Article

The Essential Oil Composition in Commercial Samples of

Verbena officinalis L. Herb from Different Origins
Ain Raal 1, * , Getter Dolgošev 1 , Tetiana Ilina 2 , Alla Kovalyova 3 , Martin Lepiku 4 , Andriy Grytsyk 2
and Oleh Koshovyi 1,3

1 Institute of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tartu, 50411 Tartu, Estonia;

getter.dolgosev@ut.ee (G.D.); oleh.koshovyi@ut.ee (O.K.)
2 Department of Pharmaceutical Management, Drug Technology and Pharmacognosy, Ivano-Frankivsk
National Medical University, 76018 Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine; ilyinatany86@gmail.com (T.I.);
grycyk@ukr.net (A.G.)
3 Department of Pharmacognosy, The National University of Pharmacy, 61002 Kharkiv, Ukraine;
allapharm@yahoo.com
4 Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Tartu, 50411 Tartu, Estonia;
martin.lepiku@aquilent.ee
* Correspondence: ain.raal@ut.ee; Tel.: +372-5027574

Abstract: The key objective of this study was to determine the yield and chemical composi-
tion of eight commercial samples and one collected sample of common vervain (Verbena
officinalis L.) herb essential oil (EO) originating from seven different countries, and subse-
quently, to assess its potential for treating anxiety and depression. According to GC-MS
analysis, 90 compounds were identified, 49 of which were discovered for the first time in
V. officinalis EO. The plants with the highest oil content are from Greece (4.7 mL/kg) and
South Carolina, USA (5.2 mL/kg). The chemical markers for the studied chemotypes of
EO of V. officinalis are the terpenoids o-cymene, p-cymene, L-carvone, thymol, carvacrol,
α-curcumin, hexahydrofarnesyl acetone, phytol, (E)-β-ionone, and phenylpropene anet-
hole. The chemotype from the UK demonstrated the greatest affinity to the continuum
under study; it has the highest levels of similarity—85.2% with the chemotype from Greece,
69.4% with the chemotype from the USA, 68.2% with the chemotype from Estonia (2), 58.7%
with the chemotype from Germany, and 58.6% with the chemotype from Hungary. The
Academic Editor: Yinglong Chen
chemotypes identified have the potential for use in the treatment of anxiety and depression.
Received: 18 February 2025
Revised: 18 March 2025 Keywords: Verbena officinalis; essential oil; chemotypes
Accepted: 26 March 2025
Published: 2 April 2025

Citation: Raal, A.; Dolgošev, G.; Ilina,

T.; Kovalyova, A.; Lepiku, M.; Grytsyk, 1. Introduction
A.; Koshovyi, O. The Essential Oil
Composition in Commercial Samples
Verbena officinalis L., common vervain or common verbena, is a perennial plant of the
of Verbena officinalis L. Herb from Verbenaceae J.St.-Hil. family that grows wild in Europe, where it particularly prefers the
Different Origins. Crops 2025, 5, 16. dry grasslands of Eastern, Central, and Southern Europe. It is common to find the plant
https://doi.org/10.3390/ on roadsides and wastelands in these regions. The species has also spread from Europe to
crops5020016
North Africa, Asia, and North America due to its use in rituals and traditional medicine,
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors. and it has become a weed following its cultivation [1]. The species is sold as an ornamental
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. but mainly for cultivation in herb gardens [2]. The verbena flower is a beautiful plant
This article is an open access article
with a healing effect that is also ideal for decorative purposes. Varieties of verbena differ
distributed under the terms and
primarily in the size and colour of the flowers. In the garden, verbena is often propagated
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license
by self-sowing.
(https://creativecommons.org/ Growing conditions and chemotype, as well as the time of collection, affect the amount
licenses/by/4.0/). of substances contained in the plant; therefore, common vervain has a high chemical

Crops 2025, 5, 16 https://doi.org/10.3390/crops5020016

Crops 2025, 5, 16 2 of 16

variability depending on the origin. The extraction conditions are also important to obtain
the necessary components from the plant. It has been found that aqueous extracts of
common vervain are richer in phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and phenolic acids than
hydromethanolic extracts [3].
Common vervain mainly contains iridoids, phenylpropanoid glycosides, phenolic
acids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and essential oil [2]. The best-known and most characteristic
iridoids in common vervain are the verbenaline and hastatoside glycosides. The plant also
contains the iridoid glycosides 3,4-dihydroverbenaline, 7-hydroxydehydrohastatoside, and
aucubin, and the secoiridoids verbeofflin I, verbenoside A, and verbenoside B [4–6].
The European Pharmacopoeia has had a monograph on common vervain since 2008.
The raw material must be standardised according to the verbenaline content (minimum
1.5% of dry weight) [7] according to the pharmacopoeia requirements. It should be noted
that in addition to the monograph V. officinalis, there is another monograph, “Leaf of lemon
verbena, Verbenae citriodorae folium, Verbena citriodora (Palau) Cav” (Aloysia citriodora Palau,
syn. Aloysia triphylla (L’Her.) Kuntze, Verbena triphylla L’Her., Lippia citriodora Kunth.). The
raw material is standardised according to the phenylethanoid, a derivative of tyrosol—
acteoside (verbascoside) content: minimum 2.5% of dry weight, expressed as ferulic acid;
essential oil: minimum 3.0 mL/kg for the whole drug and minimum 2.0 mL/kg for the
fragmented drug (dry weight) [7].
Of the phenylpropanoid glycosides, verbascoside, isoverbascoside, and eukovoside
are the most abundant in the plant, but isomers of leukoseptoside and cistanoside are also
found [8]. Of the fatty acids, α-linolenic acid, palmitic acid, linoleic acid, and oleic acid are
the most abundant. Of the phenolic acids, the plant contains, among others, gallic acid,
syringic acid, ferulic acid, cinnamic acid, protocatechuic acid, quinic acid, chlorogenic acid,
rosmarinic acid, and dicaffeoylquinic acid derivatives [3,9].
Among the flavonoids in the herb V. officinalis apigenin, luteolin, 5,7,4′ -trihydroxy-
8-methoxyflavone, scutellarein, scutellarein 7-glucoside, scutellarein-7-diglucuronide,
scutellarein-7-glucuronide, pedalitin, pedalitin-6-galactoside, quercetin, kaempferol,
isorhamnetin, diosmetin, and rutin are found [3,10–12].
The composition of the essential oil (EO) of common vervain varies greatly, de-
pending on the plant’s location and the part of the plant used for distillation. Monoter-
penoids include citral, limonene, eucalyptol, menthol, α-pinene, β-pinene, sabinene, and
β-phellandrene, while diterpenoids include carnosol and rosmanol. The most abundant
sesquiterpenoids in the plant are caryophyllene oxide, α-curcumin, β-caryophyllene, hex-
ahydrofarnesylacetone, and spathulenol [2,13–15], while the most abundant triterpenoids
are squalene, ursolic, barbinervic, and oleanoic acids [3,16]. Sterols including β-sitosterol,
γ-sitosterol, daucosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, and androst-5,15-dien-3-ol-acetate were
isolated from the aerial part of V. officinalis [10,14–16].
Verbena has been used extensively throughout history and was considered sacred by
the Egyptians, Romans, Persians, and Druids. Roman soldiers wore the plant for protection
and used it in religious ceremonies. Verbena has been used for nervous system disorders
such as stress, anxiety, depression, and insomnia. It has been used to relieve headaches and
premenstrual tension. It has also been used to treat cramps, jaundice, and asthma, among
other conditions [17,18].
Verbena herb infusion is often used externally—for gargling with tonsillitis and stom-
atitis, and lotions for skin diseases. Verbena is a component of many preparations and part
of the complex herbal preparation Sinupret® of the company “Bionorika, SE”, Neumarkt,
Germany. Sinupret® is an effective treatment of acute viral rhinosinusitis in children, and it
accelerates the relief of its main symptoms [19].
Crops 2025, 5, 16 3 of 16

On the Ukrainian pharmaceutical market, the packaged verbena herb and food sup-
plements “Verbena Drops” (LLC “Botanika”, Phytobiotechnologies, NVO, LLC), which are
recommended for use to lower cholesterol levels and improve capillary blood circulation,
are sold through pharmacy chains [20].
The tumour cell growth inhibitory effect of an aqueous extract of common vervain has
been studied in vitro on rat and human colon adenocarcinoma cell lines. Thus, polysaccha-
rides of V. officinalis significantly inhibited the invasion and metastasis of colorectal cancer
cells [21]. The cytotoxic activity of two new phenylethanoid glycosides isolated from the
plant was close to that of vinblastine sulfate used in chemotherapy [22]. Semi-purified
fractions isolated from methanolic extracts of common vervain have shown tumour cell
growth inhibitory activity on various melanoma cell lines [23]. The cytotoxic effect of
the plant has also been examined in animal studies in the treatment of hepatocellular
carcinoma [24].
The antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective activity of aqueous and
hydroalcoholic extracts of the plant was also demonstrated in another study [5,8,25,26].
In addition to the antioxidant activity, the antimicrobial and antifungal activity of the
leaf extracts of common vervain was also investigated. The fraction containing caffeoyl
derivatives showed the highest antifungal activity against P. expansum and R. stolonifer [27].
A study of EO’s antioxidant and antibacterial effects on S. aureus and E. coli found
that while gram-negative bacteria usually show lower sensitivity to EOs, E. coli was more
sensitive to yarrow EO than gram-positive S. aureus. Increasing the concentration of the
EO showed an increase in antioxidant activity [28]. Silver nanoparticles prepared from
an extract of the leaves of common vervain showed antibacterial activity against both
gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria [29].
Common vervain has also been studied in the treatment of hyperlipidemia. The crude
extract of the plant reduces total cholesterol, triglycerides, low-density lipoproteins, and
very-low-density lipoproteins in vivo [30]. Biologically active components of V. officinalis
herb, such as quercetin, luteolin, and kaempferol, have been considered key ingredients for
the treatment of atherosclerosis [10].
An animal study has also investigated the effect of the plant’s aqueous extract on
physical stress. The study showed, among other things, antioxidant changes in red blood
cell membranes and a significant effect against physical stress. Common vervain extract is
seen as a potential ingredient in sports supplements to accelerate post-exercise recovery [31].
In addition to what has already been mentioned, several studies have been conducted on
the effects of vervain on anxiety, depression, and insomnia [32–34].
This research aimed to analyse the chemical composition of essential oils (EO) from
V. officinalis commercial samples, which allows an assessment of their quality. To the best of
our knowledge, this is the first systematic study of V. officinalis EO chemotypes.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Plant Material
Nine different dried herbs of common vervain originating from seven different coun-
tries (Table 1) were used in the study. Eight of them are commercial herbs ordered online.
The herb V. officinalis (sample Ukraine 1) was collected in the wild in the village of Isakiv,
Ivano-Frankivsk region, Ukraine (coordinates 40◦ 44′ 382′′ N, 33◦ 06′ 099′′ E), accounted
for and stored at the Department of Pharmaceutical Management, Drug Technology and
Pharmacognosy, Ivano-Frankivsk National Medical University, Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine
(vouchers no. 487–489). The studied herb samples mostly had a rich stem composition
and brownish-green colour. The exception was the samples of German origin, consisting
Crops 2025, 5, 16 4 of 16

mainly of green leaves, and sample Ukraine 1, containing, in addition to leaves, rather
large fragments of stems.

Table 1. Plant material of Verbena officinalis herb and content of EO.

Yield of EO,
Country of Origin Company Webpage
mL/kg
https://kubja.ee/ (accessed on 17
Estonia 1 Kubja Herbal Farm (2023) 1.51
February 2025)
https://kubja.ee/ (accessed on 17
Estonia 2 Kubja Herbal Farm (2024) 1.85
February 2025)
https://clinicnaturae.com/ (accessed on
UK Clinic Naturae 1.23
17 February 2025)
https://www.youherbit.com/ (accessed
Greece You Herb It 4.68
on 17 February 2025)
https://www.trifectabotanicals.com/
USA, South Carolina Trifecta Botanicals 5.15
(accessed on 17 February 2025)
https://greekherbay.com/ (accessed on
Germany Greek Herbay 3.69
17 February 2025)
https://herbaperu.eu/ (accessed on 17
Hungary Herba Peru—Luci Vita 0.32
February 2025)
Ukraine 1 Collected from nature Collected from nature 1.21
https://www.goldenfarm.com.ua/en/
Ukraine 2 PhytoBioTechnologies fitobiotehnologii-ukraina/ (accessed on 17 0.31
February 2025)

2.2. Hydrodistillation of Essential Oil

The EO was hydrodistilled from the dried herbs of V. officinalis using the method
described in the European Pharmacopoeia [7]. The plant materials (35 g) with 300 mL of
purified water were hydrodistilled in a 1000 mL round-bottom flask for 3 h (2–3 mL/min).
Hexane (0.5 mL) was added to a graduated tube to remove the distilled oil. According to
the European Pharmacopoeia methodology, each EO was analysed once.

2.3. Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry

The samples of EO were analysed on an Agilent 6890/5973 GCMS system (Santa Clara,
CA, USA) run by MSD Chemstation. For this analysis, 1 µL of the sample was introduced
into the Agilent HP-5MSUI column (30 m length, 0.25 mm inner diameter, 0.25 µm film
thickness, Santa Clara, CA, USA) using split mode (20:1). The injector temperature was
280 ◦ C, and carrier gas (He) flow was kept constant at 1 mL/min throughout whole analysis.
The oven (Agilent Technologies, Inc., Santa Clara, CA, USA)was held at 50 ◦ C for 2 min,
followed by a ramp of 4 ◦ C/min to a final temperature of 280 ◦ C, and was kept there for
5 min.
The MSD was operated in EI mode at 70 eV, scanning across the mass range of
29–400 m/z with a delay time of 4 min and a scan speed of 3.8 scans per second. The
data were analysed by the Agilent Masshunter Software B.07.01 package, applying the
deconvolution algorithm at different window size factors. Resulting compounds were
identified by using the NIST23 library with match factor ≥ 90 and by retention indexes
(relative to n-alkanes C8–C30) or obtained by the analysis of the reference compounds. The
area percentages of each peak were calculated from the total areas in the chromatograms
without using correction factors [35,36].
 Crops 2025, 5, 16 5 of 16

3. Results
GC-MS chromatograms of Verbena officinalis are shown in Figure 1. The component
composition of EOs of V. officinalis varies depending on the place of plant growth and
Crops 2025, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW soil and climatic conditions. Plants from different growing areas all belonged to different
8 of 16
chemotypes, i.e., their highest content of components was different (Table 2). The same can
be said about the overall composition, which varied greatly.

(A)

(B)
Figure
Figure 1. GC-MS
1. GC-MS chromatograms
chromatograms of of Verbena
Verbena officinalis:
officinalis: (A)(A) chromatogram
chromatogram of of
thethe commercial
commercial sample
sample
(Clinic
(Clinic Naturae);
Naturae); (B)(B) chromatogram
chromatogram ofof the
the sample
sample collected
collected from
from nature
nature (Ukraine
(Ukraine 1).1).

4. Discussion
The EO content of plants from different countries varies significantly (Table 1). The
plants with the highest EO content are from Greece (4.68 mL/kg) and South Carolina, USA
(5.15 mL/kg). The reason for the abundance of EO probably lies in the place where the
plants grow, as both places (Mediterranean and humid subtropical climates) are quite
warm and sunny. A sunny place promotes increased EO production [40]. A fairly high
content of EO in the plant (3.9 mL/kg) was also identified in a study conducted in Italy
[13], which again confirms the assumption that plants grown in sunny climates produce
more EO. For comparison, a plant grown in Estonia contained 1.51 mL/kg of EO, or more
than half as much as foreign analogues. The raw material sample from Germany is the
third in terms of EO content. The plant collected from the wild in Ukraine had a lot of
leaves but also many coarse stem fragments. The EO content also reflected the general
abundance of stems and the low odour of the drug. The lower EO content in the remaining
Crops 2025, 5, 16 6 of 16

Table 2. Composition (>0.01%) of essential oils in Verbena officinalis herbs from different countries.

Content in Essential Oil, %

Library RI

Ukraine 1

Ukraine 2
Germany
Estonia 1

Estonia 2

Hungary
Greece
Mentioned in

USA
Compound RI

UK
Previous Studies

Hexanal 800 801 0.10 0.09 0.53 0.02 0.22 0.02 0.16 0.03 0.09
1-Hexanol 865 868 0.11 0.08 0.01 0.04 0.01 nd 0.21 nd 0.01
p-Xylene 866 865 1.81 0.01 0.15 0.05 0.03 nd 0.03 0.20 0.17
α-Pinene 932 932 0.18 0.53 0.05 0.02 0.16 0.57 0.45 0.20 0.71 [13,37,38]
(E)-2-Heptenal 955 958 0.02 0.01 0.16 0.09 0.02 0.01 0.04 0.04 0.01
Benzaldehyde 958 962 0.33 0.27 0.26 0.13 0.13 0.03 0.29 0.05 0.14 [15]
α-Sabinene 973 974 0.06 0.05 0.01 0.02 0.03 1.01 0.11 0.10 0.10 [13,38]
1-Octen-3-ol 978 980 1.17 1.15 1.02 2.49 0.56 1.25 7.76 2.29 6.04 [39]
6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one 987 986 0.19 0.14 0.11 0.04 0.06 0.84 0.16 nd nd [28]
β-Myrcene 991 991 0.08 0.13 0.02 nd 0.07 0.13 0.13 0.32 0.95
2-Pentyl-furan 991 993 0.13 0.31 1.16 0.12 0.24 0.10 0.26 nd 0.18
(Z)-2-(2-Pentenyl)furan 1002 1002 0.47 nd nd 0.04 0.02 nd 0.11 0.28 0.84
(E,E)-2,4-Heptadienal 1010 1012 0.15 0.09 0.34 0.16 0.17 2.54 0.36 nd 0.16
o-Cymene 1024 1022 0.37 0.55 0.21 0.09 5.75 3.03 0.38 0.04 0.14 [13,38]
p-Cymene 1024 1025 0.37 0.55 0.21 0.09 5.75 3.03 0.38 0.04 0.14 [37]
D-Limonene 1028 1031 1.66 1.41 0.32 0.15 0.32 5.43 0.42 1.05 3.22 [28,37–39]
Eucalyptol 1030 1032 0.24 0.22 0.03 0.06 0.45 1.62 0.49 0.04 0.05 [28,37–39]
Benzeneacetaldehyde 1043 1045 0.26 0.17 0.36 0.55 0.24 nd 0.83 0.18 0.55 [39]
(E)-2-Octenal 1057 1060 0.03 0.04 0.16 0.03 0.05 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.03
γ-Terpinene 1059 1060 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.03 0.39 0.41 0.07 nd 0.02 [13,37,38]
Artemisia ketone 1058 1062 0.03 0.02 0.02 nd 0.04 0.04 0.06 nd nd
1-Octanol 1070 1070 0.07 0.07 0.10 0.10 0.16 0.05 0.14 0.02 0.02
Linalool 1100 1099 2.28 1.76 1.04 2.02 0.77 0.89 2.09 0.10 0.23 [28,38,39]
Nonanal 1104 1104 0.08 0.16 0.24 0.10 0.23 0.08 0.48 0.09 0.20
α-Thujone 1105 1103 0.27 0.16 0.26 0.21 0.11 0.78 0.38 nd 0.03 [39]
β-Thujone 1105 1114 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.11 0.02 0.06 0.07 nd nd [39]
Camphor 1145 1145 1.76 1.08 0.23 1.10 0.11 0.13 0.91 0.09 0.02 [39]
L-Menthone 1154 1164 4.80 3.88 0.64 0.60 0.08 0.11 0.66 nd 0.02 [39]
DL-Menthol 1172 1173 3.29 3.42 0.45 1.00 0.54 0.05 0.73 0.01 0.05 [15,39]
Terpinen-4-ol 1178 1177 0.75 0.55 0.34 0.51 0.15 0.67 0.30 0.01 0.04 [13,37–39]
Acetophenone 1184 1183 0.11 0.08 0.08 0.12 0.07 0.41 0.11 0.01 0.03
α-Terpineol 1191 1189 0.66 0.53 0.30 0.64 0.26 1.03 0.70 0.01 0.06 [13,38,39]
Crops 2025, 5, 16 7 of 16

Table 2. Cont.

Content in Essential Oil, %

Library RI

Ukraine 1

Ukraine 2
Germany
Estonia 1

Estonia 2

Hungary
Greece
Mentioned in

USA
Compound RI

UK
Previous Studies

Methyl salicylate 1194 1192 0.12 0.10 0.26 0.09 1.15 0.03 0.08 0.01 0.06
(E)-Dihydrocarvone 1197 1201 0.44 0.29 0.04 0.17 0.02 0.13 0.20 nd 0.01
Estragole 1199 1196 8.17 6.53 0.52 0.87 0.25 0.23 0.53 nd 0.01 [39]
Decanal 1206 1206 0.10 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.09 0.05 0.13 0.05 0.06
β-Citronellol 1228 1220 0.18 0.23 0.15 0.44 0.07 0.49 0.37 0.01 0.04
Anisole 1236 1235 0.09 0.09 0.03 0.04 0.78 0.02 0.08 nd 0.01
Pulegone 1240 1237 2.31 1.51 0.43 0.53 0.25 0.24 0.74 nd 0.06
L-Carvone 1245 1245 20.36 16.27 3.77 3.04 0.36 2.87 5.82 0.05 0.15 [39]
Piperitone 1255 1253 1.31 0.89 0.46 0.36 0.10 0.92 4.98 nd nd [37]
(E)-2-Decenal 1262 1263 0.15 0.03 0.44 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.16 0.15 0.02
(E)-Cinnamaldehyde 1270 1270 0.55 0.43 1.19 0.11 0.09 0.09 0.32 nd nd
(E)-Citral 1272 1270 0.25 0.31 nd 0.33 0.20 3.33 0.21 nd nd [13,37,38]
Anethole 1287 1287 15.38 20.48 25.64 6.41 12.64 6.48 6.80 0.02 0.05 [13,38,39]
L-Bornyl acetate 1288 1285 0.08 0.14 0.11 0.14 0.04 0.22 0.17 7.43 15.86 [38]
Thymol 1292 1291 2.69 3.39 2.41 2.13 6.44 1.38 1.20 nd 0.10 [28,37]
Menthyl acetate 1295 1295 0.22 0.28 0.08 0.15 0.03 nd 0.07 nd nd
Carvacrol 1302 1299 5.16 4.64 22.98 18.49 7.39 11.51 3.16 0.07 0.10 [37]
(E,E)-2,4-Decadienal 1317 1317 0.10 0.16 1.22 0.29 0.52 0.04 0.60 0.06 0.12
α-Terpinyl acetate 1351 1350 0.21 0.31 0.47 0.52 0.02 0.41 0.36 nd nd
Eugenol 1359 1357 0.97 0.78 0.11 0.62 2.52 1.81 0.12 nd 0.01
n-Capric acid 1369 1373 0.09 0.11 0.32 0.28 0.39 nd 0.05 0.01 0.03
Copaene 1378 1376 0.09 0.26 0.05 0.05 1.02 1.34 0.12 0.20 nd [13,37,38]
L-β-Bourbonene 1387 1384 0.03 0.12 0.01 0.01 0.08 2.43 0.16 0.63 2.15
Methyleugenol 1406 1402 0.18 0.17 0.12 1.45 0.22 0.77 0.26 nd 0.02
Caryophyllene 1423 1419 0.26 0.82 0.06 0.12 2.62 0.85 0.46 1.61 2.74 [28,38]
(Z)-β-Copaene 1438 1432 0.07 0.19 0.01 0.01 0.09 0.50 nd 3.01 4.03
(E)-Geranylacetone 1454 1453 0.43 0.66 1.10 0.78 1.12 0.41 2.34 0.41 0.76
Humulene 1457 1454 0.28 1.00 nd 0.01 5.59 0.55 0.41 2.31 5.00 [38]
γ-Muurolene 1479 1477 0.09 0.28 0.03 0.02 0.05 0.50 0.09 48.82 nd [38]
α-Curcumene 1485 1483 0.72 2.13 0.18 0.27 0.28 8.04 1.52 14.78 16.76 [28,37]
(E)-β-Ionone 1488 1486 0.73 0.82 2.16 2.51 1.48 7.54 2.35 1.81 5.41
Bicyclogermacren 1500 1496 0.04 0.09 0.01 nd 0.23 0.45 0.11 0.54 2.23 [13,37,38]
Crops 2025, 5, 16 8 of 16

Table 2. Cont.

Content in Essential Oil, %

Library RI

Ukraine 1

Ukraine 2
Germany
Estonia 1

Estonia 2

Hungary
Greece
Mentioned in

USA
Compound RI

UK
Previous Studies

β-Bisabolene 1511 1509 0.16 0.56 0.11 0.06 0.10 0.11 0.62 nd nd [28]
γ-Cadinene 1517 1513 0.09 0.31 0.04 0.09 0.14 1.90 0.16 0.23 3.52 [2]
Myristicin 1524 1519 0.64 0.84 0.37 0.30 0.52 0.16 1.59 nd nd
δ-Cadinene 1526 1524 0.26 0.69 0.17 0.26 0.36 0.96 0.64 0.08 0.13 [37]
D-Spathulenol 1581 1576 0.10 0.15 0.10 0.17 0.36 3.32 0.46 0.09 0.35 [37]
Caryophyllene oxide 1587 1581 0.16 0.25 0.14 0.36 1.04 3.92 0.59 0.20 0.26 [28,37]
Cedrol 1605 1599 0.02 0.05 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.20 nd nd nd
α-Humulene epoxide II 1613 1606 0.06 0.12 0.06 0.12 0.54 0.68 0.11 nd 0.20
β-Asarone 1624 1626 0.03 0.03 nd 0.11 2.24 3.21 0.04 nd nd
Benzophenone 1629 1635 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.05 0.49 0.14 0.05 nd 0.03 [15]
Selin-11-en-4-α-ol 1658 1653 0.09 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.11 0.17 0.40 0.79
ar-Turmerone 1668 1664 0.02 0.04 0.15 1.08 1.34 0.12 0.26 nd nd
Asarone 1683 1678 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 3.60 0.04 0.79 nd nd
Apiol 1685 1682 0.27 0.30 0.51 nd 0.20 1.72 nd nd 0.08
ent-Germacra-4(15),5,10(14)-trien-1β-ol 1690 1690 0.05 0.08 0.04 0.09 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.16 0.61
Acorenone B 1693 1701 0.13 0.30 0.27 0.05 0.36 0.27 0.01 0.10 0.40
Myristic acid 1765 1768 0.04 0.17 2.12 1.05 0.61 nd 0.01 nd nd
Phenanthrene 1776 1776 0.04 0.05 0.28 0.62 0.11 0.06 0.39 1.48 2.55
Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone 1846 1844 1.18 2.60 8.99 3.89 1.56 0.47 4.79 4.35 5.96 [15]
Phthalic acid 1870 1869 0.10 0.19 6.03 0.66 0.70 0.15 0.62 0.63 1.05
Farnesyl acetone 1920 1918 0.15 0.31 0.65 0.43 0.36 0.55 0.81 0.15 0.27
Methyl palmitate 1927 1926 0.23 0.16 1.95 0.13 0.23 0.04 1.21 0.37 0.64
Dibutyl phthalate 1964 1965 0.10 nd 0.22 0.42 0.67 0.19 1.37 1.58 3.45
Palmitic acid 1977 1968 8.78 7.17 0.11 35.02 13.49 nd 2nd nd 2.95 [39]
Methyl linolenate 2097 2099 0.30 0.14 0.72 0.16 0.17 0.02 1.79 0.54 0.93
Phytol 2109 2114 0.22 0.42 0.46 0.52 0.55 2.01 7.01 1.60 4.23 [39]
Hexacosane 2594 2600 0.13 0.22 0.22 0.97 0.24 0.14 1.46 0.78 1.28
Bold—not less than 5%, nd—not detected.
Crops 2025, 5, 16 9 of 16

4. Discussion
The EO content of plants from different countries varies significantly (Table 1). The
plants with the highest EO content are from Greece (4.68 mL/kg) and South Carolina, USA
(5.15 mL/kg). The reason for the abundance of EO probably lies in the place where the
plants grow, as both places (Mediterranean and humid subtropical climates) are quite warm
and sunny. A sunny place promotes increased EO production [40]. A fairly high content of
EO in the plant (3.9 mL/kg) was also identified in a study conducted in Italy [13], which
again confirms the assumption that plants grown in sunny climates produce more EO. For
comparison, a plant grown in Estonia contained 1.51 mL/kg of EO, or more than half as
much as foreign analogues. The raw material sample from Germany is the third in terms of
EO content. The plant collected from the wild in Ukraine had a lot of leaves but also many
coarse stem fragments. The EO content also reflected the general abundance of stems and
Crops 2025, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW the low odour of the drug. The lower EO content in the remaining plants may result9from of 16
climatic and general growing conditions and the low proportion of leaves in the studied
material [41].
The
Thediversity
diversityofofthe
thecomponent
componentcomposition
compositionof ofEOs
EOsof ofthe
thesame
sameplant speciesV.
plantspecies V.offici-
offic-
nalis is influenced by a large number of environmental parameters—geophysical,
inalis is influenced by a large number of environmental parameters—geophysical, geo- geochem-
ical, biological,
chemical, anthropogenic,
biological, climatic,
anthropogenic, and other
climatic, and factors; therefore,
other factors; multiple
therefore, correlations
multiple corre-
of the chemical composition of EOs of objects made it possible to
lations of the chemical composition of EOs of objects made it possible to establish establish the degree of
the de-
their
gree relationship, as well as
of their relationship, astowell
determine the main the
as to determine chemotypes of V. officinalis
main chemotypes of V. inherent
officinalis
in European and American samples. The content of different groups
inherent in European and American samples. The content of different groups of com- of compounds in
the studied
pounds samples
in the studiedof EO differs
samples ofsignificantly. ComparableComparable
EO differs significantly. concentrations of terpenoids
concentrations of
(52.5–59.0%)
terpenoids (52.5–59.0%) and aromatic (26.7–36.2%) and aliphatic (10.4–17.5%) were
and aromatic (26.7–36.2%) and aliphatic (10.4–17.5%) compounds found
compounds
in the found
were samples Estonia
in the 1, Estonia
samples Estonia2,1,UK, and USA
Estonia 2, UK,(Figure
and USA 2). (Figure
The highest content
2). The highestofcon-
ter-
penoids is found in wild raw materials (Ukraine 1—91.1%) and the industrial
tent of terpenoids is found in wild raw materials (Ukraine 1—91.1%) and the industrial samples of
raw materials
samples of rawUkraine 2 (78.0%)
materials Ukraineand Germany
2 (78.0%) and(79.2%).
Germany The highest
(79.2%). content
The highest of content
aromatic of
compounds was found in the EO of the verbena herb of the samples
aromatic compounds was found in the EO of the verbena herb of the samples UK, Estonia UK, Estonia 1, and
Estonia 2. Samples
1, and Estonia of raw materials
2. Samples from Greece
of raw materials from and
GreeceHungary are distinguished
and Hungary by the
are distinguished
highest content of aliphatic compounds (41.2% and
by the highest content of aliphatic compounds (41.2% and 35.2%). 35.2%).

100
Content in essential oil,%

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Terpenoids Aromatic Aliphatic

Figure2.2.Content
Figure Contentof
ofBAS
BASgroups
groupsin
inessential
essentialoils
oilsof
ofV.V.officinalis
officinalisherbs
herbsfrom
fromdifferent
differentcountries.
countries.

The terpenoid
The terpenoid composition
composition ofof the
the EOEO of
of the
thestudied
studiedsamples
samples of
ofraw
rawmaterials
materials also
also
hassignificant
has significantdifferences
differences(Figure
(Figure3).3).Despite
Despite thethe comparable
comparable values
values of the
of the total
total content
content of
of terpenoids
terpenoids in the
in the samples
samples of Ukraine
of Ukraine 1 and
1 and 2 and2 and Germany,
Germany, sesquiterpenoids
sesquiterpenoids prevail
prevail in
in the
the Ukrainian
Ukrainian samples.
samples. In contrast,
In contrast, in the
in the sample
sample from
from Germany,
Germany, thethe dominant
dominant group
group is
is monoterpenoids. In all studied samples, except for Ukraine 1 and Ukraine 2, the domi-
nant group of terpenoids is monoterpenoids, with a content of 29.2% (Hungary) to 53.25%
(Estonia 1). In the oil from wild, raw materials (Ukraine 1), the maximum content of ses-
quiterpenoids (77.7%) is noted; in the sample of industrial raw materials Ukraine 2—the
figure is 45.4%, while the samples Estonia 1, Estonia 2, and Greece contain 4.1%, 10.5%,
Crops 2025, 5, 16 10 of 16

monoterpenoids. In all studied samples, except for Ukraine 1 and Ukraine 2, the dominant
group of terpenoids is monoterpenoids, with a content of 29.2% (Hungary) to 53.25%
(Estonia 1). In the oil from wild, raw materials (Ukraine 1), the maximum content of
sesquiterpenoids (77.7%) is noted; in the sample of industrial raw materials Ukraine 2—the
Crops 2025, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW figure is 45.4%, while the samples Estonia 1, Estonia 2, and Greece contain 4.1%, 10.5%,
10 of and
16
7.2%, respectively.

Ukraine 2
Ukraine 1
Hungary
Germany
USA
Greece
UK
Estonia 2
Estonia 1
0 20 40 60 80 100
Terpenoids in essential oil, %

Monoterpenoids Sesquiterpenoids Norsesquiterpenoid Diterpenoid

Figure 3. Content groups of terpenoids in essential oils of V. officinalis herbs from different countries.
Figure 3. Content groups of terpenoids in essential oils of V. officinalis herbs from different countries.
The highest content of components in plants from Estonia was L-carvone (20.4,
The highest content of components in plants from Estonia was L-carvone (20.4, 16.3%),
16.3%), anethole (15.4, 20.5%), and palmitic acid (8.8, 7.2%). Carvone and anethole have
anethole (15.4, 20.5%), and palmitic acid (8.8, 7.2%). Carvone and anethole have shown
shown some antibacterial activity [41]. Carvone is effective in the treatment of skin and
some antibacterial activity [41]. Carvone is effective in the treatment of skin and breast
breast cancer [42,43]. Anethole is a potential compound for the treatment of several
cancer [42,43]. Anethole is a potential compound for the treatment of several chronic
chronic diseases, such as inflammation, type 2 diabetes, and neurodegenerative diseases
diseases, such as inflammation, type 2 diabetes, and neurodegenerative diseases [44].
[44]. Antidepressant effects have been observed in animals with both anethole [45,46] and
Antidepressant effects have been observed in animals with both anethole [45,46] and
carvone [47]. Both compounds have also shown anti-anxiety effects [48,49].
carvone [47]. Both compounds have also shown anti-anxiety effects [48,49].
The characteristic components of the plant from the USA were palmitic acid (13.5%),
The characteristic components of the plant from the USA were palmitic acid (13.5%),
anethole (12.6%), carvacrol (7.4%), isothymol (6.4%), thymol (6.44%), humulene (5.6%),
anethole (12.6%),
and asarone (3.6%). carvacrol
Carvacrol(7.4%), isothymol
possesses (6.4%),
a wide thymol
range (6.44%), humulene
of bioactivities (5.6%),for
that are useful and
asarone
clinical (3.6%). Carvacrol
applications such possesses a wide range
as antimicrobial, of bioactivities
antioxidant, that are[50,51].
and anticancer useful for clinical
Demon-
applications such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer [50,51].
strated therapeutic properties of carvacrol include diabetes prevention; cardioprotective, Demonstrated
therapeutic
anti-obesity,properties of carvacrol
hepatoprotective, include diabetes
and reproductive prevention;
roles; and antiagingcardioprotective,
and immunomodu- anti-
obesity, hepatoprotective, and reproductive roles; and antiaging and
latory properties [52,53]. The compound has also been effective in animal studies in alle-immunomodulatory
properties [52,53].
viating anxiety andThe compound
depression [54].has also been effective in animal studies in alleviating
anxietyTheand depression
chemotype of [54].
the plant from the UK was determined by anethole (25.6%), car-
The chemotype of the plant from
vacrol (23.0%), hexahydrofarnesyl the UK(9.0%),
acetone was determined
and phthalic by anethole (25.6%),
acid (6.0%). carvacrol
Hexahydro-
(23.0%),
farnesylhexahydrofarnesyl
has been identified as acetone
having(9.0%), and phthalic
antibacterial acid (6.0%).
and antifungal Hexahydrofarnesyl
effects [55].
has been identified as having antibacterial and antifungal effects [55].
The EO of the plant grown in Greece contains a large amount of palmitic acid (35.0%),
The EO
carvacrol of the anethole
(18.5%), plant grown in Greece
(6.4%), a smallcontains
amountaoflarge amount of palmitic
hexahydrofarnesyl acid(3.9%),
acetone (35.0%),
carvacrol (18.5%), anethole (6.4%), a small amount of hexahydrofarnesyl
and carvone (3.0%). The composition of the most similar sample to that of Greece was acetone (3.9%),
the
and carvone
Polish plant,(3.0%).
which The composition
contained palmitic of acid
the most similar
(>20%), sample
linalool to that
(>8%), of Greece
anethole (>5%),was
and the
Polish
carvoneplant,
(>3%)which
as thecontained palmitic[39].
main components acid (>20%), linalool (>8%), anethole (>5%), and
carvoneThe(>3%)
mainascomponents of the EO [39].
the main components of the plant from Hungary were palmitic acid
(20.0%), 1-octen-3-ol
The main (7.7%),ofphytol
components the EO(7.0%), anethole
of the plant from (6.8%),
HungaryL-carvone (5.8%), acid
were palmitic piperitone
(20.0%),
(5.0%), and (7.7%),
1-octen-3-ol hexahydrofarnesyl
phytol (7.0%), acetone
anethole (4.8%). Phytol
(6.8%), has the
L-carvone potential
(5.8%), to treat(5.0%),
piperitone anxiety,
and
depression, and insomnia [56]. In an animal study, 1-octen-3-ol was shown to exert tox-
icity via disruption of dopamine homeostasis, and it may represent a naturally occurring
environmental agent involved in parkinsonism. Moreover, it provides possible insights
into reported movement disorders associated with human exposure to fungi and their
volatile organic compounds [57].
Crops 2025, 5, 16 11 of 16

hexahydrofarnesyl acetone (4.8%). Phytol has the potential to treat anxiety, depression, and
insomnia [56]. In an animal study, 1-octen-3-ol was shown to exert toxicity via disruption
of dopamine homeostasis, and it may represent a naturally occurring environmental
agent involved in parkinsonism. Moreover, it provides possible insights into reported
movement disorders associated with human exposure to fungi and their volatile organic
compounds [57].
The EO of the plant from Germany was characterised by its content of carvacrol
(11.5%), α-curcumene (8.0%), (E)-β-ionone (7.5%), anethole (6.5%), and D-limonene (5.4%).
α-Curcumene has shown potential as an inhibitor of cancer cell growth [58].
The plants from Ukraine also differed significantly from each other. The EO of the
Ukrainian industrial variety Ukraine 2 contained α-curcumene (16.7%), L-bornyl acetate
(15.9%), 1-octen-3-ol (6.0%), hexahydrofarnesyl acetone (6.0%), and (E)-β-ionone (5.4%).
L-Bornyl acetate has promising pharmacological properties, especially anti-inflammatory
and immunomodulatory effects [59].
On the other hand, the EO of the plant collected in the wild, Ukraine 1, contained the
naphthalene series sesquiterpene γ-muurolene (48.82%) as the main component, which was
found in other samples in insignificant quantities (from 0.02% to 0.5%) and was absent in the
industrial sample from Ukraine. The dominant substances were also α-curcumene (14.8%)
and L-bornyl acetate (7.4%). It has been suggested that γ-muurolene may be responsible
for antimicrobial activity against Bacillus subtilis and Candida tropicalis (including clinical
strains) of Piper ovatum Vahl EO [60]. Previously published data indicate a significant
content of α-curcumene (6.0%) in the EO from the leaves of Moroccan plants [37].
Based on data from the literature, the EO of the plant grown in Italy also had a
completely different composition, with citral (46.0%) and isobornyl formate (44.4%) as the
main components [38]. The EO of a plant from Iran contained 4-(1-methylethyl)-benzyl
alcohol safranal (53.8%), eucalyptol (7.44%), and thymol (7.3%) as the main components [28].
Interestingly, safranal was not found in the other study of V. officinalis EO from Iran [61],
nor in our present study.
The chemical markers for the studied chemotypes of V. officinalis EOs are the terpenoids
o-cymene, p-cymene, L-carvone, thymol, carvacrol, α-curcumin, hexahydrofarnesylacetone,
phytol, (E)-β-ionone, and phenylpropene anethole.
Correlation links of EOs showed a high degree of affinity (similarity) of chemotypes
(Table 3).

Table 3. Interrelations of essential oil samples of V. officinalis based on the correlation matrix of
component composition.
Ukraine 1

Ukraine 2
Germany
Estonia 1

Estonia 2

Hungary
Greece

USA
UK

Country

Pairwise Similarity Coefficient, %

Estonia 1 100.00 95.93 55.95 43.16 39.46 31.28 60.87 −6.39 −9,52
Estonia 2 95.93 100.00 68.24 45.83 54.56 37.31 65.47 −3.67 −3.87
UK 55.95 68.24 100.00 85.17 69.42 58.67 58.60 −3.37 −2.09
Greece 43.16 45.83 85.17 100.00 54.33 65.39 46.28 −4.40 −2.09
USA 39.46 54.56 69.42 54.33 100.00 48.22 37.94 −7.31 −5.60
Germany 31.28 37.31 58.67 65.39 48.22 100.00 37.93 6.07 27.92
Hungary 60.87 65.47 58.60 46.28 37.94 37.93 100.00 −1.93 12.69
Ukraine 1 −6.39 −3.67 −3.37 −4.40 −7.31 6.07 −1.93 100.00 26.98
Ukraine 2 −9.52 −3.87 −2.09 −2.94 −5.60 27.92 12.69 26.98 100.00
Crops 2025, 5, 16 12 of 16

The location of the EO samples in the continuum under study is presented in de-
scending order of their similarity to the continuum: UK > Estonia 2 > Greece > Hungary >
Germany > Estonia 1 > USA > Ukraine 2 > Ukraine 1.
Crops 2025, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16
The chemotype from the UK demonstrated the greatest affinity to the continuum under
study; it has the highest levels of similarity—85.17% with the chemotype from Greece,
Ukraine 1 −6.39 69.42%
−3.67 with −3.37
the chemotype
−4.40 from −7.31
the USA, 68.24%
6.07 with−1.93the chemotype
100.00 from26.98
Estonia (2),
Ukraine 2 −9.52 58.67%
−3.87 with −2.09
the chemotype
−2.94from Germany,
−5.60 and 58.60% with
27.92 12.69the chemotype
26.98 from Hungary.
100.00
Chemotypes Estonia 1 and Estonia 2, which have an affinity of 95.93% between
Chemotypes
themselves, Estoniademonstrate
consistently 1 and Estoniamedium
2, which (from
have an affinity
30% of 95.93%
to 50%) between
and high them-
affinity (more
selves,
than 50%)consistently demonstrate
to most samples and nomedium
affinity(from 30%
to the to 50%)from
samples and high affinity (more than
Ukraine.
50%)
Fortotwo
mostchemotypes,
samples and no affinity 1toand
Ukraine the samples
Ukrainefrom Ukraine.
2, no affinity was noted with most
For two chemotypes, Ukraine 1 and Ukraine 2, no affinity
samples, except for a weak level of affinity for the sample from was noted with most
Germany, sam- and
at 6.07%
ples, except for a weak level of affinity for the sample from Germany, at 6.07% and 27.92%,
27.92%, respectively, and for Ukraine 2, a weak affinity was noted for the sample from
respectively, and for Ukraine 2, a weak affinity was noted for the sample from Hungary
Hungary at 12.69%.
at 12.69%.
The degree of relatedness of the studied essential oils of V. officinalis from different
The degree of relatedness of the studied essential oils of V. officinalis from different
countries is presented in Figure 4.
countries is presented in Figure 4.

Estonia 1
100.00%

Ukraine 2 80.00% Estonia 2

60.00%
40.00%
Estonia 1
20.00%
Estonia 2
Ukraine 1 0.00% UK
UK
-20.00% Greece
USA
Germany
Hungary
Hungary Greece
Ukraine 1
Ukraine 2

Germany USA

Figure 4. The degree of affinity of the studied essential oils of V. officinalis, %.

Figure 4. The degree of affinity of the studied essential oils of V. officinalis, %.

The semi-quantitative content and composition of the EO of V. officinalis vary signif-

The semi-quantitative content and composition of the EO of V. officinalis vary signifi-
icantly depending on the place of growth of the plant. Based on 72 analysed components
cantly depending on the place of growth of the plant. Based on 72 analysed components
of the EOs’ terpenoids and phenolic compounds, several chemotypes of Verbena officinalis
of the EOs’ terpenoids and phenolic compounds, several chemotypes of Verbena officinalis
were identified:
were identified:
Chemotype (Ct) 1, Estonian (samples Estonia 1 and Estonia 2): carvone-anethole-DL-
Chemotype (Ct) 1, Estonian (samples Estonia 1 and Estonia 2): carvone-anethole-DL-
menthol-L-menthone-estragole-carvacrol.
menthol-L-menthone-estragole-carvacrol.
Ct 2, UK: anethole-carvacrol-hexahydrofarnesyl acetone-phthalic acid.
CtCt2,3,UK: anethole-carvacrol-hexahydrofarnesyl
Greece: carvacrol-anethole. acetone-phthalic acid.
CtCt3,4,Greece:
German:carvacrol-anethole.
carvacrol-anethole-α-curcumene-(E)-β-ionone-D-limonene-o-cymene-
Ct 4, German: carvacrol-anethole-α-curcumene-(E)-β-ionone-D-limonene-o-cymene-
p-cymene.
p-cymene.
Ct 5, Hungary: anethole-L-carvone-piperitone-carvacrol-hexahydrofarnesyl acetone-
phytol.
Ct 5, Hungary: anethole-L-carvone-piperitone-carvacrol-hexahydrofarnesyl
Ct 6, USA:
acetone-phytol. anethole-carvacrol-o-cymene-p-cymene-humulene-asarone.
CtCt6,7,USA:
Ukraine 1: γ-muurolene-α-curcumene-L-bornyl acetate.
anethole-carvacrol-o-cymene-p-cymene-humulene-asarone.
Ct 8, Ukraine 2: L-bornyl acetate-α-curcumene-(E)-β-ionone-hexahydrofarnesyl ace-
tone-phytol.
Crops 2025, 5, 16 13 of 16

Ct 7, Ukraine 1: γ-muurolene-α-curcumene-L-bornyl acetate.

Ct 8, Ukraine 2: L-bornyl acetate-α-curcumene-(E)-β-ionone-hexahydrofarnesyl
acetone-phytol.
Based on the above, it can be concluded that among the EOs of V. officinalis studied,
the essential oils of chemotypes 1–5 of European origin and 6 of American origin have the
potential for use in the treatment of anxiety and depression.
New compounds not found before in V. officinalis EO [2,13,15,28,37–39] include the
following: hexanal, 1-hexanol, p-xylene, (E)-2-heptenal, β-myrcene, 2-pentyl-furan, (Z)-2-
(2-pentenyl)furan, (E,E)-2,4-heptadienal, (E)-2-octenal, artemisia ketone, 1-octanol, nonanal,
acetophenone, methyl salicylate, (E)-dihydrocarvone, decanal, β-citronellol, anisole,
pulegone, (E)-2-decenal, (E)-cinnamaldehyde, menthyl acetate, (E,E)-2,4-decadienal, α-
terpinyl acetate, eugenol, n-capric acid, L-β-bourbonene, methyleugenol, (Z)-β-copaene,
(E)-geranylacetone, (E)-β-ionone, myristicin, cedrol, α-humulene epoxide II, β-asarone,
selin-11-en-4-α-ol, ar-turmerone, asarone, apiol, ent-germacra-4(15),5,10(14)-trien-1β-ol,
acorenone B, myristic acid, phenanthrene, phthalic acid, farnesyl acetone, methyl palmitate,
dibutyl phthalate, methyl linolenate, and hexacosane.

5. Conclusions
The content and composition of the essential oil of V. officinalis varies considerably
depending on the place of growth and the chemotype of the plant. Based on 72 terpenoids
and aromatic compounds analysed in the EO, eight chemotypes of V. officinalis were
identified. The chemotype from the UK showed the highest similarity to the continuum
under study, in particular with chemotypes from Greece (85.2%), from the USA (69.4%),
from Estonia (2) (68.2%), from Germany (58.7%), and from Hungary (58.6%). Specific
chemotypes of European and American origin may have potential against anxiety and
depression. A total of 49 compounds not previously mentioned in the scientific literature
were newly identified in the EOs for the species V. officinalis.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.R., T.I., A.K. and O.K.; methodology, A.R., M.L., T.I.,
A.K. and O.K.; software, T.I., A.K. and A.R.; validation, A.R., M.L., T.I., A.G. and A.K.; formal analysis,
A.R., M.L., G.D. and O.K.; investigation, A.R., M.L., G.D. and O.K.; resources, A.R., A.G. and O.K.;
data curation, A.R., M.L., G.D. and O.K.; writing—original draft preparation, A.R., T.I., A.K. and
O.K.; writing—review and editing, A.R., A.G., M.L., T.I., A.K. and O.K.; visualization, T.I. and A.K.;
supervision, A.R.; project administration, A.R.; funding acquisition, A.R. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This work was supported by the Estonian Research Council grant PRG1223 and the
European Union MSCA4Ukraine project “Design and development of 3D-printed medicines for
bioactive materials of Ukrainian and Estonian medicinal plants origin” (ID number 1232466). Views
and opinions expressed are, however, those of the author(s) only and do not necessarily reflect those
of the European Union. Neither the European Union, nor the MSCA4Ukraine Consortium as a whole,
nor any individual member institutions of the MSCA4Ukraine Consortium can be held responsible
for them.

Data Availability Statement: The data supporting the results of this study can be obtained from the
corresponding authors upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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