Unit 9.

3 - Varieties of English
Learning objectives

In this unit, you will:

 learn how the spread of English throughout the world has resulted in different varieties of English
(AO4)

 explore the characteristics of different varieties of English (AO4)

 learn about the circumstances which led to the development of different varieties of English (AO4)

 analyse and debate points of view about the spread and relative status of different Englishes in the
world (AO4).

Before you start

1. Discuss how English has spread from its origins as British English, to its current world language status
in the 21st century.

2. List some of the varieties of English found worldwide (e.g. New Zealand English).

3. Give reasons why you think English has spread to become a global language.

Standard and non-standard English

The definition of Standard English is often very general and stated in comparative terms. Standard
English is a form of English which has been accepted as the norm and the variety with which other
forms are compared. Language researcher Paul Kerswill avoids a definition of Standard English
because the idea of it as correct or ‘good’ English is ‘closely related to the perspective of the
particular language user’.

Standard English originated in the UK as the variety of English spoken in the politically and
economically powerful triangle between Oxford, Cambridge and London. Over the last 200 years it
has come to represent the norm of spoken and written English and, because Standard English
follows the accepted constructions of the language, it is the form of English most often learnt by
non-native speakers. It is generally perceived as the variety of English spoken by educated people.

It follows that non-standard English is any variety which is not standard English and so relates to
regional varieties of the language which use forms of grammar, syntax and lexis not considered
socially acceptable.

Attitudes to non-standard English

In his classic book A Short History of English, H.C. Wylde, writing in 1914, informed his readers that
English dialects were ‘of very little importance’, calling them ‘quaint and eccentric’. In other words,
they were not worth bothering with in serious language study. This attitude has completely changed
in recent years. However, it underpins earlier linguistic beliefs that one form of English was correct
and superior, and led to the notion of non-standard English. Standard English was seen as the
prestige form, with non-standard dialects considered inferior.

ACTIVITY 1

The following are all non-standard forms of English. For each one:
1. identify the rule of standard English which has not been followed

2. rewrite the phrase in standard English.

a I ain’t done nothing.

b She come here tomorrow.
c I dunno.
d It was him what did it.
e Yup.
f Did you do it? No I never.

Accents of English

The accent most closely associated with Standard English is called Received Pronunciation (RP).
Unlike other English accents, this is seen as an indicator of status rather than being linked to a
specific geographical area.

RP is a recent development relative to the length of time that English has been spoken. It emerged in
British public schools (expensive fee-paying schools) during the 19th century, when the middle and
upper classes educated their children, who often became influential members of British society. It is
generally the case that people who mix in the same circles tend to, consciously or unconsciously,
converge in their speech patterns. RP, with its perceived high status, established itself as the prestige
accent. It was also neutral – free from any regional associations – so that it was not possible to tell
the geographic or social origins of the speaker.

In Britain, Standard English and RP spread quickly when the BBC (the British Broadcasting
Corporation) was formed in 1922 (as the British Broadcasting Company), broadcasting radio,
followed by television in 1936. RP was adopted by the BBC and for 60 years was the only accent
heard on television and radio. It became ‘the voice of Britain’ and the establishment. This ‘BBC
English’ has been widely parodied for sounding artificial and almost comical. Today, a much wider
range of British regional accents and dialects can be heard on the BBC which reflects social change. A
minority of English speakers use RP but it is generally recognised throughout the English-speaking
world.

It is important to remember that there is nothing specific about RP that makes it superior to other
accents: it is the attitudes of English speakers which link this way of speaking to social status. Since
the 1960s there has been a greater acceptance of regional accents, which are now heard widely in
the British media. In some circumstances, RP is seen as old-fashioned and pompous.

However, as regional accents have become more acceptable, they have, in fact, declined in English-
speaking areas. People now travel more widely and are less likely to spend their lives in the same
area. English accents will continue to change and develop and the growing numbers of non-native
English speakers will contribute to this process.

The next student response is an annotated extract from a student’s answer to this question on the
use of non-standard English.

Read the following extract carefully. It is from the novel The Adventures of Huckleberry
Finn by the American writer Mark Twain and was published in 1884. It is the story of a
young boy and his struggles to fit into society. The novel contains much non-standard
 English. Write a commentary on the way that the lexis and syntax are used in the
narrative.

(25 marks)

I see Jim before me, all the time; in the day, and in the night-time, sometimes moonlight,
sometimes storms, and we a-floating along, talking, and singing, and laughing. But
somehow I couldn’t seem to strike no places to harden me against him, but only the
other kind. I’d see him standing my watch on top of his’n, ’stead of calling me, so I could
go on sleeping; and see him how glad he was when I come back out of the fog; and
when I come to him again in the swamp, up there where the feud was; and such-like
times; and would always call me honey, and pet me, and do everything he could think of
for me, and how good he always was. And at last I struck the time I saved him by telling
the men we had small-pox aboard, and he was so grateful, and said I was the best
friend old Jim ever had in the world, and the only one he’s got now; and then I happened
to look around, and see that paper.

It was a close place. I took it up, and held it in my hand. I was a-trembling, because I’d
got to decide, forever, betwixt two things, and I knowed it. I studied a minute, sort of
holding my breath, and then says to myself:

‘All right, then, I’ll go to hell’ – and tore it up.

From The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, by Mark Twain.

STUDENT RESPONSE

The young boy is remembering events with his friend, and so adopts the appropriately informal style
of a young boy in the late 19th century which means that he uses some words which are now dated.
He omits verbs (e.g. ‘we a-floating’), uses the present tense for a past tense action (e.g. ‘when I
come to him again’), and uses a non-standard form of the past tense (e.g. ‘I knowed it’).
The use of the present tense could also be for immediate impact as Huckleberry Finn reminisces: ‘I
see Jim before me all the time’.

The boy uses dated, non-standard forms (e.g. ‘a-trembling’ and ‘betwixt’) as well as colloquial, rather
vague expressions (e.g. ‘such-like times’).

The colloquial language reflects the young boy’s speech in the syntax, which is more like spoken than
written (e.g. talking, and singing, and laughing). At the time when the novel was written, the
expression ‘I’ll go to hell’ would have been
quite shocking, seen as non-standard and definitely not accepted as Standard English
in its tone.

The passage has been set to show the style and impact of non-standard English. Huckleberry Finn’s
memories are affectionate, vital and lively, and so the non-standard lexis and syntax are in keeping
with his characterisation and persona of a young boy in the south of the USA. There is sufficient
Standard English to enable the reader to follow the narrative while the local variety of English
accurately reflects the context of the novel.
 [1] Use of examples to show syntax and lexis but only a very general accompanying point that the
boy is using non-standard English. The point about his background and level of education as
influencing his language could be more developed.

[2] This is a relevant comment showing the student understands that Standard English is more likely
to occur in written rather than spoken language.

[3] A relevant point about the time and place (i.e. the context) of the utterance which would
provoke disapproval.

Reflection: Work with a partner to compare your responses with the one given. The following
questions will point out relevant areas to include.

1. Was there comment on the time and place when the language was used?

2. In what ways did the language reflect the character of the boy?

3. Was there comprehensive coverage of the lexis and syntax throughout the extract?

4. Did the student use appropriate language terminology and accompany each example with an
evaluative comment?

🔑 KEY CONCEPT

Diversity
The English Language exists in a variety of forms throughout the world in the 21st century, and these
different varieties of English have a different status attached to them.

In what ways might the English spoken by those arriving in a newly settled country, such as the
United States, be adapted and changed by generations of people who live there? Think of landscape,
the flora and fauna, as well as lifestyle.

Varieties of English

As we have considered, English is spoken throughout the world but in a variety of ways. The same
words are pronounced in different ways; different words exist for the same object and the syntax,
the order of speaking English, varies too.

In this section you will explore the varieties of English spoken throughout the world, and you should
be able to recognise the areas where the following are spoken: ‘Japlish’, ‘Russlish’, ‘Spanglish’,
‘Deutschlish’. These and other varieties of English have evolved where the standard form has
merged with elements of the local language. For example, ‘Deutschlish’ contains a mix of English and
German lexis and syntax. There is some debate about whether these varieties can be considered a
new language or an evolving dialect of English. This amalgamation of two (or more) different
languages to form a new distinctive variety with native speakers is the process of creolisation.
Traditionally, this referred to languages which emerged in the Caribbean, but the process happens
worldwide. (Look back to Unit 7.4, which discusses creole languages in relation to theories of
language change.)

Because English is learnt around the world, it is spoken and written in a variety of ways. People in
different regions of the world are creating new varieties of English which are distinctive.
The following information explores the distinctive features of South African English. You may wish to
add your own area of English as an additional study.

Case study: South African English

The provinces which make up South Africa, historically have two major divisions of language and
culture – English and Afrikaans. South African English (SAE) is the dialect of English spoken by South
Africans, with separate English varieties spoken by Zimbabweans, Zambians and Namibians.

The English language in South Africa dates from the arrival of the British at the Cape of Good Hope in
1795. Like other areas which became English colonies, English was introduced to South Africa by
soldiers and administrators, then by missionaries and settlers. It became more established during
the 19th century as a result of new British settlements in the Eastern Cape and Natal, and the
subsequent rushes to the diamond and gold mines. Afrikaans is a language which emerged from the
Dutch language spoken by the early Dutch settlers in South Africa.

A power struggle developed between the English-speaking settlers and those of Dutch descent,
leading to the Boer War of 1899–1901. The two languages coexisted throughout the 20th century,
with Afrikaans replacing English as the language of government, administration, police, and the
armed forces. It was the language closely associated with the repressive system of apartheid.

However, the English language remained a major influence in business and higher education. It was
also used by the African National Congress (ANC) and other liberation movements to enable
communication between speakers of the country’s many other languages and with the outside
world. South African English was a powerful political tool: when the South African nationalist
government tried to make Afrikaans a teaching language in schools in 1976, it triggered an uprising
in Soweto (an abbreviation of South West Township).

This situation continues today, with many ethnic groups within South Africa seeing English as a
means of advancement in society. As in many other multilingual communities, English is considered
to be neutral since it ensures that no local dialect is viewed as more influential than any other.

Characteristics of South African English

 Settlers adopted words from Dutch to describe landscape and social features unique to their
new environment (e.g. ‘donga’, ‘impala’, ‘kraal’), although others were derived from
Afrikaans.

 The Afrikaans language has had an enormous influence on lexis and syntax in SAE (e.g. the
common use of ‘ja’ (yes)). Other borrowings from Afrikaans include ‘braai’ (barbecue),
‘lekker’ (nice, delicious) and ‘rooibos’ (red bush and now a flavour of tea).

 Many SAE words have been borrowed from the African languages of the region, including
‘tsetse’, ‘tsotsi’, ‘kgotla’ and ‘marula’. As well as lexis, speech intonation also reflects these
languages.

 Words were borrowed from other settlers. For example, Malay words, such as ‘atchar’,
‘bobotie’, ‘sosatie’, ‘kaparrang’ and ‘kramat’, were introduced to SAE during the 19th
century by Afrikaans speakers. These originated in the community of slaves and political
exiles at the Cape, who were sent from what are now Indonesia and Malaysia during the
17th and 18th centuries.
  Some words current at the time of British settlement in South Africa are still used (e.g.
‘geyser’ (a boiler) and ‘robot’ (traffic light)).

 Different varieties of SAE exist in the same way as Standard English and are an indicator of
social status.

There are many sources of information about South African English, including resources where you
can listen to examples of accent and style of speech. The websites of The Guardian newspaper, The
Economist magazine and the Oxford English Dictionary are particularly useful.

ACTIVITY 2

There are a great many varieties of English, each of which has an individual history and set of
circumstances surrounding its development. In pairs, or in small groups, carry out an investigation to
utilise your skills as independent learners.

1. Choose a variety of English, other than the one you are familiar with, and trace its
development and changes in the way that it has become distinctive.

2. Assess the extent of adaptation and incorporation of lexis from the local region and its status
as a formal or informal form of communication. You should include specific examples to
accompany any general points you make.

3. Search for spoken examples of your chosen language variety. You might carry out an online
search of the British Library Sound Archive, or YouTube.

4. Languages constantly change and develop. Try to research and suggest ideas about current
influences on the English language variety you are investigating and likely future
developments.

Reflection: You have been independently researching a variety of English in the world. Compare your
research methods and findings with a partner or another group to assess the following:

1. The usefulness and reliability of the sources you accessed for your information. Did you
search printed text and online sources?

2. The information you discovered about the historical detail outlining the key features of the
variety of English.

3. The unique variety of English you have researched:

a The approximate number of speakers.
b The importance in the society of the variety of English researched (e.g. in government and
the economy of the country).
c The other languages which co-exist with the variety of English and the relative importance
of each. For example, which language is the official language?
Question practice

Read the following extracts from a university research paper about New Zealand English.
Discuss what you feel are important issues raised here relating to the use of English in the world.

You should refer to ideas and examples from your wider study as well as to specific details from the
passage.

(25 marks)

Extract 1

Early commentaries from around 1880 focused on features of pronunciation associated with non-
standard varieties of British English. From the 1900s, people began to comment on a distinctive
variety of New Zealand speech. Reactions were not generally positive. School inspectors began to
warn teachers against ‘impure upbringing and even poor thinking’ (1990: 24–25, 30).

Extract 2
Bayard (1991) reports on a 1986 study of 86 university students who were asked to listen to a range
of accents, including New Zealand and British accents, and to rate them on a scale of one to five for
ten traits representing a mix of status and solidarity-related variables (pleasantness, reliability,
ambition, sense of humour, leadership ability, likely income, educational level, self-confidence,
intelligence, likeability and acceptability).

Extract 3
The results showed that RP, the recognised prestige accent of British English, was the clear leader in
all of the status-related variables, and that New Zealand English led only in the solidarity-related
variable of ‘acceptability’ (Bayard 2000: 307). Gordon and Abell (1990) report on a similar study
(Abell, 1980) that investigated the attitudes of high school students towards three New Zealand
English accents and RP. The RP accent again ranked higher on all the status-related variables
(ambition, education, reliability, intelligence, income, and occupation) and the New Zealand English
accents ranked higher than RP only on the solidarity variables (friendliness and sense of humour).

Extract 4
In interpreting these results, it is important to remember that no accent or language variety is
superior to another on purely linguistic grounds.

From ‘Attitudes to NZ English’, Victoria University, New Zealand.

Reflection: Look at the answer you have written and consider the following questions:

1. This is a case study: have you shown your understanding of the specific ways in which New
Zealand English developed from its arrival in the country to current research findings about
its distinctiveness as a variety of English?

2. Have you broadened your answer to write about the ways in which English has spread
throughout the world, using specific examples where possible?

3. Have you answered the specific command words and phrases? What do you regard as
‘important issues’? ‘Issues’ here could include:
 a the dominance of English in relation to other languages and dialects with which it co-exists
b the distinctiveness of the different varieties of English (it would be helpful to give specific
words and phrases which came into the language from other sources and the reasons they
were adopted)
c attitudes towards English use and any resistance to its use for personal, public and media
purposes.

4. Have you balanced an analysis of the ‘specific’ details from the extracts (i.e. about New
Zealand English) with ideas and examples from your wider study?

5. Have you written your essay in an articulate, balanced and fluent manner?

Considering these questions, what do you think are the strengths and weaknesses of your
response?
Rewrite the response to improve any weak points or omissions, and produce a stronger answer.

🔶 THINK LIKE … AN ‘ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE’ COURSEBOOK AUTHOR

Write approximately ten key points on the definitions and characteristics of Standard and non-
standard English for English students. Ensure that each point is explained clearly and has examples.

You can give examples from the variety of Standard and non-standard English where you live.

New Englishes and linguistic fragmentation

You know that English has spread around the world. Any language changes and develops to suit the
circumstances of its society and English is no exception. So it follows that English as a world language
is marked by distinctive varieties, some of which have emerged more recently than the longer-
established British and American Englishes. These newer varieties are often labelled New Englishes,
examples of which include Pakistani English, Indian English and Nigerian English. These countries
have usually been exposed to some historical colonial influence by Britain or America so that English
has taken root there. New Englishes can also be known as new varieties of English (NVEs).

‘New Englishes’ is a term first coined by Platt, Weber and Ho to describe varieties of English which
have developed in different countries through government administration, education and media,
rather than from native language speakers. In these areas, English exists alongside other local
languages and is the common medium for communication (i.e. the lingua franca). Importantly, each
variety of New English has developed its own lexis, pronunciation and syntax.

ACTIVITY 3

1. Work in a small group to select three New Englishes (for example, Indian, New Zealand,
Ghanian, Jamaican, Singaporean, Zimbabwean English).

For each variety selected:

a find out when English first arrived in the country
b search online for samples of the English variety used
c compile a brief dictionary of words and idioms which are characteristic of this variety of English.
Give the equivalent for each one in your own variety of English.
 2. New Zealand English has a widely recognised phrase in the country, ‘yeah right’, which is an
expression of disbelief about something (e.g. ‘I haven’t checked my cell phone all day,’ ‘Yeah
right’). Find an equivalent expression in your own English. If you are reading this in New
Zealand, find an expression of similar meaning in a different variety of English.

Linguistic fragmentation

English, in all its varieties, appears to have consolidated its position as a global language even though
there are more native speakers of Mandarin Chinese and Spanish. The many varieties of English raise
questions about its future. Some hold the view that English will split into mutually incomprehensible
languages, as happened to Latin, with the many Latin-based languages of today.

The opposing view is that English is now cemented as the language that people wish to learn and to
speak in order to fully participate in the global communication infrastructure of the 21st century.