 The Palas (8th to 12th Century CE: 750 - 1150 CE) -

 After the death of the Gauda King Shashanka, Bengal passed through a period of
chaos and confusion for almost a century. The internal disorder made Bengal
vulnerable to the external invasion.

 To end the prevailing environment of anarchy, leading members of Gauda met at

an assembly and elected Gopala as their king. Thus, Gopala (also Known as Gopala-
I) became the founder of the famous Pala dynasty of Bengal around 750 AD.

 The Pala Empire, spanning from 750 to 1161 AD, emerged under Gopala and
flourished as a prominent Buddhist dynasty in ancient India. With its capital in
Bengal, the Palas extended their influence across Bihar, Orissa, Nepal, Assam, and
even momentarily to Kannauj.

 The Pala Empire, was founded by Gopala (750–770 AD) and known as the “Kingdom
of Dharma” by the Arabs.

 Language - Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali

 Pala Dynasty Origin -

o After the death of Harsha, the Pratiharas (Jalore-Rajasthan),

the Palas (Bengal) and the Rashtrakutas (Deccan) engaged in a tripartite
struggle for the control of the Ganga–Yamuna doab and the lands adjoining
it.

o Territories in Pala control:

 The Palas controlled vast areas of the eastern Gangetic Plain. Apart
from earning revenue from agriculture, Palas also derived income
from their wide commercial contacts in Southeast Asia.

o Accession to power by Gopala:

 There was no centralized government in place after the Gauda

kingdom fell, which resulted in ongoing conflicts between minor
chieftains. So, in the year 750 CE, a group of chiefs chose Gopala, a
“Kshatriya chief,” to be their leader.

o Political authority:

 Though Gopala did not have royal antecedents, he succeeded in

acquiring a kingdom. Gopala’s political authority was soon recognised
by several independent chiefs.

o His original kingdom was in Vanga. It was located in southern Bengal, with the
core region including present-day southern West Bengal (India) and
southwestern Bangladesh.
 Following the death of King Harshavardhana in 647 CE, there was no stable power in
the Northern regions. Many feudal lords arose to power.

 The ruler Shashanka of the Gauda Kingdom was the contemporary of King
Harshavardhana. He ruled over the Bengal region between 590 CE and 625 CE.

 After his fall, there was anarchy in the Bengal region and it continued for a certain
period.

 It is said that the ruler of Kashmir -- Lalitaditya who brought Punjab and Kanauj
under his control, invaded the Gauda region (Bengal region) and killed its ruler.
Thus , Bengal was facing an internal crisis.

 In 750 CE, Gopala was elected as the King of Gauda (Bengal) by some notable men
of Bengal in order to end the anarchy which was prevailing back then in Bengal.

 Thus began the Pala dynasty which dominated Eastern India till the middle of the
9th century CE.

 Trade Relations with South-East Asia: Textiles, Pottery, and Rice were major items.

 South-east Bengal: was a hub connecting Arab trading settlements to the Malaya
peninsula and Indonesian archipelago from the 7th to 11th centuries.

 Political Sphere of Influence -

o Dharmapala succeeded Gopala-I and was known as the ablest of the Pala
rulers. He had a great military brain and conquered many States. He even
dethroned the reigning prince of Kannauj and set up his own nominee. His
long and glorious reign lasted for almost 30 years.

o Devapala was also a vigorous ruler like his father. He fought successfully
against the Huns and the Gurjara-Pratihara king of Kannauj. His territories
included the vast region from Kamboj in the north to the Vindhyas in the
south. The king of Sumatra also sent an ambassador to his court.

o The death of Devapala, marked the beginning of the end of the Pala dynasty.
Though his successor Mahipala tried to maintain the control over the
dominions, the successor kings were weak and gradually succumbed to
pressure from neighbouring kingdoms.
 Prominent Rulers of Pala -

o Gopala (750–770 AD):

 The Pala dynasty was founded by Gopala, who also served as the
kingdom’s first emperor.

 He unified Bengal under his control, and even brought Magadha

(Bihar) under his control.

 The monastery at Odantapuri, Bihar, was founded by Gopala.

 a prominent Buddhist Mahavihara Monastery.

 It is considered the second oldest of India’s Mahaviharas after

Nalanda and was situated in Magadha.
  He was regarded as the first Buddhist monarch of Bengal after
converting to the religion.

 His reign was marked by a tripartite struggle between the Palas, the
Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas for the control of Kanauj and North
India.

o Dharmapala (770-810 AD):

 Dharmapala succeeded Gopala as ruler in around A.D. 770.

 Dharmapala was the second ruler of Pala Empire. He was the son
of Gopala.

 He fought a number of battles against the Pratiharas and

the Rashtrakutas.

 Dharmapala captured Kanauj and conducted a grand darbar.

 He took the greatest imperial titles of the period,

including Paramabhattaraka, Paramesvara and Maharajadhiraja.

 Expansion of the empire:

 Dharmapala transformed the Pala kingdom into a powerful

adversary.

 Bengal and Bihar were directly ruled by him.

 The rulers of the Punjab, Rajaputana, Malwa and Berar

accepted his suzerainty.

 Faith: He was a great patron of Buddhism

 he was the first to control Kanyakubja

 His title was uttarapatha swamin(master of northern India)

 Dharmapala established vikramashila, Jagaddella,

 He patronised Harisbhadra, a Buddhist writer.

 Dharmapala’s son Devapala extended Pala control eastwards up to

Kamarupa (Assam). He defeated Amoghavarsha, the Rashtrakuta ruler.

 Devapala was succeeded by Vigramapala, Rajyapala, Gopala III,

Vigramapala II.

 The fortunes of the dynasty, however, were revived by Mahipala I, son

of Vigramapala II. He checked the advancement of Cholas beyond the
Ganges.
  Abdul suleman visited Pala kingdom during his tenure.

 Vijayasena of the Sena dynasty who had become powerful by then in

northern Bengal expelled the last ruler Madanapala (1130–1150 CE)
from Bengal and established his dynastic rule.

 Extent/Conquest: Khalimpur copper plate inscription mentions the

extent of his kingdom covering Bengal, Bihar, parts of Orissa, Nepal,
Assam, and momentarily, Kannauj.

 Kannauj Assembly: Dharmapala held a grand assembly at Kannauj to

assert influence and consolidate his power over northern India.

 Architecture: Founded Vikaramashila monastery in Bhagalpur (Bihar)

 Vihara: Built a grand vihara at Somapura (Bangladesh)

 Religious Influence: He patronised Haribhadra, a Buddhist

philosopher.

o Devapala (810–850 AD):

 Devapala was the son of Dharampala and Rannadevi, the princess of

the Rashtrakuta dynasty.

 Devapala had expanded the empire to eastern India, including the

kingdoms of Assam, Odisha, and Kamarupa.

 He had constructed several monasteries, including temples,

in Magadha.

 Devapala carried out raids in the north, the Deccan, and

the peninsula.

 Extent/Conquest: Son of Dharmapala, he extended Pala control

eastwards up to Kamarupa (Assam).

 He defeated the Rashtrakuta ruler, Amoghavarsha.

 Religious Influence: He was also a great patron of Buddhism and

granted five villages to Balaputradeva, the king of the Sailendra
dynasty of Suvarnadipa (Sumatra), to maintain a monastery built by
him at Nalanda.

 He conquered Pragjyotishpur (Assam) and Utkala (Orissa).

 Probably he even brought some parts of Nepal under the

suzerainty of the Palas.

 Faith: Devapala was also a great patron of Buddhism.

  He granted five villages to Balaputradeva, the king of the Sailendra
dynasty of Suvarnadipa (Sumatra), to maintain a monastery built by
him at Nalanda.

 Nalanda continued to flourish as the chief seat of Buddhist learning

even during the Pala reign

o Mahipala I:

 In 988 AD, Mahipala-I ascended to the throne.

 When Mahipala-I came into power, the Pala kingdom started to

flourish once again and reclaimed the northern and eastern portions
of Bengal and Bihar.

 He restored the strength of the Pala empire. He recovered the

Northern and Western regions of Bengal. He also gained control over
North and South Bihar.

 Along with his brothers Stirapala and Vasantapala, Mahipala-I is

thought to have conquered Varanasi.

 he son of Vigramapala II who checked the invasion of Rajendra Chola

beyond the Ganges.

 Administration Under Palas -

o The Pala rule was monarchical in nature with the king being the centre of all
the power. Pala kings generally adopted imperial titles like Maharajadhiraja,
Parameshwara and Paramvattaraka. The Pala kings also appointed Prime
Ministers for better administration of the kingdom.

o Administratively, the Pala Empire was divided into several Bhuktis

(Provinces). Bhuktis were further divided into Vishayas (Divisions) and
Mandalas (Districts). The Smaller units were known as Khandala, Bhaga,
Avritti, Chaturaka, and Pattaka. Thus, it is evident that administration
covered widespread area from the grass root level to the imperial court.

o Monarchical rule:

 The Pala rule was monarchical.

 The king was the centre of all imperial titles like Parameshwara,
Paramvattaraka, and Maharajadhiraja.

 Pala kings appointed Prime Ministers.

o Lineage:
  The Line of Garga served as the Prime Ministers of the Palas for 100
years.

 They are Garga, Darvapani (or Darbhapani), Someshwar,

Kedarmisra and Bhatta Guravmisra.

o Provincial administration:

 Pala Empire was divided into separate Bhuktis (Provinces).

 Bhuktis were divided into Vishayas (Divisions)

and Mandalas (Districts).

 Smaller units were Khandala, Bhaga, Avritti, Chaturaka, and

Pattaka. Administration covered a wide area from the grass
root level to the imperial court.

o Based on the administrative practices of the Gupta empire, the Pala dynasty
established their administrative model.

 The administrative system of the Pala empire was monarchical and

the King was head of the state’s administration as well as the
commander-in-chief of the armed forces. He even dispensed justice.

 The Kingship was hereditary in Pala dynasty.

 King was assisted by a set of ministers who were nominated by the

King from leading families and it was hereditary.

 In the Pala empire, some of the territories were placed under the
direct administration of the King while some of them were under the
control of the Vassal chiefs.

 The territories administered by the Vassal chiefs were given

autonomous status. They paid fixed tributes and supplied troops to
the King.

 The territories of Pala empire which were administered directly , and

divided into several provinces called bhukti and were governed by the
officials called Uparika. They were held responsible for collecting the
tax and maintaining law and order in the province.

 These provinces were further divided into districts called mandala or

visaya and it was headed by Visayapati.

 Smaller chieftains who were known as Samanthas or Bhogapatis

dominated the villages of Pala empire.

 Some of the administrative posts maintained by the Pala dynasty were

  Mahasandhi-vigrahika (Foreign minister)

 Duta (Head Ambassador)

 Aggaraksa (Chief guard)

 Sasthadhikrta (Tax collector)

 Dashaparadhika (Collector of penalties)

 Mahaksapatalika (Accountant)

 Kshetrapa (Head of land use division)

 Pramatr (Head of land measurements)

 Mahadandanayaka or Dharmadhikari (Chief justice)

 Dandashakti (Police forces)

 The Pala dynasty maintained a well organised infantry and cavalry.

They maintained a large number of elephants.

 Religion -

o The Pala kings were the patrons of Mahayana branch of Buddhism. Gopala-I
was a devout Buddhist, and built the famous monastery at Odantapuri.

o His son, Dharmapala, made the renowned Buddhist philosopher Haribhadra

as his spiritual guide. He established the famous Vikramashila monastery
(located near Bhagalpur, Bihar) and the Somapura Mahavihara Bangladesh.

o After his death, Devapala restored and enlarged the architecture at

Somapura Mahavihara, which featured several themes from the epics
Ramayana and Mahabharata.

o Mahipala I carried on the restoration work and ordered construction and

repairs of several sacred structures at Bodh Gaya, Sarnath and Nalanda.

o Apart from Buddhism, the later Palas also supported the Shaiva ascetics.
Narayana Pala himself established a temple of Shiva and patronized the
Brahmins. Besides the images of the Buddhist deities, the images of Vishnu,
Shiva and Sarasvati were also constructed during the later rule of Pala
dynasty.

o Buddhism was the dominant religion during the Pala dynasty, but Shaivism
also flourished and was followed alongside it.

 Buddhism:
  Mahayana Buddhism: The Palas were patrons of Mahayana
Buddhism. A few sources written much after Gopala’s death
mention him as a Buddhist, but it is not known if this is true.
The subsequent Pala kings were Buddhists.

 Dharmapala: Dharmapala made the Buddhist

philosopher Haribhadra his spiritual preceptor. Taranatha
credits him with establishing 50 religious institutions and
patronising the Buddhist author Haribhadra.

 Devapala’s contribution: He restored and enlarged the

structures at Somapura Mahavihara, which also features
several themes from the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.

 Mahipala I: He also ordered the construction and repairs of

several sacred structures at Saranath, Nalanda and Bodh Gaya.

 Buddhist centres: The Palas developed the Buddhist centres of

learning, such as the Vikramashila and the Nalanda
universities.

 Nalanda, considered one of the first great universities

in recorded history, reached its height under the
patronage of the Palas.

 Reputation: As the rulers of Gautama Buddha’s land, the Palas

acquired a great reputation in the Buddhist world as the kings
of other regions approached them for permission to do any
activity at Bodhgaya.

 Ambassadors: Balaputradeva, the Sailendra king of Java, sent

an ambassador to him, asking for a grant of five villages for
the construction of a monastery at Nalanda.

 The request was granted by Devapala. He appointed

the Brahmin Viradeva as the head of the Nalanda
monastery.

 Bengal as the centre of Buddhism: Bengal remained one of

the few places where Buddhist monasteries continued to exist.

 The kingdom, as well as Buddhism, soon suffered a

decline because of the large-scale conversion of
merchants and artisans to Islam.

 Shaivisim:
  Patronage: The Palas continued to patronise Shaivism, and
epigraphic evidence suggests that Mahipala I and Nayapala
were initiated as Shaivites by their royal preceptors.

 Vigrahapala III: Vigrahapala III’s Amagachi

inscription describes him as “devoted to Siva worship”, and
this tradition continued under his successor Ramapala. Poet
Sandhyakar Nandi describes Ramapala’s son Madanapala as a
devotee of Shiva

 Shaiva ascetics: The Palas supported the Saiva ascetics,

typically the ones associated with the Golagi-Math. Besides
the images of the Buddhist deities, the images of Vishnu, Siva
and Sarasvati were also constructed during the Pala dynasty
rule.

 Shaivite temples: Narayanapala’s Bhagalpur

inscription suggests that he built several Shiva temples and
records his grant of a village to Pashupatas. Narayanapala also
attended a sacrifice by his Brahmin minister.

 Land grants: Madanapala’s queen Chitramatika, gifted land to

a Brahmana named Vateshvara-Swamy Sharma as his
remuneration for reciting the Mahabharata.

 Economy -

o The reign of Palas was marked by general economic and material prosperity.
Agriculture was the main occupation during the Pala period. The Pala kings
granted land to the farmers for cultivation and the chief source of income of
people was derived from agricultural products of the land granted to them.
During this period, paddy cultivation had become the chief source of
economy in Bengal. This was mentioned in the ‘Monghyr (Munger )
inscription’ of Devapala as well as “Bhagalpur inscription” of Narayanapala.

o Apart from agriculture, mineral resources were also important constituents

of the economy during the Pala period. Though the use of iron ore was still
not very extensive, yet the process of smelting ore was well known to the
people of Bengal. Copper deposits and pearls were also found in the various
parts of the Pala Empire.

o Agro-based industries thrived during the Palas reign in Bengal. Textile

industry was flourishing during the Pala period and cotton textiles were the
principal industry in Bengal. Silk industry was also very popular in Bengal
 during this period and it catered not only to the domestic market, but foreign
market as well.

o Though economy had flourished during the Pala phase, there was a general
decline in trade and commerce. The decline in the standards of trade is
evident from the coins of the Pala period. The scarcity of gold and the silver
coins led to dependence on copper coins. This resulted in drastic decline of
the foreign trade. Consequently, the economic system became entirely
dependent on agriculture and the flourishing agrarian economy gave rise to
feudalistic society. Thus, it could be said that the agricultural economy and
feudalism developed simultaneously during the Pala’s reign.

o The reign of Palas was marked by general economic and material prosperity.

o Agriculture was the main occupation during the Pala period.

o The Pala kings granted land to farmers for cultivation, and the people’s chief
source of income was the agricultural products of the land.

o During this period, paddy cultivation became Bengal’s chief source of

economy. This was mentioned in the ‘Monghyr (Munger) inscription’ of
Devapala and the ‘Bhagalpur inscription’ of Narayanapala.

o Apart from agriculture, mineral resources were also important constituents

of the economy during the Pala period. Though the use of iron ore was still
not very extensive, yet the process of smelting ore was well known to the
people of Bengal.

o Copper deposits and pearls were also found in the various parts of the Pala
Empire.

o Agro-based industries thrived during the Palas’ reign in Bengal. The textile
industry flourished during the Pala period, and cotton textiles were the
principal industry in Bengal.

o The silk industry was also very popular in Bengal during this period, and it
catered not only to the domestic but also to the foreign market.

o Though the economy flourished during the Pala phase, trade and commerce
declined generally. The decline in trade standards is evident from the coins
of the Pala period.

o The scarcity of gold and silver coins led to dependence on copper coins,
which resulted in a drastic decline in foreign trade.

o Consequently, the economic system became entirely dependent on

agriculture, and the flourishing agrarian economy gave rise to a feudalistic
 society. Thus, it could be said that the agricultural economy and feudalism
developed simultaneously during the Pala’s reign.

 Literature -

o Pala Kings patronized several Sanskrit and Buddhist scholars, some of whom
were also appointed as their officials.

o The Gauda riti style of composition was developed during the reign of Palas.
During their rule, many Buddhist Tantric works were authored and
translated. They have a distinct influence even today in the Tibet region.

o Jimutavahana, Sandhyakar Nandi, Madhavakara, Suresvara and Chakrapani

Datta are some of the significant scholars from the Pala period.

o The first signs of the proto-Bengali language can also be seen in the
Charyapadas composed during the Pala rule.

o Buddhist literature: The prominent Buddhist scholars of Vikramashila and

Nalanda universities were Atisha, Saraha, Tilopa, Dansheel, Dansree,
Jinamitra, Muktimitra, Padmanava, Virachan and Silabhadra.

o Many Buddhist tantric works were authored and translated into Sanskrit.

o The original tantric works comprise a varied group of Indian and Tibetan
texts.

o The Palas also patronised Sanskrit scholars.

o The “Mahipalageet” (songs on Mahipala), a set of folk songs, are still popular
in the rural areas of Bengal.
 Art & Architecture -

o The sculptural art of Pala period is recognized as a distinct phase in Indian art,
and is famous for displaying the artistic genius of the Bengal sculptors. It was
largely influenced and inspired by the Gupta art. As discussed earlier, the
Buddhist Palas built a number of monasteries and other sacred structures.
The Somapura Mahavihara in presentday Bangladesh has been given the
status of a World Heritage Site. The gigantic structures of other Viharas,
including Vikramashila, Odantapuri, and Jagaddala are other masterpieces
of the Palas.

o The temples constructed during the Pala period depicted a distinctive vanga
style. The Siddheshwara Mahadeva temple at Barakar in Burdwan district is
one such fine example of early Pala style. Terracota sculpture was very
 popular for decorative purposes. In painting, murals were highly popular for
wall paintings. Miniature paintings also showed considerable development
during this period.

 Sculpture -

o The Gupta tradition of sculptural art attained a new height under the
patronage of Pala rulers .The art incorporated lot of local characteristics in
Bengal under the Palas and it continued right up to the end of 12th

o The sculptures of stones and bronze were constructed in large numbers

mostly in monastic sites of nalanda,Bodh Gaya etc

o Most of the sculptures drew their inspiration from Buddhism. Apart from
Buddha sculptures of gods and goddess of Hindu Dharma like surya, Vishnu,
Ganesh etc were constructed

o Generally only frontal parts of the body have been shown in the sculptures.
The front as highly detailed and decorated..

o Bronze casting was an important feature of pala sculptures.

o The pala style is marked by slim and graceful figures, elaborate jewellery and
conventional decoration

o The main features of pala sculptures is their free flowing movement. Almost
all figures are of similar sizes and were carved out of grayish or white spotted
sandstone.

 Reason for Sudden Decline of Palas -

o Dynastic Decline: The slide of the Pala dynasty was accelerated during the
rule of Rajyapala, Gopala III and Vigramapala II.

o External Pressures: The rise of the Pratiharas in Jalore under Mihira Bhoja
and the advance of the Rashtrakutas into Pala territories inevitably brought
about the decline of the Palas.

o The End of an Era: Vijayasena of the Sena dynasty expelled the last ruler,
Madanapala (1130–1150 AD), from Bengal and established his dynastic rule.

o Last efforts: Ramapala was the last ruler who tried to recover the lost glory of
the dynasty. He ruled for about 53 years, and after his death, the presence of
the Pala dynasty was confined to only a portion of Magadha (Bihar) and
continued to exist only for a short period.

o Rise of powerful rivals: Vijayasena of the Sena dynasty, who had become
powerful by then in northern Bengal, expelled the last ruler Madanapala from
Bengal and established his dynastic rule.
 Important Rulers -

o a) Nagabhatta I (730-760 AD)-

 He was the dynasty's first notable king, and as a result of his victories
over the Arabs and other enemies, his line eventually surpassed other
Gurjara-Pratihara lineages.

 He was the real founder of the dynasty.

 Capital: Nagabhatta’s capital was at Awani, and his realm covers

Bharuch, Gwalior, and Malwa.

 Challenges and Expansion: He successfully resisted Arab

encroachments into Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Punjab, defeating them
decisively in Gujarat in 738.

 However, efforts to extend control over the upper Ganga valley

and Malwa were thwarted by Rashtrakuta rulers.

 Territorial Establishment: Nagabhatta I established an empire from

Gujarat to Gwalior, resisting Arab invasions further east of Sindh.

 His Successors: Kakkuka and Devaraja, inherited this empire,

although conflicts with Rashtrakutas continued.

 He battled the Rashtrakutas, but he lost.

 He was succeeded by his brother Devaraja, then by his nephew

Kakustha. They held power between the years 760 and 775 CE.

 He defeated the Muslim forces from the Arab region.

o b) Vatsaraja (780-800 AD) -

 He was the son of Dharmapala

 He consolidated the empire and extended control over Western and

Northern India.

 He made Ujjain his capital.

 He captured Kannuaj from the Rajputana rulers and made it his

capital.

 He confronted Dhruva (Rashtrakuta ruler) and Dharmapala (Pala ruler)

in his fight for Kannauj.
  During his reign, Pratiharas were involved in the "tripartite
struggle" to control Kannauj.

 He captured the Doab region from Dharmapala and Northern India,

including Ganga Valley.

 Dhruva, the Rashtruka King, later defeated him.

 After defeating the Bhandi or Bhatti clan, Vatsaraja (775–800 CE) took
control of the majority of central Rajasthan.

 He later made an attempt at Kanyakubja politics, where he defeated

Palas and won the throne for his Ayudha candidate.

 He suffered a heavy setback when Dhruva Rashtrakuta took the royal

emblem that Vatsaraja had taken from the Palas and forced him to
seek safety in the Rajasthan deserts.

 Expansion of the empire: He followed an aggressive imperial policy

which brought him into conflicts with the Pala kings of Bengal.

 He defeated Pala king Dharmapala.

o c) Nagabhata II (800- 830 AD) -

 Vatsaraja made an effort to revive the dynasty's fortunes from 800 to

833 CE. He overthrew the Palas after capturing the kingdoms of Sindh
(present-day Pakistan) and eastern India.

 Vatsraj’s son, revived the dynasty and his suzerainty was recognised by
rulers of western Kathiawar, Andhra, Kalinga and Vidarbha

 He attacked Kannauj which led to the conflict with Dharmapala.

Dharmapala sought assistance from Rashtrakuta king, Govinda III
(794-813 AD) which led to the defeat of Nagabhatta II.

 His subsequent victories included victories over the Arabs and other
monarchs of Gurjaradesha in western India.

 South Gujarat and Malwa were lost as a result of Nagabhata's battle

with the Rashtrakutas for control of Gujarat, which was ultimately
won by Rashtrakuta Govinda III (793–814 CE).

 He was eventually able to restore some of his lost territory once he

had recovered his strength.

 Additionally, he took Kanyakubja, putting an end to Ayudha reign. As

of right present, this city serves as Pratihara's capital.
  Ramabhadra, his son, succeeded him and under his rule there was
some territory recovery (833–836 CE).

 He was Vatsraja’s son who conquered Sindh and eastern India.

 He revived the policy of conquest and extension of the empire.

 He also defeated the Palas and conquered parts of Gujaradesha in

western India and the Arabs.

 Rashtrkuta King Govinda III defeated Nagabhata for control over

Gujarat.

 He recovered Malwa from Rashtrakutas later.

 He rebuilt the Shiva Temple at Somnath in Gujarat, which was

destroyed during Arab evasions.

 He defeated the rulers of Saindhava, Andhra, Vidarbha, and Kalinga.

 Nagabhata also defeated Dharampal (Pala Ruler) and extended the

empire to Bihar. However, this success was short-term.

 Kannauj became an important place of control during his reign.

 His son Rambhadra succeeded him and extended the territories

further.

o d) Bhoja I/ Mihir Bhoja (836- 865 AD) -

 As the Nagabhata II's grandson, he ruled for about 50 years.

 Initially, he was defeated by Palas, Rashtrkutas, and Kalachuris, but

later he struck again (with the help of Chedi and Guhila feudatories)
and was successful in his campaign.

 He routed the Palas and perhaps the Rashtrakutas with the aid of his
Chedi and Guhila feudatories.

 He was able to considerably expand his empire by annexing a large

portion of the eastern Indian Pala Empire and regaining territory in
Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh.

 His capital was Kannuaj (also called Mahodaya) -- "Barah Copper

Plate" mentions the Skandharva military campaign at Mahodaya.

 He was a Vaishnavite follower and assumed the' Adhivarvha' title.

 Arabas of Sindh, Kalachuris, and the Chandalas accepted his

supremacy.
  The Pratiharas had India’s strongest cavalry, as per Arab travelers.

 Expansion of the empire: He succeeded in restoring the falling

fortunes of his dynasty.

 He defeated Krishna II and captured the region of Malwa and

Gujarat.

 The name of Bhoja is famous in many legends.

 Faith: He was a devotee of Vishnu.

 Title: He adopted the title of "Adivaraha", which has been inscribed

on some of his coins.

 He is also known by other names as ‘Mihir’ and ‘Prabhasa’

 An assessment of Bhoja is given by the Arab historian Sulaiman.

 Al- Masudi, an Arab traveler, called him ‘King Barua.’

 Bhoja’s son Mahendrapal (AD 885-910) extended the empire further

by adding Magadh and parts of North Bengal

 Contribution to Architecture -

 Teli-ka-Mandir, Gwalior -

 Also known as Telika Temple, is a Hindu temple located

within the Gwalior Fort in Madhya Pradesh.

 Faith: The temple is dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and

Matrikas

 Architecture: It has a rectangular sanctum instead of

the typical square one.

 It integrates the architectural elements of the Nagara

style and the Valabhi Prasada.

 The temple is based on Gurjara Pratihara-Gopagiri

style North Indian architecture.

 The temple is a classic example of a design based on

“musical harmonics” in architecture.

o e) Mahendrapala I (885-910 AD) -

 Expansion of the empire: He kept the vast empire intact and extended
his boundaries.
  Title: He was also known as ‘Mahendrayudha’ and
‘Nirbhayanarendra’.

 Literature: He was a liberal patron of learned men.

 His guru poet Rajashekhara, occupies a distinguished place in Indian

literature.

 Rajeshekar wrote the famous play Karpuramanjari in the

Prakrit language.

 With his contribution, the empire extended from the North of the
Himalayas to Narmada, east of Bengal and west of Sindh.

 He assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja of Aryavarta.

 His other works include Kavya Mimansa, Balabharata, Bhrinjika,

Prapanch Pandav, and many more.

o f) Mahipala (913- 944 AD) -

 Mahipala I (c. 912–944 CE) succeeded in seizing the throne but was
overthrown by the Rashtrakutas, allowing the Palas to take advantage
of the circumstance and regain portions of the Pratiharas' previous
lands.

 Mahipala made an effort to make up for these setbacks and

succeeded in recovering some lost territory, but the Rashtrakutas
eventually foiled his conquering efforts once again.

 Mahendrapala II (r. 944–948 CE) and his successors did not contribute
significantly while in power. These kings had less of an impact on daily
life and more closely resembled petty rulers.

 His reign marked the downfall of the Gurjara Pratihara dynasty.

 He was defeated by Rashtrkuta King Indra III and lost Kannauj to him.

 He tried to recover lost lands but was repeatedly defeated by

Rashtrakutas.

 Al- Masudi, an Arab traveler, wrote that Pratihara had lost access to
the sea. This led to Rashtrkutas gaining power in Gujarat.

o g) Yashpala (1024- 1036 AD) -

 He was the last ruler of the Gurjara Pratihara dynasty.

 In 1090 AD, Kannuaj was taken by Gandhavalas.

 Administration -
o As with other kingdoms, Pratihara Kings’s administration was monarchical.

o The King occupied the highest position in the state and had enormous
powers. They adopted big titles such as ‘Parmeshwara’ and
‘Maharajadhiraja’.

o Various samantas were appointed by the Kings. The samantas used to give
military help to their Kings when called upon.

o Although the advice of the high officers was taken in matters of

administration, there is no reference to mantriparishad or ministers in the
inscriptions of that period.

o The state was divided into many bhuktis or provinces.

 Each bhukti had several mandalas and each mandala had several
cities and many villages.

o Thus, it is evident that the Pratihara rulers organized their empire into
different units for administrative convenience.

o The cities were governed by councils called goshthi, panchakula, sanviyaka,

and uttar sobha. These councils were made up of representatives from
different sections of society, such as:

 the merchants,

 the artisans, and

 the priests.

o The villages in Pratihara kingdom were locally administered.

o The elders of the villages were called "Mahattars", and they looked after the
town’s administration.

 Gramapati was an officer of the state who advised in matters of

village administration.

 It can be observed that the administration of the Pratiharas was quite

efficient. It was due to this efficient administration that the Pratiharas
were able to defend India from the attacks of the Arabs.

o In terms of administration, much of the Gupta Empire's (3rd century CE - 6th

century CE) and Harshavardhana's ideas and practices were retained. The king
was supreme and was assisted by a number of ministers and officials.

o Many minor kings and dynasties ruled as vassals of the king and were
expected to be loyal, pay a fixed tribute to the king, form matrimonial
alliances with the royal family, and supply troops when needed.
 o Some areas were administered directly by the center and were divided into
provinces (bhukti) and districts (mandala or vishaya).

o They were governed by a governor (uparika) and a district head

(vishayapati), who were tasked with collecting land revenue and maintaining
law and order with the assistance of army units stationed in their respective
areas.

o The village, as in the past, remained the basic unit of administration, with the
headman and other officials paid through land grants.

o However, many vassals, such as the Paramaras and Chandellas of modern-day

Bundelkhand, aspired to independence and frequently fought against the king
(lying in the states of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh).

o Types of Officers in the Administration of the Pratiharas

 In the administration of the Pratiharas, there are eight different types

of officers, such as:

 Kottapala, the fort's highest officer.

 Tantrapala, the king's representative in the Samanta states.

 Dandapashika was the police chief.

 Dandanayaka was in charge of the military and the justice

department.

 Dutaka delivers the king's orders and grants to specific

individuals.

 Bhangika was the officer in charge of drafting charitable and

grant orders.

 Vynaharina was most likely a legal expert who gave legal

advice.

 Baladhikrat was the army chief.

 Religion -

o During this time, various sects of Brahmanism advanced. The prominent

sects of Brahmanism during this period were Vaishnava, Shaiva, Sakta, and
Surya.

o The construction of temples and statues was considered a sacred duty by

the followers of these sects. The temples were supported by donations from
kings and other wealthy individuals.
 o Shaivas worshipped Siva under various names such as Indra, Sankar,
Pashupati, Yoga Swami, Shambhu, and so on.

o Siva was worshipped by kings such as Vatsaraja, Mahendrapala, and

Trilochanapala. Vishnu, Surya, and Brahma statues were also erected in Siva
temples. Aside from this, there were other small sects that worshipped
various goddesses.

o Durga, Chamunda, Bhagavati, and Kali were the most prominent of these
goddesses. In some places, Surya and Vinayaka were also worshipped.

o From a religious standpoint, the Pratihara kings were tolerant and allowed
the people to perform whatever acts they desired. However, they cannot be
said to have pursued a policy of religious tolerance as a whole.

o It is because, within a religion, people were free to follow any sect. There are
also some references to persecutions of other religions' adherents.

o Aside from idol worship, Yajanas and charitable giving at religious sites were
also prevalent. According to an inscription, on the day of Sankranti,
Trilochanapala donated a village to 6,000 Brahman after worshipping Lord
Siva.

o Buddhism was in decline during this time period, and the number of its
adherents was dwindling. So it was with Jainism, whose adherents were
mostly concentrated in Rajputana, Gujarat, and Deogarh.

 Social Condition -

o The caste system was prevalent in India during the Gurjara-Pratihara period,
and references to all four Vedic castes can be found in the inscription.

o The Brahmans are referred to as Vipra in the inscription, and several Prakrit
wards are used for Kshatriyas.

o Each caste's members were divided into different classes. Among the
Brahmans, the Chaturveda and Bhatta groups were prominent.

o The Kanchuka and Vakata groups were prominent among the Vaishyas. In the
time of the Pratiharas, Arab writer Ibda Khurdadab mentioned seven castes.

o There were classes such as Savakufria, Brahman, Kataria, Sudaria, Bandalia,

and Labla, according to him. The King was chosen from the Savakufria class,
whereas the Brahman class did not drink wine and married their sons to
Kataria class daughters.

o Katarias were classified as Kshatriyas. Sudarians were considered Sudras and

typically engaged in farming or cattle rearing.
 o The Basuria class was a Vaishya class whose job was to serve the other
classes.

o Sandila class members completed Chandals' work. The Lahuda class is made
up of low and wandering tribes.

o The caste system was present during the Gurjara-Pratihara period, with
references to the four Vedic castes found in inscriptions.

o Brahmans were referred to as Vipra, while different Prakrit words were used
for Kshatriyas.

o Each caste had various classes, with Chaturveda and Bhatta prominent
among the Brahmans.

o The Vaishyas had prominent groups like Kanchuka and Vakata.

o According to the Arab writer Ibda Khurdadab -- 7 castes existed during the
Pratihara era.

o The Savakufria class selected the king, while Brahman boys married Kataria
girls and abstained from wine.

o The Kataria class was regarded as Kshatriyas, and Sudaria as Sudras engaged
in farming and cattle rearing.

o The Basuria class served others, while the Sandila class performed menial
work.

o The Lahuda class was a low, wandering tribe.

o Inter-caste marriages were mentioned, indicating a gradual breakdown of

the caste system.

o Muslim attacks and conversions to Islam influenced Hindu society.

o References to inter-caste marriages and the absence of the purdah system

among royal women are found.

o Kings and the wealthy practiced polygamy, but most men had only one wife.

o Sati pratha (widow burning) existed but was not widespread.

o Rich women adorned themselves with ornaments, used oils, and cosmetics.

o Affluent families favored thin clothing.

 Economy -

o Agriculture was the backbone of the Pratihara Empire's economy.

 o During the Pratihara Empire, the royal household and the army received the
majority of government funding.

o The Pratihara Empire's economy was primarily based on agricultural

production. As a result, the tax derived from the majority of agricultural
production was the primary source of government revenue at the time.

o Standing armies garrisoned on the frontiers supplemented the feudal levies

due from subordinates to the Gurjara king. Such a system strongly implied the
use of money.

o Large permanent military forces necessitated the regular disbursement of

pay or expenses in the form of ready cash.

o The types of money required to meet two conditions:

 sufficiently high value units to be easily transportable from point of

collection to point of disbursement, and

 sufficiently low value units to meet individual soldiers' modest salary

or expenditure levels.

 Trade -

o In terms of the economy and trade in the Pratihara Empire, Arab travellers
from the ninth and tenth centuries described a variety of trade goods
originating in various parts of the subcontinent and transported to market by
a variety of pack animals.

o Indeed, the horse has been one of the most consistently demanded trade
items.

o Historians have also confirmed that during the time of the Gurjara-Pratihara
Empire, there was an active exchange of products within Indian kingdoms as
well as between these states and the rest of the world.

o The types of coins used during that time period were also mentioned by Arab
geographers.

o Several archaeological findings support the existence of a regular and widely

used medium of exchange in the Gurjara-Pratihara dominions during the
ninth and tenth centuries. Inscriptional evidence confirms this surmise.

 In C.E 905-6, King Bhoja distributed coins known as drammas,

according to an epigraph from Bharatpur.

 From 902 to 967 C.E., the Siyadoni inscription from Jhansi District
recorded a number of individual donations to temple deities.
  The Vigrahapala Dramma and the Adivardha Dramma are two
notable coin denominations.

 The Gurjara-Pratihara dominions appear to have had no gold coinage.

 The smallest purchases were made with copper, which was the
dominant medium of exchange at the time.

 Art & Architecture (Mahu-Gujjara Style) -

o Gurjara Pratihara promoted art and architecture during their reign.

o Sculptures like the Vishwapoora form of Vishnu and the marriage of Shiva
and Parvati from Kannauj are noteworthy here.

o Mesmerizing carved pillars on the temple walls of Abhaneri, Osian, and

Kotah are a site to watch.

o A female figure titled "Sursundari" in Gwalior Museum is quite famous as

well.

o Teli ka Mandir in Gwalior Fort is one of the best-known architectural marvels

of Gurjara Pratiharas.

o A rare sandstone idol of Lord Shiva in Nataraja Pose is unique. It is originally

from Ghateshwara Temple, Baroli Rajasthan, and is set to be returned to
India from the UK.

o Ambika Mata temple is quite famous for its defining style of architecture. The
temple has a Phamsana roofed, closed hall with five-bay mulaprasadas.

o Ghateshwara temple at Baroli with a tall shikhara, two squares over its
portico with parapets bearing elaborate aedicule and miniature Latina
shikhara at the corners.

o Gyaraspur Temple is more advanced in planning as it has an ambulatory with

closed halls. This, along with balconies and porches, gives it a crucified form.

o The Vishnu and Someshwara Temple at Kiradu are a few more examples of
sumptuous cumulation of the Pratihara style.

o Mahavira Jain Temple, Osican, Rajasthan -

 The Mahavira Jain temple is built in Osian of Jodhpur District,

Rajasthan.

 The temple is an important pilgrimage of the Oswal Jain community.

 This temple is the oldest surviving Jain temple in Western India.

o Bateswar Hindu Temples, Madhya Pradesh -

  A group of nearly 200 sandstone Hindu temples and their ruins in
north Madhya Pradesh.

 Style: They were built in the early Gurjara-Pratihara style of North

Indian temple architecture.

 Faith: They are dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and Shakti – representing

the 3 major traditions within Hinduism.

o Baroli Temples, Rajasthan -

 Located in Baroli village in Rawatbhata City in the Chittorgarh district

of Rajasthan.

 Style: The complex of eight temples is situated within a walled

enclosure.

 They are built in the Gurjara Pratihara style of temple

architecture dated to the tenth century CE.

 Were destroyed by Mughal emperor Aurangzeb during his Rajasthan

quest.

o Coins -

 Mihira Bhoja issued several coins in which the images became

famous.

 Boar, an incarnation of Vishnu, and the solar symbol are depicted in

the coins of Bhoja.

 Literature -

o Rajashekhara -

 His works includes Karpuramanjari, Bala-Ramayana, Bala Bharata,

Kavyamimansa, Bhuvana Kosha and Haravilasa.

o Sulaiman -

 He mentioned in his writings that Bhoja maintained numerous forces,

and no other Indian king had such fine cavalry.

 Additional contents of the book about Bhoja were:

 He has got riches, and his camels and horses are numerous.

 Exchanges are carried on in his states with silver and gold.

 There is no other country in India more safe from robbers.

 o Rajashekhara, a Sanskrit poet, dramatist, and critic, wrote notable works
during the Gurjara Pratihara rule.

o Rajashekha plays focused on conventional themes like love and showed the
political and economic conditions during the reign of Gurjara Pratihara rule.

o Famous works of Rajashekhara include Kavyamimasa, Karpuramanjari, and

Avantisundari.

o Base metal coins were widely circulated during their reign.

o During their rule, Kannuaj was an integral place for art, culture, and literature.

o In one of his works, Al Masudi, a renowned traveler, talks about Juzar, an

important place in the Gurjara Pratihara dynasty.

 As per his work, Juzr was 2000 kilometers long and 2000 kilometers
wide.

 What was the Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj?

o The metropolis of Kannauj had suffered a power vacuum following the death
of Harsha without an heir, which resulted in the disintegration of the Empire
of Harsha.

o Yashovarman: This space was eventually filled by Yashovarman around a

century later, but his position was dependent upon an alliance with
Lalitaditya Muktapida.

 Tripartite struggle: When Muktapida undermined Yashovarman, a tri-

partite struggle for control of the city developed involving
the Pratiharas, the Palas of Bengal in the east and the Rashtrakutas,
whose base lay at the south in the Deccan.

 Victory of Pratiharas: Victory of King Vatsaraja of the Pratihara

dynasty successfully challenged and defeated the Pala ruler
Dharmapala and Dantidurga, the Rashtrakuta king, for control
of Kannauj.

o Attempt by Rashtrakutas: Around 786, the Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva crossed

the Narmada River into Malwa and tried to capture Kannauj from there.

 Victories over Vatsaraja: Vatsraja was defeated by the Dhruva

Dharavarsha of the Rashtrakuta dynasty around 800 AD.

o Nagabhatta II: Vatsaraja was succeeded by Nagabhata II, who was initially
defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler Govinda III.
  Reclaimed Kannauj: He later recovered Malwa from the Rashtrakutas,
conquered Kannauj and the Indo-Gangetic Plain as far as Bihar from
the Palas, and again checked the Muslims in the west.

 Kannauj as the centre of the Gurjara-Pratihara kingdom: Kannauj

became the centre of the Gurjara-Pratihara state, which covered much
of northern India during the peak of their power.

 Importance of Gurjara - Pratiharas Dynasty -

o Among all the Rajput clans that ruled in India during the medieval period, the
Gurjara-Pratiharas dynasty had the most impressive record.

o At their zenith, the Pratiharas’ influence extended from Punjab to Central

India and from Kathiawar to North Bengal.

o For three centuries, they were mainstays of India’s defence and thwarted the
attempts of Arab invaders. They briefly revived the dream of India’s political
unification after the fall of the mighty Harsha dynasty.

o It is said that the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty was the last great imperial Hindu
dynasty of Northern India prior to the Islamic occupation of the country. The
empire of the Gurjara-Pratiharas was not only the large in territorial extent
but also one of the best administered empires as observed above. The kings
were not only great warriors, but also liberal patrons of arts and literature.

o The Pratihara Dynasty was a time of immense political and military genius.
The illustrious Pratihara kings Vatsaraja, Nagabhata II, Bhojadeva (Mihira
Bhoja I), and Mahendrapala surely deserve special mention in India’s history.

o It is to be specially remembered that the Gurjara-Pratiharas had to build their

power under the tripartite struggle with the Palas and the Rashtrakutas. They
were known fondly for the welfare of the subjects.

 How did the Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty decline?

o Feudatories: Several feudatories of the empire took advantage of the

temporary weakness of the Gurjara-Pratiharas to declare their independence.

 Various feudatories who carved independent states included

the Paramaras of Malwa, the Chandelas of Bundelkhand,
the Kalachuris of Mahakoshal, the Tomaras of Haryana, and
the Chahamanas of Shakambhari.

o Attack by Rashtrakutas: Emperor Indra III of the Rashtrakuta dynasty briefly

captured Kannauj in 916, and although the Pratiharas regained the city, their
position continued to weaken.
 o Attack by Chandelas: The Gurjara-Pratiharas lost control of Rajasthan to their
feudatories, and the Chandelas captured the strategic fortress of Gwalior in
central India around 950.

o Ghaznavid invasion: Mahmud of Ghazni captured Kannauj in 1018, and the

Pratihara ruler Rajapala fled. The Imperial Pratihara dynasty broke into
several small states after the Ghaznavid invasions.

 These branches fought each other for territory, and one of the
branches ruled Mandore till the 14th century.

 This Pratihara branch had marital ties with Rao Chunda of the Rathore
clan and gave Mandore in dowry to Chunda.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

 Dynasties of North India/The Rajput States -

o Dynasties of North India Included following states/dynasties -

 Pala Dynasty -- [already covered above]

 Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty -- [already covered above]

 Rashtrakuta Dynasty -- [already covered above]

 The Rajputs

o The Rajputs included following states/dynasties-

 1) Hindushahi Dynasty (964 - 1026 AD) -

 This dynasty ruled parts of Afghanistan and Punjab.

 Jayapala was its first Rajput king who succeeded the last
Brahmin king Bhimdev. In 1001 AD, he was defeated by
Mahmud of Ghazni after which he immolated himself.

 His successor Anand Pal also fought against Mahmud but he

was also defeated in the Battle of Waihind in 1008.

 Its last king Bhimpala died in 1024. They ruled from 964 AD to
1026 AD.

 2) Chahamanas of Shakambhari/Chauhans of Ajmer (7th to 12th

Century CE) -

 The Chahamanas had several branches:

 The oldest ruled in Lata until the mid-8 th century.

 Another, founded by Lakshmana, ruled from Naddula in

south Marwar.

 A third was established by Vasudeva in the early 7th

century, with its capital at Shakambhari (modern
Sambhar near Jaipur).

 The Chahamanas of Shakambhari, or the Chauhans of

Sambhar, ruled over present-day Rajasthan from their capital,
Shakambhari (modern-day Sambhar near Jaipur).

 Later, they shifted their capital to Ajmer; hence, they

are known as the Chauhans of Ajmer.

 The Chahamanas were originally Pratihara subordinates.

 Vasudeva founded the dynasty in the early 7th

century, and in the 10 th century, they gained
independence under King Simharaja (c. 944 - 971 CE).

 Ajayaraja II (c. 1110 - 1135) expanded the Chahamana

kingdom by capturing the Paramara territory.

 He defeated the Paramaras and conquered the

territory up to Ujjain. He founded the city Ajayameru
(Ajmer)

 Vigraharaja IV (c. 1150 – 1164 CE) -

  Vigraharaja IV was one of the greatest rulers of the
dynasty.

 He captured Delhi from the Tomaras but allowed them

to rule as feudatories.

 His kingdom included major parts of present-day

Rajasthan, Haryana, and Delhi and possibly some parts
of Punjab and Uttar Pradesh.

 Vigraharaja shifted the capital from Shakambhari

(modern-day Sambhar) to Ajayameru (Ajmer).

 In Ajmer, he commissioned several buildings, including

a Sanskrit centre of learning that was later converted
into the Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra mosque.

 Harakeli Nataka, a Sanskrit-language drama written by

him, is inscribed on inscriptions discovered at the
mosque site.

 Prithviraj Chauhan (c. 1177 - 1192 CE) -

 Prithviraj Chauhan, or Rai Pithora (Prithviraj III), was

one of the greatest rulers of the dynasty.

 He defeated the Chandella ruler Paramardi, the

Chaulukya ruler Bhima II and the Gahadavala ruler
Jaichandra.

 Prithviraj defeated Muhammad Ghori in the First

Battle of Tarain in 1991 CE. However, the following
year, Ghori defeated him in the Second Battle of Tarain.

 Initially, Prithviraj was captured and reinstated

as the ruler of Ajmer under Ghurid suzerainty.
However, he was later executed on charges of
conspiracy, and his son, Govindaraja IV, was
installed as a vassal ruler.

 In 1192 CE, Prithviraj’s younger brother, Hariraja,

recaptured part of his ancestral kingdom from Go-
vindaraja IV. However, he was later defeated by the
Ghurid general Aibak.

 3) Guhila Dynasty of Mewar -

  The Guhilas of Medapata or the Guhilas of Mewar were a
Rajput dynasty that ruled the Kingdom of Mewar in the
present-day Rajasthan.

 The Guhila kings initially ruled as Gurjara-Pratihara

feudatories.

 Their capitals included Nagahrada (Nagda) and Aghata (Ahar).

For this reason, they are also known as the Nagda-Ahar
branch of the Guhilas.

 The Guhilas assumed sovereignty after the decline of the

Pratiharas in the 10th century.

 During the 10th -13th centuries, they were involved in military

conflicts with several of their neighbours, including the Delhi
Sultanate.

 In 1303, Raja Ratan Singh Rawal was the last Guhilot king to
rule, and Rani Padmini staged the first Jauhar in Chittor.

 4) Chandellas of Bundelkahnd (9th to 12th Century CE) -

 The Chandellas, one of the feudatories of the Gurjara-

Pratiharas, trace their descent to a mythical ancestor named
Chandratreya, born of the moon.

 The dynasty was founded by Nannuka in the 9th century CE.

 The Chandellas ruled Jejakabhukti (modern Bundelkahnd)

from its capital, Kharjjuravahaka (Khaju-raho).

 They were involved in conflicts with the Pratiharas, the Palas

and the Kalachuris.

 The Chandella kingdom expanded under early rulers like

Jayashakti and Vijayashakti. Jayashakti, also called Jejjaka or
Jeja, inspired the name Jejabhukti for the Chandella territory.

 The expansion continued under Harsha (900 - 925 CE) and

Yashovarman (925 - 950 CE). Yashovarman defeated the
Somavamshis, Kambojas, and Palas but acknowledged Pala
ruler Devapala’s overlordship. He captured the Kalanjar
fortress. His reign marked the rise of Chandella art and
architecture. He also built the famous Lakshmana Temple at
Khajuraho.
  As the Pratiharas declined, the Chandellas asserted their
independence. Dhanga (c. 950 - 999 CE), the first independent
Chandella ruler, assumed the title Maharajadhiraja. Several
Khajuraho temples, in-cluding Vishvanatha temple, were built
during his reign

 The Chandellas' power declined due to the rise of the Delhi

Sultanate and local dynasties like the Bundelas, Baghelas, and
Khangars.

 A minor branch of the Chandellas reportedly ruled Kalanjar

until its ruler was killed by Sher Shah Suri’s army in 1545 CE

 Tomara kingdom (8th to 12th Century CE) -

 The Tomaras were feudatories of Pratiharas.

 They ruled the Hariyana (Haryana) from their capital, Dhil-lika

(Delhi), from the 8th to the 12 th century CE.

 The Tomars continued to rule Haryana until the mid-12

thcentury, when the Chahamana king, Vigraharaja IV,
defeated them.

 The Tomaras were involved in conflicts with their neighbours,

the Chahamanas of Shakambhari and,later on, the Gahadavala
dynasty.

 A 13th-century inscription states that the Tomaras ruled

Haryana beforethe Chahamanas and the Shakas (Turks or Delhi
Sultans).

 Anangpal II was one of the most famous Tomara kings. He

built Delhi (according to the 11th century inscription on an iron
pillar at Mehrauli). He built the citadel of Lal Kot in the
Mehrauli area and a tank known as the Anang Tal.

 The Tomaras were displaced by the Chahamanas of

Shakambhari in the 12th century, who captured theircapital,
Delhi. However, in 1192 CE, the Chahamanas were themselves
overthrown by the Ghurid rulerMuhammad Ghori.

 Tomara dynasty, one of the minor early medieval ruling houses

of northern India. The family is known from scattered sources,
and it is impossible to reconstruct its history in any detail.
Puranic evidence (writings of the Puranas) gives its early
location in the Himalayan region.
  According to bardic tradition, the dynasty was one of the 36
Rajput tribes. The history of the family spans the period
between the reign of Anangapala, who founded the city of
Delhi in the 11th Century AD, and the incorporation of Delhi
within the Chauhan (Chahamana) kingdom in 1164.

 Although Delhi subsequently became decisively a part of the

Chauhan kingdom, numismatic and comparatively late literary
evidence indicates that Tomara kings such as Anangapala and
Madanapala continued to rule as feudatories, presumably
until the final conquest of Delhi by the Muslims in 1192-93.

 Gahadavalas of Kanauj (11th to 13th Century CE) -

 Following the decline of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Middle

Ganga Valley experienced instability, which was ended when
King Chandradeva established the Gahadavala dynasty in c.
CE 1089

 From Kanauj, the Gahadawalas ruled over the major portions

of the Gangetic doab from 1089 to 1194 CE. They gradually
squeezed the Palas out of Bihar and made Banaras a second
capital.

 The Gahadawalas had a bitter struggle and enmity with the

Chahamanas.

 Govindachandra (c. 1114 - 1155 CE), the grandson of

Chandradeva, was the most powerful ruler of his dynasty. The
kingdom reached its zenith under his reign.

 As a prince, he defeated the Ghaznavids and the Palas.

 As a sovereign, he defeated the Kalachuris of Tripuri and

annexed some of their territories.

 Jaichandra (c. 1170 - 1194 CE), the grandson of

Govindachandra, was the last great ruler of the Gahadawala
dynasty.

 In 1194, he was defeated by the Ghurid army under

Qutbuddin Aibak, which effectively ended the dynasty's
imperial power.

 The kingdom completely ceased to exist when Jayachandra's

successors were defeated by the Delhi Sul-tanate Mamluk
dynasty ruler Iltutmish.
 After the sacking of Kanauj by Muhammad of Ghor in 1194 and
its subsequent capture by the Delhi Sultanate in the early 13th
century, some survivors of the Gahadavala dynasty, led by
Jaichandra's son and grandson Siyaji (Shiv Ji), fled west to the
Marwar region of Rajasthan. They founded the Rathore clan
and ruled the state of Marwar (Jodhpur state).

 Kanauj: A Struggle for Supremacy -

 Maukharis of Kanauj:

 During the decline of the Gupta Empire in the

6th century, the Maukharis of Kanauj, originally
Gupta vassals, established independent rule in
Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, with Kanauj as their
capital.

 Harsha’s Rule:

 After Shashanka of Gauda killed the Maukhari

ruler, Grihavarman, he occupied Kanauj.

 King Harsha expelled Shashanka and made

Kanauj his capital.

 Post-Harsha Power Struggle:

 After Harsha's death, Kanauj saw a power

vacuum.

 Around 725 CE, Yashovarman founded the

Varman dynasty, which was later replaced by
the Ayudha dynasty.

 Tripartite Struggle:

 From the 8th to 10th centuries, Kanauj became

the centre of conflict among the Gurjara-
Pratiharas, Palas, and Rashtrakutas.

 After the initial struggle, the Gurjara Pratiharas

succeeded in retaining Kanauj.

 Gahadavala Rule:

 Following the decline of the Gurjara-Pratiharas,

Kanauj experienced instability until
Chandradeva of the Gahadavala dynasty
restored order in 1089 CE.
  Turkish Rule:

 In 1194, Muhammad Ghori defeated

Jaichandra of the Gahadavala dynasty in the
Battle of Chandawar, bringing Kanauj under
Turkish rule

 The Kalachuris of Chedi (845 - 1211 CE) -

 South of the Chandella kingdom was the Kalachuri principality

of Chedi.

 The Kalachuris of Chedi (also known as Chedis or Kalachuris of

Chedi or Tripuri) ruled from their capital, Tripuri, now a village
(Tewar) near Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh.

 Kokalla I (845 - 885 CE) -

 The dynasty was founded by Kokalla I in 845 CE. He

defeated the Pratihara emperor Bhoja I and the
Rashtrakuta king Krishna II.

 After the defeat of Krishna II, the Rashtrakutas started

having matrimonial relations with the Kalachuris.

 Thus, Kokalla I, through his military skills and successes,

was able to increase the prestige of the Kalachuris.

 Kokalla I was succeeded by his eldest son,

Shankaragana.

 After him, Balaharsh and then Yuvaraja I came to

power

 Yuvaraja I (915 - 945 CE) -

 During Yuvaraja I’s reign, he was defeated by

Rashtrakuta King Krishna III and lost his territory.

 However, Krishna III could not hold onto it for long, and
Yuvaraja I regained it.

 Rajshekhar, a Sanskrit poet who lived in the court of

Mahendrapala I and his son Mahipala, was also closely
associated with the court of Kalachuris.

 His drama, the Viddhashalabhanjika, was

staged in the court of Yuvaraja to celebrate the
victory against the Rashtrakutas.
  After Yuvaraja I, Laksmanaraja, Yuvaraja II, and Kokalla
II ruled the Kalachuris.

 Gangeyadeva (c. 1015 – 1041 CE) -

 Gangeyadeva was the greatest Kalachuri king.

 He pursued an expansionist policy, and the Kalachuris

became an important political power during his reign.

 Gangeyadeva took the title Vikramaditya. Due to his

great victories, he assumed the title Trikalingadhipati
(Lord of Trikalinga).

 End of the Kalachuris -

 After Gangeyadeva, several Kalachuri rulers succeeded

him.

 During their reign, the Kalachuris faced repeated

attacks from the Chalukyas of Deccan, the Paramaras
of Malwa, and the Chandelas of Bundel-khand.

 These invasions weakened the dynasty, leading to its

decline.

 The Kalachuri rule finally ended in 1211 CE with

Vijayasimha as their last ruler

 Paramaras of Malwa -

 The Paramaras of Malwa, a feudatory of the Rashtrakutas,

were founded by Upendra in the 9th century.

 Their kingdom bordered the Kalachuris, with Dhara (present-

day Dhar, Madhya Pradesh) as their capital.

 It is believed that Upendra was appointed ruler of the Deccan

by Govinda III after his successful Malwa campaign.

 The Paramaras temporarily lost Malwa to the Pratiharas but

regained power in the mid-10th century under Vairasimha II
and Siyaka II (Harsha).

 Around 972 CE, Siyaka defeated the Rashtrakuta army at

Kalighatta on the Narmada and chased them to their capital,
Manyakheta.

 He broke away from Rashtrakuta rule, making the

Paramaras a sovereign power.
  King Bhoja (c. 1010 - 1055 СЕ) was the most celebrated ruler
of the Paramara dynasty. During his reign, the dynasty reached
its zenith.

 It is believed that Bhoja sent an army to support the Hindu

Shahi ruler Anandapala's fight against the Ghaznavids. Bhoja
was a renowned scholar. He authored several books:

 Samarangana Sutradhara: A treatise on civil

engineering or architecture

 Champu-Ramayana: A re-telling of the Ramayana in a

mixture of prose and poetry,

 Sringara Prakasa: A set of Sanskrit poetry

 Mahalakadeva, the last known Paramara king, was defeated

and killed by the forces of Alauddin Khalji of Delhi in 1305 CE.
However, epigraphic evidence suggests that the Paramara rule
continued for a few years after his death.

 Chalukyas of Gujarat -

 Around 950 CE, the Chalukyas of Gujarat (Solanki Rajputs),

feudatories of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, ruled Gujarat and
Kathiawad.

 The Chaulukyas of Gujarat were distinct from the Chalukyas of

southern India and had three branches:

 The oldest branch, based in Mattamayura (Central

India), included rulers like Simhavarman, Sadhanva, and
Avanivarman.

 The second branch was founded by Mularaja I, who

established his capital at Anahilapataka or Ana-hilavada
(modern Patan).

 The third branch, founded by Barappa in Lata, had its

political centre at Bhrigukachchha (Broach) in southern
Gujarat.

 Mularaja I (c. 940 - 955 CE) -

 Mularaja I of Anahilapataka led military campaigns in

Saurashtra, Kutch, and against the Abhiras. How-ever,
his power declined due to invasions by the
Chahamanas and the Chaulukyas of Lata.
  After a defeat by the Paramaras, he sought refuge with
Rashtrakuta king Dhavala but later regained his
kingdom. His successors fought several battles with the
neighbouring rulers.

 Bhima I (c. 1022 – 1064 CE) -

 Bhima I (Bhimadeva I) was a Chaulukya king who ruled

parts of present-day Gujarat from 1022 to 1064 CE.

 During his reign, Mahmud of Ghazni invaded the

kingdom and raided the Somnath temple in 1025 CE.
Bhima left his capital and took shelter in Kanthkot
during this invasion, but after Mahmud's departure, he
recovered his power and retained his ancestral
territories.

 Bhima I built the Modhera Sun Temple and the earliest

of the Dilwara Temples.

 The Vimal Vasahi temple (of the five Dilwara temples),

dedicated to Jain lord Rishabha, was built by Vimalsha,
a minister of Bhima I, in c. 1031 CE.

 His queen, Udayamati, constructed Rani Ki Vav (queen's

step well), which has been listed as one of India’s
UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 2014.

 Jayasimha Siddharaja and Kumarapala -

 The kingdom reached its zenith under the rule of

Jayasimha Siddharaja (c. 1092 - 1142 CE) and Ku-
marapala (c. 1142 - 1171 CE).

 Hemachandra Suri, Jain Acharya of the Shvetambara

sect, was a court scholar of Jayasimha Siddharaja and
Kumarapala.

 Kumarapala rebuilt the Somnath temple in excellent

stone and studded it with jewels. He replaced a
decaying wooden temple.

 End of the Dynasty -

 The Vaghela dynasty of Dholka usurped power from the

Chaulukya dynasty in 1244 CE.
 They were the last Hindu dynasty to rule Gujarat before
the Muslim conquest of the region.

 In 1299, Alauddin Khalji's army ransacked Gujarat,

weakening the dynasty.

 It ultimately ended in 1304 when Khalji sent a second

expedition.