+ _ Shared background knowledge Cohesion is textual; coherence is cognitive and contextual. ‘Transcription ‘Transcription is the conversion of spoken language into written form for analysis. It enables researchers to analyze features of spoken discourse such as pauses, intonation, overlap, and paralinguistic cues. ‘Types of Transcription: + Orthographic transcription: Standard spelling and punctuation + Phonetic transcription: Uses IPA for sound-level analysis + Discourse transcription: Captures speech events like laughter, pauses, overlapping speech ‘Conventions: Jeffersonian transcription system is widely used in conversation analysis. 5. Cataloguing and Analyzing Discourse Data Thit involves the systematic organization, coding, and interpretation of discourse data. Data Collection: Recordings of conversations, interviews, classroom talk, ete. 2. Transcription: Accurate, detailed transcription using consistent conventions 3. Coding: Identifying linguistic or thematic patterns (.g., politeness strategies, discourse markers) 4, Interpretation: Applying theoretical frameworks to understand meaning, function, and context ‘Tools: NVivo, ATLAS«i, ELAN (for video/audio analysis) 6, Identity, Subjectivity, Power, and Discourse iscourse plays a central role in the construction of identity, subjectivity, and social relations. ‘+ Identity: Language positions individuals in certain roles (e.g., student, teacher, expert). ‘+ Subjectivity: Personal perspectives are shaped through language and ideology. + Power: Language reflects and reproduces power relations. For example: © Ateacher’s questions may control the flow of classroom interaction. © Political discourse may frame social groups in stereotypical ways. Michel Foucault's theory emphasizes how discourse disciplines and regulates subjects through norms, categories, and institutional practices. 7. Discourse Studies in the Classroom Discourse analysis in classroom contexts focuses on how language is used in teaching and learning interactions. It investigates pattems of communication between teachers and students. 18Focus Areas: IRF patter (Initiation-Response-Feedback) Teacher questioning techniques Wait time and student t Code-si Scaffolding and dialogic teaching Benefits: ‘+ Enhances teaching effectiveness + Promotes student engagement + Reveals implicit ideologies and biases in classroom talk 8, Applications of Discourse Studies in the Classroom Practical applications of discourse analysis include: * Curriculum Design: Developing authentic and context-sensitive materials + Teacher Training: Helping teachers reflect on their language use and interactional patterns + Assessment: De + Critical Literac: media Examples: + Using genre-based pedagogy to teach writing + Analyzing textbook dialogues for cultural representation + Conducting action research to improve classroom interaction Crit -al Discourse Analysis (CDA) Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is an approach that studies the relationship between language, power, and ideology. It examines how discourse shapes, and is shaped by, social structures and power relations. Key Theorists: Norman Fairclough: Language as a form of social practice + Teun van Dijk: Discourse, cognition, and society ‘+ Ruth Wodak: Discourse-historical approach Core Assumptions of CDA: ‘© Language is not neutral; it constructs and maintains social inequalities. + Discourse reflects ideological positions and power interests. * CDA aims to reveal hidden meanings and challenge domination or discrimination. “freedom fighters” vs. “terrorists”) Nominalization (hiding agency) Intertextuality (how texts draw on or silence other voices) + Passive constructions ‘+ Framing and representation of social actors 195. Cataloguing and Analyzing Discourse Data Example: Using software like NVivo, a researcher codes classroom discourse for categories like “teacher questions,” “student responses,” or “code-s Assegment of data: Teacher: Okay, let's review the steps of photosynthesis. Who remembers step one? Student: Water is absorbed. 6. Identity, Subjectivity, Power, and Discourse Example: ‘Analyzing how job interviews reinforce power hierarc the questions and controls the interaction. 's—the interviewer asks all “Tall me about yourself." (Defines the candidate's identity through the lens of the employer's expectations.) ‘Or how media portrays gender through discourse: “She's emotional” vs. “He’ passionate. 7. Discourse Studies in the Classroom Example: ‘An analysis of classroom discourse may reveal repeated use of the IRF pattern (Initi: Response-Feedback): ‘Teacher: What is 5 * 6? Student: 30 Teacher: Correct! This may be contrasted with open discussion formats that encourage extended learner talk. 8. Applications in the Classroom Using discourse analysis to improve teachin A teacher notices that her questioning style discourages participation. After training, she uses more open-ended questions, and student interaction improves. 9. Crit Exampl ‘Analyzing a newspaper article about refugees: “Migrants flood into the country, straining resources.” CDA reveals how the metaphor “flood” frames refugees as a threat, shaping public perception and policy. CDA shows how language ma classism. course Analysis (CDA) tains or challenges ideologies, such as racism, sexism, or 2aApplications: . course (¢.g., how immigrants are portrayed) iscourse (e.g., campaign speeches, policy documents) ourse (¢.g., how textbooks promote certain ideologies) CDA and Education: * Promotes critical literacy in students + Encourages awareness of how power operates through language + Empowers marginalized voices in classroom discourse EXAMPLES FOR EACH TOPIC 1, Definition of Discourse Analysis Example: A researcher analyzes how politicians use metaphors and repetition in campaign speeches to influence public o ‘We must fight for freedom... we must fight for justice... we must fight for our future." 2. Genre Analysis Example: ing the research article genre, it typically has an IMRAD structure: Introduction, Methodology, Results, and Discussion. Compared 10 a news article, which follows the inverted pyramid style, most important information first. Coherence and Cohesion Example: Cohesion: “Maria lost her phone. She looked for it everywhere.” (Pronoun "she" links to "Maria”.) Coherence: “He put on his coat. It was snowing.” (Logically connected, even without explicit cohesive devices.) 4. Transcription A transcribed classroom interaction: ‘Teacher: What is the capital of France? Student: Uh... Paris? Teacher: Good! (Transcription conventions) can include pauses, overlaps, “[laughs}” or “(2.0)” for 2-second pause). 20Chapter 3 Linguistic Stylistics and Discourse Analysis Definition of Discourse Analysis Discourse Analysis (DA) is the study of how language is used in real communicative contexts. It focuses on the organization of language above the sentence level and its connection to social meaning. It examines how people use language in spoken, written, or multimodal forms to achieve communicative goals, construct identities, and negotiate relationships. Key Aspeets: + Goes beyond grammar to explore language in use + Concerned with context, intention, interaction, and power + Involves various approaches: conversation analysis, genre analysis, critical discourse analysis 2. Genre Analysis Genre Analysis investigates how specific types of texts (genres) are structured and used for specific communicative purposes within particular social and cultural contexts. ‘According to John Swales (1990): + A genre is a class of communicative events with shared purposes, structures, and audience expectations. + Genres follow conventionalized patterns (e.g., academic essays, business reports, news articles). Features: + Move structure: Segments of texts that fulfill specific rhetorical functions + Linguistic devices: Lexical choices, grammatical features unique to a genre ‘© Socio-cultural context: Values and practices of the community that uses the genre Coherence and Cohesion Cohesion: ‘The surface-level grammatical and lexical links between parts of a text. These include: + Reference (e.g., pronouns: he, she, it) + Substitution and Ellipsis ‘+ Conjunctions (e.g., however, because, therefore) + Lexical cohesion (¢.g., repetition, synonyms) Coherence: The logical flow and conceptual unity of a text as interpreted by a reader or listener. It refers + Relevance of ideas + Organizational structure 7