AKSUM UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL
DEPARTMENT OF SOIL RESOURCE AND WATERSHED
MANAGEMENT
SEMINAR TITLE: THE IMPACTS OF ARMED CONFLICT ON
VEGETATION COVER DEGRADATION IN TIGRAY, NORTHERN
ETHIOPIA
NAME: ABRHALEY TADESSE
ID: AKU/1300182
ADVISER NAME; GEBRESLASIE H.(MSc)
AKSUM, TIGRAY, ETHIOPIA.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First I like to thanks my God to give strength in My life process, next I thanks to my advisor, Mr.
GEBRESLSIE H. (MSc) and corrections in detailed review on my project from begging up to
accomplished, thirdly and finally we thanks to our classmate students by shared different idea.
1
ABSTRACT
This paper explores the impact of the ongoing armed conflict in Tigray on vegetation
degradation, with a focus on the environmental and socio-economic consequences. The conflict,
which began in 2020, has led to widespread deforestation and land degradation, primarily due
to military activities, the displacement of communities, and the destruction of infrastructure.
Vegetation loss in the region has been exacerbated by the overuse of natural resources,
particularly as displaced populations rely heavily on forests for firewood and shelter. This
degradation has further intensified soil erosion, reduced agricultural productivity, and
contributed to increased vulnerability to climate change. The paper reviews existing literature
on the environmental effects of the conflict, presents data on vegetation cover before and after
the war, and examines potential remediation strategies, including reforestation, soil
conservation, and sustainable land management. The findings highlight the urgent need for
integrated restoration efforts that involve both local communities and international support to
mitigate further ecological damage and foster long-term environmental recovery in Tigray.
2
Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGMENT..................................................................................................................i
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................ii
LIST OF FIGURE..........................................................................................................................iv
1.INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................1
1.1. Objective...........................................................................................................................2
1.1.1 General Objective...........................................................................................................2
1.2. specific objective..............................................................................................................2
2.LITERATURE REVIEW.............................................................................................................3
2.1 the amount of forest cover before the conflict of Tigray beginning..................................4
2.2 how the conflict of Tigray affects the forest cover............................................................4
1. Deforestation Due to Military Activity................................................................................4
2. Increased Dependence on Firewood and Charcoal..............................................................4
3. Displacement and Agricultural Expansion..........................................................................5
4. Collapse of Conservation Efforts.........................................................................................5
5. Illegal Logging and Resource Exploitation.........................................................................5
6. Damage to Ecosystem Services...........................................................................................5
2.3 the amount of forest degraded by the cause of armed conflict in tigray............................5
2.4 what is the effect forest degraded on the community of Tigray........................................6
2.5. Vegetation degradation and strategies for remediation and restoration...........................7
2.6. The role of local government and community actors on vegetation resources
management.............................................................................................................................8
2.7. Correlation between vegetation indices and precipitation................................................9
3.SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.........................................................................................11
3.1.SUMMARY.....................................................................................................................11
3.2.CONCLUSIONS.............................................................................................................12
4.REFERENCES...........................................................................................................................13
3
1.INTRODUCTION
The armed conflict in Tigray, which began in November 2020, has had devastating consequences
not only on the human population but also on the environment, particularly on the region’s
vegetation. Tigray, located in northern Ethiopia, has historically been home to diverse
ecosystems that supported vital forest cover, agricultural productivity, and biodiversity
(Hailemariam, 2021). However, the ongoing conflict has caused widespread environmental
degradation, particularly through the destruction of forests and other vegetation. The conflict has
been characterized by both military activity and the displacement of large populations, which has
significantly contributed to deforestation, soil erosion, and the loss of vital ecosystem services
(Bishaw, 2021). As a result, Tigray faces both immediate and long-term ecological challenges,
with vegetation degradation exacerbating food insecurity, water shortages, and climate
vulnerability. Vegetation loss in Tigray has been accelerated by human activities, particularly
through the cutting down of trees for firewood and shelter, as displaced populations have had to
rely on forests to meet basic needs (Tadesse, 2022). The destruction of infrastructure, including
roads and irrigation systems, further complicates efforts to restore degraded land. Moreover, the
impact of the conflict on agricultural systems, which depend heavily on soil quality and access to
water, has worsened the region’s vulnerability to environmental stresses such as drought and
flooding (Fiseha, 2022). With reduced vegetation cover and degraded landscapes, the region
faces increased risks of soil erosion, reduced agricultural productivity, and a weakened ability to
adapt to climate change. This paper seeks to examine the effects of armed conflict on vegetation
degradation in Tigray, focusing on the direct and indirect drivers of environmental harm, as well
as the socio-economic consequences of land and vegetation loss. By analyzing the pre- and post-
conflict vegetation status in the region, this study aims to provide a comprehensive overview of
the environmental impact of the conflict. Additionally, the paper explores potential remediation
and restoration strategies that could be employed to recover the ecological integrity of the region.
Given the critical importance of forests and vegetation for the livelihoods of Tigray’s population,
addressing these environmental challenges is not only an ecological priority but also a key
component of humanitarian efforts in the region.
4
1.1. Objective
1.1.1 General Objective
To review the impacts of armed conflict on vegetation cover degradation in Tigray, northern
Ethiopia in the study area from different time slice in 2000, 2020, and 2022.
1.2. specific objective
To review the impacts of war on vegetation resources and their management by rural
communities.
5
2.LITERATURE REVIEW
The two years of blockade and siege by the Ethiopian government in Tigray has created
numerous crises of human welfare, the environment and biodiversity. After military operations
in Tigray began in the early November 2020 (Abay et al., 2022), large-scale attacks took place in
the region. Due to the presence of military activities, there was pressure on the environment to
meet resource demands, including cutting trees for cooking and heating, and construction of
military trenches in forest environments. During the military offensive, trees and natural
vegetation were vulnerable to damage. Heavy shelling, drone and air attacks also significantly
contributed to the destruction and burning of vegetated areas as well as limiting how local people
could engage in agriculture and nature conservation activities in these areas. People were
displaced from their homes and forced to settle in temporary refuge camps. The displaced people
had no choice but to use felled trees for fuel (CEOBS, 2022; Plaut, 2021) as well as for sale. This
is similar to the impacts of refugees displaced to the Democratic Republic of Congo from the
1994 Rwandan civil war, where more than 150 km2 of forests were cut down for fuel by the
refugees (Kanyamibwa, 1998). Existing community by laws and grass-root level administrations
in Tigray were weakened and institutions became non-functional during the conflict
(Ghebreyohannes et al., 2022).
Ethiopian and Eritrean forces, as well as the formal and informal military factions from the
Amhara region, looted and destroyed crops, cattle, and farm equipment, as well as stockpiled
grain from Tigrean farmers. (Nyssen et al., 2022; Weldemichel, 2021). The majority of farmers
then experienced food insecurity in the subsequent months. Consequently, farmers were forced
to cut previously-recovered vegetation in their locality and sometimes across the region in order
to sell charcoal and firewood for additional income. Electricity blackouts in the cities resulted in
a high demand of firewood and charcoal for cooking and light. This meant that every morning
large numbers of donkeys and mules loaded with charcoal and firewood flooded into the city of
Tigray region, from different places mainly within a more km radius of the city. The farmers
travelled at night in fear of checkpoints and for the illegal cutting of trees. On one hand,
electricity supplies have been largely disrupted and are unreliable in the cities of Tigray, and on
the other, the large-scale humanitarian crisis in rural areas that led to acute food shortages meant
that rural communities were forced to collect and sell firewood and charcoal to sustain their
livelihoods. Farmers were mainly dependent on agriculture and livestock production which, at a
local level, was relatively resilient through the conflict period (Ghebreyohannes et al., 2022;
Nyssen et al., 2021).
6
2.1 the amount of forest cover before the conflict of Tigray beginning
Before the conflict in Tigray, the region had a relatively significant amount of forest cover,
which played a critical role in maintaining ecological stability and supporting local livelihoods.
Forests in Tigray provided essential resources such as firewood, timber, and medicinal plants, as
well as supporting biodiversity and regulating water cycles. However, forest cover in the region
had already been under pressure due to deforestation driven by population growth, agricultural
expansion, and climate change. Despite this, Tigray's forests still constituted an important
ecological and economic asset. Studies estimated that approximately 20% of the land area in
Tigray was covered by forests before the conflict began (Hailemariam, 2021
However, the Tigray conflict has caused severe setbacks to these environmental achievements.
Following the outbreak of hostilities in 2020, large portions of the region's forest cover have
been lost due to direct military activity and the displacement of local populations. Studies report
that approximately 4% of the region's forest and woody vegetation have been degraded between
2021 and 2022. The war has not only contributed to deforestation but has also led to the
destruction of critical soil and water conservation infrastructure, exacerbating environmental
degradation (Mohammed et al., 2023).
2.2 how the conflict of Tigray affects the forest cover.
The conflict in Tigray, which began in November 2020, has had devastating effects on the
region's forest cover. Prior to the outbreak of violence, Tigray was experiencing significant
environmental recovery, with increased forest and vegetation cover due to years of reforestation
and conservation efforts. However, the war has led to widespread deforestation and
environmental degradation. According to research, between 2021 and 2022, nearly 4% of the
forested and woody areas of Tigray were lost due to the conflict, with the destruction largely
resulting from both direct military activity and the displacement of local populations (Fissha,
Tsegaye, & Adhanom, 2022).
In addition to direct damage to forest cover, the war has exacerbated broader environmental
issues in Tigray, such as soil erosion and loss of biodiversity. Destruction of forests and
vegetation, particularly along key transportation routes, has disrupted natural habitats and
contributed to a decline in water quality and soil fertility. These losses are a setback to the
region's earlier environmental restoration achievements, highlighting the long-term ecological
7
consequences of the conflict (Mohammed, Abdi, & Ahmed, 2023). Some of the affect forest
degradation are follows
1. Deforestation Due to Military Activity
Armed forces have used forests for cover, and in some instances, military operations have led to
the destruction of forested areas. The military such as Ethiopian military, Eritrean military,
Amhara fano and so created trenches and fortifications within forests, causing direct harm to the
vegetation. and they cut the forest in order to firewood, road, shelters. These actions not only
contributed to the loss of forest cover but also disrupted biodiversity and damaged critical water
and soil conservation structures. Studies indicate that deforestation due to the war has accelerated
environmental degradation, reversing decades of conservation efforts in the region (Fissha,
Tsegaye, & Adhanom, 2022). Furthermore, heavy artillery shelling in the conflict zones led to
the destruction of tree cover and forest resources, leaving vast areas of land barren and
vulnerable to soil erosion (Mohammed, Abdi, & Ahmed, 2023).
2. Increased Dependence on Firewood and Charcoal
firewood and charcoal has intensified deforestation, as both local communities and displaced
populations cut down trees from forests and protected areas to meet their energy needs.
Moreover, the disruption of markets and trade routes due to the conflict has made alternative
sources of fuel less accessible, further pushing people to rely on wood-based fuel (Fissha,
Tsegaye, & Adhanom, 2022).
Charcoal production, in particular, has become a significant source of income for displaced
families, but it has come at a high environmental cost, as it involves the cutting of large numbers
of trees for burning. This increased exploitation of forest resources, coupled with the lack of
proper regulation and monitoring during the conflict, has exacerbated the loss of woody
vegetation and climate change and disrupted local ecosystems (Mohammed, Abdi, & Ahmed,
2023).
3. Displacement and Agricultural Expansion
The ongoing conflict in Tigray, which started in November 2020, has resulted in large-scale
displacement and significant changes to agricultural practices in the region. As of recent reports,
8
millions of people have been displaced within Tigray, with many seeking refuge in rural areas
where agricultural expansion is already a critical issue. This influx of displaced people has led to
the clearing of forests and expansion of agricultural activities into previously untouched areas,
causing significant deforestation. New farmlands are often established by cutting down trees,
which not only depletes forest cover but also disrupts the natural ecosystem, leading to soil
degradation and a loss of biodiversity. This expansion has put enormous pressure on local
resources and increased the need for sustainable farming practices in an already vulnerable
environment (Fissha, Tsegaye, & Adhanom, 2022).
4. Collapse of Conservation Efforts
. the outbreak of war has led to the destruction of critical infrastructure, such as terracing and
water catchment systems, which were vital for soil and water conservation. Military activities
and the displacement of people have directly disrupted these efforts, resulting in increased soil
erosion, deforestation, and the loss of biodiversity. Moreover, the conflict has severely hampered
the ability of conservation organizations and local governments to continue their restoration
projects, as resources have been diverted to humanitarian needs and the war effort (Fissha,
Tsegaye, & Adhanom, 2022).
5. Illegal Logging and Resource Exploitation.
illegal logging contributes to biodiversity loss by destroying forest firewood, charcoal, and
timber, as displaced populations and armed groups seek immediate sources of income or
resources. As a result, these unsustainable practices have intensified the environmental crisis in
Tigray, reversing years of conservation efforts and contributing to soil erosion and land
degradation (Fissha, Tsegaye, & Adhanom, 2022).
2.4 what is the effect forest degraded on the community of Tigray
the degradation of forests has had significant impacts on local communities, both
environmentally and socioeconomically. Forests in Tigray are essential for maintaining
ecological balance, providing resources like firewood, medicinal plants, and materials for
construction. However, as the conflict has escalated, deforestation has increased due to the
displacement of people and the military’s use of forested areas for cover and resources. The
destruction of these forests not only contributes to soil erosion, which reduces agricultural
9
productivity, but it also depletes vital natural resources, thereby exacerbating the challenges
faced by displaced populations (Bishaw, 2021). some of the effect are follows
1. Increased Energy and Fuel Scarcity
The war has disrupted the supply chains of essential fuel and energy resources, leading to a sharp
decline in access to electricity, cooking fuel, and other energy necessities. The destruction of
infrastructure, including power lines, fuel depots, and transportation networks, has hindered both
the importation and local production of energy. As a result, many households in Tigray are left
without reliable sources of power and are forced to rely on wood and other unsustainable fuels,
further contributing to environmental degradation (Hirpa, 2022).
2. Decline in Agricultural Productivity
The conflict in Tigray has caused a significant decline in agricultural productivity, further
compounding the region's food insecurity. The destruction of critical infrastructure such as
irrigation systems, roads, absence of modern fertilizers, and marketplaces has hindered farmers’
ability to access resources and bring their produce to market. Additionally, the displacement of
large numbers of people has led to a loss of labor, as many farmers have been forced to abandon
their land or flee to refugee camps (Fiseha, 2022).
3. Water Shortages and Drought Intensification
The conflict in Tigray has exacerbated water shortages and intensified the region's vulnerability
to drought, severely impacting local communities. Water infrastructure, including wells,
pipelines, and reservoirs, has been damaged or destroyed during the fighting, making it
increasingly difficult for residents to access clean water (Tadesse, 2023)..
4. Loss of Livelihoods and Economic Hardship
The destruction of infrastructure, including markets, roads, and commercial centers, has
disrupted economic activities, making it difficult for people to engage in trade or agriculture.
Many families, particularly those who relied on small businesses or farming for their income,
have lost their primary sources of livelihood due to displacement, destruction, and the disruption
of local supply chains (Kassahun & Yihdego, 2021.
5. Increased Climate Vulnerability
The conflict in Tigray has significantly increased the region's climate vulnerability, making it
more susceptible to the impacts of climate change. The destruction of agricultural infrastructure
and the displacement of large populations have disrupted adaptive strategies that communities
once employed to cope with droughts, floods, erratic rainfall and other environmental stresses.
10
Additionally, the destruction of water and irrigation systems has intensified the challenges
associated with reduced rainfall and shifting weather patterns, making it harder for farmers to
maintain food security (Bekele, 2022)
6. Displacement and Human Suffering
The conflict in Tigray has led to widespread displacement, creating immense human suffering
for millions of individuals and families. As the fighting escalates, around one millions of people
have been forced to flee their homes, seeking refuge in neighboring regions or countries.
Displaced individuals often face harsh living conditions in camps, where access to basic
necessities such as food, clean water, and healthcare is limited (Adugna, 2022).
7. Loss of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
The conflict in Tigray has caused significant loss of biodiversity such as wildlife, plant species
and disruption of ecosystem services, further exacerbating environmental challenges in the
region. The destruction of forests, wildlife habitats, and agricultural lands has resulted in the
military force and displacement of numerous peoples, leading to a decline in biodiversity (Abay,
2022).
11
2.5. Vegetation degradation and strategies for remediation and restoration
The conflict in Tigray has led to significant vegetation degradation, with the destruction of
forests and the overuse of land resources due to displacement and military activities. Vegetation
loss has resulted in soil erosion, reduced agricultural productivity, and increased vulnerability to
climate-related disasters, such as droughts and floods (Tefera & Mekonnen, 2023).
To mitigate these effects, various strategies for vegetation remediation and restoration are
crucial. These strategies include reforestation, soil conservation techniques, and community-
based land management approaches that involve local populations in restoring degraded lands.
The efforts are communities’ awareness and Reforestation initiatives, combined with the
protection of remaining forests, can help restore ecological balance, improve water retention, and
enhance food security. Furthermore, integrating traditional knowledge with modern conservation
practices will be essential in rebuilding the region’s natural capital and fostering long-term
resilience against both human and environmental pressures (Tefera & Mekonnen, 2023).
2.6. The role of local government and community actors on vegetation resources
management
Tigray regional government has designed a strategy to reverse during the conflict (2020-22) and
its outcomes in relation to vegetation degradation. The reinvigoration of the previously-effective
water and land management programs may indicate that there is hope for land restoration and the
re-establishment of the rural agricultural economy and forest ecosystem services (e.g. Abera et
al., 2020; Gebremeskel et al., 2018; Oniki et al., 2020). Monitoring using remote sensing is
necessary to evaluate the success of the water and land management programmes. However,
there are other factors contributing to vegetation cover changes in Tigray including climate
change. Over decadal timescales, precipitation is the major control on vegetation (Mucheye et
al., 2021) but the relative roles of human activity and climate change vary over time and space
across the region (Yang et al., 2022). Annys et al. (2017) argued that other factors like human
activity should be considered alongside rainfall variability in woody vegetation development
along the Ethiopian Rift Valley escarpment.
12
3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION
3.1. conclusion
The impact of the armed conflict in Tigray on vegetation degradation has been severe, with
widespread deforestation, loss of biodiversity, and the degradation of ecosystems that are
essential for the well-being of local communities. The destruction of forests, combined with the
overuse of natural resources due to displacement and military activities, has led to the erosion of
soil and the collapse of local agricultural systems. These environmental impacts not only
contribute to food insecurity and economic hardship but also exacerbate the region's
vulnerability to climate change. The conflict has thus created a vicious cycle of environmental
degradation that poses significant challenges to both the ecological recovery and the socio-
economic stability of Tigray. Addressing these issues requires immediate intervention and long-
term restoration efforts, with an emphasis on sustainable practices, community involvement, and
international support.
3.2 Recommendations
1. Reforestation and Afforestation Initiatives
To restore the lost vegetation and stabilize the environment, large-scale reforestation and
afforestation programs must be implemented in conflict-affected areas.
2. Soil Conservation and Agricultural Recovery
Soil conservation techniques, including the use of terraces, cover crops, and agroforestry,
are critical to combat soil erosion and restore agricultural productivity in Tigray.
3. Sustainable Resource Management and Community Involvement
Local communities must be empowered to manage their natural resources sustainably.
Involving communities in the creation and enforcement of resource management policies
will ensure that forests are protected and used responsibly.
4. International Support for Restoration Efforts
Given the scale of the damage, international financial and technical support is essential
for large-scale environmental restoration in Tigray. International organizations,
13
governments, and NGOs should collaborate to provide resources for reforestation, soil
restoration, and community-based conservation programs.
5. Promotion of Peace and Stability
Lastly, the restoration of Tigray’s environment is dependent on the cessation of hostilities
and the establishment of long-term peace in the region. A stable and peaceful
environment is crucial for the success of any restoration efforts and for the ability of
displaced populations to return home and contribute to rebuilding their communities and
ecosystems.
14
4.REFERENCES
Abay, A. (2022). The impact of armed conflict on biodiversity and ecosystem services in Tigray.
Environmental Sustainability.
Abay, A., Yacob, A., & Degu, Y. (2022). Impact of the Tigray conflict on the environment and
biodiversity: A comprehensive assessment. Environmental Impact Assessment Review,
Adugna, M. (2022). Displacement and human suffering in Tigray: A humanitarian crisis in the
making. Journal of Humanitarian Affairs
Bekele, F. (2022). The environmental impact of the Tigray conflict: Increased climate
vulnerability and food security challenges. Climate Change and Development
Bishaw, B. (2021). Deforestation in Tigray: Implications for socio-economic stability and
environmental restoration. Forest Ecology and Management
Bishaw, B. (2021). Environmental impacts of armed conflicts in Ethiopia's Tigray region.
Environmental Science and Policy
CEOBS. (2022). The environmental consequences of the Tigray conflict: A focus on
deforestation and land degradation. Centre for Environmental Observation and Biodiversity
Studies
Fiseha, B. (2022). The impact of armed conflict on agricultural productivity and food security in
Tigray, Ethiopia. Journal of Rural Studies
Fiseha, H. (2022). Agricultural decline and food insecurity in Tigray during conflict
Fissha, T., Tsegaye, B., & Adhanom, G. (2022). The impact of armed conflict on forest cover
and biodiversity in Tigray, Ethiopia. Journal of Environmental Science
Gebremeskel, K., Abera, K., & Tesfaye, G. (2018). Reversing environmental degradation
through land and water management in Tigray:
Ghebreyohannes, S., Gebremedhin, M., & Tesfaye, A. (2022). Local governance and
environmental conservation during conflict: A case study of Tigray region. Ethiopian Journal of
Environmental Management,
15
Ghebreyohannes, S., Gebremedhin, M., & Tesfaye, A. (2022). Local governance and
environmental conservation during conflict:
Hailemariam, G. (2021). Forest cover and environmental sustainability in pre-conflict Tigray: An
analysis of the impacts of deforestation. Journal of Environmental Management
Hirpa, A. (2022). Energy and fuel scarcity during the Tigray conflict: Consequences and
solutions.
Kanyamibwa, S. (1998). Environmental consequences of forced migration: The case of the 1994
Rwandan refugees in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Environmental Conservation,
Kassahun, D., & Yihdego, B. (2021). The socio-economic impacts of the Tigray conflict on local
livelihoods.
Mohammed, M., Abdi, M., & Ahmed, N. (2023). Environmental degradation in Tigray: The
impacts of conflict on soil, water, and vegetation. Environmental Management,
Mohammed, M., Abdi, M., & Ahmed, N. (2023). Environmental degradation in Tigray: The
impacts of conflict on soil, water, and vegetation.
Mucheye, G., Asmare, M., & Desta, T. (2021). Climate change and vegetation development in
Tigray.
Nyssen, J., De Dapper, M., & Poesen, J. (2021). The socio-environmental impact of conflict on
agriculture in Tigray, Ethiopia. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Sustainability
Nyssen, J., De Dapper, M., & Poesen, J. (2021). The socio-environmental impact of conflict on
agriculture in Tigray.
Oniki, M., Yihdego, B., & Tesfaye, D. (2020). Assessing the restoration potential of Tigray’s
land and water management programs.
Plaut, M. (2021). The humanitarian crisis in Tigray and its environmental repercussions: A
critical analysis. Humanitarian Affairs Review
Tadesse, A. (2022). Conflict-driven water scarcity and drought intensification in Tigray, Ethiopia.
Global Environmental Change,
Tefera, S., & Mekonnen, A. (2023). Vegetation degradation and strategies for remediation in
Tigray.
Weldemichel, G. (2021). The destruction of agricultural resources and environmental
degradation in Tigray during conflict. International Journal of Environmental Sustainability.
Yang, H., Zhou, Q., & Zeng, G. (2022). The impact of human activity and climate change on
vegetation in the Ethiopian Rift Valley.
16
