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Prevalence, Magnitude, and Methods of Weight Cutting Used by World Class

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 Original Research

Prevalence, Magnitude, and Methods of Weight

Cutting Used by World Class Powerlifters
Kedric Kwan, and Eric Helms
Auckland University of Technology (AUT), Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland, New Zealand

Abstract
Kwan, K and Helms, E. Prevalence, magnitude, and methods of weight cutting used by world class powerlifters. J Strength Cond
Res 36(4): 998–1002, 2022—Powerlifters compete in the squat, bench press, and deadlift, with winners determined by the highest
3-lift total in each weight class. As a weight class–based sport, athletes often compete in classes lower than their habitual weight,
using various strategies to make weight. This study’s purpose was to examine weight cutting prevalence, magnitude, and methods
among 42 male and 22 female powerlifters (25 6 8 years old; 4 6 2.2 years of competitive experience) competing at the 2018
International Powerlifting Federation classic world championship. The lifters, 83% of whom cut weight losing an average 2.9 6 4.3%
of body mass, completed a previously validated weight cutting questionnaire. The most frequently used weight cutting methods
were gradual dieting (42.18%, 31.25%), fluid restriction after fluid loading (32.8%, 34.4%), restricting fluid ingestion without fluid
loading (23.4%, 9.4%), fasting (15.6%, 18.7%), increased activity (9.4%, 24.4%), laxatives (9.4%, 18.7%), sauna (7.8%, 6.3%),
diuretics (7.8%, 6.3%), skipping meals (4.7%, 21.9%), and wearing rubber suits (1.6%, 2.6%). Most lifters experienced negative
changes in psychological state, with only 9% reporting never experiencing any negative effect on psychological state across the 5
states measured. Lifters reported experiencing fatigue (15.6%, 45.3%), anger (3.2%, 26.6%), feelings of isolation (4.7%, 12.5%),
and anxiety (14.1%, 35.95%), and 11 of the 12 lifters who reported a perceived decrement in training performance performed
weight cutting. Both weight cutting methods and negative psychological changes experienced were reported as always, some-
times. Therefore, it is vital to provide specific recommendations based on scientific research to improve the efficacy and safety of
making weight while minimizing performance decrements.
Key Words: powerlifting, rapid weight loss, strength training

Introduction undergoing RWL (10). Dehydration specifically can reduce blood

flow to the telencephalon (15), a major part of the brain, which
Powerlifting is a strength sport consisting of 3 competitive
could cause a reduction in metacognitive abilities. Moreover,
movements: the squat, the bench press, and the deadlift. The
dehydration can lead to an increase in rating of perceived exertion
overall winner is determined by the highest total load lifted in all 3
(RPE) (17). Given that RPE can be used to prescribe load to (12)
lifts in the lifters’ respective weight classes. In the International
inform resistance training for powerlifting (13), an increased RPE
Powerlifting Federation (IPF), there are a total of 8 weight classes
could potentially have a negative influence on attempt selection
for both male and female lifters, respectively. Because of the
during competition, which is a predictor of competitive success in
segregation of weight classes and the relationship between body
powerlifting (4).
mass and the ability to carry a larger amount of muscle mass and
In addition, methods of dehydration used during RWL can
strength (18), many powerlifters choose to compete in a weight
pose significant negative impacts on both performance and
class lower than their habitual weight to gain a competitive ad-
health. One study demonstrated that dehydration causing a 1.5%
vantage (16). This results in the use of various rapid weight loss
decrease in body mass led to a 5% reduction in bench press 1
(RWL) strategies to make weight before a powerlifting
repetition maximum (27), whereas another study showed that
competition.
dehydration led to a consistent decrease in total work completed
There are numerous studies that show that undergoing RWL
(measured by volume load) during resistance training (14). In
can result in impaired exercise performance (30), increased injury
addition, injury risk increases in combat athletes who lose more
risk (11), negative psychological effects (9), and, in extreme cases,
than 5% of their body mass before competition (11). Finally, in
the risk of death (3). By losing a large amount of body mass in a
extreme cases, death can occur from RWL, as seen when 3
short period, athletes expose themselves to physiological side ef-
Olympic wrestlers died due to severe dehydration, resulting in
fects such as reduced plasma volume (31) and impaired thermo-
reduced potassium levels, which altered the activity of the
regulatory processes, which can affect exercise performance (26),
sodium-potassium pump, causing cardiac arrest (3). Although
electrolyte imbalance, which can affect muscle contractility (19),
there is a robust amount of research demonstrating that RWL has
and higher markers of muscle damage (28).
negative impacts on health and performance, most of this re-
Athletes’ psychological state can also be affected during RWL
search is performed in wrestling, jujitsu, karate, and other combat
(16). Symptoms of depression, a reduction in concentration, and
sports. To our knowledge, there is only 1 study on RWL among
an increase in confusion are commonly present in athletes
powerlifters by Nolan et al. (22), but this study was conducted
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 36(4)/998–1002 across the powerlifting population at multiple competitive levels.
ª 2022 National Strength and Conditioning Association Thus, our study aimed to complement the existing research by

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 Prevalence, Magnitude, and Methods (2022) 36:4 | www.nsca.com

specifically surveying world class powerlifters to examine the competed, number of cuts performed, weight lost for this com-
prevalence of weight cutting practices at the elite level and to petition (% of body mass), most weight lost (% of body mass),
assess whether there were any associations between weight cut- how long before competition cuts began, weight regain post-
ting practices, competitive success, and mood state and perceived competition, perceived performance decrement during training,
stress. and Wilks score (a measure for strength relative to body weight,
and a higher Wilks score indicates a stronger and higher caliber
lifter). The data collected were then entered into a Google form
Methods after the end of the competition. The survey was performed from
Experimental Approach to the Problem the 11th to the 17th of June, 2018.

Powerlifters who competed at the 2018 IPF classic world cham-

pionships were invited to complete a survey after they had
Statistical Analyses
finished competing. The survey was based on a previous vali-
dated questionnaire (2) but modified to ensure relevance for The RWL questionnaire was scored as per Artioli et al. (2) to produce
powerlifting. From the data collected, a cross-sectional approach a final RWL score for each athlete. Frequency analyses were per-
was used to assess the relationship between competitive success formed for methods of RWL and psychological effects experienced
(winning a medal), prevalence of weight cutting, methods of during RWL. Statistical analyses were completed using JASP (ver-
weight cutting, subject characteristics (e.g., age, experience, sex, sion 0.13.1, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam). Descriptive
and Wilks score), and perceived psychological stressors during statistics (i.e., mean, standard deviation, and frequency analysis)
weight cutting and competition among world class powerlifters. were used to report athlete characteristics based on their responses to
the questionnaire, which provided ordinal data. An independent T-
test was used to compare parameters across the independent variable
Subjects of athlete caliber (medal vs. no medal). A chi-square test was per-
Powerlifters (aged .18 years) competing at the IPF world classic formed to compare associations between categorical variables
championship 2018 in Calgary, Canada, participated in this survey (i.e., medal count, perceived decrement in training performance, and
of weight cutting strategies. Subjects were voluntary and approached “did you cut for this meet?”). Statistical significance was set at p #
in person by the researcher postcompetition. The only exclusion 0.05. All data was reported as mean 6 SD
criteria were women in the 84 kg1 and men in the 120 kg 1 weight
class, as these weight classes do not require the athletes to perform
any form of weight cutting to make weight. A sample of 64 (42 males
and 22 females) athletes were surveyed during the length of the Results
competition. For analysis, the subjects were separated into 2 groups Of a total of 64 respondents (42 males and 22 females), 53 en-
based on competitiveness: those who won a medal versus those who gaged in weight cutting in preparation for this competition.
did not. All athletes competed under the raw category standard Athletes were categorized based on competitive performance
stipulated by the IPF. This category permits the athlete to wear knee (won a medal versus no medal). Characteristics of the combined
sleeves, wrist wraps, lifting belt, and a nonassistive powerlifting sample, medalists, and nonmedalists are shown in Table 1. Ninety
singlet. All athletes also needed to comply to the IPF standard of percent of medal winners engaged in weight cutting for this
competing drug and banned substance free. Ethical approval for this competition, whereas only 10% of medal winners did not.
research was obtained from the Auckland University of Technology Among nonmedal winners, 70% engaged in weight cutting,
university ethics committee (approval number 18/161), and all study whereas 30% did not. The medalists lost an average of 4.1 6
volunteers provided written informed consent after having the study 4.6% of body mass, whereas nonmedalists lost 2.7 6 3.1% of
procedures explained in detail before participation. body mass, respectively. The most weight medalists lost
throughout their competitive career was 5.7 6 3.4% of total body
mass, whereas nonmedalists lost 4.7 6 2.3% of body mass.
Procedures
Medalists reported a higher RWL score (32.8 6 11.3) than
The RWL questionnaire was designed and validated by Artioli nonmedalists (28.5 6 11.1), but this difference was not significant
et al. and was meant for the assessment of RWL practices in Judo (p , 0.08). Twelve respondents reported that they perceived a
athletes (2). Therefore, after consulting with powerlifting coaches decrement in their training performance, 11 of whom engaged in
and pilot testing with powerlifters, modifications of certain terms weight cutting. However, a reported perceived decrement in
such as competition to powerlifting meets and other minor training performance did not exhibit a significant relationship
changes were made to make it suitable for use with powerlifters. with winning or medal or not x2 (1, N 5 64) 5 0.767, p 5 0.381.
Briefly, the RWL questionnaire asked the subject to report the Winning a medal was only significantly associated with the
prevalence of various weight cutting strategies as never, almost number of meets participated in that year (p 5 0.025) and Wilks
never, sometimes, always, or stopped using, as well as the prev- score (p , 0.001), which is a score that represents relative strength
alence of 5 perceived psychological states using the same quali- for comparisons across weight classes (29). Finally, significantly
tative descriptors. more athletes who won medals, also cut weight x2 (1, N 5 64) 5
Lifters were approached for recruitment after they had com- 5.063, p 5 0.024.
peted, and volunteers were provided a hard copy of the ques- As shown in Table 2, the most commonly used method to make
tionnaire. Furthermore, the principal investigator verbally weight for competition was fluid restriction after fluid ingestion
discussed the questions with each subject to remove any ambi- and gradual dieting. Of note, 32.8 and 42.1% reported that they
guity the lifter might potentially have about the questions. The always used these respective methods. The least common method
athletes’ competitive performances were separated and analyzed to make weight was using fat burners/diet pills and vomiting with
for variables such as age, weight class, final RWL score, meets 89.1 and 85.9% reporting never. Surprisingly, stopped using

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 Prevalence, Magnitude, and Methods (2022) 36:4

Table 1
Self-reported characteristics of world class powerlifters competing at IPF Classic Worlds 2018.*†
Total subjects Medal No medal
Age 26.2 6 6.5 25.8 6 6.7.0 25.4 6 4.6
Body mass 72.2 6 16.1 76.6 6 20.1 77 6 14.9
RWL score 31.5 6 10.7 32.8 6 11.3 28.5 6 11.1
What age did you start powerlifting? 21.3 6 5.2 20.7 6 5.4 21.4 6 4.2
How many meets did you compete this year? 2.1 6 0.9 2.7 6 1.3** 2 6 0.9
How many meets in the past year did you cut for? 2.3 6 1.4 2.4 6 1.1 2 6 1.6
How much weight did you lose for this meet (% of bodyweight)? 2.9 6 4.3 4.1 6 4.6 2.7 6 3.1
What was the biggest weight cut you done in your competitive career? 5.4 6 3.2 5.7 6 3.4 4.7 6 2.3
(% of bodyweight)
Athlete caliber (measured by Wilks) 456 6 39.2 481 6 42.5** 435.4 6 30.9
How long before the meet did you start cutting weight (days)? 32 6 33.2 27.4 6 29.4 29 6 31.3
How much weight do you regain in the week after competition? 2.6 6 2.2 2.7 6 2.3 2.2 6 2.03
*IPF 5 International Powerlifting Federation.
†Significant differences marked as **p , 0.05.

results were quite similar across all methods ranging from 3.1 important factor for 2 reasons, the first being our survey was
to 7.8%. collected shortly after competition, which minimizes recall bias
Regarding the effects of weight cutting (Table 3), 15.6% of (21), and the second being that this was performed in world class
athletes reported that they always experienced fatigue and anxi- athletes, allowing us to observe the practices of elite athletes and
ety, making them the most common negative psychological states to identify any potential differences with those who are not as
experienced. However, more athletes reported “sometimes” competitive (23). We found that among world class powerlifters,
across fatigue, anger, and anxiety with 45.3, 26.6, and 35.9%, the prevalence of weight cutting is high, as 83% of the athletes
respectively, reporting these outcomes. The least experienced made weight using a combination of RWL and gradual dieting.
negative emotional state was depression and isolation, in which The average weight loss using these methods was ;2.9% of body
the athletes reported only 4.7 and 3.1% for always. mass. Although gradual dieting would not fall under RWL, usage
of gradual dieting had a high prevalence as well, which is why we
included the data in our final analysis. However, despite obtain-
ing both total amount of weight loss and the methods used to
Discussion achieve this weight loss, details such as macronutrient distribu-
To the knowledge of the authors, this is the first study conducted tion and calorie consumption were not recorded. This is because
in world class powerlifters that assessed the prevalence, magni- the survey was based on a previous survey calorie and macro-
tude, and methods of weight cutting in preparation for competi- nutrient intake wasn’t a part of the survey. Second, recalling
tion. We conducted this study in elite athletes in person during the specific calorie intake can be highly inaccurate if no previous
duration of the 2018 IPF world classic championships. This is an tracking was performed; hence, the researchers decided not to

Table 2
Self-reported weight loss methods of world class powerlifters competing at IPF Classic Worlds 2018.*

*IPF 5 International Powerlifting Federation.

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 Prevalence, Magnitude, and Methods (2022) 36:4 | www.nsca.com

Table 3 RWL score compared with nonmedalists (32.8 vs. 28.5), and the
Self-reported psychological state of world class powerlifters average score across all lifters was higher compared with the
competing at IPF Classic Worlds 2018.* scores reported by Nolan et al. (31.5 vs. 25.1). Indeed, the average
Psychological Always Sometimes Almost never Never RWL score from our study is more similar to some cohorts of elite
state (%) (%) (%) (%) and experienced taekwondo athletes (25) that reported scores of
Fatigue 15.6 45.3 21.9 17.2
31.7. These similarities might imply that higher-level athletes not
Anger 3.2 26.6 25.0 45.3 only cut more weight but also use more severe methods to do so.
Anxiety 14.1 35.9 14.1 35.9 The discrepancy in the magnitude of weight loss between pow-
Isolation 4.7 12.5 25.0 57.8 erlifters and combat sport athletes despite a similar severity in RWL
Depression 3.1 7.8 26.6 62.5 score could simply be due to the shorter time available to refuel and
rehydrate after weigh-ins. In combat sports and MMA competitions,
*IPF 5 International Powerlifting Federation.
rules typically allow 24–36 hours between weigh-ins and competi-
tion compared with just 2 hours in powerlifting. Previous research in
include it as part of the survey. A study conducted by Nolan et al combat sport athletes also indicates that the more time available
(22) that surveyed powerlifters with the same questionnaire between weigh-ins and competition, the greater the tendency for an
shows that of a lower competitive level on average showed that athlete to perform a cut of larger magnitude (1).
both the prevalence of weight cutting and magnitude of weight Rapid weight gain (RWG), which is the total amount of weight
loss were similar with the findings of our study, at 85.8% of gained by an athlete post–weigh-ins, is a commonly used surrogate
respondents and 3.0% of body mass, respectively (22). Although marker of total weight lost. Drawing on data from Australian
both the survey used both us and Nolan have not been validated Olympic combat sport athletes, 1 cohort reported RWG of roughly
for specifically powerlifting, similar findings between both sur- 4.3% (25) compared with 2.6% reported in our current survey. This
veys indicate potential utility and could warrant a validation suggests that combat athletes more aggressively use RWL before
study in the future. competition compared with powerlifters. Furthermore, in combat
We further segregated the athletes according to competitive suc- sports, the magnitude of RWG immediately after weigh-ins before
cess (medalists versus nonmedalists) to identify any potential differ- competing can be a predictor of competitive success (24), but this
ences in weight loss practices. We found that athletes who performed finding is sport specific as it was not observed in boxing (5). This
some form of weight cut leading into this competition tend to win might indicate that combat sports involving grappling, when addi-
tional body mass might provide an advantage, could benefit more
medals more often compared with those who did not. There was also
from RWG than striking sports. However, the effect of acutely
a difference in magnitude of body mass loss between the athletes who
higher body mass (due to rehydration) on powerlifting performance
won a medal and those who did not win a medal (4.1 vs. 2.7%), but
is unknown, and thus, the influence of RWG on powerlifting per-
this difference did not reach statistical significance (p 5 0.13). Future
formance is not well elucidated and warrants more research.
research with a larger sample size is needed to determine whether this
From our study, elite athletes commonly used water loading and
lack of significance could be due to our relatively small sample size.
cutting (32.8%) and gradual dieting (42.2%) to make weight,
Unsurprisingly, medalists had a higher overall Wilks score than
whereas the usage of sweating-based RWL methods such as sauna/
nonmedalists, but the medalists also competed in more meets
heat (7.8%) and rubber suits (1.6%) was not as common in terms of
throughout the year, indicating that athlete experience with weight the percentage reported as always used. This confirms findings from
cutting might play a potential role in weight cutting success. This Nolan et al. showing that prevalence between powerlifters and
could be attributed to elite athletes being predisposed to use RWL combat sport athletes was similar when it came to the usage of water
strategies that are more severe in nature in order the gain a com- manipulation and gradual dieting, but there was a stark difference in
petitive edge over their opponents; hence, previous experience may sweating-based RWL methods. Fasting was only somewhat com-
allow more successful execution of a severe weight cut (23). Another mon, as 15.6% reported always, and 18.7% reported sometimes;
interesting finding was that in the study by Nolan et al. (22), the this method might be less popular among powerlifters as its utility
average Wilks score for athletes categorized under High Wilks was could be influenced by the shorter time available to recover post–
429, whereas in our study, those who did not win a medal averaged weigh-in. Because the powerlifters we surveyed had only ,2 hours
435 Wilks, indicating a difference in the athlete caliber surveyed permitted between weigh-ins and competition, there might be in-
between our and the study by Nolan et al. Furthermore, the usual sufficient time to rehydrate and refuel, especially when the amount of
amount of body mass lost before competition by the high Wilks weight loss is large. Although there are currently no studies in-
group in Nolan’s study and the nonmedalists in our study were both vestigating rehydration in powerlifters, a study that measured an 18-
2.7%. These comparisons may support the notion that the more elite hour rehydration period in wrestlers losing 3.5% of body mass
the athlete is, the greater the tendency for the athlete to cut more showed that it was insufficient for full recovery (20). Although a
weight to potentially gain a competitive edge over opponents, which study conducted in competitive weightlifters showed that a 2-hour
is similar to findings seen in the literature on combat sport ath- period of rehydration was sufficient to prevent a decrement in per-
letes (8). formance after 4.3% of body mass loss (6). The differences between
Although the athletes who won medals lost more weight these studies could be due to different performance demands, or it
compared with those who did not, the weight loss compared with could potentially be caused by the study’s use of an ad libitum
other weight class sports was lower. In combat sports such as fashion post–weigh-in rehydration and refueling period, without
Judo and mixed martial arts (MMA), the range of average weight accounting for the exact amount of food and fluids consumed. In an
loss is between 6 and 11% of body mass (25), whereas in our uncontrolled environment, there is a potential for athletes to under
study, it was only an average of 2.9%. However, severity of the eat or rehydrate due to suppression of thirst and appetite post-RWL
cut cannot be measured solely by the amount of weight lost, and (7), which might influence the degree of recovery across different
thus, analyzing the total RWL score might provide a more com- athletes. Hence, more research into the areas of rehydration and
plete picture. The medalists in our study reported a higher average refueling post–weigh-in for strength athletes is needed to establish

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 Prevalence, Magnitude, and Methods (2022) 36:4

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