupil Dura-
chara (bad conduct) over the beautiful Anahgaseua, On
her iirsistence the m Jitter is referred to the arbitration
of the Brahman Asaj-jati (impure race) who decides
to impound the damsel to himself, despite the attempt
of Vidushaka to get her for his own use. The barber
Mulanasaka (root-destroyer) tens up to demand payment
of a debt from Anangaseua. She refer t him to Asaj-jati
who pays him with his pupil’s purse. The pupil
demands the barber’s care. The latter ties him up.
The Vidushaka comes and rescues him.
The Hasyarnava (ocean of laughter) of Jogadlsvara
of unknown date and identity is a popular farce. The king
Anayasindhu (ocean misrule) finis that all goes ill in his
realm wives
; are chaste, husbands constant, the good
respected, and Brahmans do not make shoes. He goes, at
the advice of his minister, to the house of a go-between,
Bandhura, to study the character of his people, and is
presented with her daughter Mrjgankalekba. The court
chaplain with his pupil comes and both are attracted to
the damsel. After seeing the arrival and performance
of a comic doctor whose medicine is worse than the
illness of Bandhur.t, a barber, a police, and an astrologer,
the king disappears. Then the contest to secure the
damsel takes place between the chapl fin and his pupil,
and another pair of teacher and pupil. Finally the two
older disown the damsel and the boys content them
selves with Bandhura, who is delighted with the turn
of events. The celebration of these double marriages
is left to another holy man, Mahinindaka, who also
desires to share Bandhura.

The Kautuka-sarvasva of unknown date was

written by Gopinacha Chakravarti for the autumn
Durgapuja in Bengal. The licentious king, Kaiivatsala,
ilJ INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

addicted to every kind of vice illtreats the virtuous

Brahman Satyasraya. Everything is wrong in the state :

people are oppressive and skilled in falsehood, there is

contempt for the pious, and the general is coward.
Eishis are shown practising immoralities which they
recount in the Puranas. The king proclaims free
love but is found involved in a dispute over a courtesan.
He is summoned back to the queen. The courtesan is
annoyed and everybody hastens to console her. And the
king, obligingly to please her, banishes all Brahmans
from the realm.
The Dhurta-nartaka of Sumaraja Dikshita belongs
to the seventeenth century. A
Saiva ascetic, Muresvara,
entrusts to his pupils on having to go away a dancing
girl to whom he was devoted. When they fail to secure
the damsel for themselves they denounce him to the
king, Papachara, who being amused allows the saint to
keep the damsel.
The Kautuka-ratnakara probably earlier than the
Bhiirta-nartaka of the seventeenth century was written
by a chaplain of Lakshmana Manikyadeva of Bhuluya.
'f he play centres round the stealing of the queen despite

the police guard and the adventures of the courtesan

who is to take the queen’s place at the spring festival.
The Hasyachudamani of Vatsaraja (about 1163-1203)
in one act shows as hero, Jnana-raM, an Acharya of the
Bhagavata, exhibiting by various acts of tricks and
fooleries his supernatural powmr in tracing lost articles
and buried treasures. His disrespectful pupil delights
in interpreting literally his remarks
The Bhana type of plays is also comical like the
Prahasana type. Bhanas are, however, mostly in comic
monologues. Both are equally coarse. Both exhibit
their command of Sanskrit vocabulary.

The Sringara-bhushaua is ascribad to Vamana

Bhatta Bdna (about 1500). The Chief Vita, Vitasa-
bekhara, comes to see the courtesan Anangamafquri
on the evening of the spring festival. He goes to the
street of the courtesan and describes to himself the
courtesan, ram-fights, cock-fights, boxing, a quarrel
between two rivals, the different stages of the day,
and the pleasures of the festival. The Sringira-tilaka
or Ayy.ibhrina was written on the same lines by
Kimabhadra Dikshita to rival the Yasanta-tilaka or
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 413

Ammabhana of Vaishpava Yaradacharya or Ammad

Acharya. It was performed at the festival of the marriage
of the goddess Minakshi of the Madura temple. In it
the heroBhujanga-sekhara on the departure of his beloved
ceurtesan Hemangi to her husband describes to himself
imaginary snake-charmers, magic shows of gods, their
mountains and so forth. Finally^he succeeds in rejoining
Hemangi. The Saradatilaka of Sankara shows similar
descriptions in the imaginary city of Kolahalapura (city
9f uproar) and the satire extends to the Jangavas or
Saivas, and Vaishpavas In theSringara-sarvasva ofNaha
Kavi (about 1700), the hero Ananga-sekhara parts from
his beloved courtesan Kauaklata but is finally united by
the advent of an elephant which terrifies all others in
the street, but is worshipped by the lover as Gapesa,
and Siva’s answer to his prayer for help The
Easasadana by a Yuvaraja of Kotilinga in Kerala shows
the hero, a Yita, who has promised his friend Mandaraka
to look after his beloved courtesan for him. He goes
about with her to a temple and then to his house. He
wanders out into the street, talks and describes at large.
Then he goes to see a lady in a neighbouring town
and on his return home finds the lovers united again.
The Karpara-charitra of Yatsaraja (about 1163-1 103)
show's the gambler, Karpura, describing in monologue
his rivalry, gambling and love. The Mukundananda of
Kasipati Kaviraja (about thirteenth century) illustrates
a combined Erahasana (farce) and Bhaiia (comic
monolcgue). The hero Bhujanga-sekhara recounts his
adventures and also alludes to the sports of Krishna
and the cowherdesses.
Of the Vyayogas the Kiratarjuniya of Yatsarsja
(about 1163 to l‘J03) is based on Bharavi’s great pcem of
that name. It relates the same story of Arjuna's fight
with Siva in the guise of a hunter and securing the
boon from the god. It illustrates the technical chara-
cter of Vyayoga. After a Nandi (invocation) celebra-
ting Siva’s consort, the Sutradhara enters, immediately
followed by the Sthapaka who insists on his reciting
,

a further Nandi of the trident of Siva.

The Saugandhikaharana of Yisvanatha (about
1316) deals with Bhima’s visit to Kubera’s lake to
fetch water-lilies for Draupadi, his struggle first wuth
Hanumant and then with the Yakshas, and his final
victory. The Pandavas then meet at Kubera’s home
414 INDIAN GULTUKE AND CIVILIZATION

and Draupadi gets the desired flowers. The Dhanafijaya-

vijaya of Kanchana Papdita (of unknown date) deals
with the prowess of Arjuna in defeating Duryodhana
anl the Kauravas when they raid the cattle of Virata.
Indra and others describe the contest in whish Arjuna
uses magic weapons. The play ends with the giving
to Arjuna’s son, Abhimanyu, the hands of IJttara,
daughter of the king Virata. The Bhiiria-vikrama-vyayoga
of Mokshaiitya exists in a manuscript of 13dy. It
describes the heroic deeds of Bhinia. The Nirbhaya-
bhlma of Piamachandra (later half of twelfth century)
similarly shows the fearless deeds cf Blnma.
The Rukmiiu-harana of the Vatsaiaja (about
1163 to idO-3) in four acts illustrates the Ihamriga
type. The play opens with a dialogue by the -

Sutradhara. After the Nandi the Sthapaka reports

that the play wnas performed at moon-rise during the
festival of Chakrasvamin. The story is based on the
Mahabharata and the play shows Krishna depriving
king Sib'upala of Chedi of his promised bride Eukmini.
The Vira-Vijaya of Kfishnamisra of later date is the
second example of this type. The third example is the
Sarva-vinoda .bataka of Kyishpa Avadhiita Ghatikasata
Mahdkavi.
Of the Bimas the Tripura-daha of Vatsaraja
(1163-ld03) in four acts illustrates the type. It describes
the destruction of the city of Tripurasura by Siva.
The play closes with the homase paid by the gods and
the seers alike to Mahe=a who is bashful. Indra
pronounces the benediction. The Krishan-vijaya of
Yenkata-varadabyGhanasyarria is a later one dealing wTth
the conquests of Krishna. The Manmathonmathana of
Rjitna belongs to about 18'20. Of the Samavakira type the
Saraudra-manthana of AAtsaraja (1163-1203) deals wath
the wmll known story. In three acts it illustrates the type.
Here after the Nandi the Sutradhara and the Sthapaka
in conversation lead to the appearance of the chief
character. The play is based on the leaend of the
churning of the ocean by the gods and the demons.
Vishnu gets Lakshrai who appears in Act I with her
companions, Lajj'i and Dluiti, gazing on a picture of
her beloved. The unpopularity of the type is proved
by rhe absence of other dramas of this kind.
Ankas or Utsdshtikahkas implies a play within
a play and hence so called. The Unniatta-Raghabha of
 OEIGINAL LITERATURES 416

Bhaskara Kavi (about fourteenth century), a contem-

porary of Sayana, is “a stupid imitation of Act .IV
of the Yikramorva&i”. It shows Rama and Lakshmana
pursuing the golden deer Slta, by the curse of Durvasas,
,

is changed into a gazelle herself. Kima returns

and wonders miserably in search of her, but finally
gets her by the help of Agastya. The Krishna-
bhyudaya of Lokanitha Bhatta was written for the
rain-tirne procession of Hastigiri Vishnu in Kanchi,
The SarmishthvYajati of Krishna-kavi, of modern age,
describes the well known story of an old king who
borrowed youth from his son in order to further enjoy
the life but later got tired of the change.
Sattakas are short plays in Prakrit as illustrated
by the Anandasundari of Ghanasyarna, which is a
tedious work. The author was a minister of the Maratta
Tukkoji. Tiie Skingara-manjari of the A.lmora poet
Visveslvara belongs to the eighteenth century.
Illustrations for all the Uparupakas are not avail-
able. The Dana-keli-kaumudi of Bupa Gosvamin is an
example of the Bhanika type. The other example is
the Subhadra-harana of Madhava (about 1610). The
play shows the old legend of the elopement of Krishna’s
friend Arjuna wuth Subhadra. Krishna meets her by
going to her father’s house as a beggar.
Chhaya-nataka or shadow plays, as they exist in
few^ late examples, resemble crdinary dramas. Except
the title no other indication of their character is avail-
able. Tbe Dutangada of Subhaia (about Id^B) enacted
in favour of the dead king Kumarapala at the court of
Tribhuvanapala, a Ohalukya king of Anahilapatana. It
shows Angada as an ambassador to Havana to demand
back Sita. Havana endeavours to show’ that Sita is in
love wuth him. Angada is not deceived and leaves
Havana with threats. Finally Havana met his doom.
The Subhadra parinayana of Vyasa Srlramadeva (fifteenth
century) under the Kalachuri princes of Raypur
describes the old story of Arjuna’s elopement of Subhadra,
The Ramabhyudaya of the same author deals wuth the
conquest of Lauka, the fire ordeal of Sita and their return
to Ayodhya. The Pat,(!avabhyudaya of the samie author
describes in two acts ^Praupadi’s birth and marriage.
The k'aviuT-charita of SaikaraPla dhSd) describes the
story of Savitii and Satyavaii. The Ilaridfita of Unknown
author and date tells the story ot the Dutavakya of Bhasa
416 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

concerning Krishna’s mission to the court of Duryodhana

to seek peace on behalf of the Pandavas.
Mahanatakas should ordinarily imply dramas of
bigger size. Professor Luders summarizes their main
feature by saying that they are “written mainly in
verse, with little of prose;
the verses being of narrative
as opposed to the dramatic tj pe. There is no Prakrit.
There is no Vidushaka, but the number of persons
appearing is large,” These characteristics are found in
the Dutangada which has been classified under the
Chhaya-nataka by Professor Keith. This type is,
however, preserved in the Hanu-man-nataka, of
which there are two recensions, one in nine or
ten acts by Madhusodana and the other in four-
teen acts by Damodarami&ra, In Act T after the brief
Nandi, there being no prologue, a narrative follows
down to the arrival of Rama to Mithila for winning
Sita by breaking the bow of Siva. It leads up to the
scene with Parasuramo, and Sita’s marriage. i\.ct II
describes Sita’s love for Rama. Act Illdescribes Rama’s
departure in chase of Mancha in deer shape. Acts lY-
VII describe the arrival of Rama’s forces in Lanka for
the recovery of Sita. Act VIII shows Adgada’s mission
to Piavana The remaining Acts describe the conflict,
conquest and return of Rama’s party to Ayodhya. This
is unfit for stage. This is an example of the purely
literary dramas in Sanskrit.
Of the Yatras or operas the Gitagovinda written
in entriely Sanskrit without Prakrit by -layadeva under
the king Lakshraanasena (twelfth century) exhibits
songs sung by Krishna, Radha and her companion, inter-
mingled with lyric stanzas of the poet, describing their
position, or the emotions excited, and addressing prayer
to Krishna It is a poem capable of a quasi-dramatic
play. The subject is the love of Krishna for Radha, the
estrangement of the lovers, and their final reconciliation.
It reveals a highly developed show of Krishna religion.
The Gopala-chandrika of Ramakrishna of Gujarat
laterthan theMahanataka and the Bhagavat, is a literary
drama almost entirely in Sanskrit. At the opening the
actress who asks in Prakrit is told by the Sutradhara
that the play should be in Sanskrit. Krishpa receives
the worship of his votaries in the vesture of a
herdsman.
The sports of Krishna and his comrades, and of Radha
and her friends, are introduced in Act II. In Act
III
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 417

Vrinda representing Lakshmi relates the identity of

Krishna and Radha Krishna is the highest being and
;

Raiha is his Sakti (consort). Act IT shows the theft

by Krishna of the clothes of the maidens when they
bathe in the Yamuna. He demands that they should
come out of water and take the clothes and should not
bear any shyness if they are really devoted to him, he
being superior to the Vedas, to the asceticism and to the
sacrifice. The last Act V describes the Rasalila. The
spirits of the moon and the autumn lament that the
maidens are not dancing with Krishna in Rasa. Krishna
summons his power, Yogamaya, to persuade the rela-
tions to send the maidens to him. Then he himself
goes to them and enchants the girls by playing on his
flute. The play is essentially mystic and religious in
character and resemble the Glitagovinda.
“The Sanskrit drama may legitimately be regarded
as the highest product of Indian poetry^, and as summing
up in itself the final c onception of the literary art achie-
ved by the very self-conscious creators of Indian litera-
ture.” But like many other achievements of Sanskrit
Culture and Hindu Civilization the drama has suffered
gradual deterioration from the zenith ( f its develop-
ment during the time of Kalidasa in the fifth century
after Christ. This degredation was noticeable especially
during the Muslim invation when a political movement
was started to create a distaste and impracticability
for everything noble in our civilization. Performance
of dramas was naturally limited to King’s palace and
God’s temples in big cities and centres of pilgrimage.
Thus the audience comprised the specially privileged
ones at the earlier period. In the time of the Bengal
Yatras like the Gitagovinda and operas the audience
included the ordinary folks also. But as a result of the
foreign invasions the ordinary people became more and
more unfamiliar not only with Sanskrit language but
even with the Prakrits of dramas. Thus in later period
an effort was made in some places to replace the Pra-
krits by vernaculars of the place to suit the need of the
local population. The large number and variety of our
dramas, however, indicate the love of the readers and
writers for the plays which served as mirror of the
whole Hindu society for at least two thousand years.
In no other class of literature such a continued and
complete picture is available.
53
418 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

DRAMATTTRGY
The brief summaries of the dramas made from
the classical work of Proffessor A. B. Keith will show
two things clearly. First dramas were produced all
over the continent of India, from Kashmir in the
north to the districts in the extreme south, and from
Gujarat in the extreme west to Bengal in the extreme
east. Secondly the period during which dramas both
for reading and enacting were produced covers nearly
two thousand years. The number and variety of
dramas, therefore, became so large that several guide
books regulating the composition and performance of
dramas were necessarily required and prcducec.
Tradition ascribes the Katyaveda to Brahma,
which indicates a great antiquity. Panini in B. C. 30U
alludes in his grammar to the Katyasutras compiled by
Silalin and Krisasva. Bharata of uncertain date who
was the traditional director of plays perforn;ed by
Asparas in heaven for the delight of the gods has set
forth the principles of the drama in his Natyasastra.
This treatise covers the whole ground connected with the
drama. ‘Tt deals with the architecture of the theatre, the
scenery, and the dress and equipment of the actors the ;

religious ceremonial to be observed at every representa-

tion the music, the dance, the movements and gestures
;

of the actors, and their mode of delivery the division

;

of roles ; the general characteristics of poetry ;

the
different classes cf drama, and the emotions and
sentiments which form a vital element in the drama.
It appears clearly to be based on the examination of
an earlier dramatic literature which has been lost.”
The Dasarupa of Dhanafijaya under king Munja
of Dhara (97 i-995) takes its name from the ten primary
forms of drama recognivied in the Natyasastra. It com-
prises four books “of w^ooden verses in the first book
are treated the subject-matter and ph t ;
in the second
the hero, the heroine, and other characters and the
language of the drama ;
in the thir<! the prologue and
the different kinds of drama ;
and in the fourth the
emotions and sentiments.
The Prataparudriya named after Pratapa-Rudra
of Warangal (P298 to 1314) by Vidyanatha is
“a
mediocre compilation from the Basarupa and
the
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 419

Kavyaprakasa of Mammata covering the whole field of

poetics.”

The Ekavall of Yidjadhara under Narasiiiiha of

Orissa (about 1-280-1314) deals with the same subjects in
better way. The Sahitya-darpana of Visvanatha
Kaviraja (before 1383), a general treatise on poetics,
contains chapters dealing with drama. That section is
based largely on the Dasarupa and its commentary
Avaloka, and introduces a good deal of matter from the
Natyasastra in the sixth chapter and includes details
of the characteristics and ornaments of the drama
which are left out in the Dasarupa. The Easaroava-
Sudhakara of Singha Bhupala of a kingdom between
the Vindhya and SrOaila of about 1330 deals with the
same subjects. The Nityapradlpa of Sundaramis'ra
composed in 1613 is based on the Dasariipa and the
Bahity adarpana. ^
The types of dramas enumer£ited in these treatises
are fairly illustrated b>- the extant works of which
brief summaries have been quoted above. The highest
of the ten primary forms is the Nataka (heroic comedy).
It is named after the hero or the subject matter, it
contains five to ten acts, as well as upto fourteen acts
(in.Mahanataka). The hero is a king, royal sage, or god
in human form. The dominant sentiment is heroic or
erotic, but all other sentiments are also illustrated. The
Prakarana (bourgeois comedy) may have any subject
matter. The hero, a Brahman, a minister or a merchant,
fallen on evil days, succeeds in attaining property and
love. The heroine is of three types, a lady of good family,
a courtesan, or a good lady sharing the honours with
a courtesan. The Simavakara is supernatural drama.
Each act exhibits one type of cheating, tumultuous action,
and love. The heroic sentiment dominates. Bhasa’s
Paficharatra, and the Amritamanthana are the only
examples available. The Ihamrigaof which no old example
isknown is so called because in it a maiden as hard to
attain as a gazelle (mriga) is sought after (iha). The
Dima is also little known and may be illustrated by the
Manmathonmathana of K-tma. The sentiment of fury
is predominant. There are four acts. The origin of

^ Many other treatise^ on drama are known only by name or

exi.st in manuscripts.
420 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

the name is unknown. The Yyayoga is a military

spectacle. It is, in one act, filled with strife and battle.
The subject is legendary, the hero is a god, a royal sage
or man. Bhasa illustrates it. The Anka or Utsrishtanka
(isolated act) a single act piece. Its subject is also
is
legendary. The sentiment is pathetic and the style
verbal. Visvanatha’s Sarmishtha- Yayati seems as the
solitary example. The Prahasana (farce) in one act is
of popular origin and vogue. The comic sentiments
predominates. Several exaples exist as quoted above.
The Bhana (monologue) in one act is also of popular
character and origin. The actor speaks in the air,
repeating answers supposed to be received. Visvanatha’s
Lilimadhukara and the Ssrada-tilaka are good examples-
The Vithi (garland) in one act resembles Bhana, but
there may be more than one actor. The leading senti-
ment is erotic. Visvanatha’s Malavika is the only
possible example.
The Natyasastra of Bharata does not recognize the
eighteen Uparfipakas (minor forms) of Vi!='vana'’-ha. The
Agnipurana also supplies a list of eighteen with some
variants of name. Dhanika names seven forms of
mimetic dramas including Bhana. The Dasaiupa mentions
only VatikA. Natika in the Natyasastra is a suspected
interpolation. The age of these divisions are uncertain.
The examples are rare and unimportant. The Natika is
the best known. The subject is invented (not legendary).
The hero is a gay king. The heroine is introduced in
the royal family in an inferior capacity. It is in fact a
Naiaka like Malavikagnimitra, Eatnavali, PriyadarsikA,
etc.,smaller in size ani acts. The Prakariiika is similarly
a smallPraka’apa. The Sat taka is all in Prakrit, otherwise
it is like a Natika. The Trotaka or Totaka (dance or
confused speech) is merely a variant of Nataka. The rest
uf the eighteen Upanipakas are pantomime with song,
dance, and music rather than serious dramas. There
are no early examples available. The Goshtha is
played by nine or ten men and five or six women as
actors. The Hallib'a is a glorified dance. The Natya-
rasika is a ballet and pantomime. The Prasthana is
mimetic dance The Bhanika and the Kavya, both one-
act pieces, are also mimetic dance. The Pvasaka of the
same type includes dialect in its language. The Ullapya
in one to three acts has hero of high rank engaged
in battles. The SamBpaka in one to four acts has
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 4-21

similaT hero and battles. The DurmalUka in four acts

has a hero of low rank. The Vilasika in one act has a
Vidushaka and a parasite Pitharaarda the sentiment
;

being erotic. The Silpaka, a pantomime, has two

heroes and twenty-seven most miscellaneous constituents.
The Prekshana or Preakhana in one act has a hero
9 f low birthj full of combats and hard words. The
Srigadita in a single act has a legendary subject, and the
hero and heroine of hieh rank. The Subhadrsharana
of Madhava (about 1600) bears this name.

POETICS
Like the dramaturgy a class of literature known
as Poetics came into being as a result of the critical
study of the various branches of poetical literature.
This branch of literature treats mainly of the laws cf
poetry. These laws deal with prosody and metre,
sentiment (rasa) and figures of speach (alankara),
and qualities (guya) and defects (dosha). 1 rosody treais
of the laws of versification and the quantity of syllables
and accent. Rules on accent. Vedic and classical, are
dealt with in the Phit-sutra of Sintanava (later than
Patanjali, B. C. lf.O).

Metres are referred to in the Brahmanas and the

sections of the Sankhyayana Srauta butra, Nidaiia
Sutra, Rik-Prati?akhya, and Eat\ayana’s Anukramani to
the Jligveda and the Yajurveda specifically deals with
metres. The regular text, however, is the Pingala’s
Ohhanda-Sutra which deals with the Vedic, classical,
and Prakrit metres. The Srutabodha is variously
ascribed to Kalidasa and Yararuchi a chapter ,civ)
;

in the Brihat-Samhits of Varahamihira also refers

to the subject. Some reference is made to Dandin and
Bhamaha also. Suviittatilaka is ascribed to Kshe-
mendra. Plemachandra compiled the ChhandaniKasana.
Kedara Bhatta wrote \'rihatratnakara, in the 15th
century, dealing with 136 metres, and Uangadasa wrote
the Chhandomanjari.
The sentiment (rasa) is “a condition in the mind
of the spectator of a drama as well as the reader or
hearer of a poem. This is produced by the emotions
(bhiiva) of the characters. Emotions are excited by
factors comprising the object like of love or are
432 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

hightened by the spring season, etc. The sentiments are

subdivided according to the emotions which excite
them into eight to ten groups, viz. erotic, comic, pathetic,
and those of horror, heroism, fear, disgust, wonder,
and calm (knta) and affection (vatsalya).
The figures of sound (Sabdalankara) and of sense
(Arthalankara) were at first not distinguished as classes
of figures.
The ten qualities comprise the suggested
(guiia')
sense (slesha), clearness (prasada), evenness or ease of
comprehension (samata), special sense (samadhi),
sweetness (madhurya\ strength of compounds (ojas),
smoothness in metres and conjunction (saukumarya\
explicitness of sense (arthavyakti), elevation of subject
and sentiment (udara"', and loveliness (kanti). The
defects consist cf absence of complete meaning,
incongruity with the context, tautology, ambiguity,
violation of syntactical regularity, grammatical errors,
break of metrical rules, breach of euphonic rules ; and
inconsistency of time, place, artistic usage, popular
belief, logic and science.
This brief reference to the various aspects of
poetic literature will indicate cultural development of
the Hindu mind in matter of literary appreciation.
Early poetry of standard quality must have grown up
independently of these laws but the later literature
followed the rules as a matter of discipline. The
literary critics, like the legislators of the moral,
spiritual and political laws, grew in number and formed
themselves into various groups known as the schools
of poetics.
Dandin of the seventh century in his Kavyadars'a
has developed a regular school of thought after referring
to many predecessors whose works are lost. According
to him a poem may consist of verse, prose, or both.
But the leading element of poetry is Alankara which
lends beauty to the poem in its words and sense as
ornaments do to the human body. He followed the
already developed doctrine of Marga (path, school,
style) of which six
(Vaidarbhi, Gaudi, PanchalL
Avanti, Magadhi, are mentioned by various
Laji)
writers. Daqdin accepts the Vaidarbh a (southern) and
Gauda (eastern) as the main divisions of styles the
rest being subordinate to these two. The distinguishing
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 4-23

marks are the presence in the former of the ten

qualities which the other (Gauda) does not usually
accept. His list of figures includes simile (in thirty-
two varieties), metaphor, Dipaka, Avritti (repetition),
Akshepa, Arthantaranygsa, A^’yatireka, Vibhavaiia,
Samasokti, hyperbole, poetic fancy, and Hetu, Sukshma
and Lesa, the last three being rejected by Bhamoha.
Chronologically Bhamoha comes directly after
Dandin ai d before Vamana. Bhamoha’s Bharacha-
vivarana is lost but his Kavyalankara insists on the
figures “as the essential feature of the poetry whose
body is word and sense”. He has, however, no marking
lines betw^een qualities and figures. He rejects the
distinction of two styles, recognizes only three qualities
which are, however, not connected with any special
style. According to him a sweet poem is that which‘

is agreeable to hear and has not too many compounds,

and a clear poem is one vhich can be understood by
even women and children. Long compounds supply
strength but are ii. compatible with sweetness and
clearness”. He gives a new list of ten additional defects
and describes logical and grammatical errors in poetry.
Vamana at the end of eighth century completes
doctrines of Dandin but supplies a new idea, viz.i ‘the soul
of pcetry as opposed merely to the body’ as mentioned by
Daiidin. According to him ‘a poem is not merely words
and sense, but there must be qualities and figures as
well.’ He introduces the doctrine i f lilti for Dadin’s
doctinc of sty^e, and admits three kinds, viz,^ A^aidarbhi,
Gaudi and Panchali. “The Vaidarbhl is perfect and
have all the qualities. The Gaudi posseses the qualities
of Kanti and Ojas understood here in the sense of many
compounds and high-sounding words. The Paiichali has
sweetness and gentleness (madhurya and saukumarya)
like the style of Purapas. According to A"amana “the
qualities are vital, the figures not, they are related
rather to the body, word and meaning of poetry than
to the style which is the soul.” Vamana’s quality of
beauty includes the feature of sentiment which Dandin
places in the figures Preyas, Easavat and Urjasvin,
and the quality of perspicuity covers the Svabhavokti
of Dandin. Vamana further insists thb.t ‘“simile lies at
the bottom of all figures” and thus omits various figures.
IJdbhata, the contemporary of A'amana, deals in
his Alaiikara-saitigraha with forty-one figures including
424 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

three varieties of alliteration. He emphasizes on the

element of sentiment on poetry and adds the ninth Rasa,
calm (santa). Like Bhamaha he ignores the styles of
Dandin. He introduces the theory of three Yfittis
(manners), viz., elegant (upansgarika), ordinary (gramya),
and harsh (paurusha), based entirely on sound effects,
p] imarily alliteration. He adds the figures of Drishtanta
(exemplification) and Kavyaliuga (poetical causation),
divides simile according to grammatical form of
expression, and investigates the relations of double
meaning to other figures as well as the different kinds
of blending of figures.
Rudrata in the earlier part of the ninth cenuiry
wrote his Kavyilakara in sixteen chapters of Arya
verses. He divides figures on the base of sound and
sense. Under sound he classes figures on the base
of equivocation (vakrokti), paronomatia (slesha),
pictorial effects (chitra), alliteration and Yamakas. And
under sense are included figures brsed on reality,
similitude, hyperbole, and coalescence. He extends
the manners ^vrittij of Udbhata to five manners of
letters (varna), sweet, harsh, pompous, dainty (lalita)
and excellent (bhadra). He accepts also the styles of
Yamana and increases the number to four based on the
use of compounds. The Yaidharbhi has no compounds,
the Paiichali compounds u,.. to three words, Latiya five
to seven, and Gaudiya any number He introduces the
theory of sentiment ani recognizes ten of them, adding
the feelings of calm (santa) and friendship (vatsalya).
The dramatist Rajasekhara wrote Kavyamiraamsa
in about JOj. He defines poetry “as a sentence possess-
ing qualities and figures”. He accepts Yamana’s
doctrine of styles. He developes the__doctrine of Dhvani
(tone) which was originated by Anandavardhana of
Kishmir in about 8d0 in his metrical Karikas, Dhvanya-
loka. Its “super-commentary”, Lochana, is by Abhinava-
gupta wRo refers to some not distant predecessors.
.Mammata is also included in this school. According to
the holders of the doctrine of Dhvani (tone) ‘the soul of
poetry is not style nor sentiment, but tone (dhvani)
which means that an implicit sense is the essence of
poetry’. Three-fold suggestion, viz , a subject, a figure,
and a sentiment are admitted by the orthodox members
like Anandavardhana, Mammata and Abhinavagupta,
the last of whom holds that ‘all suggestion must be of
 OBIGINAL LITEEATURES 425

sentiment to which ‘subject’ and ‘figure’ are reduced.

Visvanatha in his Sahitva-darpana toilowed this lead.
This provides for the ordinary view that ‘metaphor or
simile is the base of poetry’ and that ‘the literal sense
may be intended but a deeper suggestion is implied’,
and that ‘one figure lay at the base of others’ as when
Vamana found simile in all and Bhamoha hyperbole in
all figures. But the system admits that the beauty
may be of sense or sound, and permits the kind of poetry
called Ohitra (picture). In dealing with the qualities,
the figures and the manners of the earlier writers ‘one
great simplification was effected by reducing the
number of qualities, restricting their extension to sound
effects, and by merging in them both the Ritis of
Yamana and the identical Yrittis of Udbhata. There
came a new doctrine regarding the relation of
qualities to the poem, ‘the sentiment being regarded as
the vital element, and the qualities being related to it as
the soul of the poem.’
The three qualities of sound are given by Mammata
as depending on arrangement of letters, compounds and
style of composition. He also brings Vpittis of Udbhata
under qualities and styles of Vamana into close relation
to compounds like Rudrata. This doctrine draws a
definite line between figures and qualities. ‘The figures
are only of importance so far as they seek to enhance
the sentiment. If figures do not aid the sentiment,
then they are merely forms of speech, and their place
in poetry is of the third type (ohitra).
Anandavardhana allows compounds freely in
Akhyayika but they are not suitable in love-sorrow,
and in Katha they should be employed moderately.
The doctrine of defects (dosha) is treated from the
same point of view as that of qualities (guna).
Tautology may become an excellence if it enhances the
suggested sense. This school insists that in love there is
a defect in using unmelodious (srutidushta) words.
A large number of writers followed this doctrine, the
more well known of whom may briefly be referred to here.
Bhatta Nayaka’s Hridayadarpana is a sort of commentary
only. Kuntala in his Yakroktijivita stresses on figures
as the essential feature of poetry and not as ancillary
to a sentiment. This view is refuted by Mahiman
Bhatta who holds that Uhvani can always be reduced
to inferonce and that there is no such thing as immediate
54
426 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

apprehension of sentiment. The Agnipurana adopts the

ordinary definition of poetry ‘as possessing qualities and
figures and being free from defects’ and recognizes four
styles. Bhoja in his Sarasvati-kanthabharana requires
poetry to possess sentiment and adds two more styles,
Mggadhi and Avantiki between Yaidarbhi and Panchab.
His treatment of sentiment in his chief work is supple-
mented by his Sfingara-prakasa where the erotic senti-
ment is made the chief feature.
Mammata, as already noted, set out the theory of
Dhvani in his Kavya-prakasa (about 1100) with a
commentary in a complete form. He defines a poem 'as
sound and sense, free from defects, possessing qualities
and sometimes figures. He ignores sentiment as
essential, although he makes the qualities essentially
attributes of the sentiment. He reduces the qualities to
three and includes under them the styles and manners
of earlier writers. He classes defects as those of
sentiment, of word, proposition, and sense. He treats
figures as of sound and sense.
Viavanatha in his Sahitya-darpana (about 1350)
largely follows Mammata,
accepts the doctrine of styles
and admits four of them, viz., Vaidarbhi (dainty) with
sweet letters and no long or short compounds ; Gaudi
with letters of strength and long compounds Panchaii ;

with letters of other significance and compounds of five

or six words and Lati intermediate between Panchali.
;

and Yaidarbhi. On figures he follows often Euyyaka.

Similar are in spirit and manner the Ekavali of
Yidyadhara (about 13C0) and the Pratspa-rudra-yaso
bhushana \ idyanatha (about 1300) both accept ‘subject
;

and figure as objects of suggestion as well as sentiment’.

Yidyadhara enumerates like Bhoja twenty-four qualities.
Heraachandra’s Kavyanusasana with •
Viveka
commentary is ‘destitute of originality’ borrowing
from Mammata, Abhinavagupta, Rajalekhara and others.
Two agbhatas of Idth and 13th centuries w'rote the
Vagbharalankara and the Kavyaiiusasana. The older
defines poetry to include ten qualities, figure, sentiment
an i style which are, howmver, welded into a whole.
The younger follows Hemachandra and allows only
three qualities. Euyyaka (,about 1100,, wrote the Alankara-
Sarvasva and commentary, to summarize all earlier
systems and asserts the doctrine of Dhvani Jayadeva’s
 ORIGiJSAL LITERATURES 427

Chandraloka is a manual of figures, on which Appayya

Dikshita based his Euvalaysnanda (about 1600).
Jagannatha in his Rasagangadhara supplies a
revised definition of poetry ‘as sound expressive of a
charming idea (ramaniyai’tha-pratipadakasabda). Kshe-
mendra develops the conception of propriety (auchitya)
in his Auchityavichara as essential or life of sentiment,
and discusses in his Kavikauthabharaaa ‘the charm of
poetry with illustration of its ten aspects, the defects
and excellences with regard to sense, sound, of senti-
ment’, and the various forms with which a poet ought to
be familiar. Still more practical advice to poets
is given in the Kavyakalpalata and its commentary by
Arisinha and Amarachandra (13th century). In the 14th
century Bhanuchandra wrote on sentiment in his
Rasamanjari and Rasa-tarangini.
A proper classification of the figures of speech
appears to have been left out by all these intellectual
giants who analyzed poetry so very cleverly. Only
Ruyyaka offers a division of figures of sense based on
the principles of comparison (upama), incongruity
(virodha), linked succession (srinkhala), logical reasoning
(nyaya), sentence-economy (vakya-nyaya), popular
maxims (lokanyaya), apprehension of a secret sense
(gudhartha-pratiti) and combination of figures (Sankara).
This division is not quite logical.’ The idea that the
face of the beloved is like the moon can be utilized to
illustrate a long series of figures based on similarity
alone :

‘Thy face is likethe moon’ is simile (upama).

‘The moon is like thy face’ is the converse (pratipa).
‘Thy face shineth ever, the moon by night alone’ is
contrast (vyatireka). ‘The moon doth reign in heaven,
thy face on earth’ is typical comparison (prativastu-
upama), Tn the heaven is the moon, on earth thy face’
is exemplification (drishtanta). ‘Thy face doth bear the
beauty of the moon’ is illustration (nidars'anf). ‘The
moon doth pale before thy face’ is indirect eulogy (apra-
stuta-prasamsa) ‘The moon is like thy face, thy face
is like the moon’ is repeated simile (upamayopama).
‘The sight of the moon doth bring thy face before me’
is remembrance (smarapa). ‘Thy moon-face’ is meta-
phor (rupaka). ‘By thy moon-face the heat of passion
doth wane’ is commutation (parinaraah ‘Is this thy face
or the moon’ is doubt (sandeha). ‘The Chakora (bird)
4-?8 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

thinking it to be the moon flieth toward th> face’ is

confusion (bhrantim at). 'This isthe moon, this is the lotus,
so the (bird) Chakoraandthebee fly to thy face’ is different
representations (ullekha). ‘This is the moon, not thy
face’ is negation (apahnutih ‘Thy face is like thy face
alone’ is self-comparison (ananvaya)'. ‘Thy face is
indeed the moon’ is lively fancy (utpreksha).’ ‘Thy face
is a second moon’ is hyperbole (atisayokti). ‘The moon
and the lotus are vanquished by thy face’ is equal pair-
ing (tulyayogita). ‘Thy face and the moon rejoice in
the night’ is illumination i^dipaka). ‘How could such
beauty be born among men, not from the earth doth
arise tremulous loveliness of the lightning’ is the typical
comparison ^.another form of prativastu-upama).
This does not indicate, as rightly held by Professor
Keith, mere philosophical subtleties. These illustrations
show an extraordinary training of the mind and
intellect and also an uncommon sincerity of attachment to
something one really likes. Apart from literary achieve-
ments the Hindu mind penetrated the fathomless depth
of feelings as are clearly indicated by the poetics.

PHILOLOGY AND GKAMMAK

In referring to the VedaPgas it has been already
pointed out that the grammatical analysis of words
which forms poetical sentences and figures of speech was
understood and practised from very early t'.raes. At
any rate Yaska (about B. C. 600) knows of schools cf
Vaiyskaranas (grammarians) and of Nairuktas (etymo-
logists). The grammar of Panini is sufficient proof that
there existed a grammatical school wffiich included in
its work Usages of different Yedas and the different
schools of the same Veda. ‘The scientific study of
grammar is clearly indicated in the Patanjali’s Maha-
bhashya on Panini. Yaska already mentions noun
(naman), pronoun (sarvanaman), verb (akhyata), preposi-
tion (upasarga), and particle (nipata). Yyakaraoa proper
refers to parts of speech such as case termination
(vivakti), number (vachana), present tense (kurvant',
euphonic combination (sandhi), compound (samisal, case
(karaka), etc. Thus were distinguished stem and
termination in nouns, and in verbs root and termina-
tions, tense and other affixes and derivation of nouns
from verbs by Krit suffixes and from nouns by Taddhita
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 429

suffixes. Words were also derived from verbs by

unusual mentioned in the Unadi-sutra.
affixes as
The Ashtadhyayi of Panini (about B. C. 350)
comprising about 4,000 sutras (rules) treats in eight
books of (i) technical terms and rules of interpreta-
tion ;
(ii) nouns in composition and case relations
;

(iii) the adding of suffixes to roots ;

(iv, v) adding
of suffixes to nouns (vi, vii) accent and changes
;

of sound in word formation, and (viii) the word

in the sentence. Katyayana’s Vartikas of some 1245
Sutras are placed between Panini and Patanjali. About
that time is also placed Vararuchi to whom are ascribed
several works, viz., Prakfita-prakasa, book iv of the
Katantra and the Linganusasana. The Yararuchi-
Samgraha in 25 Karikas (rules) deals with case construc-
tion, compounds, verbs, and nominal function. Save
for Bhartrihari, Patanjali (about B. C. 150) closes the
line of great grammarians. His Mahabhashya has
famous commentaries like those of Bhartrihari (about
661), Vakyapadiya in three books of verse, Kaiyata
(12th century), Nagoji.bhaua (about 1700) commented
through Bhartrihari. There are other commentaries
also on Panini, of which Kasika-vritti of Jayaditya and
Vamana is well known for its clearness. The Dhatu-
patha which gives the roots according to classes
with indicatory letters containing information
regarding their formation is ascribed to Panini. On it
are based the Dhatu-pradipa of Maitreya Rakshita, the
Daiva of Deva, the Purusbakara of Krishnalila-suka, and
the Madhaviya Dhaturupa ascribed to Madhava, brother
of Say ana of the 14th century. The Ganapatha of some
unknown author and the Gana-ratna-mahodadhi of
Yardhamana (1140) are based on some other grammar.
The Katantra, otherwise known as Kalapa and
Kaumara, of Sarvavarman, is based on the lost
grammar of Nepalese Buddhist Tndragomin. It
originally comprises four books. It appears with
supplements in Tibetan translation and in Hurgi
Sinha’s commentary. Its Dhatupatha is extant only
it Tibet. Its fragments have been found in Central
Asia. There is a commentary, Sishya-hitanyasa, by
Ugrabhuti. It deeply affected the Pali grammar of
Kachchayana and the Dravidian grammarians. It was
popular in Kashmir and Bengal. It came after Panini.
The Ghandra-vyakaranaof one unidentified Cuandra
430 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

was popular in Kashmir, Tibet and Nepal and reached

Ceylon also. It comprises a Dhitupatha, Ganapatha,
Uqadi Sutra, and Paribhasha-sutra. Kfisyapa (about 1300),
wrote a soi't of commentary on it, Bakvabodhana, which
became popular in Ceylon. The Samkshiptasjra of
Kamadisvara (after 1150) deals in seven chapters with
Sanskrit and in one chapter with Prakrit grammar. It
was popular in West Bengal, East Bengal favoured
Padmanabhadatta’s Supadma-Vyakarana (1375), Bihar
and Benares the Sasvati-Prakriya with commentary by
Anubhuti Svaiupa.
Treatises on gender known as Linganusisana are
ascribed to Fanini, Vararuchi, Harshadeva (605-647),
Yam ana (about SOU), Sakatayana and Hemachandra.
They are also appended to Lexicons.

LEXICON
Further analysis of language is shown in the
lexicons where collections of terms under various
categories are made. Yaska in his Nirukta (B. C.
500) first recorded such collections of Yedic terms
for the purpose of interpretation of sacred texts The
Kolas of classical Sanskrit, on the other hand, supply
lists of words bearing same or similar meanings.
Thus the Dictionaries are of two kinds, sjnonymous
ifi which words are grouped by subject-matter, and
hononymous (nanartha) in which words of different
meanirps are grouped together. References^ are found
to Katyayana’s Namamala, Yachaspati’s Sabdarnava,
Yikramaditya’s Saiiisaravarta, and Vyadi’s Utpalini.
Fragments of a dict’onary exist in Weber’s Mss. found
in Kashgar The well known dictionary of Araara-
sinha (about>^th centuryh the Nama-iinganushsana,
is usually known as Amarakcsa. [t is synonymous,
arranged in three books of subjects, with an appendix
in the last on homonyms, indeclinables, and genders.
Commentaries were written on it by Kshirasvamin
(llth century), Yandyaghatiya Sarivananda (1159), and
Kayamukutamani (1551). Purushottamadeva (16th
century) wrote the Trikapdabesha, and the Hdravali of
synonyms and bomonyins refers to very rare terms
many being from Buddhist texts. Sapvata’s Anekaitha
Samuchchaya belongs to the period of Amarakola. In
about 950 Halayudha’s Abhidhana-ratna-mala and a
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 431

century later Yadavaprakasa’s Yaijayanti arranged

words by syllables, genders,and initial letters. In the
12th century Hemachandra’s Abhidhana-chintareani
deals with synonyirs in six sections beginning with
Jain gods and ending with abstracts, adjectives and
particles, and is supplemented by the Botanic dictionary
Nighantu-s'esha. His Anekartha-samgraha deals with
hononyms in six sections beginning with one- syllable
and ending with six-syllable words arranged by initial
letters and end consonants. The Jain Dhananjaya
wrote in 1140 hisNamaniala, and Mahesvara wrote in 1111
Yisvaprakasa. Later came Mankha’s Anekarthakosa
and Kes'avasvamin’s Nanartharnava-samgraha (about
1200). Tothe Uth century belong Medirikara’s Anekartha
sabda-kos'a and Irugapa’s Nanartha-ratnarasla. There
are minor works like Ekakshara-kosa, Dvirapa-kobA,
Trirupakob'a, etc,, and medical, astronomical cr astrologi-
cal glossaries. In 972 Dhanapsla wrote a Prakrit
dictionary Prakrita-lakshm i-namamala out of which Hem a-
,

chandra produced his Desanamamala. At the time of

Akbar there came a Persian-Sanskrit dictionary,
Parasiprakasa, and in 1643 under the same title Vedaiiga-
raya wrote a dictionary on Astronomical and
Astrological terms.

The cultural as well as the value of this

scientific
class of work is obvious. They
once point to the
at
vastness of the literature and their scientific arrange-
ment, in the absence of which no one can get an idea
of the niceness of literature.

PALI AND PRAKIHT

An attempt was made from about the 5th century
before Christ to vernacularize the extensive and the
most developed Sanskrit literature into Prakrit and Pali.
The imitation was not fully successful although the
situation was opportune and favourable owing to the
complexities which naturally arose at the concluding
strictly Vedic period at about B. C. SCO. The challenge
was frustrated by the rise of the classical Sanskrit
literature in the forms of the Upanishads, Epics,
Kavyas, Dramas, etc. Besides the Prakrit being incor-
porated in the dramatic literature and Buddha himself
being recognized as an incarnation of god Vishnu, Pali
and Prakrit could not achieve their full and independent
432 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

growth. On the other hand the Jains and the Buddhists

themselves reverted to the use of Sanskrit. Thus the
importance of Prakrit and Pah is limited mostly to the
Jain and the Buddhist Scriptures only.

BUDDHISTS LITERATURE IN PALI

The whole of the Buddhist literature in Pali
developed on the lines of the Dharmasastra in Sanskrit.
In Pali there is no literature on sciences like arithmetic,
algebra, geometry, mensuration, medicine and surgery,
or on royal polity like the ^ Arthasastra of Kautiliya,
Nitisastra of Kamandaki and Sukraniti The Pali litera-
ture is confined mostly to the religious treatises of the
Buddhists. The entire Pali scripture is classified under
three Pitakas (baskets), viz., Vinaya, Sutta, and
xAbhidhamrna. The whole of this literature are collections
of speeches, sayings, conversations, songs, narratives,
and rules of the order.
After the death (about B, C. 557) of Buddha, his
immediate disciples organise! the first Buddhist Council
in the city of Eajagriha in order to establish a canon
of the religion (Dharma), of the discipline (Vinaya),
and of the doctrine (Sutra), which form the Tripitaka.
A second council was held a hundred years after
Buddha’s death at Vaisali, of which the sole object was
to do away with the ten heresies regarding the discipline
of the order. A real canon of sacred texts was compiled
at the Third Council of a thousand monks held at
Pataliputra at the time of king Asoka 236 years after
the Buddha’s death. King Kanishka held the Fourth
Council at Kushumapura (Peshwar) in the second or
third century A.D. The Pali canon known as Tripitaka
settled at the Pataliputra session was brought to Ceylon
by Mahinda, son of Asoka, and the king of Ceylon,
A^attugamini, got it written down in the first century
before Christ.
The Vinaya pitaka resembles the Vedic Brahraanas
both in respect of rule (vidhi) and explanation
(arthavada) including narrative poems formulated by
Buddha for the monastic communicy (Saugha). It
refers to the rules of discipline for the order, and precepts
for the daily life of monks and nuns. There are rules
for periodical confession of sins, for life during the
rainy season, for housing, clothing, medicinal remedies,
 OEIGINAL LITEEATURES 433

and legal procedure in case of schism. This also

contains legends and narratives 'concerning the life
of Budiha, and of nonks and nuns. The Vinaya-pitaka
consists of four books, viz.^ Sutta-Vibhanga containing
the explanation of the articles of Patiraokkha,
Khandakas (sections) which deal with the daily life
of monks and nuns, Parivsra being a collection of
Canonical tables and texts, and Patimokkha which
comprises Mahavagga (great division) and Chullavagga
(lesser division) dealing with similar subjects.
The Sutta-pitaka resembles the Upanishads and
the Mahabharata, and deals with the moral teachings
of ethical and metaphysical nature. It contains prose
dialogues, legends, sayings, and verses or song?. It
consists of five Nikayas (collections), viz., Digga-niksya
(long collection), Majjhiraa-nikaya (medium collection),
Sarnyutta nikaya (complete collection), Anguttara-nikaya
(numerical collection), and Khuddaka-nikaya (lest
collection) which contains fifteen parts, viz,
(1) Khuddakapatha (short text), (-2) Dhammapada (law in
maxim), (3) Udana (spiritual aspiration), (4) Itivuttaka
(utterances of Buddha), (5) Sutta-nipata (section of less
amplitude), (6) Vimana-vatthu (tale of divine palaces),
(

(7) Peta-vattu (tale of ghosts), (8) Theragatha (songs for

monks), (9) Therigatha (songs for nuns), (10) Jataka
(stories of previous births of Buddha), (11) Niddesa
(commentary on Sutta-nipata), (12) Psti-sambhidasa-
raagga (work of Abhidhamma), (13) Apadana (feats of
holiness), (14) Buddhavamsa (legends of twenty-four
previous Buddha), and (15) Chariya-pitaka (stories of
thirty-five Jatakas),
The Abhidhamma-pitaka treats of the philosophical
subjects like those of the six systems of philosophy in
Sanskrit. It is composed chiefly in form of questions
and answers. It comprises seven works in the
traditional order. (1) The Dhamma-samgini deals with
the classification and definition of psychical condition
and phenomena which are inseparable from philosophy
and religion proper. (2) The Vibhanga deals with the
categories and formulas introduced in the Dhamma-
samgini with some new terms and new definition.
(3)The Dhatukatha in fourteen chapters discusses in
questions and answers the elements of psychical
phenomena and their mutual relation. (4) The Puggali-
pannati deals with description of human individuals
55
434 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

acd classifies individuals like monks and others

according to their ethical qualities. (5) The Katha-
vatthu deals with the subjects of discourse it consists
;

of 23 sections each of which contains b to 12 questions

and answers, in which the most diverse false views are
presented, confuted and rejected. (6) The Yamaha is
so called because all the questions are presented and
explained in two ways. (7) The Patthana deals with
the investigation of the 24 kinds of relationship which
are assumed between the corporeal and psychical
phenomena, e.g., relationship of subject and object, the
ruler and the ruled, with the sole exception of Nirvana
that is absolute. There is nothing which is not related
to something else in one of the 24 ways.

The Milinda Panna a semi-canonical Pali work

is
named after Greco-Indian Menandros 1st century B, C.).
,

It resembles the dialogue of Plato and is written in

most elegant prose. It purports to discuss a number of
problems and disputed points of Buddhism.
There are also in Pali some Commentaries,
Chronicles, Puranas, Epics and Poems (Savyas), Strotras
and Lexicons. There are, however, no dramas nor works
on sciences and royal polity as stated above.

.IAIN LITEEATURE IN PRAKRIT

The .Jainas admit the close relation of their
religion with Brahmanism by assarting that the
religion of the Brahmans is a degenerate form of it.
Jainism lays far more stress than Buddhism on
asceticism and all manner of cult exercises (yoga)
In contrast to Buddha, Mahavira taught a very elaborate
belief in the soul. Twenty-three Tlrthaftkaras co n-
mencing with Adinatha and ending with Pars'vanatha
founded 2-10 years before Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara
and the senior contemporary of Gautama Buddha, the
religion of Niganthas (fetterless) or the Digambaras.
The Svetimbaras (white-cloth edi were the followers of
the reformer Mahavira.
Both the Svetambara and Digambara sects called
their sacred books the Agama-Siddhan^^a. Both the sets
agree in calling the twelve Angas ilimbs of religion
like the six Vedangas in Sanskrit) the first and most
important part of their canon The Siddhanta
 ORIGINAL LITERATURES 435

comprises 45 to 60 books. ThePnrvas contain the original

doctrine in fourteen texts which MahdVira himself
taught in Ardha Magadhi Prakrit language to his
disciples known as Glanadharas (hea s of schools).

The individual works in the canon comprising

only the Siddhsntas of the Svetambaras consist of
Id Angas, Id Upangas, 10 Painnas (Prakarapas or
scattered pieces), 7 Chheya (cheddha) Suttas, 4 Mula
Suttas, one Nandi Satta and one Annogadara (Annyoga
dvara). All these sacred books are written in dry
language and in didactic tone. They resemble in style
the Sutras in Sanskrit. But unlike the Sanskrit
Brahmanas and Sutras they are both in prose and verse
mixed.

As the title of the first Anga, Achara (conduct),

implies, the Angas generally deal with the rules of
conduct prescribed by Mahavira especially for the
monks. The sermons contain exhortations and warn-
ings against any kind of killing or injury of living
creatures. They are beautifully illustrated with simple
stories, legends, and narratives. There are also rules
for begging and wandering, and speaking. Monks are
warned against the temptation for women. They are
asked to overcome the temptation of family life, and
persuation of friends, rehuions, kings, and Brahmans.
Incidental references are made to the ten themes of
mathematics, the Brahmi scripts, the names of the
twelve Angas, and the contents of the fourteen Purvas.
The fifth Anga (Bhagavati-Vyakhya-prajfiapti) refers
elaborately to the life and work of Mahavira, his
predecessors and contemporaries, his disciples, and
Niganthas and Ajivakas, The sixth Ang.i, (-Jiva dharma-
katha) is full of religious narratives, legends, parables,
regular novels, tales of travellers, adventures, mariners,
fairy tales, robber-tales, and the story of the Hindu
Goddess Kali. The ninth Anga (Anuttara-rupa-patikos'a)
emphasises how the Jaina saints attain to the highest
perfection by starving themselves to death. The tenth
Anga (Prasna-vyayakaransni) in form of question and
explanation deals with the gates ^,dvara) of salvation,
and refers to the uve vows, v'z., not to hurt any living
being, not to lie, not to stem, not to De unchaste, and
not CO De attached to possessions. The eleventh Anga
( Vipaka-sutra) contains legends on the retribution of
436 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

good and evil deeds after the theory of Karma in

Sanskrit. The twelfth Aega (Ditthi-vyaya) is a sort of
compilation from the other texts.
One Upanga is attached to each of the twelve
Angas. They are additional rather than supplementary
texts. They"^ deal with similar subjects in the same
legendary and question-answer form.
The ten Prakaranas deal with miscellaneous
subjects referring to the Jaina religion, such as Arhat
(Saints), Siddha (perfected ones), Sadhus (pious ones),
and Dharma (duty).
The seven Chheda Suttas generally deal with the
rules of life for the monks and nuns, and atonements
and penances like ihe Yinaya Pitaka of the Buddhists.
They are partly Ivalpa Sutras (of the Vedic literature)
and partly Vyavahara (usage), the former teaching
the liability for punishment, and the latter the meeting
of the punishment.
Of the four Mula Suttas, the first (Uttaradhyayana)
is a compilation of various texts dealing with summons
in series of aphorisms (Sutra), admonition to pupils,
and instructions to monks. The second (Avasyaka) deals
With the obligatory observances of the monks. The
third (Daba-vaikulika) in ten chapters discusses the
monastic life. And the fourth (Pinda-niryukti) deals
with morality.
The two other texts, Nandi-sutta and Annyoga-dvara,
are encyclopedic works in prose with occasional verses,
dealing with every thing which should be known by the
Jaina monks.
These are the canons of the Svetumbara sect. The
hiddliantas of the Digambaras also recognize the twelve
Angas and their titles are common in many places.

The fourteen Prakirnakas (misoellania) are intended

for the simple-minded Like the commentaries on the
Vedas known as l>xahmu uas, the Jaina monks wrote the
hire uktis as commentaries of the canons. There is a
large number of works dealing with Jaina religion, and
philosophy and more specially with logic. The Jaina
epic poems included the adapted form of the Kamayana
ui Sciuskrit by Vi mala Suri in Maharashtra Prakrit in
ilb autos St ited to iiave been compiled -530 years after
.

iVlaUavira. Jinasena has adopted the Mahabharata

 ORIGINAL LltEBAttJBES 437

in Sanskrit in his Harivaitisa PuTana in 783 A. D. The

PUTanas in Sanskrit have also been imitated.
Corresponding to the Purahas of the Digarabaras, the
^vetambaras have the Uharitras (biographies). Hema
chandra wrote (between^llGO and 1172 A. D.) his Maha-
kavya called Trishashti-Salaka-Purusha-Charitra, dealing
with sixty-three biographies. The Jaina Pattavalis are
mere lists of teachers and works, legendary in nature
but contain occasional historical facts. The Prakrit
Pravandhas are also semi-historical works but are
anecdotes rather than biographies. There is a vast
Jaina fairy tale literature, written in prose and in verse,
in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Apabhramsas. But all
these are essentially sermons dealing with religious
instructions and edification. There are also several
Kathanakas or short stories. A large number of dramas
also are ascribed to the Jaina playwrights. A hundred
Prakaranas (love-dramas) are attributed to Rama-
chandra, a pupil of Hemachandra. Thus the Jaina
literature in Prakrit is more extensive than the Buddhist
literature in Pali.

It is obvious even from this brief outline that

both the Jaina literature in Prakrit and the Buddhist
literature in Pali developed in poor imitation of the
Sanskrit literature. The modern languages also, Hindi,
Bengali, Tamil, Gujarati and others, are similarly
descendants of Sanskrit literature. Excepting in Bengali,
there is not much literature of serious nature and of
original character in the other modern languages. It is
hardly possible to cite or compare a poet of Rabindranath
Tagore’s achievements in Bengali in any other modern
languages.
The variety and extensiveness, the originality
and technical perfection, and the richness in
composition and ideas of our entire literature in Sanskrit
and in its descnde at languages will support and supplement
the standard and condition of our culture and civilisation
revealed in other matters as in the field of literature also,
which like mirror reflects the minds and deeds of our
society truly, fully, and correctly.
438 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

It may be recapitulated in conclusion that Hindu-

ism, which is understood as equivalent to Indian culture
and civilization, accepts the self-evi'ient truth that men
are born with unequal mental and physical character-
istics which are determined by their past actions. It,
however, encourages that every one should endeavour
and should be helpei to develop his highest potentiality
in order to counteract his limitations at birth. The
four castes represent respectively the predominance of
spiritual powmr, warrior-like physical valour, agricultural
industrial and commercial wmalth, and manuallabour. The
four ideals of Hindu life arethe ethicalvirtues, economic
security, legitimate experiences at different stages of
life, and ultimate communion with the eternal God. Thus
the first stage is devoted to the acquisition of knowledge
according to one’s aptitude and capacity the second
;

to the domestic satiety through service to family and

society third to calm reflection in solitude on worldly
;

and spiritual truths and the last to uninterrupted con-

;

templation of God through complete renunciation of all

wordly attachments. The fear of death is thus removed
from Hindu thought, and the inevitable end like the
other limitations at birth is gladly welcomed as a new
dress when the old one is worn out. ‘To a true Hindu
the great God is our common Father, his creative
energy our benign Mother, the world our sweet home,
and all God-fearing people are our kith and kin’. As the
saviour of humanity, God manifests himself in times
of human crisis as incarnation under various forms
and religious traditions.
Hinduism is based on the belief in God and faith
in the immortality of souls, every one of which will
ultimately attain to liberation. Hindus are, therefore,
more anxious to apply their physical, psychical, moral
and spiritual powers, with which they are born, to the
discovery, conquest and exploitation of the world within
than to employ their physical and intellectual energy
in the discovery, conquest and exploitation of the world
without, Concentration of attention on the inrer life
leads naturally to a recognition of the superiority of
spiritual values over material values. Despite possible
adverse effects of this attitude upon the material stan-
dard of living, in instances of maladjustment, it must
be admitted as constructive for inner equilibrium
psychological perspicacity, and moral and spiritual
strength.
 INDEX
A Anekarthakos'a, lexicon, 431.
Anekartha-samuchchaya, lexicon
Abhidamma pitaka.Pali scripture) 430.
contents of, 433-434. Anekartha-sariigraha, lexicon, 431.
Abhidhana-chintatnani, lexicon, 431. Ahgas, twelve Jain scriptures in
Abhidhana-ratnamila, lexicon, 430. Prakrit, 434-435.
Abhinavagupta, defines suggestion, Augiras and i^raddlu, union of, 1
434. Angkor vat, temple, 191.
Abhisheka-nataka, drama, 380 Animal worship, 154-156.
Abhyudayika, sacrifice, 7. Animism, 154.
Achara, Jain scripture, contents Anna-prasana, sacrament, 25.
of, 433-436- Annogadara, J'ain text in Prakrit,
Adbhuta-darpana, drama, 406-406. 435.
Adinatha, Jain apostle, 434 .\ntyeshti (sraddha), sacrifice, 37.
Agaraas, dealing with worship of Anukraman', index to Vedas, cha-
female de ties and ^iva and Vishnu, racter and varieties of, 308 atta-
330, number of, 338-339, compared ched to different Vedas, 308-309.
^with Nigaraa, 339. Anuloina, marriage, object of, 57.
Agama-siddhantas, sacivd Prakrit Anuttara-rapa-patikosa, ninth
texts of Jainas, 434. Jaina Ahga, 435.
Agnipurana, defines poetry, 36. Annyoga d'tara, Jaina encyclopedia,
Agni and ’Svaha, union of, 1. 436.
Agnivesa, on medical science, 25’.J. Apabhrariisas, sources of verna.
Agriculture, boientifio operations, culars, H ndi, etc., 290.
87-88, officers to inspect, 88. Apadaua, Pali text, 433.
Ajanta, paintings at, 236-340. Apanvuti, figure, 438.
Akhyana, narrative, 366 Appayya
Dikshita, playwright, 427.
Akhyata, Verb, 438. •Aprastuta-prasan’isa, figure, 427.
Akhyayika, tale, 366. Aptoryaina. festivity, 44-45.
Akshepa, figure, 433. Aranyakas, as appendices to
Alahkara-sarvasva, on p'mtics, 436. Brahmanas, 300, contents of, 300,
Alahkara-sariigraha, treatise, 433- relation with Upanishads, 301-
434. Archery, sc t-nce of, 276.
Algebra, origin of, xix, 365-366. Archika, part of Samaveda, 394.
Amarachandra, on poetics, 437. Architecture, antiquity of, xix,
Amarakosa, lexicon, 430. standard treatises on, 271-272
Amarasinha, lexicographer, 430. 275-276.
Amaruka, poet, 351. Arsha, form of marriage, 4-5.
Amaru-satdka, poem, 351. Arisinha, on poetics, 427.
Ambashtaka, stotra, 357. .Arithmetic, origin of, xix, 263, 265.
\raritami.nthana, drama, 419. Army Command, 13 ’--IS?.
Ananda-.-agara-stava, prayer book Arthantara-nyasa, figure, 433.
5 58. Arthasastra, ori-in of, 351, 277,
Aft andavardhana, playwright, 400. subjects discussed in, 278-279, com
414, 357. pared with Machiavalli, 279, 365.
Ahguttara-nikaya, Pali text, 433. Arthavyakti, explicitness, 422.
Analysis of words, antiquity ot, 438 Artificial poetry, nature of, 331.
Anatomy, known to Vedas, 353. Art of playing, four elements of
Anaiivaya, figure, 438, 376-377.
440 INDEX

Aryabhatta, astronomer, xix, 263- Basavadatta of Subandhu, drama,

264. 358, 360, 361.
Arya-saptas'ati, poem, 352. Baudhayana, discoverer of so-called
Aryan speech, ancestor of all Pythagorus theorem, 266.
speeches of India and Iran> 289. Bilhana, poet, 351, stotra by, 358
Ashtadhyayi) eight chapter gram- Bengali painter?, Abanindra, etc,
mar, contents of, 429. 249.
Ashta mahasri, stotra of Harsha- Bhagavati-vyakhya-prajnapti, fifth
^vardhana> 357. Jaina Anga, contents of, 435.
Asrama=, varieties of, 28. Bhagavat-sarana-stotra of Bra-
Asrumukha, sacrificeto the dead, 41. fa man anda, 358.
Ashtanga Samgtaha, medical trea- Bhallata-satdka, poem, 354.
tise, 254. Bhamoha, on poetics, 423, 425.
Astrology, basis of, 262, text books Bhamini-vilasa of Jagannatha, on
on, 262, 263. maxims, 354.
Astronomy, 258, 263, antiquity of, Bhanika, one act piece, 420.
258, 259, achievements sumraer- Bhana, comic plays, 412, a type of
^ized, 261, 262. drama, 42 0.
Asura, form of marriage, 6. Bhanuchandra, on poetics, 427.
AsVaghosha, playwright, 377. Bhaktamara. stotra of Manatunga,
Atharva and Santi, union of, 1. 357.
Atharva-Veda, priests of, 245, Bharadvaja, on medical science, 252.
number of hymns and contents Bharavi, poem of, 347.
of, 296, mentioning objects in- Buarata-champu of Ananta, 365.
dicating later growth, 296. Bharataka-dvatriihsika, folk tale,
Atiratra, sacrifice, 44. 375.
Atisayokti, figure, 428. Bharatavarsha, parts of, 106-107.
Atmarpana, stuti, 358. Bhartihari, poet, 351, grammarian,
Atreya, on medical science, 252. 429.
Atri and Anusflya, union of, 1. Bhasa, earliest playwright, 377,
Altars, ten kinds of, 50-51, references to 13 dramas of,
varieties of, 80, giving rise to 378-383, dramas by, 41''-420.
temples, 80. bhaskaracbaiya, astronomer, xix,
Auchitya-vichara, on poetics, 427. 260, discovery of centre of gravity
Avanti, stvle of composition, 422, 500 years earlier than Newton,
423, 424. 261-267.
Avantika, style of composition, 426. Bhaskara kavi, playwright, 41 5.
Asvamedha, sacrifice, 45-46. Bhatta-narayana, playwright, 396.
Avasyaki, second .Jain Mula Bhatta Nay aka, commentator, 42-5.
sutta, 436. Bhatti kavya, general feature of,
Avimaraka, drama, 380-381. 347-348.
Avritt', figure, 423. Bhavabbuti, dramas by, 392-393,
Ayodhya, city plan and buildings Bh.iva-prakasa, on pathoi'^gy, 254.
in, 82. Bhava-sataka of Nagaraja, maxims,
Ayokti-muktalata-sataki of Sam- 354.
_^bhu, anthology, 354. Bheda, on medical science, 252-253-
Ayurveda, on medicine and surgery 254.
252. Bhikshu-griba, monastery, 169.
B Biiikshatava-kavya, stotra, of
Bala-Bharata, drama, 403. 6ivadasa, 358.
Balabhadra, poet, 352. Bhiiiidtlia, dramas by, 404.
Bala-Raniayana, drama, 403. Bhoja, playwright, 426-
Balavodhana, grammar, 430- Bhrigu and Khyati, union of, 1.
Barahamihira, on astronomy, 259. Bhraatimit, figure, 427.
Barabudar, stupa, 191-192, 219-221. Bhuta yajfia, sacrifice, 35-36.
 —

INDEX 441

Bilhana, playwright, 409. Chanela kau.sika, drama, 405-

Board of builders, 271. Chandibataka of Bona, stotra, 357,
Bodhicliaryavatasra of Haiitideva Chandi-kucha-pafichasuka, stotra
poem on moral theme, 354. of L’akshanacharya, 358.
Botanic dictionary, 431. Chandra, grammar and gram-
Brahmanas, character of 298, marian, 429-430-
attached to different Vedas, 298- Chandraloka, manual of figures,
299, function of, 299, records of 427.
sacrificial deeds, theological and Chakrapanidatta, chemist, 254, 257.
philosophical thoughts in, 299, Charchastava, prayer book, 358.
age of, 300. Charaka, xvi, xviii, physician of
Brahma-yajna, sacrifice by house Kanishka, his work on medicine,
holders, 35-36. etc., 252, 253.
Brahmacharin, ceremonies, 28.29, Charitras, Jam imitations of
sacrifice and vows of, 29-31. Sanskrit Purj.nas, 437, of Sid-
Brahmagupta, xix, arithmetical dharshi, 375.
operations by, 264. Chariya.pitdka, Pali text, 433.
Brahma and Snvitri, union of, 1. Charu-charva-sataka, book of
Brahma, form of marriage, 4. etiquette, 355-
Brihad-devata, source of maxims, Charudatta, drama, 382-383.
354. Categories, of various system of
Brihatkatha of Gunadhya, 309-371. philosophy compared, 327.
Brihat-katha-manjari of Kshe- Chatakashtaka, on maxims, 354.
mendra, 372. Chaturvarga-sariigraha, on four
Buddha, recognized as an incarna- ends of life, 355.
tion, effect of, 431. Chaurd-paiichasika, poem, 351.
Buddhism, 150, origin of, 323-324, Chemistry, works on, 257-258-
categories of, 324-325, texts on, Chhanda, metre, 305-306.
325-326. Chhaya n.itaka, .shadow play, 415.
Buddhist councils, growth of, 432. Chheda Suttas, .‘^even, on Jain
Buddhaghosha, dramas of, 377-378. monks and nuns, resembling
Buddhaghoshacharya, poet, 35. Buddhi-t Vinayapitaka and
Buddhavan’isa, Pali text, 433. Vedic Kalpasutras, 436.
Buildings, in Buddha’s time, 82, Chheya-suttas, .Tain texts in
five classes of, 82-83, various Prakrit, 435.
rooms in, 83, classification of Chikittu-fara-samgraha, 254.
Manasara, 84. Chitravidya, on painting, 276-
Chitra, figure, 424.
C Cliitra-bharata, drama, 406.
( hronicle', in Pali, 434.

Calamine, making of, 257. Chullavagga, Pali text, 433.

Calendar, with 366 day year, 258, Chudikarana, sacrament, 25-26.
Canonical treatises, of Jains and Classical literature, compared
Buddhists, partly practical, 331. with N’edic literature, 3al.
Cardinal numbers, discovery of, 265. Classical Sanskrit, development
Caste system, starting of, 60-61; of, 289, no artificial product,
restrictions on, effects of, 61.62. 290.
Chaitanva-chandrodaya, drama. Clothes, varieties of, 70-72.
408. Coinage, origin and use of, 97-99.
Chalukyas, temples of, 178-179, Colonization of Hindus, without
inscriptions of, 341. exploitation, xx.
Champaka-^reshthi-Kathanaka of Communnity marrige, origin of,
Jinakirti, story, 375. 57.
Champu, type of literature, 364. Commentaries, in Pali, 434.
Chanakya-rajaniti, poem, 353. Consonants, origin from and
*
56
442 INDEX

classification of, 291. poem of, 349,

Cooking, 66, art of, 69-70. Dhanika, playwright, 420.
Copper, making of, 257. Dharma-paiiksha, Jain ethics
Copptr pyrites, making of, 257. on prostitutes, 355.
Courses of study, 31-33. Dharma-sarmabhyuday a of Hari-
Court of justice, 128. chandra, Jain poem, 365.
Civil adiuinistration, 127-128, high Dharmasastra, contents of 282-
principles of, 135-136. 2fi3, 365,
Civilization, denvat’.OD of, vii, aims Dharraa-sutra, function of. 303, 304.
of and characterised by, vii— viii, Dhanurvt da, science of, 276.
ideal condition of, xi— xii, anti- D1 aaikatha, Pali text, 433.
—
quity of, xxii xiii. Dhaiupatha, grammar, 429.
Currency, in ancient India, 97. Dhatupradipa, grammar. 429,
Culture, etymological meaning of, Dhaturupa, grammar. 429,
V, denotation and types of, v-vi, Dhoyi (Dhoi), poet, 352, 357.
as compared with civilization, Dhurta-nartaka, farce, 412.
vi-vii, showing mental and Dhurta-.-amagama, farce, 411.
material progress, viii, ideal Dbvanyaloka, on poetics, 424-425.
condition of, xi-xii. Dhvani, doctrine of, 424, inference
of, 425-426.
D Dictionaries,two kinds of, 430.
Diganfbaras, Jain sect, 434.
Dandanlti, policy of punishment,277 Digga-nikaya, Pali text, 433.
Daiiclin,stotra by, 358, definition Dipaka, figure, 423,424.
ot’p’oem by, 422, 423. Discrepancy, causes of, xii-xiii.
Danakali-kaumuci, play, 415, Dispensaries, equipments of, xviii.
Damodara Misra, playwright, 416. Dm hi-vvaya, twelfth Jaina Anga,
Daiva, form of marriage, 4, gram- 435.
mar, 429. Divine Being, asexual life of, 2.
Daksha and Prasuti, union and chil- Divmitie-', nature and function of,
dren of,' 2. 46-48.
Darsana, character of, 310, various Dra vidian temples, 179-180-181.
schools ot, 31 1, date and origin Dr.amas and Plays, compared,
of, 311-312, 377-431.
Darsa-puruaraasa, sacrifice, 42, Drama, its place in Indian poetry
Dasa-kumara-charita of Dandin, and society, 417, 418.
novel, 358 3o9, 360, - Dress, varieties of, 73, mode of, 74.
Dasanama mala, lexicon, 431. Drisbtanta, figure, 424, 427.
DasarCipa of Dhanafijaya, on dra- Drishtauta— sataka of Kusuma-
maturgy, 418. deva, maxims, 354.
Dasa-vaikulika, third .Tain MulaDamjyanii-katna, story, 364.
sutta, 436. Durgasinha, grammarian, 429.
Detects (in poetry), varieties of 422 Durraallika, type of drama, 421.
Deities, nature of, 46-48 Duiaiigada of Subhau, shadow
Departmental Heads, 118-119. play, 415-416.
Descendent languages of Sans- Dutaghatotkacha, drama, 379.
krit, 437. Diitavakya, drama, 380.
Deva, grammarian, 429. Duties ot king, 138-140.
Deva-yajfia, sacrifice, 35-36, 44. Dvadasa-panjarika, same as Molia-
Devisataka, hymns of Aoanda- mudgara, 354.
vardnana, 357. DvipavanTsa, history of Ceylon, 343.
Dhamma-sarii^ini, Pali text, 433. Dvirupakosi, lexicon, 431.
Dharamapada, Paii text, 433. Dwelling, tir.'t effort to make, 77,
Diianapala, lexicographer, 431. materials of, 77.
Dhananjaya, lexicographer, 431, Dynasties of kings, 111-112.
 INDEX 443
E Garhasthya, household life, 36-39,
sacrifices, 35-39.
Ecclesiastical, administration, 141. Qarbhadhana, sacrament, 19.
Economics, science of, 277-278. Gautama, as author of Nyayasutra.
Eight fold, system of arithmetic, 316,
265-266, G.vudi, style of cornposition, 423.
Ekakshara-kosa, lexicon, 431. Geometry, 263, 265 266-267.
Ekavali, of V.dyadhara, on drama- Ghatastava, poem 388.
turgy, 419. Gbatakarpara, poem and author,
Ekavali on poetics, 426. 351
Embriology, 252, Gita-govinda, lyr e, 352-353, opera,
Eoics, dealing with hero worship 416-417.
331, two classes of, 332 333, in Gopala-chandrika of Ramakrishna,
Pali, 434. opera, 416-417.
Ethical poems, 353-356. Gopinatha Chakravarti, play-
Ethics, principles of, 142.143. wright, 411.
Eugenics, science o\ 267.271. Goshtha, type of drama, 420.
Expenditure, heads of, 126 127. Govardhana, poet, 352.
Export, trade of, xx. Gramya, manner, 424,
Grammarian*, achievements and
F analytical skill of, 289, not crea-
tors of classical Sanskrit, 290.
Fancy, figure, 423. Q id.irtha-pi all figure, 427.
Figures, list of, 423. Grinya-, utras, making laws of
Figures, of scund and of sense, mariiage, 3, character of, 304.
422, smallest and biggest, 104, Gi.nadhya, poet, 369.
significance cf, 104 105, Gi ll I (qualities), ten varittie.s in
Fire altars, construction imply- composition, 422.
ing the origin of temple.*,
304.305. H
Five tribes in Vedic age, 58-59.
Five varnas, 59-60. Hala, poet, 352,
Five vows, of Jainism, 435. Halayudha, poem of, 348, stotra
Food stuffs, 66, preparation of, by, 358, lexicographer, 430.
67, classification of, 68-69. HalJisa, type of drama, 420.
Fraction, knowledge of, 265-266. Hanunian-i.ataka, play, 416.
Furniture, varieties of, 81-82, of Haravijaya, poem, 349.
improved style in Buddha’s time, Ha.avali, lexicon, 430.
83-84. Hdri Chandra, poet, 365.
Funeral rites, 41, 42, 43. Harsha, dramas by, 389.
Harshacharita, biography, 343.
G Harshavardhana, stotra by, 357.
Harshadeva, grammar hy, 430.
Qadya-chintarnani of Udayadeva Hasya-chfidaraani, farce, 412,
alias Vadivasinha, 365. Husyarnava, farce, 44.
Gandhara, style of image.*, 210- Havis yajr'ias, sacrifices, 40, 42.
211 .
Hayagiivavadha, poem, 348.
Ganaratna-mahodadhi, grammar, Head dresses, types of, 72-73.
429. Hetnachandra, versatile author,
Ganapat ha, grammar, 429. 3.50,discussing political science
Qahgfldhara-pratapa-vilasa, drama, 281, 375, 426, 430, lexicographer,
407. 431, 437.
Gauidharas, heads of Jain Heriditary occupations, origin
sctiools, 435. and advactage.s of, 57-58.
Gandharva, form of marriage, 6. Hetu, figure, 423.
444 INDEX
Hindu chemistry, 251. Jayadeva, poet, 423, drama by. 405,
Hindu mind, achievements of, 428. opera-writer, 416.
Hinduism, 158-159. Jivadharma-katha, sixth .Taina
Historical treatises, variety of, Anga, 435.
341-343, fourteen works on, 343- Jinakifti, story-writer, 375,
345. Jinasena, Jain epic writer, 436-437.
Hospitals, variety, equipments, Jivanandana, drama, 409.
situation of, xvii-xviii. Jivandhara, champu composition,
Houses, of Mohenjodaro, 77-78, 365.
of Vedic period, 79-80. Jogiraara, paintings at, 236.
Hridaya-darpam, cotfimentarv, Jyotisha, astronomy as eye of know
425. ledge ^305, 306, function of, 309,
Hyperbole, figure, 423. Jyotirisvara-kavisekhara, play-
wright, 411.
I

K
Incarnations, variety of, 162,
significance of, 162-165. Kachchayana, grammar, 429.
Ihamriga, type of drama, 419-420. KaJambari of Bana, 358, 361-364.
Illustrious unions, invokation of, 9. Kadambari-katha-sara, poem, 349.
India, concieved as geographical Kaiyata, grammarian, 429.
unit, xiii-xiv. Kalapa, grammar, 429.
Indian art, creative period of, 223. Kalpa-sutra, character of, 304,
Indian and Greek philosophy- Kalicasa, poems of, 347, dramas
compared, 327-328, by, 385-389.
Indragorain, grammarian, 429. Kamadisvara, grammarian, 430.
Indra and Sacbi, union of, 1. Karftsa-vadha, drama, 406.
Industry, chief concern of, 89-91. Kamasastra, 251, subjects dis-
Industrial activities, shown by food, cussed in, 269-271, texts on, 268,
clothes, ornaments, houses, furni- not limited to sexual love, 270.
tures, 87. Kanada, author of atomic theory,
Inscriptions, grants to temples, 192- 317.
197. Kangra, paintings 245-246,
at,
Itivuttaka, Pali text, 433. Kanti, loveliness, 422,
Kappanabhudaya, poem, 349.
J Kapila, author of Saaikhya
system of philosophy, 318.
JSnakiharana, poem, generpal fea- Karaka, case, 428.
ture of, 348. Karuna-lahari, stotra> of Jagan-
Jainism, 149-150, origin of, 321. nacha, 358.
categories of, 321-322, philosophi- Karna-Sundarl, drama of Bilhani,
cal contributions of, 322-323, texts 409.
on, 322-323, relation with Brahma- Karnamrita, stotraby ilas'uka, 357.
1

nism and Buddhism, 434, two Karnibt.ara, drama, 379.

sects of, 434. Karpura-manjarl, drama, 403-404.
Jain limrature, varieties of, 437. Kartavirya, poem, 438.
.Tain reliefs, 203-204. Kasyapa, physician, 252, gram-
.Iain epics, 436. marian, 430.
Jagaddhara, stotras by, 358. Ka.shka vritti, grammar, 429.
Jagadisvara, playwright, 411. Kasyapa and Aditi, union of, 1.
Jatakarma, sacrament, 21-24. Katantra, grammar, 429.
Jaganna^ha, defines poetry, 427. Katha-kofe^a, story ot Nala, 375.
Jdlhana, poet, 355. Kathanakas, short stories, 437.
Ja:aka, Pali text, 483.
of »ivadasa‘
Jayaiitya, grammaian, 429, 374-3/5.
 —

Il^DEX 44S

Kathavatthu, Pali text, 434. Kumaradasa, author of Janaki-

Katha-sarit-sagara of Somadeva, harana poem, 348.
ocean of stories, 3^1. Kula-sekhara-varman, playwright,
Katyayana, gramraarian, 429. 406.
Katyana-Smriti, law-book, 285. Kuntala, playwright, 425.
Kalyana-mandira-stotra. of Siddha- Kurvant, present tense, 428.
sena Divakara, 357, Kn.s'and.ika, type of sacrtfice, 7.
Kaumara, grammar, 429. Knttanimata of Damodara Qupta,
Kaumudi-mitrananda, drama by on love, 354.
Ramachandra, 410. Kuvalayananda, stotras by, 358,
Kautuka-ratnakara, farce, 412, on poetics, 427.
Kautuka-sarvasva, farce, 411-412.
Kaviraja-raja, title of Jayadeva, L
poet, 352.
Kavi-karna-pura, playwright, 409,
Kavikanthabharana, on poetics, L. C. C. —
methods of, 266.
427, Lake, at Junagarh, 170.
Kavindra-vachana-samuchciiayd Lalita-maihava, drama, 406.
on various subjects, 355. Lata-kamalika, farce, 410'411.
Kavya, one act pitce, 420. Latakamalekha, farce, 410-411.
Lati, style of poetry, 422.
Kavyaprakasa, on poetics, 426.
i.aw.s, formulated to suit various
Kavirahasya, poem, 348.
Kavyadarsa, on poetics, 422, individuals and groups, xiii.
Kavyanu&asana, on poetics, 426. Law-suits, eighteen topics of, 128-
129.
Kavyalankara, on poetics, 423, 424.
Kavyaliiiga, flgure, 424. Lenses, making of, 258.

Kavyamiman'isa, on poetics, 424- Les'a, figure, 423.

'425, Lexicons, 430-431, in Pali, 434.
Kavyas, poems, showing imagina- Limited monarchy, 112.
tion and effort to beautify form LihgaiiUb'asana, grammar, 429, 430.
of language, 330-331, general Liquor, two kinds of. 67, process
feature of, 345-346, in Pali, 434. of preparation, 67-68.
Kavyakalpalata, on poetics, 427. Literature, achievements in, xx.
Kesavasvamin, lexicographer, 431. I.ilamadhukara, drama, 420.
Khandakas, Pali text, contents of, Liiasuka, story-writer 357.
433. Lochana, commentary, 424.
Kharavela, inscription cf, 341. Lokanyaya, figure, 427.
Khemiswara, dramas by, 405.
Khuddaka-nikaya, Pali text, 433. M
Khuddakapiitha, Pali text, 433.
Kingship, responsibilities of, 108- Mada-bala-sarasval], playwright,
109. 409.
King’s establishment, 124-125. Madalasa, Champu type of com-
Kira.arjuniya of Vatsaraja, vya- position 364.
yoga play, 413. MaJhavanala-katha, story by
Kirtanas, songs of Sadasiva, 358. Ananda, 374.
Kratu and Kriya, union of, 1. Malhava, grammar, 429.
Krislmalilasaka, grammarian, 429. Madhurva, “sweetness in poetry,
Krisbnalilamrita, stotra of Li!a- 422.
buka, 357. Malhavakara, on pathology, 254.
Krishnamisra, playwright, 401’, 31 ad bus 11 dan a, playwright, 416.
Krif, sufSxes, 428. Madhyama-vy avoga, drama, 3 '^ 8 -
Kshemendra, 372, playwright, 406. 379.
poems of 349, defines poetry, 427. Magadhi, style of composition, 422,
Kshlrasvamin, lexicographer, 430. 426.
m INDEX

M'abafaja-parajaya, drama by invoh'ing various principles, 7 8,

Yasahpala, 40s, laws of, compiled by seers, 3,

Mahabliashya, great commentary, codified in Griliya-setras 3,

428. Biahma 4, Daiva 4, Arsha 4,

Mahanatakas, type of dramma, 416. Miausha and Prajapatya 5,

Mahakayyas=i big poems general Asiira Gandharra 6, Rakshasa,

6,

features of, 346-347. Paivacha 6-7, age of 7, main

Mahabharata, great epic, main object of, 8, rites and ceremonies
features of333-336, compared and significance thereof, 7-15,
with Ramayana, 333, national promises and vows of, 10, six
poem, 335, four-Sfths devoted to prayers for, 11-12, second marriage
moral lessons, 336, recognition and six other prayers for, 13-14,
of fables in, 365. bondage of, 14, cultural value
Mahadeva, playwright, 405. and material benefits of, 15-16,
Mahavagga, Pali text, 433. laws, origin of, xiv, minimum
Mahavaihsa, history, 343. ages prescribed, similarity all
Mahavira, Jain apostle, 434. over the world, xiv, xv, definition
Makavlra-charita, drama, 394. of, 1, in (primitive), medieval and

Mahendravikrama, play wrigbt, ideal societies, 2.

391. Marichi and Kala, union of 1,

Mahes\’ara, lexicographer, 431. Material progress, in food,

Mahimnah stava, famous prayer clothes, dwellings, xv.
of Fushpadanta, 358. Mathematics— subjects included in,
Bhatta, pUywrigab 425. 263.
Mahiman
Majihima-nikaya, Pali text, 433. Mattavila^a, farce, 391-392.
Maitreya, grammarian, 429. Mayara, poet, 352, 357,
Malati-Madbava, drama, 392-394. Mayura-sataka, poem, 352.
Malavika, drama, 420. Means of livelihood, 64 varieties
Malavikagnimitra, dramma by of, 65-66.
Kalidasa, 385. Machinery of government,
Malhana, stotra by, 358. 114-117, for general administra-
Mallika-maruta, dramma, 409-410. tion, 1 17.
Mammata, on poetics, 424, 426. Medicine, origin of, xvi-xvi.
Manushya yajiia, household sacri- Medical treatment, xvi-xvii.
fice, 35-36. Medieval Society, characteristics
Manava-dharmasutra, law book, of, X.
283. Meghaduta, lyric • of Kalidasa,
Maiiatuiiga, stotra-writer, 357, 350-351.
Manolla-a (stotra), 358. Mercury, making of, 357.
Mahgalashtaka prayer, 357.
.stotra, Merutmiga, Jain author, 375.
Maiikha, lexicographer, 431. Metaphor, figure of speech, 423.
Manmatha and Rati, union of, 1. Metres, antiquity of, 421.
Maiiikya sari, poem of, 349. Meteorology, knowledge of, 258.
Manes —-receivung oblation, 48-50. Military administration, high
M'lnasSra-vastu.s'astra, chapters standard of, 140.
and content.s of, 271. Milinda-Panna, Pali canonical
Manusha, form of marriage. 5. work resembling dialogue of
Manu-Smriti, contents of, 283-284, Plato, 434.
importance of, 286-287. Mineralogy, knowledge cf, 89.
Miirga, school or style of poetry, Minor schools, non-orthodox
422. systems of philosophy, 326-327.
Marriage, as contract and as Modern Society, ideology of, x-xi.
sacrament, 3, as union in the Mohamudgara, on maxims, 354.
same body, 3, eight forms of, 3-7, Moghal painting, 243-244.
 IHDEX 44T

Monastery, fine examples ofj 177. Nimbarka. commentary on Brahraa-

Morphology, analysis of words,
sQtra of, 315.
291. Nipata, particle, 428.
Mrichchhakatika (drama), 383-385. Nirukta, etymology, 305-306, 307,
Mudra-Rakshasa, drama, 398-400. 430.
Mugdhopadesa of Jalhana on — Niryukti, commentaries in Jain
prostitutes, 355. Prakrit, 436.
Mukundamala of Kulastkhara Nishkramana, sacrament, 24-25.
(stotra), 357. Nitipradipa, maxim, 354.
Mula Suttas, Jain text in Prakrit, Niti-ratna, maxims, 354-
435, four on Jain religion, 436. Niti-sataka, poems, 351, maxims,
Municipal government, six sec- 353.
tions of, 114, 116-117. Nitisara, maxims, 354.
Niti s'astra, 277, 280, 365.
Nltivak 3 amrita, of Soinadeva, 280-
N 281.
Novels and stories, 358-365,
Nagarjuna, discovery of distilla- Nurses, qualifications of, xviii.
tion and calcination by, 257. Nyaya, School of, 316, antiquity
Nagananda, drama by Harsha, of, 316, texts and theory of, 316-
390-391. 317, figure, 427.
Ragoji-bhatta, grammarian, 429.
Naishadhananda, drama, 405. O
Nikayas, Pali texts, 433,
Nalodaya, poem, 350. Oneness among various castes,
Nala Cbamnu, mixed poem, 364. 61-62.
Nandi Suttas, Jain text in Prakrit, Ornaments, varieties of, 74-76.
435-436. Opera, 416.
Nama-karaiia, sacrament, 24.
Namalinganusasana, lexicon, 4C0. P
Namamala, lexicon, 430, ^31.
Naman, noun, 428. Padma-chodamani, poem, 350.
Nanarthainava-san'igraha, lexicon. Padinanabhadatta, grammarian,
431. 430.
Nandiraukha, 41,42.
sacrifice, Padyavali, _
of Rnpagosvamin
Narada-smriti, law book, 281. (stotra), 357.
Nataka, heroic comedy, 419- Paisacha, form of marriage, 6-7.
Natika, feature o^, 420. Painting, as womanly art, 234,
Natural conjugality, illustrating beginning of, 234-235, connected
general principle of life, 1, ex- with writing, 235, hunting scenes
amples of mythological couples, as earliest examples, 235-236, at
1. Jogimara 236, at Ajanta, 236-241,
Natyaveda, antiquity of, 418. classificaticn by Taranath, 240-
Natya s'astra, 276, 418, of Bharata, 241, three styles of, 241, during
420. Moghal period, 243-244, Persian
Niddesa, Pali text, 433. miniature, 244-245, at Kangra,
Nidarianii, figure, 427, 245, Pahari, 247, Rajput, 248,
Niganthas, Jain sect, 434. Southern 248-249, Bengali 249,
Nigamas, dealing with worship of antiquity of, xix-xx.
female deities and Siva and Paka-jajnas, sacrifice, 40, 41.
Yi**nu 330, compared with Pahari paintings, 247.
Agamas. Palas, inscriptions of, 341.
Nighantusesha, lexicon, 431. Pah, could not achieve full growth,
Nilakantha-dikshita, stotras bv, 431-432, developed on lines of
358. DharmasMra, 432, limited to
14& INDEX
Buddhist scripture, 4323 lacking Poetics, 421-428.
in sciences, polity and Artha, Positive sciences, 251-
sastra, 432, scriptures in, 432, Prabodha-chandrodaya, allegorical
secondary Prakrit, 290, imitating drama, 407-408.
Sanskrit, 431-432. Practical sciences, 251.
Paii-sambhidasa-magga, Pali Prabuddha-Rauhiniya, drama by
text,
433. Ramabhadra Muni, 410.
Painnas, Jain texts in Prakrit, 435. Pradumnabhyudaya, drama, 406.
Paruara, Pali text, contents of, Prahladadeva, playwright, 406.
433, Piakrita-prakasa, grammar, 429.
Paochali, stjle, 422, 423, 424, 426- —
Prakrits derivatives from Sans-
Pancha-danda-chhatra-pravandha, krit, 290, contrary view.s (foot
Jain ompilation, 374. note), varieties originated from
Panchatantra, story book, S65-368. and associated with geographical
Pahcharatra, school of, 328-329, areas, 290, Pali secondary of,
379-380, drama, 419. 290, Tertiary ar vernaculars of,
Panchastavi, stotra, 357. 290, in dramatic literature frus-
Panchasati, hymns of Muka, 357. trating its independent growth,
Parinama, figure, 427. 431-432.
Panini, grammarian, 428, 429, 430. Prakaranika, type of drame, 420.
Parasi-prakasa, lexicon, 431. Prakaranas, ten on Jain religion,
Parijata-manjari, drama, 409. 436, love drama in Prakrit, 437.
Parmananda, poet, 552. Prakirnakas, fourteen, miscellania
Partha-parakrama, drama (vya- of Jamas, 436,
yoga), 406-407. Ptakrita-lakshmi-namamala,
Parisishta, character and function lexicon, 431.
of, 309-310. Prasna-Vyayakaranani, tenth
’
Pari!;4shta-parvan, folk tale of Jaina Anga, 435.
Hemachandra, 375. Prasanna-Raghava, drama, 405.
Parsvanatha, Jain apostle, 434. Prasada, clearness in composition,
Parts of speech, 428. 422.
Parvatl-parinaya, drama, 401-403. Prasthana, dance drama, 420.
Paururha, manner, 424. Pratiloma-m^rriage, object of, 57.
Patanjali, author of Yoga system, Pratapa-rudriya ot Vidyanatha, on
320-428, grammarian, 429. dramaturgy, 418-419.
Patimokkha, Pali text, contents Pratima-nataka, drama, 380.
of, 433, Prativastu-upama, figure, 427-428.
Pattavali^, Jalna chronicles, 342, Pratijna-yaugaudharayana, drama,
437. 381.
Patthana, Pali text, 434. Pravandha-chintamani, story book
Pavilion, at Vijayanagara, 186. of Merutuhga, 375.’
Persian paintings, 244- Pravandhas, serai historical
Pinda-niryukti, fourth Jain Mula works in Prakrit, 437.
Su’ttra, 436. Pravandha-kosa story book of
Pi takas, Buddhist scriptures, 432. Rajdsekhara, 375.
Pitri.yajna, sacriSce, 35-36, 42. Prayoga, sacrificial irranuals, 307-
Plays, scenes and acts o'^^, 377- 308.
Phallism, 154. Freya, figure, 423.
Philology and grammar, 428-430, Prekshya, composition, 376.
Philosophy, various systems of, Prekshaua, one act piece, 421.
144-149, categories of Jainism, Primitives, mental and material
149-150. conditions of, ix-x-
physics, knowledge of, 258. PrithvirajaA ijaya, historical poem,
Poems, short and great, compared, 344.
350. Privy Council, 118.
 INDEX 449

Privadarsika, drama by Ilarsha, 333, national poem, 335-336,

390. Pama' ana cba nn,], of Bhoja and
Professions, according to abilitv, Lakshmani, 365.
57. R.imatiuja, theory and date of,
Professional division®, 58-59. 315.
Public Bath, at Mahenjodaro, 169. Ramavarman, playwrigh\ 406.
Puga, guild of villagers, 116. Rama-'tava-kain i-'' »®ayona, prayer
Puggali-pannati, Pali text, 433-434. of Ramabhadra, 358,
Pulastya and Havirbhu, union of, Ra®a, sentiments, 421 422,
1 .
Rasapangadhara, on poetics. 427.
Pulaha and Gati, union of, 1, Rasarniv-a, on making metallic
Puranis, dealing with legends things, 257.
of Gods and dynasties, 3i0, Rasavat, figure, 423.
stories in, 365, antiquity, defini- Rasaka, one act piece, 420
tion and number of, 316, con- Rasaiiiafiju f, on poetic-, 427.
tents of, 3i7, enctclopedic nature Rdsayani sa^tra, Chemisny, 257.
of, 337, matter, spirit and form Rasatarafigiid, on poetics, 427.
of, 337, in Pali 434, ot Siddharshi, Ra-litrakiitas, in-criptioii-! ot. 341.
375. Rdtha-', at Marnmallaouram, 180.
Punishments, varieties of, 129-134, Rimaka'-a, author ot Haravijava,
capital and loss of a lunb, etc. 349, 357.
135. Rdtna sastra, on jewellery, 276.
Purfisavana, sacrament, 20. Ritna-pdilkshcia, on te.st of gems,
Purusha-parilksha, of Vid>apati, 258
story book, 375. Ra'-oaVdll, drama by Harsha, 389-
Purushakara, grammar, 429. 390,
Purvas, Jain text in Prakrit, Ravan ivadha, poem, 350.
fourteen in number, 435. Ravivarinan, playwrignt. 406.
Purva-raimarfibS, philosophical hecords of thought, variety of,
school of Jaimini, 312, various 331.
texts on, 313. Religion, method of approach,
Pushpadanta, author of stotra, 358- 160, need tor education in, 166,
rise of various forms of, 151-152,
R 167.
Reli ious poems, compilations of,
Raghava-Naishadbiya, poem, 349. 356-365.
Raghava-Plndaviya-Yadaviya, Renunciation (Sannyasa), 55-56.
poem, 349. Republic-, reierence to, 113-114.
Rainfall, measuring instruments, Retired life, 51-53, varieties of,
258. 53-54.
R5ya Mukutamani, lexicographer, Revenues, sources of, 120-121, 125-
430. 126.
Rajaraja-nataka, drama, 407. Rigveda, recensions of, 293.294,
Rajaniti, royal polity, 277. schools of, 293, .lUtiquity ot, 293-
Rajaniti-samuchchaya, maxims, 294, i.idusinal workers at the
353. time of, 293, four va’ni® or
Rajput painters, 248. castes recognized in, 293-294,
Bajasekhara, dramas by, 403, commentators of, 294, germ of
playwright, 424. .story in, 365.
Rajatarahgini, history, 343-344, Rishava-p in jUis.ka of Dhanapala,
Rakshisa, torm of marriigs 6. on maxim 354.
Kauiabhndaya, drama, 400-401. Ri i, doctrine or, 423.
Rama-prasada-stava, prayer, 358. River worship, 157.
Rainiyani, main features of, 332- Rogavinischaya, treatise on
333, compared witu Mahabnarata, diagnosis of diseases, 254.
67
450 INDEX
Hudradaiaan, iutcriptioiib (.if, 341. Sau'ikalpa-sury oday a, drama by
lludrata, on poeticjb, 424, 425. \'enkatanatha, 409.
Rupa Goswaiiiiii, playwright, 357, Sariikya, philosophical school of,
406, 415. J18-319, theory ot, 319, texts on,
Hupaka, figure, 427. 319.320.
Rukminl-harana cf \'atburaja, San'isaracartd, lexicon, 430,
drama, 406, 414. Saiiilapaka, type of drama. 420-421.
Ravaiiarjuniy a, poem, 348. Saihkiptusara, grammar, 430.
Ruyyaka, classifies figurcb, 426, Samiti, political council, 115.
427, Sainudragupta, inscription of, 341.
Sandehu, figure, 427.
S i^andhi, euphonic combination, 428.
Sdiigar.ima. monastery, 169.
Sabdirnava, lexicon, 430. i3ahghas, monastery, 115-116.
Sabha, political assembly, 115. Samyutta-nikaya, Pali text, -433.
Sacrifices, five sets, 35, three set.^, Sankara, figure, 427.
39, Sahkara Bhashya, philosophical
Sacraments, observed by all ^.theory and date of, 314.
civilized races, 16, number and Sahkaiacharya, philosopher, 357,
varieties of, 16, authorities on, ,as maxim-writer, 354.
16-17, eighteen varieties of, 17, Sahkhaclhara Kaviraja, playwright,
showing responsibilities of ,410.
married life, IS, elucidation of Sankai’d-bveta-vilasa, champu of
ceremonies, 19-20. ChetusinJia, 365.
Sadukti-karnamrita of Sridhara- Sanskrit, antiquity and homo of,
,dusa, collection of sayings, 355. not recasted from Prakrits. 288-
Saivisni, 160-161, two schools of, 289, laws indicating cultural im-
329-330. portance and liindu civilization,
Sakalijani stava, prayer, 358. ,.291, accents in Vedic period, 291.
Siikala, School of Vedas, 293, Santa, sentiment of, 424.
Sakta, School of religion, 330. Saiiti s'ataka, maxims, 353.
Sakatayana, grammarian, 430. baptapadi, ceremony in marriage,
Saktism, worslnp of female deitv, significance of, 10.
^
159-160. Saptasati, poem, 352.
Sakuntala, drama by Kalidasa, baraiia, poet, 352.
386-389.
Sarusvati stotra, prayer of, 357.
Saliv'ahana-kathS. of Sivadasa, 374. Sarasvati-kanthabharana, on
Sainaraja-Dikshita, piavwright, 406 poetics, 364, 426.
,
412.
Saradaiilaka, drama, 420.
Saniasa, compound words, 428. Saraugaohara, use of opium and
Sama.sokti, figure, 423. quicksilver by, 254.
,
Samata, poetic comprehension, t'araiigadb.ara-paddhati,
422.
compila-
tion, 35 d.
Samaveda, chanting priority of, bari\anauda, lexicographer, 430,
294, content-- ot, 294, parts ot, Sal iputi y -prdKarana,
294, songs and metres of, 294,
drama by
,
lJuddhaghosha, 377-378.
Sainaya-matrik.i, on love-making, .';arnushth.j,-y ajati
354-355.
(.f Ki'ishnakav'i,
p^ay, 41 d_ drama of \ isvanatha,
Samavartana, sacrament, 33.
Sarny ak-tattva-kaunuidi, story, Sarvavaruian, grammarian, 429.
375.
SahvaU-[u'akny:i, grammar, 430-
baiuhitis, dealing with worship of barvajiiamitra, writer of
female deities, ^iva and Vishnu, stotri,
,
prayer, 357.
330.
Sdta-sloki, On maxims, 354.
Sauiadbi, special sen.se of, 422. SUbVata, lexicographer,
430,
 INDEX 451

Sattasi) poem of 700 verse?, 352. Spiritualism, noble ideal of, xx.
Sattaka, short plays, 415, type of Spirits, nature of, 46-48.
drama, 420. t^radhas, sacrifices, varieties of, 4l.
Sarvanaman, pronoun. 428. .^ragdbara-stotra, prayer of Sar-
Saukumarya, smoothnes--, quality ^vajna initra, 357.
of poetry, 422. Srauta-sutra, character of, 303-304
Saugandhika-harana, poem of .Sravya, composition, 376.
Viss^anatha, 413-414. .^rigadita, one act piece, 421.
Savana, co.mmentator of Vedas, Srlharsha, story by, 357.
294. f^rirTgara (sex-union) —
purpose and
Schools of grammarians, 428, of result of, 1.
etymoloKists, 428. ,'^ring.ira.bhushana, comic play,
Sciences, Sanskrit names for, 252. 412^413.
Sculpture, as inai,ly fine art, 198- .'^rihgara-jSana-nirnaya, on love,
199, at Sanchi, Banara<, Gan-
dhara, Mathura, 201. 203, 20.-', .^riiigara-prakasa, on poetics, 426.
207 209 , Aiuaravati, 213-215, 221,
,
^riiigara-s'ataka, poem, 351.
at Bharhut, 223-224, representa- .'8j-ihgara-sapta-satika, poem, 352.
tions of, 226, relation with archi- f^ringara-vairagya-tarangini of
tecture 85, antiquity of, xix. Somaprabha, on love, 355.
Senas, dynasty, inscriptions of, 341. •Srinkhala. figure, 427.
Sentiment, in poetry, 421-422. <^rfita(ti) dhara, poet, 357.
Series of figures, on similarity, .'>ruti-dushta, poe_tic_defect, 425.
examples of, 427-428, Story Books, 365-375.
Sesba.krishna, playwright, 406. Sta^e, as defined by Aristotle, 107,
Setuhandha, poem 350. Doctrine of, 108, political life in,
Seven Vedm age, 58.
tribes in 109.
Shadow plays, 415-416. Stealing, as a science, 2''6, 277.
Siddhasena-div.tkara, stotra by, 357. Strategy of war, 137.
Sidhharshi, tale by, 375. Stotra?, prayers in Pali, 434._^
Siddhanta, .Tain scripture in Sfotrlvali, of Ufpaladeva, 357.
Prakrit, 434-435, on astronomr, Sfotras, prayers, praises and
259. psams. 356.
Siddhanta Siromani, treatise on Stupas, of Asoka, 201, at various
.astronomy, 260, places, 201-210.
Sik-sha, phonetics, 305-306. Stuti-kusumaiijali, prayer book, 358
Silhana, poet, 353. Subhadra Dhanahjaya, drama, 406.
Silpaka, pantomime. 421. Subhushita-ratna-saiudoha, of
Simanta-unnayana, sdcrament, 21. Amitagati, on Jain ethics on
Simile, figure in thirty-two varie- prostitutes, 355,
,
tie.?, 423. Subhashitavali, of Vallahhadeva,
Sishya-hita-nyasa, grammar, 426. collection of good_ sayings, 355-
Sivadasa, story by, 374. 356, of .“^rivara, 356, of Mayura,
.^ivaparadha-kshamapana, stotra 357.
(prayer) of ^ahkar.achary a,_357. Subhadr'Sharana, of Madluiva,
Sixty-four arts, list of, 269-270. drama, 421
,'^Ie.s*ha, suggested sense, 422, Snbhashita-muktavali, of Jal liana,
figure, 424. on goofi sayings, 355.
Smarana, figure, 427. Subca.stes, division of, 61-62.
^
Somadeva, poem of, 349, o64- Sudama-charita, drama, 406.
365, 371. Sfidraka, playwright, 377, 383.
Soma yajha, sacrifice, 39, 43-44. Sulvasutras, meaning of, 304, areas
Society, origin of, 57. of triangle, sqviare and circle ex-
Sources of laws, 143-144. ^
plained with drawing, 266.
Southern painters, 248-249. Suka-saptati, 70 parrot stories, 374.
 d

162 INDEX
Sukti-karnanir'ta of ^riflbara dasa, monks and nuns, 168, 169, as
collrction of saving-, 355, chapels and chaitya halN. 169,
Sukma, figure; 423. finest examples of. 171-176,
SupTHlihatii-.-totr •, mortiing prayer classification of, 178-192, at
of §1 jharsha:357. Srpat'gair, 182, at Chidambaram,
Supa(in!a, graii.utar, 4 0. 162-183, at Rameswaram 183, at
Surgerj , ri^in t, .w-xvi,
«, i instru- Madura, 184, in Siam 189, am- '

ments for, xvi’, not surpa-*-*^!^ hv bcdia, 190, in Java, 191-192, in

GrrCian at;ai!iiiu‘nts, 255 256, Northern InHia. 225-226, at
achivvtnients in, 2.56. Madura, 226-227, I'vdeily deve-
Sor^ical iisirumeiiis, list of, 252. lo'pment ot, 229 230, materials
Siirva-bdtaka, poem, 352. for. 231, ornanienf.; of. 233.
bubruta, surgeon, x- i-xvii, S3rii'ii\i, Temporal power, 110 111.
c.iiiieiits ot, 253, high .siafuiard Theology, nature of, 328.
ot morality U,r Uoelor^, 255. Tlieiagatt a, Pali text, 433.
Sutra', uiireVealed charncter of, Theii-a.l a. Pah tr xt, 433,
303, (Haiti tunorion 't. 303, three Thrones, tor gods and king‘d, 85.
n.ain classes i/f, 303 304. Tilakanianja i. of Dhanapala. 365.
I

Sutta-Iiipata, Pall teM, 433. Tlrthafikara-, Jain apostles, 434.

Suua-vibiiangd, Pali text, contents Totaka, type ot drama, 420.
(,t, 433, T< teim&ts, cbaiacteristics of, 152-
Suita pit ika, Pali scr piure, con- 153.
tents o*t, 433, and commerce, compared,
']'r«d-*
Svaha-sudhakara-chanipii, mixed maikets tt'r. 92, histoncal
91-92,
compo-itn n of Kara! an , 365. devejopment of, 92-94, routes of,
S\. api.a-dabsi laiia, uran.a, 404. 94-95, in times of Epics, 95,
Svapna-vasaVcdatta, draitia, 381- nartiiershtp in, 103, extent of,
382. 103, laws of, 104.
bva.s ainbhuva and ^atavropj, IVade-union, 95-g6. corporations,
Ul) lOII ot, 1. 96, honesty ot. 96-97.
Sveiainharas, Jain sec, 434. Tree worship, 152-154.
S.' aii.aJ. nduka stotra, prayer, 357. Treatises on Wusic, 276.
1 rigon omeiry. discovery and
T practice 1100 years earlier than
Ly Br ggs in 16ch centurv, 267.
Taddhita, .si.flixe.s 428-429. I’rikandab'esha, lexicon, 430.
Taioras, scrip. ui'e of S kt as, 338, Tripuradaha, drama, 414.
cotiHiaridw i h SaiM itas, Againas Tnshasliti-salaka-uuruslia-charita,
and N igaii a , 338, m on ea ores
- 1
-
poem ott H machai
dra, 350, con-
O', 338, jlac a' o'igin of, 339, tents of,
350, sixty three Jain
iiuii bcr ot, 339-340, uiie rain mat i- biographies, 437.
cal language ot, 340-341, charac- Trirupakosha, lexicon, 431.
ter of, 330, worshipping female TriVikrama-bhatta, novelist 364.
deities and Siva and Visl nn 350. Trotaka, type oV drarr.a, 420.
Tapati sariivarani, drama, 406. Tulyayogita, figure, 429.
3’anfology, detect of Compositicn, Two races in Vedic age, 58.
425.
Taxation, princip'e of, 119-120, u
remission of, 123,
Taxila Univfersiiy, teaching special- trara, elevation of sentiment
ly medical science-, 252 422.
Temple, as assemblv and union Uca.ia, Pali text, 433.
hall, 167, as aim' hou&e, 168, as bdaya-Sui dail-KatLa of Soddhala.
dispensary, 168, as university story of, 365.
Centre, 168, as monastery for Udayana, poet, 35Z
 INDEX 453

Uribliata, treatise of, 423, 424, Vajapeya, sacrifice, 44.

425. Vaiyesbika, philosophical school
Ugrabbuti, gramiDPirian, 429. of, 316, antiquity and theory of,
Ullekha, gure, 428.
‘ 317, texts On, 318.
Ullapya. tyi'e ot drama, 420. Va_bhatalahkara, on poetics, 426.
Uiimatta-Kaghava, piay, 414-415. Vakrokti, figure, 424.
Un.apa’i, poet, 352. Vsk’-okM-naiichasika, of Ratna-
Una.ii Sutra, rules nf grammar, 429, kara, 357.
Upadi sa-Sa''aka of Gun. ana, on \ akrok iijisita, on poetics, 425.
maxim.'^, 354. Vakyapadiya, grammar, 429.
Upamayopama, fisure, 427. V.nkvanvava, figure, 427.
XJpan a, figurr, 427-42^. Va.nana'. 423, 424, 425, 427,430,
Upanayana, sacran enf, 26-27. yTummarian, 429.
Upanga, f-unnlementary Jaina Va vana-Bhatta-Bana, playwright,
text-, 435, 436. 401,412.
I'pai aganka, manner, 424. Varadaraja-stava, prayer, 358.
Upanishad<, characvr and vari- Vararuchi, noet, 430, 354, gram-
ous forms of, 300-301, prircipal marian, 429.
ones and their amiquitv, 301-302, Vararuchi-.-aifigraba, grammar,
non-VediC rv tip< of, 302, philo- 429.
sophy of, 302-303, allegory or Va^ka.'^, nil e-books, 429.
satire in, 365. Vasantika-svapna, mid summer
Upaniti-bl.avH-praparicha-katha, Night’s dream, drama, 407.
alleg, ry, 375. Vasi htha and Arundhati, union
Uparuuakas, minor dramas, 420. ot, 1.
Upasarga, preporition, 428. Vardhamana, grammarian, 429.
Utpaladeva, prayer hook of, 357. Van.na and Varuni, union oB 1.
Utpalii I, lexicon, 430. Vatsaiajd, plays by, 412. 413, 414.
Utpreksha, figure, 428. Yarsalya, sentiment, 424.
Ur^ri'htaflkas, play within play, Va>u and Varavi, union of, 1.
414 415, type of drama, 420. Veda, meaning of, 292, divine
IJtTara-archika, part of fcama revelation in, 292, different
Veda, 294. literary works implied by, 292,
Uttara-min.ami-a, pbiloroph'cal f'"ir classes of Saiiihita-, 292-
school and character of, 313-316, 296, seers of, 293, chron'iloty of,
varii.us texts on. 313-314, other- 296-297, comparison with Mohen-
wise known as ^arnaka, 313. ji'daro finds, 297-298, containing
Uttaiadh> ayana, first Jain iuula- modern thoughts, 310.
suita, 436. Vedanta, philosophical school of,
Utrara-Rania-charita, drama, 394- 313, texts on, 313-314.
396. Vtcafigas, varieties of, 305, func-
Uttara-vivaha, six conjugal vows tions of, 305-306, importance of,
taken in, 13-14. 306, note, 428.
Vet afigaiaya, lexicographer, 431.
V Vedic worship, form of, 157.
Vedic Sanskrit, changes into
Vachana, number, 428. classical, Prakrits, Apabhrainsas,
Vacbaspati, lexicographer, 430. 291.
Vadiiaja, poem and time of 349. Vernaculars, derivation from, 290.
Vaidaibhi, style, 422, 423, 424, 426. Ven'-?ariiha-a, drama, 396-398.
Vaijayantf, lexicon, 431. Ve'ala-panchavuiisaiika, storv, 372
Vairagya-saiaka, poem, 353. 373.
Vaishnavas, scheols ot, 328.329. Vibhakti, termination, 428.
Vaisl.navism, 161-162. Vibhatigd, Pall text, 433.
Vaira^a-sataka. poem, 351. Vibhavaua, figure. 423.
454 INDEX

Vidagdha-madhava, drama, 406. Vyasa-sniriti, lawbook, 285.

Vidyadhara, dramatist, 426. Vyatireka, figure, 423, 427.
Vidyauatha, dramatist, 426. Vy.ayoga, type of drama, 429.
Viddha-sala-bbanjika, drama, 403.
Vidyapati, poet, 3T5.
Vidyaparinayana, drama, 409.
w
Vag'bhata'^, on poetic^, 4':6- Works, on diseases of animals,
VijayasTl, drama, 409. 25."', on terms of dietetics, 255.
Vijnanavada, school of, 326. Writing, origin of, iOl-102, anti-
Vikrainaditya. lexicograpiier, 430. quity of, P 0, vise of, 101,
Vikramorvas'i, drama i)y Kalidasa,
385-386.
Vllasika, type of drama, 421. Y
Village organisation, praise of, 64.
Viraala Sari, Jain epic writer, 436-
Yadava-prakSsa, lexicographer,
Vimana-vatthu, Pali taxt, 433- 431,
Vinaya-pitaka, Pali scripture, re- Vajur-veda, prayer hook, 294,
sembling Brahraanas, contents source of religion. Upanisbads
of, 432-433, four hooks of, 433,
and Brahmanas, 295, 101 .schools
of, 295, White and Block sections
Vipaka sutra, eleventh Jaina
of, 295. sacrifices specified in,
Anga, 435. §
Virodha, figure, 42". 295, construction of fire altars
Viracharitra, of Ananta, 373- showing art of iiuilding, 295
Vajnvalkva-.'inriti, Jaw book. 284-
Vis'skbadatta, playwright, 398.
Vishnusharman. autiior, 365- 285, 287.
Visvagarbha-stava, prayer. 358. Yamaka, figure, 424, Pali text. 434.
VisA’an-itha, dramas of, 4'.'0, 426.
Ya.s'astilaka. of Somadeva, 364,
Visvaprakisa, le.xicon, 431 poem, 349.
Vithi, type of drama, 42p.
Yaska, Yedic lexicographer, time
of. 294, 428, 430.
Viveka, commentary, 426-
Vowels, number and vaiicties of, Yasodhara-charita, poem, ."49.

281. Yatra, opera, 416.

Vriddha-Blvagbhata, medical author, Yoga, philosophical school of, 320,
254, 257.
theory and texts on, 320-321.
Vrkidha-cljanakya, poem, 353. A'oga-sa.stra of Hemacliandra, on
Vrisha-bhanuja, drama bv Matbura- .lain philosophy, 355.
(iisa, 409.
Vrittis, theory of, 424. z
Vyadi, lexicographer, 430.
Vyakarana, grammar, 305, 306. Zero, discovery of, 265.
 -

BIBLIOGRAF»HY (1)

.1 . .1 . MacJtjncll A History of Sanskrit Lileraiuru-

(i) India Past.
J. B. Kcuh (i) A History of Classical Sanskrit
Literature.
i'i) Sanskrit Drama-
AihjlJ KaL',ji Life in Ancient India.
Al/rrd C. Lijall Asiatic Studies-
Aurel ^ Serindia.
Bamfylde Falter Studies of Indian Life and Sentiment.
B. V. Ltuv '
A History of Pali Literature.
Chakracurii (J) Cultural fellowship in India (11)20).
(
'.
1". Ch inlamivii Indian Social Ketorm.
C'/iopnion {J. *1.) : India, its Character.
Ciilehroake (JI) (1) Letters of Past.
(I) Miscellaneous Essays (LSaT).
D. P- Mukerji Modern Indian culture,
L’tiitle Bevart : l.es castes dans 1’ Inde-Lesfaits et le
system.
F. W atfhbura Hvpl^ins India Did and New.
F. J. Rapeuii ; (1) Indian Coins.
(2) Cambridge Short History of India.
F. B. Coll.-ell, U'. ]{'. Hiutlcr
U'lul </• heeler
Tl' Ancient India-
F. Tlioiuar : History of Maury as, Cambridge History
of India.
F. M'ax Muller (1) India, what it can teach us.
(2) Thoughts on Life and Religion.
(3) The Hibbert Lectures on the origin
and growth ot Religion.
(l) The sacred Laws of the Aryas-
(5) Rules ot Vedic Domestic ceremonies.
(G) Chips from a German Workshop, II
Essays on Mythology, traditions
and customs.
(i. Buhler Laws ot Manti.
fJ- L. Bicktnsi/n An Essay on the Civiliz,aiion ot India,
China and Japan
H- C- Rail Chaudlinri Advanced History of India.
F* 1]' elF (1) God the invisible King.
(2) Veiled Being.
//. II, Dodicell India.
Jean Herbert Relation between East aud f\'est.

John Mar^kaU Indus Valley Civilization.

Julis JulUj Hindu Law and Cu..-tom.
-lames Buruess Archaeological Survey of India.
James I’ergussoa Indian and Eastern Architecture.
-J, Fit. I tHjel Buddhist Art m
India, Ceylon and Java.
J. Princep Essays on Indian Antiquities.
J.T.Wheeler (1) India, Vedic and post-Vedic-
(2) Religious History of India.
htwiiharhi.i Rehrn The Discovery ot India.
Kdlidas iVa;/ India and Pacific World.
Katherine Mui/o Mother India.
456 BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. D. Barnett (1) The Heart of India.
(2) Skeletons in the History of Hindu
R^'ligion and Moral#.
Maurice (T) : The Hi. lory Hindustan its Arts and
ot —
Sciences { 1820)
its
Mo yiier W tliiani^ : (1) Modern India and the Indians (1879).
(2) Indian Wisdom.
(3) Hinduism.
M. W
intern tz ; A History of Indian Literature.
Marquis of Zetland^
Earl of Ronaldshaij ; (1) Homo Sapiens.
(2) India (A bird’s eye vie^v).
(3) The Heart of Aryavarta.
Masson Uur-seh Grabuwska
and Stern : Ancient India and Indian Civilization.
Ntkhdanaiida Sicami : What makes a good Hindu (Vedanta
and the West, New York).
Nkedita {Sister) : (1) Civic and National Ideal.
(2) The Web of Indian Life (1906).
(3)Aggressive Hinduism.
N, N. Law Studies in Indian History and Culture.
O' Dwyer {Machael) India as I knew it (!8 85-1925).
Peun iman The Origin of Civilization.
P. U. Ghosh Piachin Bharatiya Sabhyatar Itihasa.
Perci Brown Indian Fainting.
Price Collier The East in the West.
Eubindrana'h Tagore Glimses of Bengal.
Radhakrishnan {S) (1) The Hindu View of Life.
[2) Eastern Religion and Western
Thought.
R. C. Dutt A History of Civilization in Ancient
India.
R. C. Majuindar (1) Champa (Greater India Series).
(2) Advanced History of India.
R. D. Bauerjee (1) A
student’s History of India pre- —
Histoiic, Ancient and Medieval.
(2) Eastern Indian School of Medieval
sculpture (Archaeological Survey).
R K- Mookerjee Fundamental Unity of India.
Rhys Davids Buddhist India.
Theodore Quldstucker Inspired Writing of Hinduism.
Vinoent. A. Smith (1) I’he Early History of India.
(2) The Oxford History ot India from
earliest time to the end of 1911.
V Ragharacliarya
. : History ot pre-Mushm India.
William C. Bulldt : The Old ills of Modern India.
W HU am Archer : India and the Future.
W. Y. Evans~W entz : The 'libetan Book ot the Dead.
Whitehead {H) : Indian Problems in Religion, Education,
Politics.
Woodrojfe (./. G,) alias
Arthur {and Ellen) Avalon: (1) Hymns to the Goddess (from Tantra
and other Sha=tras).
(2) Is India Civilized
liam Archer).
— (a reply to Wil-
 APPENDIX I

Political Freedum vf. Cultural Freedom

In the chapters of this volume the motto ‘ihat we are to be

quite certain of our data to place the monumental record before the
reader exactly as it no.v exists, and to interpret it faithfully and
literally’ has been strictly followed. Thus no controver.«ial point
has been touched. In the Bibliography, however, reference has
been made to the views of Miss Katherine Mayo as recorded in her
ill famed Mother India’ and of another American, Mr. W. C. Bullitt,
in his less known, ‘The Old ills of Modern India’ published at an
enormous cost by the enterprising magazine ‘Life’. Similar intellectual
giants among the English include not only Sir Michael O’ Dwyer
(India as I knew it, 1885-1925), who is well known to Indians, and
a less known but more forceful writer, Mr. William Archer (India and
the Future) Adolf Kaegi has, amongst some others, attempted a
reply to Miss Mayo in his ‘Life in Ancient India,’ and Sir John
Woodroffe, a really learneJ, exceptionally unprejudiced and strictly
impartial Judge, once, of Calcutta High Court, has refuted Archer in
—
a very significantly titled volume ‘Is India Civilized ?’ Among
the dispassionate interpreters of Indian culture and civilization
the venerable name of Max Muller of German origin is outstanding.
Professors Thomas, Keith, Macdonell, Rapson, Vogel, Barnett, and
Sir Jean Herbert, Sir John Marshall, Jolly, Burgess, Fergusson,
Princep and others have generously appreciated the Indian contribu-
tions to the world thought and solid achievements in the field of social
laws, economic progress, democratic basis of political organisation,
arts and literature, philosophy and religion, and positive knowledge as
in Materia Medica, Therapeutics, Anatomy, Embriology, Metallurgy,
Chemistry, Physics, descriptive Zoology, Astronomy, Geo metry.
Algebra, Arithmetic, Trigonometry, etc. Both these critics and
admirers agree on a vital point. Under the past foreian domination
of conquerors of various nationalities India, unlike other subjugated
countries, pertinaciously offered passive resistance to a complete
cultural conquest. Now there is a greater danger of our losing
ourselves irretrievably as we are politically free to imitate a foreign
culture under the system of fallible majority party-government.
We have got complete political freedom. Thanks to Providence,
thanks to the sagacity and generosity unknown in history of the British
government and people, the Satyagraha movement of Mahatma Gandhi
and the unifying efforts and miracle of Subhash Chandra Bose, and
sacrifices and hardships willingly embraced by numerous patriotic
men
and women for a century, ultimately led by Congress workers headed
by Jawaharlal Nehru and others. But we have not yet got our cul-
tural freedom- The cultural freedom is more difficult to achieve
than the political freedom- Bat in the absence of political freedom
the cultural freedom is not obtainable- Thus all conquerors of a
country endeavour to effect a cultural conquest of the subjugated
people, so that the political conquest may endure. India has passed
through this trial since the assault on Hindu culture made by Zoaro-
68
2a APPENDIX I

strians, Jains, Buddhists, Alexander the Great, Indo-Parthians, Indo-

Bactrians, Indo-Scythians, Kushans, Pathans, Moghals, Portu-
guese, French and the English. Miss Mayo from social life and
Archer from moral and spiritual life tried to show the cultural
backwardness of Indians. And the latest is Bullitt who in his article
published in November, 1951, in “Life” has endeavoured to show from
statistics our la tk of fundamental elements of culture and democracy
even after the achievement of political freedom and has tempted
us to imitate U. S. A.
Man being the master of his destiny the future is to be judged
especially by educational policy of the government of free India.
When Adolf Hitler cams into power he had his ideology in regard
to race purity and superiority, unification of Germany vivisected
by Versailles Treaty, and regaining of German colonies. For achie-
ving this ideal what he first tried was the reform in education of
German children from the a:'e of 6 to 23, till the students reached the
university stage but were subject to military service till the age of 50
years. Germany was militarised “from the cradle to the grave”. And
the educational values of Germany were rated in the order of (1) race
the superiority of the Germanic with its mission t i dominate the
world), (2) character {i.e- political reliability in strict accordance with
Nazi doctrines), (3) body (('•«•, physical fitness), and (4) knowledge.
Along these rigidly prescribed lines the mind of German youth since
1933 was intensively trained. As a member of either S. S. or S. A,
every German male was liable to be called up at any moment for
special military service or any other duty and underwent, till he
was well past the age of fifty, refresher or other courses. (Nevile
Henderson, Failure of a Mission, pp. 34-35).
Our central Ministry of education, strengthened by several
advisory bodies and secretaries borrowed even from the universities
have not yet been able to settle our policy and ideal in education.
And, therefore, it is not yet known if we are going to regain our lost
culture or are destined to continue in slavery and imitation of foreign
culture. ‘India has had in the past her political, economic, industrial
and aducational organisations articulated in a true and coherent
social organism which like all living organisms, was self-maintaining
and self-renewing, not some thing borrowed and mechanically
operating from without. Is India now trying to find herself, or
something else — her soul or another’s, asks Sir John Woodroffe in his
‘Is India Civilized’ (pp. 398-299,304). There appear.s to be a tendency
to imitate the West, especially U. K. and U. S. A., if not U. S. S. R.
Sir John has given instances of our preferring ‘puffed rice from
America and sour milk trom Bulgaria’, which are nothing more than
the Indian Moorih and Dahi, yet not so fresh and good, but because
they come from the West. Similar preference is noticeable in other
institutions also especially political and educational.

‘According to Hindu ideas a child is not born with a mind which

is tabula rasa-On the contrary the mind bears with it the history of
countless past experiences in previous births, which have left certain
impressions on and tendencies in it. These constitute the
disposition (sariiskara) of the soul or mental body (antahkarana).
It covers both instinct and innate ideas. This forms the' essence
of a man or people. For it is the quintessence of past thoughts
and
 APPENDIX I 3A
acts. It therefore, that which really counts. The Saihskara
is,
when embodied in a particular man explicates into the particular
character, disposition, thoughts and acts of that man. It is thus
the seed (bija) of a man or collectivity of men. It is the root of
type. This general racial soul is in the realm of mind that which
persists like germ-plasm in life and substratum in matter for chemi-
cal and physical changes. There have been no doubt changes but
yet a uniformity is noticed in a conservative Indian. This Saihskara
is likely to be suppressed in certain families both educated and un-
educated and there may grow up a type ‘lacking in reverence,
intolerant of control, independent to the extent of disobedience,
realistic, concerned merely with the here and now, sceptical of
or denying the existence of God and the immortality of the souT.
It is, however, true that a particular Sariiskara potentially contains
and gives birth to particular beliefs and action.
If in our educational policy there be a resolution to supplant
altogether Indian culture by another there will be difficulty and
resistance as is clear from the opposition to the Hindu Code Bill,
Secularism and other social and political reforms. If the education be
of a foreign type in which all that is specifically Indian is ignored or
destroyed reorudenoe of the ancient Saihskara will follow as the “Call
of the Blood” and chaos and indiscipline will endanger the political
freedom. All that is required is to free this San'iskara from “the super
incumbent foreign mass which being unassimilated is threatening
to choke it. On the other hand if India regains cultural freedom,
that is, the full right and opportunity of self-expression, she will
produce in the end what is good and suitable for her, and what,
having regard to her great past, will also be great and thus of
benefit to humanity at large.” No good result will be got by the
adoption of Mr- Archer’s suggestion in his ‘India in the Future’
to give up the illusion of a glorious past, which he says does not
exist, and to conform herself to the Western spirit and ways.”
‘National education means to bring up an Indian as an Indian, and
not like an English man or any one else. What is to ‘educate’
but to ‘educe’, to draw out ? What can be drawn out but that which
is potentially present in a child, and that which is present is the
Indian Saihskara.’
‘India is now approaching the most momentous epoch in her
history. Will she have the strength to keep her feet in it and
remain Indian, that is, will she preserve her grand civilization.
Where can she gain strength to save herself, as Herself, except
from her own cultural inheritance ? The universal assertion and
adoption by all pjoples of the noble and essential principles of her
spiritual civilization will lead to a world peace.’

‘India has taught that man is essentially either that self-same

spirit,or a part of or akin to it that the universe is governed by
;

a just law that all life is sacred ; that morality is the law of
;

humanity which is the master of its destiny and reaps only what it
has sown that the universe has a moral purpose, and that the
;

social structure must be so ordered as to subserve it.’ The five-fold

sacrifices prescribed for daily performance by the householder as
discussed in Chapter I of this volume show the emphasis laid on the
social service in Indian civilization. There is nothing antisocial
4a APPENDIX I

in our customs, habit, and outlook. That ‘societiestjat [least as

democratic as ours existed for centuries in pre-Buddhist India’ is
correctly declared by Sir Jean Herbert. ‘There is no other civiliza-
tion which more justly and logically balances the claims of the life
of the world and the life of spirit than does Hinduism. How supreme-
ly beautiful and balanced the idea of four Ashramas was, which
harmonised the world and God in one whole and which only a truly
civilized people could have devised and practised. The Karma
doctrine is distinctly metaphysical. It is not a mere empirical
generalization but has a strong rational basis. This is not to be
identified with the physical law of causality. This law of Karma
is not inexorable, far from being fatalistic it is the doctrine
according to which man is master of his destiny. He has made
himself what he is and makes himself what he will be, notwithstand-
ing unfortunate conditions which are due to his previous actions.
Unselfish good action (nishkama karma) does not bind, and with
true spiritual knowledge leads to liberation, and selfish good action
done with desire for fruit (sakama) leads to happiness in this world
and in heaven’. The Hindu intellect has also independently
appreciated the dignity of objective facts, devised the methods of
observation and experiment, elaborated the machinery of logical
analysis and true investigation, attacked the external universe as
a system of secrets to be unravelled, and has wrung out of nature
the knowledge which constitutes the foundations of science. The
analysis elaborated in the appended chart will show that the ‘Indian
thought regards philosophy as religious and religion as philosophical.
In this period of scepticism due to foreign influence there
are even educated Indians who believe in none of such things and
who are as materialists as any Western. But the Hindu civilization
which survives to-day has atsorbed other cultures. “It has swallow-
ed up every civilization and every religion which has mixed with
it.” Owing to this fear an American writer, Mr. Price Collier,
justifies (The East in the West, p. 177), however, the past British
attitude in India ‘m refusing such intimacy of intercourse as
would entail the mixing up of one civilization with the other.’
But the ‘East and West are now inevitably linked up in a way
which almost entirely has destroyed the isolation of the past.
There can thus be no purely separatist culture. As a result a
common human consciousness is arising which is working for a
common moral end in disregard of all racial and geographical
barriers. Sir John Woodroffe boldly holds that “in any case the
chief religious and philosophical concepts cf India are in their
essentials imperishable.” ^^ilether the educational policy of free
India will encourage the Indian people to hold them or not they
will be taken up and added to the cultural wealth of the
civilized
world. <‘1 wm only say this, with conviction,’’ concludes Sir John
Woodroffe, “that if the Indian people steep themselves in
their
culture, and if those who have lost regain their
Indian soul,
that soul will give an Indian answer to every Indian
problem which
the Indian soul suggests to itself. The soul
which replies will be
maintain itself, from which
XsuccLrUllows'^'''^'^^^^''^
 APPENDIX I

S led
o3 >
nm
+=

>§l
'G0f3
^
M ®3
CD S-
<1? ~!
S
f-i
^<1^
cn

"o ‘r^
^ w 6
S
'O lea W
S M >
ee > o3
• p-i
c.
73 ^ «
CD ^ fH
Ph
O j
'—
•

S
(D cc
' e3
S'
> -a
fi^l>

cE »
cEi— .E

E 5
tE E g,^
— S- IV Sr '=^ ri (br -r- jl
^ te.E ® IfeeE
® B? ‘fr E ^ ^
\d !«
h- E^
^
vSr

-tr
lu) •fe— ^ ^ rr

i 65
tr If
JE
1C rr clE ff

.fcr
-_ c®
5 4I !s‘'te ^ ^ S>- 157

Ks w ^ ^ \f >r'
6a APPLNDIX I
 APPENDIX I 7a

IB
l!>

• •

IV p: rr

g: —
<”*
1
tx
_
'

|i|
7? ttcIE
It '
ijT
Rv
i

(B
4®:
15
65 J? R
^ C7 «
br IB
If
I?
tr
— list

S'
^ ^ IE
f5 : 5
tr
IP tE («:
ff tr 65 65
JE S' ??"
‘ih
• frc

: w)
• •to- ;

ctT luy N- H ^
I

— R= lir
— 'I#
KT
'

JS 'w'
flr
& tr

w-'lf
H/ Rr tr

Bf re-

6?
I
.

te 1 ^ ^
1

^ tetefE^lcEEE
fu tr
te"

% 65c!s; w» te"

H
hc^
&

J
I «-_
g" — fpictctrStr^tr*
IS. cr fr Ini' i; to-
 appendix 1

tr
15
:
tz —
,

!® Jp

[5 ^
 appendix I
9a

\i,g!rw^

59
10a APPENDIX I

N- \Z^

&
a: a
'j;
tr
lii tv

'
-

FT •'.IS

'"5 tf
CT hr

jr
tvE i
tv-tr
rr & li'l r^ tv
,to ii E fE
^ ^ t? '
tE^ W I? ',

“tii^ ^o-; ’
uT 9 V co'
rc ",v

^TOT“^vc|;TTI''''^r>7

tv
S?
'tr
— ’fi?
2; ^_
&
S
 APPENDIX II

Exfracft^ fn»n Opinions ami Rerieus on fhn First Edition

“Ordinary research scholars seem to ignore the fact that the

past is of interest to us only in so far as it was living, and that,
unless they discover it for us in such a way as to make us feel its
life) we may admire them for their patience and industry, but will
not be the wiser for their labours. I have often felt sad that so
much talent and industry should disappear in the publication of
matter where bones keep on rattling without forming for us an
outline of the figure that once moved I, therefore, cannot help
congratulating Dr. P. K- Acharya...for his great work ».I can say
ibis much that the learned author has succeeded in re-fashioning
for us, out of the debris of the past, a picture which, while it
speaks much for his scholarly equipment, has the additional merit
of interesting us in a real human way The indirect glimses it
gives into the life of the people are something for which his readers
will have reasons to be grateful to him.”

Dr. Rabindranath Tagore

{The Virra Bharati Quarterly, Mny-July, lOSo)

“Dr. Acharya’s name is already well known by his contribu-

tions on Indian Architecture published in seven large volumes in
the Mattasara (Silpasistra) Series by the IT. P. Government through
the Oxford University Press. In the work under review Dr. Acharya
has ably brought out the elements of our culture and civilization
in the form of a hand book which should be of great use to students
of the subject and also to the general public. The subjects have
been classified under Family, Social, Economic, Political, Moral
and Religious Life. All subjects connected with the formation of
family, such as marriage, sacraments, food, clothes, house and
furniture have been briefly but lucidly described in the first section
with authentic quotations from literary and archaeological
sources. In the Social and Economic section the significance of
castes and communities, division of labour, sources of income,
origin of writing, development of literature, agriculture, mineralogy,
industry, trade and commerce, medium of exchange, trade routes,
marketing, banking and the general prosperity of the country
have been similarly elucidated- In the Political section have been
described the sources of pow'er, poitticul institutions, forms of
government, sources of royal revenues and courts of Justice.
Dr. Acharya has made lull citations to show that the Parliamentary-
form ot government was known and practised in Hindu India.
The moral and religious civilization has been discussed in the
last section- It goes without saying that a knowledge of our
cultural heritage is necessary to complete our education. But it is
also necessary in the sphere of public life especially of legislation
where our national tradition should be fully understood as a
preliminary to reform. From this point of view the work under
notice deserves a wide circulation not merely for the matter it
12A APPENDIX II

presents but also for the manner in which it is presented in a

convenient and condensed form. It should be used as a text book
for Intermediate and higher studies at the colleges and universities.”
Dr. Radhakumud Mookerji
(The Piojieeri 14- 8 * 1940 )

“The author is a veteran worker in the field of Sanskrit research

and from his tabular analysis of the ancient Indian learning, we
feel that he has given years of thought to the proper presentation
of the problems of Indian literature, orthodox as well as heterodox.
His is the shortest guide to the intricate maze of Hindu culture. He
summarises in broad outline the family life, the social life, the
political life, and the moral and spiritual life, and in every case he
gives for the benefit of his readers the important technical terms
together with their Sanskrit equivalents. The pictures of material
civilization represented by architecture, ornaments, furniture, etc.,
are no less important and thought-provoking. We consider Prof.
Aoharya’s Elements of Hindu Culture as the most moderately
priced and the best book available”.
Dr. Kalidas Nag
(The Modern Beview, February 1040)

‘This small book contains a very brief and at the same time
lucid presentation of the various aspects of Ancient Indian Civili-
zation. After a short introductory portion the author deals with the
subject under four headings, namely. Family, Society, Politics, and
Philosophy and Religion. The book is based on a study of the
original sources in Sanskrit and Pali, and for the various statements
there are references given from the original texts. It is primarily
meant for students who appear for competitive examinations and
for legislators and debaters, who have limited time to study the
original sources. Dr. R. C. MAJUMDAR commends it as “very
interesting and useful.” “This little book”, he says, would supply ‘

the needs of those who want to know the essential elements of

ancient Hindu Culture without going through learned and ponderous
volumes. I hope it will be largely used by candidates for competi-
tive examinations and general readers with interest on India’s
past.” i’he book has grown out of lecture notes and embodies the
experience of many years of teaching. The name of the author
is sufficient guarantee for the dependability of the book so far as
thoroughness and accuracy go’.
(The Indian Review, September, 1940)

‘‘As a reputed Oriental scholar. Prof. P. K. Acharya of the

Allahabad University hardly needs any introduction in our hands.
His monumental wmrk in the field of ancient Indian Architecture
has raised him to the position of a reputed authority on the subject.
We learn, from the preface to the work under review*, that the
present hand book has grown out of the lecture notes delivered by
the learned Professor at the B. A. and M. A. classes in the ancient
history sections of the History and Sanskrit Departments ot the
Allahabad Univeisily. In the tody of this small bctk mere ehmein
of ‘Ancient Hindu Culture and C ivilizatic n’ have been briefly
 APPEI^DIX II 18a

outlined iu consideration of the present day need, and consequently

elaborate discussians are not to be expected here. The author makes
clear in the preface to his work the main reasoas for the publica-
tion of such a brief compendium— In this age of national awakening
almost everywhere and of nationalism in every quarter, it is but
natural that a strong demand has been made to say briefly and
precisely what our ancient forefathers knew and did, and what
they did not know and could not do- This demand is no longer
conSned to our young learners in schools, colleges and universities,
but it has now spread among the general public including voters,
members of the legislature and the administrators like the ministers
and the executive officers of the Government of the country. But
the modern students, competitors in service examinations, legis-
lators, debaters and executives have but limited time and patience
and no inclination for an extensive study and a scholarly investi-
gation- This hand book will fulfil their requirements.”
(F/ic Anirfia Bazur Pafnka, June D, lOJO)

“The volume under review is a short but comprehensive guide

toHindu culture. The learned author is a well known scholar and
has made a deep study of ancient Hindu art, architecture and
culture. In this book he seeks to help the student of ancient Indian
history to understand and appreciate the immense and intricate
maze of Hindu civilization. He discusses, briefly but with remark-
able clarity, the ancient social and political systems and the domestic
and spiritual life of the people of this ountry. Equally able and
interesting is his treatment of the more concrete symbols of Hindu
culture, such as Hindu architecture, ancient ornaments, furniture,
etc. It will be found extremely heloful by university students and
other.s’’.
{The Leader, May, 1040)

‘
We
often speak of our ancient culture and civilization of which
we are rightly proud, but few of us have any accurate idea of the
marvellous progress India had made in the political and social
fields no less than in the moral and spiritual life. Ancient Indian
culture is, again, an important subject in the curriculum of the
University as well as Public Services examinations. There are, of
course, several treatises in English written by eminent scholars,
which discuss one or other aspect of our ancient culture but
;

there was so far no bock which gave in a handy form sufficient

information on a variety of topics about which a layman may have
curiosity. Dr. Acharya’s book supplies this want admirably.
‘In the introductory section the author defines culture and
civilization- Culture, according to him, aims at refinement of
natural intelligence and capacities to its tullest growing power,
while civilization aims at making man happier, nobler and better
off than he is. Tr. Achar\ a divides his subject into four main
sections, dealing respectively with family life, social life, political
life, and moral and spiritual life. Under the fir.st section he not
only describes the salient features of castes, sacraments and orders
of life (asramasl, but gives interesting information about food,
clothes, ornaments, furniture, etc., used in India from the time of
the Vedas.
14 a APPEl^DIX 11

‘la ttie next section dealing with social life, Dr. Acharya treats
of such subjects as public property, agriculture, industry, trade and
commerce as well as literature- He shows clearly how trade and
com^nerce flourished in India because of the great public roads
which linked the flourishing cities in the farthest corners of the
land. Under literature he treats briefly not only of Hindu, but also
of Buddhist and Jain literatures.

‘The popular notion that democratic ideas were first introduced

in India by the British will be dispelled by a perusal of the section
dealing with ancient Indian republics. From the evidence of the
Vedas, the Epics, the Arthasastra of Kautilya as well as Buddhist
works. Dr. Acharya shows that there were, in ancient India, a
number of democratic institutions such as the Sabha, the Samiti, the
Sangha, etc., which managed the affairs of the republican states.
These states continued to flourish in India down to the time of the
Guptas.

‘In the section the author treats briefly of the moral and
last
spiritual life- He
passes in review not only the orthodox Hindu
systems such as the Sankhya, the Nyaya and the Vedanta, but also
the Buddhist and Jain religions and their philosophy. The book is
thus a veritable mine of information about ancient India’.

{The ^dependent, 30th Septemher, 1939)

‘Needless to say that this unique book will fulfil a very greatly
feltneed of students and the general public alike. I was for the
same reason pressing the distinguished author for a long time to
write a book of this type. This will be an ideal hand book for B. A.
and M. A. students and will be a great help to those preparing
for public services examinations as well as to the members of our
Legislatures and Ministries’.

Dharmendra Nath Shastri, Tarkashiromani, M.A., M.O.L.

STRo feo 3:Tr, dlRo %o ?rRo T%o Fdtrqgr

qiRTqii I

nifd qq'; fjR-d'Rdql: hfr jvcf ti^T?ifqd Riq^qff i

fffl ^q fdrqwfq ^r^Tdrqt qi^qrw fqqq^q dirpR

q^di dueaT difli^qff 1

qqiT^q rrr rrr* ^Tuqiiil i i

??1 RFo CTo, qfo

d5-?d-Bif?R-dRqd;-qfdd;y (April, 1940, p. 352)

 APPENDIX 111

L’he Oxford Vnneraitij Press are happy io aiinounce the anuplefion of

Dr, Prasanna Kumar Acharija's munumental icork on

hid. an Architecture :

MANASARA SERIES
Vol. I. A DICTIONARY OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE
Published in 1927. Now reissued with plates as Vol. VII
in this series.

Vol. II. INDIAN ARCHITECTURE ACCORDING TO

AIaNASaRA-SILPASaSTRA
Published in 1927. Now incorporated in Vol. VI of this
series in a revbed and enlarged form.

Vol. III. MaNASaRA on ARCHITECTURE AND SCULP-

TURE
Sanskrit text with Critical Notes. Published in 1934,
t \is crown quarto volume of 960 pages (.510 of which
are occupied by the Sanskrit text and a coinprehen-
s-ve index thereto) is still available, price Rs 25.

Vol. IV. ARCHITECTURE OF AlANAS.vRA

The English translation of the work published in
Volume HI occupies 646 of the 854 pages which
make up this volume. Published in 1934- Still avail-
able. price Rs. 35.

Vol. V. ILLUSTRATIONS OF ARCHITECTURAL AND

SCULPTURAL OBJECTS DESCRIBED IN
AIaNASaRA
One hundred and fifty-seven plates, consisting of site
plans, details of columns, roofs, gates, palaces, public
and domestic buildings of from one to twelve storeys,
crowns, swings and coloured illustrations of eleven of
the twelve types of Tala. Published in 1934. Still
available, price Rs. 40.

Vol. VL HINDU ARCHITECTURE AT HOME AND

ABROAD
Crown quarto, 544 pages, 65 plates, Rs, 35.
i

16 a APPENDIX III

After a review of the remains of pre-Vedic architecture

at AIohenjo-Daro, Haranpa and Jhukun, in KohistaO)
Paluchistan and Waziristan, the book briefly examines
the state of architecture in India in the Vedic and post-
Vedic periods before embarking upon an examination
of the !^dpa-^astra!i- I^or most readers the chief interest
book will lie in the subsetiuent examination
of tile of
Hindu architecture in Serindia, Insulindia, and in
—
China, Japan and perhaps — Central America.
This book is a revised and very much enlarged edition
ofVol. 11 which was first published in 1927 and is
now out of print. In its new form it is, in a sense,
an epitome of all seven v'olumes of the series.

Vol. VII. AN ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HINDU ARCHI-

TECTURE
Grown quaitc, 736 pages, 160 illustrations, Rs. 40.
This is and enlarged edition of the Dictiunarii
a revised
published as \ol. of the series in 1927.
1
More than
three thousand words relating to architecture, sculp-
ture and cognate arts are defined, and are illustrated
by plates and copious quotations from manuscripts
and printed sources.

The ITvfk is indispensable to all libraries and serious students of

Hindu archiU’cture, and is oldoinahle from all hoohsellers or from •

THE OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

LOXDOX - XEW yoUK BOMBAV -
CALCUTTA MADRAS
- -

ToROXTo - MULBUURXE - CAPE TuWX W ELLIXcTUX -

 —

iJ-ti.A. 8i
e^SNI-BAL
i?EW DELHI
UBKlaj

^ons^-
Catalogue JYo
901,0954/AcIb — 34g78

Author
Acharya, ?. k.

Title
Glories of India

Borrower No.
j
Date of
DateofBetn^

V i
/'i^'TL-nrr-

(Y

‘M hook that is shut is but a block”

^^AEOLOg/.

GOVT. OF INDIA
Ay Department of Archaeology

^ NEW DELHI.
U ^
Please help us to keep the book
clean and moving.

S.B., 148. K. DELHI.