See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/391633440

Is flood forecasting for the rivers of the European continent a scientific

Chapter · May 2025

CITATIONS
0

1 author:

Abbas Kashani
University of Mohaghegh Ardabili
214 PUBLICATIONS 41 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Abbas Kashani on 10 May 2025.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Abbas Kashani1
 University of Mohaghegh Ardabili

Pluvial flooding is a result of overland flow and ponding before the runoff enters any
watercourse, drainage system or sewer, or cannot enter it because the network is full to capacity,
usually caused by intense rainfall. River and coastal floods get the most attention since they are
largest and last the longest, while pluvial floods are relatively marginalized in research. Therefore,
the main goal of this research was to show risk posed by pluvial floods, their connection to current
global climate change processes, present effects of flooding in European cities, as well as what we
can expect in the future. Furthermore, the aims were to present and get more familiar with scientific
projects, strategies, directives and measures devised both on national and international levels, that
deal with urban pluvial flood issues across the European continent. Climate change projections
indicate that there will be an increase in the frequency and intensity of rainfall events throughout
Europe and along with ongoing urbanization, the problem of pluvial flooding will most certainly
require more attention, which it is starting to receive. Some countries have already developed their
strategies and initiatives and implemented both structural and non-structural measures, such as
spatial planning, constructional measures, information systems, reducing land sealing through
policies, building codes and standards, on-site improvement of retention, infiltration, evaporation,
and rainfall water recycling with the use of green roofs, permeable or porous pavements, rain
gardening or urban rainwater harvesting. At the same time, there are numerous research papers,
studies, conferences and workshops devoted to the problem of pluvial flooding and its
management carried out in an attempt to properly deal with this hazard. Keywords: urban areas;
pluvial flooding; climate change; precipitation; scientific projects; water management; Europe.
Floods are the most prevalent natural hazard in Europe. Between 1998 and 2009, Europe suffered
over 213 major damaging floods (Bakker et al., 2013). Coastal and river floods receive the most
attention as they are generally the floods that are largest and last the longest, while pluvial floods
are relatively underrepresented in research (Nicklin et al., 2019), most likely due to the smaller
scale of individual events (Dawson et al., 2008). The absolute record of annual flood loss of all
types of floods in Europe was observed in August 2002, when the material damage exceeded €20
billion, in nominal value (Kundzewicz et al., 2012). However, there is an increasing problem of
massive and intensifying flood damages in areas away from rivers. For example, in Great Britain
two flood events in summer 2007 cost nearly €6 billion (Falkenhagen, 2010). Recent research has
suggested that due to the frequent nature of pluvial floods, cumulative direct damage to property
1
 PhD in Climate Change from Mohaghegh Ardabili University. abasskashani122@uma.ac.ir
caused by those type of floods equals or may even exceed damage from river and coastal floods
(Nicklin et al., 2019). Pluvial floods produce less damage but the frequency is higher and the
cumulative damage over the years can be just as high as from fluvial flooding events (Acosta-Coll
et al., 2018) or even higher (Szewrański et al., 2018a). For instance, of the 11 000 properties
flooded in autumn of 2000 in the UK, 83% were outside coastal and fluvial floodplains, suggesting
that flooding was caused by local pluvial events, sewer flooding or groundwater (Dawson et al.,
2008). Pluvial flooding can be defined as flooding that results from overland flow and ponding
before the runoff enters any watercourse, drainage system or sewer, or cannot enter it because the
network is full to capacity and is usually caused by intense localized rainfall. This problem is
enhanced in cities with insufficient or non-existent sewer systems (Acosta-Coll et al., 2018). Also,
Falconer et al. (2009) state that it’s important not to confuse ‘pluvial flooding’ with ‘surface water
flooding’. According to them, surface water flooding usually refers to combined flooding in urban
areas during heavy rainfall. As such, it includes pluvial flooding, sewer flooding, flooding from
small open-channels and overland flows from groundwater springs. Pluvial flooding is also
different from ‘flash flooding’, which may also be associated with high-intensity rainfall but
usually arises from a watercourse. Further in the text of this paper terms “urban pluvial flooding”,
“inland pluvial flooding”, “pluvial flooding” ,“intra-urban system flooding”, “urban drainage
flooding” and “surface water flooding” will be used interchangeably. Pluvial flooding only occurs
when the rainfall rate exceeds the capacity of storm water drains to evacuate the water and the
capacity of the ground to absorb water and this is usually associated with short-duration storms (of
up to three hours) and with rainfalls that exceed 20 – 25 mm per hour; but it can also occur after
rainfalls of smaller intensity, approximately 10 mm per hour, that happen over longer periods,
especially if the ground surface is impermeable by being developed, saturated or frozen (Houston
et al., 2011). However, pluvial floods depend not only on the amount and duration of precipitation
but also on the hydrological characteristics of the basin, such as runoff magnitude, antecedent
moisture condition, drainage area and soil type (Acosta-Coll et al., 2018). In addition, land use
change, particularly urbanization, is also changing the proportion of precipitation which becomes
runoff and also reduces the delay between precipitation and the runoff reaching a watercourse
(Green et al., 2013). According to Li (2012) the urban storm water logging problems result from
various causes, such as the uneven distribution of precipitation in time and space, inadequate urban
water-logging emergency response systems, decreasing green areas and filling of waterbodies
because of urbanization and insufficient capacity in the storm water drainage system without
proper maintenance and upgrading.Other reasons for frequent inundation include outdated sewer-
stormwater systems, greater areas of impervious urban fabric and larger urban population (Sušnik
et al., 2014). Increasing urbanization often results in an expansion of impermeable areas, whereby
the higher proportion of sealed soils result in an increased runoff volume and a decreased response
time of a catchment, while further risk comes from urban areas expanding into flood risk areas
(Swart et al., 2012). The main goals of this research are twofold: a) first, to show connection
between current global climate change processes and urban pluvial flooding, and present effects
of flooding in European cities, as well as what we can expect in the future; b) and secondly, to
present strategies, directives and measures devised both on national and international levels, as
well as scientific projects that deal with urban pluvial flood issues in order to contribute to better
mitigation and adaptation actions in European cities. For our analysis we used the scientific
literature in the last 10 to 12 years, as well as official documents from international institutions
(such as UN, EU) or national governments.The occurance of pluvial or flash floods due to
highintensity rainfall events is nothing new. However, it appears that the frequency with which
they are happening, their impact on human lives, damage and disruption is increasing, very likely
because of the climate change, and unfortunately it’s predicted to increase further (Falconer et al.,
2009). As presented by IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (2014) on the world-wide impacts of
climate change on rainfall extremes and urban drainage, it was ob-served that typical increases in
rainfall intensity at small urban hydrology scales range from 10% to 60% from control periods in
the recent past (typically 1961–1990) up to 2100 (Figure 1). These changes in extreme short-
duration rainfall events may have significant impacts for urban drainage systems and pluvial
flooding. The Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI) predicts that the intensity of the heavy
downpours will rise by 20-50% by 2100, the most for the very rare events which will have great
implication on how the rain will run off surfaces and on the burden on sewer systems and
watercourses (Copenhagen Climate Adaptation Plan, 2009). Climate change is expected to
increase the frequency and intensity of rainfall events throughout Europe (Sušnik et al., 2014),
especially in the central and northern parts (“STAR-FLOOD”; https://www.starflood.eu/). Flood
hazard may also rise during wetter and warmer winters, with increasingly more frequent rain and
less frequent snow (“STAR-FLOOD”; https://www.starflood.eu/), while warmer atmosphere will
hold higher amount of water vapor (Kundzewicz, 2015). There will be a marked increase in
extremes in Europe, in particular, in heat waves, droughts, and heavy precipitation events,
according to the Fifth IPCC Assessment Report (2014). Changes in extreme precipitation depend
on the region, with high probability of increased extreme precipitation in Northern Europe (all
seasons) and Continental Europe (except summer). This may result in more frequent and more
intense floods of various types such as local, sudden floods (flash floods); extensive, longer-lasting
pluvial and fluvial floods; coastal floods and snowmelt floods (Menne & Murray, 2013). With the
expected changes, the drainage system built today probably won’t be able to meet the desired
service levels in the future (Zhou et al., 2012).On the other hand, some authors state that
climatechange impacts on future extreme precipitation, and consequently on pluvial flooding, is
surrounded by large uncertainties. One of the uncertainties lies in the incomplete understanding of
processes and components in the Earth’s system, resulting in large model uncertainties and thus
large variations in projected change of future precipitation extremes between different models
(Kaspersen et al., 2017). In addition, climate models provide an assessment of only anthropogenic
impacts and usually don’t account for natural changes that will occur at the same time, while
questions arise about the assumptions behind the climate models and how these assumptions
influence the projections (Arnbjerg-Nielsen et al., 2013). However, the uncertainties associated
with climate change should not be an argument for delaying investigating its possible impact on
pluvial flooding or postponing adaptation actions. Instead, uncertainties should be accounted for
while flexible and sustainable solutions should be sought, some of which will be presented in the
following sections. Current risks from pluvial flooding and future projections Risks and adverse
effects posed by pluvial flooding are numerous (Figure 2). The direct and indirect impacts of
extreme weather include losses in economic terms, the damaging and destruction of private
buildings and urban infrastructure, the loss of human lives and the degradation of safety and the
deterioration of water quality (Szewrański et al., 2018a). In addition, flooding, especially as a result
of intense precipitation, is the predominant cause of weather-related disruption to the transport
sector (Pregnolato et al., 2017) and traffic delay and inconvenience (Zhou et al., 2012). Examples
of indirect effects are also lost working hours and health impacts on affected residents, which can
manifest if sewer water flows onto streets or if pluvial flood water stands stagnant (Sušnik et al.,
2014). Furthermore, indirect impacts may occur beyond the location and time of a flood event,
such as long-lasting trauma and stress (Szewrański et al., 2018b). On the other hand, average
mortality for just drainage floods is low. More than half of the drainage events in the dataset causes
one or zero fatalities (Jonkman & Vrijling, 2008). According to the European Environment Agency
(2012) there are several factors that tend to increase the risk of pluvial flooding: • Old drainage
infrastructure often does not keep pace with an on-going urbanization.Combined sewer systems in
older areas (rainfall drains into sewers that are carrying sewage and both are transferred to sewage
treatment) which are more vulnerable to excessive rainfall than a separate treatment.The existence
of inadequate maintenance of the drainage channels to monitor debris and solid waste within such
systems. • Inadequate discharge of excess water to the regional water system. Douglas et al. (2010)
analyzed potential weak points of risk management of serious pluvial flooding in the case study of
flooding in Heywood, Greater Manchester in 2004 and 2006. Here it was revealed that all agencies
involved in flood risk management, and in particular planners, require more robust, and more
localized data. This study has also highlighted that the general public are confused about who does
what and who is responsible for pluvial flood risk management, and are not so well informed about
how best to protect their properties. Also, many agencies underestimate the ongoing health and
social effects of flooding. Modeling studies show that urbanization and increasing rainfall intensity
will increase drainage overflow volumes that will result in more frequent and severe pluvial
flooding (Miller & Hutchins, 2017). At present about 55% of the global population live in cities
and by 2050 almost two thirds of the world’s population will live in urban environments (Sörensen
et al., 2016). Over 80% of the population in Britain lives in urban areas while it’s predicted that
population growth will reach 74.3 million by 2039 (Miller & Hutchins, 2017). A new study shows
that the total urban area exposed to flooding in Europe has increased by 1000% over the past 150
years (Jongman, 2018). This means that urbanization with an increase of non-permeable surfaces
and lack of natural drainage created additional flooding issues that did not previously exist and
that never before there had been so many human assets that were in the way of floods like today.
And according to Kazmierczak & Cavan (2011), the negative correlations between green space
cover and the proportion of an area susceptible to flooding suggest that the increasing amount of
sealed surfaces in an area aggravates the problem of flooding through increased runoff and reduced
infiltration capacity. Furthermore, Guerreiro et al. (2017) developed a map of Europe which
represents a percentage of city flooded for historical hourly rainfall for a 10-year return period
(Figure 3). The growing urban population and degree of urbanization puts great pressure on the
existing drainage systems, increasing the likelihood of them being overwhelmed (“Urban pluvial
flooding and climate change: London (UK), Rafina (Greece) and Coimbra
(Portugal)”; https://www.imperial.ac.uk/grantham/ research/resources-and-pollution/water-
securityand-flood-risk/urban-flooding/). Systems currently designed for a 20-year return period of
flooding, might flood with a mean recurrence interval of 5 years by the end of the century (“Flash
floods and Urban flooding”; https://www.climatechangepost.com). On 7th August in 2002, an inch
of rain fell in central London in 30 minutes during the evening “rush hour”, resulting in the closure
of 5 mainline railway stations, and considerable disruption as London’s drainage infrastructure
was too old and overloaded to cope with such events (Crichton, 2005). According to the UK
statistics (“Facts About Floods in the UK”; https://rainbow-int-franchise.co.uk/flooding-statistics-
uk/) the residents of around 2.4 million UK properties are at risk from fluvial and coastal flooding
each year, while a further 2.8 million are susceptible to surface water – or pluvial – flooding.
Kaspersen et al. (2017) in their research found that urban development in Odense and Vienna
influences the extent of flooding considerably, while only marginally affecting the degree of
flooding for Strasbourg and Nice. This suggests that, while further soil sealing in Odense and
Vienna (and similar urban areas) should be considered very carefully, as it may substantially
increase their exposure to pluvial flooding, urban development effect on pluvial flooding varies
locally and should be considered with that in mind. The financial implications of pluvial flooding
can be significant. It is estimated that in the Netherlands, between 1986 and 2009 the total damage
from pluvial floods was €674 million (Sušnik et al., 2014). Nicklin et al. (2019) did the research
and used a combination of 3D flood modelling and the WSS (Dutch ‘Waterschadeschatter’) flood
damage estimation tool to assess direct flood damage from a 60 mm/1-h pluvial flood event in two
urban areas: Belgrave (Leicester, United Kingdom) and Lombardijen (Rotterdam, the
Netherlands). For Belgrave, direct damage was estimated at roughly €11 million, while for
Lombardijen direct damage was €12.4 million. In England and Wales during summer of 2007 there
were about 48 000 households and nearly 7300 businesses flooded (Menne & Murray, 2013) while
insurance claims from the homes and businesses affected are approaching £3 billion and other
costs amount to around £1 billion (Environment Agency, 2007). According to Bernet et al. (2017)
in Switzerland, of all damage due to surface water floods and fluvial floods between 1999 and
2013, surface water floods are responsible for at least 45 % of the flood damage to buildings and
23 % of the associated direct tangible losses. Houston et al. (2011) estimated that almost 2 million
people in urban areas in the UK face an annual 0.5 per cent probability (‘1 in 200-year’) of pluvial
flooding. Most of the areas with lower percentage of city flooded are in the north and west coastal
parts of Europe, while the higher percentages are predominately in continental and Mediterranean
areas (Guerreiro et al., 2017). When talking about the Mediterranean region, major population and
economic growth has taken place along its coast in the past century, which led to extension of
urban settlements inside flood prone areas (Gaume et al., 2016). Lugeri et al. (2006) analyzed flood
risk exposure in 13 European countries and found that Slovenia has the highest share of urban
fabric built in flood prone areas - more than 70%. An estimated 3.8 million properties are thought
to be at risk from pluvial flooding in England which represent around 10% of all properties, while
in Scotland some 15 000 properties have been estimated to be at pluvial flood risk (Houston et al.,
2011). The expected annual damages from urban flooding in the UK are estimated at £0.27 billion
which compares to £0.6 - 2.1 billion for fluvial and coastal flooding and the estimate for the future
is that this could be as much as £2 to 15 billion by 2080 compared to £1.5 – 20 billion for fluvial
and coastal flooding (Dawson et al., 2008). Furthermore, Evans et al. (2008) in the Pitt Review
estimated that the future risk from the intra-urban system flooding might rise by the 2080s to be
of the same order as fluvial and coastal flood risk. Menne & Murray (2013) did the research on
the floods in the European region and their health effects and found that in the period between
2005 and 2010, 16 countries were affected by pluvial floods: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia,
Czech Republic, Hungary, Malta, Poland, Republic of Moldova, Serbia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden,
Tajikistan, Republic of North Macedonia, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom (England and
Wales). And as mentioned in the previous part, with the projection for the continuous increase of
heavy rain contribution to total precipitation (Santato et al., 2013) and with current urbanization
and population growth, it is estimated that by 2050, 3.2 million people in urban areas in the UK
could be at risk from pluvial flooding, which is an increase of 1.2 million (Houston et al., 2011).
Figure 4, developed by European Environment Agency (2012), shows the projected change in the
annual number of days with heavy rainfall in 2071–2100 against the reference period (1961–1990).
Projections for regions south of the Alps show a decline in the number of days with extreme
precipitation of up to five days and more. Most regions north of the Alps expect an increase, mostly
of one to three days. In addition, this map shows the degree of mean soil sealing per urbanized
areas of cities. Cities with high soil sealing and an increasing number of intensive rainfall events
— in particular in north-western and northern Europe — face a higher risk of urban drainage
flooding. Nevertheless, cities in areas with a decreasing number of such events but high soil sealing
still face a flooding risk, just less often. Cities of high and low soil sealing can be found in all
regions and do not cluster in a particular region with the exception of low sealing levels in cities
in Finland, Norway, Slovenia and Sweden. Cyprus, Estonia, Greece and Luxembourg are countries
with a high share of cities with elevated levels of soil sealing. Examples of pluvial flooding events
across European continent Gaume et al. (2009) have compiled a comprehensive data record of
flash floods for seven European hydrometeorological regions. This inventory was the first step
towards an atlas of extreme flash floods in Europe while the objective was to document a minimum
number of 30 floods in each region, especially the events considered as the most extreme or ‘‘top
30” flash floods which are homogeneously distributed over the selected period. However, this
research didn’t include pluvial floods and there couldn’t be found any similar analysis that would
focus on pluvial flooding events in Europe. Therefore, this section will provide a few examples of
pluvial flooding occurrences that had significant economic and social impact on the communities
in Europe affected by this hazard. In the summer of 2007, floods that struck much of the United
Kingdom during June and July affected hundreds of thousands of people. This event was the most
serious inland pluvial and fluvial flood ever recorded, with 13 deaths, about 7000 people rescued
from floodwaters by the emergency services, and about 48 000 households and nearly 7300
businesses flooded (Menne & Murray, 2013), while the insurance claims from the homes and
businesses flooded approached £3 billion (Environment Agency, 2007). The floods caused the loss
of essential services, almost half a million people were without water or electricity supply,
transport networks failed, a dam breach was narrowly averted, and emergency facilities and
telecommunications were put out of action (Menne & Murray, 2013). During June, July, and
August of 2007 a succession of depressions tracked over the UK, bringing heavy rainfall and
triggering multiple flooding events (Stuart-Menteth, 2007). With 414 mm of rain, England and
Wales haven’t seen a wetter May to July since records began in 1766 (Environment Agency, 2007).
On 12th June 2007, a total of 98.3 mm of rain fell in one hour in East and South Belfast which
resulted in both fluvial flash flooding and pluvial flooding which caused major disruption
throughout Belfast with over 400 properties affected (Falconer, 2009). Two particularly large
floods hit within just four weeks of each other. First, the northeast of England was badly affected
following heavy rainfall on June 25th, which caused flooding in cities and towns such as Sheffield,
Doncaster, Rotherham, Louth, and Kingston-upon-Hull (Figure 5). Some areas were hit again by
further flooding after more severe rains on July 20th, which affected a much larger area of central
England, including Oxford, Gloucester, Tewkesbury, Evesham, and Abingdon (Stuart-Menteth,
2007). According to the emergency services, that summer saw the greatest number of search and
rescue missions in the country since the Second World War (Environment Agency, 2007).Just a
couple of years before this event, at the end of July in 2002, another extreme case of storms affected
much of the UK, especially West and central Scotland, and produced extreme amount of rainfall
at several locations in localized intense heavy downpours generating surface water flooding and
pluvial flooding affecting small urban watercourses, drainage systems and sewers (Falconer,
2009). The full storm began at approximately 10:30 am on 30 July 2002 and continued for a total
of approximately 10 hours, it measured 75mm depth and had a maximum intensity of 94.5 mm/h
which can be linked to a maximum return period of 100 years (Wilson & Spiers, 2003). According
to the European Environment Agency (2012), on July 2nd 2011, Copenhagen in Denmark was hit
by a huge thunderstorm after a substantially hot period. During a two hour period over, 150 mm
of rain fell in the city centre. This became the biggest single rainfall in Copenhagen since
measurements began in the mid-1800s. The city’s sewers were unable to handle all of the water
and as a result many streets were flooded and sewers overflowed into houses, basements and onto
streets thereby flooding the city (Figure 6). Insurance damages alone were estimated at €650–700
million. Damage to municipal infrastructure not covered by insurance, such as roads, amounted to
€65 million. The Marmara region in north-western Turkey suffered from a series of floods during
the period from 7th until 10th September in 2009, with 35 000 people affected, 32 human losses
and more than $100 million of economic damage. The 24-hour rainfall amounts varied between
100 and 253 mm during the flooding period and additional factors such as land use changes,
urbanization, poor drainage, and construction and settling in the flood-prone areas worsened
consequences of the floods, especially in major urban areas of the region. Istanbul suffered most
from floods where some suburban districts were submerged and the city’s highways were turned
into rivers and transportation and communication infrastructures were damaged (Kömüşcü &
Çelik, 2012). On the 18th September in 2007 an extreme rainfall event affected approximately
one-third of Slovenia, causing the damage of €200 million and six casualties (Rusjan et al., 2009).
In the town Železniki, the observed maximum daily amount of rainfall was nearly 200 mm, which
was the highest recorded amount of precipitation since the beginning of the measurements in 1930
and it devastated the town of Železniki: three people lost their lives, while it was estimated that
the flood caused nearly €100 million of damage (Markošek, 2008). In June of 2010 storms hit the
south-east of France and the large amounts of heavy rain led to localized flash flooding and pluvial
flooding which caused severe damage and loss of life in southern France, and a number of towns
in the department of Var were affected, with hundreds of homes flooded (Moreau & Roumagnac,
2010). Torrential rainfall hit southern Italy and produced major flooding in parts of Sicily and
Calabria on October 4th 2018. The urban area of Catania, Sicily was strongly hit where streets
turned into rivers (Figure 7). Catania experienced intense rainfall with about 50 mm falling in only
20 minutes as the severe thunderstorm passed (“Major flash floods hit urban areas of Catania,
Sicily”; http://www.severe-weather.eu/news/major-flash-floods-hit-urban-areas-of-catania-
sicily/).In May and June of 2016, Germany was struck with recurring thunderstorms, with damage
across Germany totaled €2.6 billion (Faust, 2018). Parts of Germany have come to a standstill after
storms and torrential rain, especially in the south in May this year as well. One person died and
daily life has been disrupted. Heavy rain and thunderstorms, mainly in southern and central
Germany, have left rivers overflowing and streets flooded (Silk, 2019).Pluvial flooding risk
management Adopted measures and strategies Measures and strategies that increase the specific
response capacity of cities to flooding, according to Swart et al. (2012), can be classified into
structural and non-structural measures or into grey, green and soft measures (Figure 8). The
response capacity measures include spatial planning, constructional measures, risk acceptance,
behavioral adaptation, information systems, technical flood protection and increasing natural water
retention in catchment areas and reducing land sealing. Structural measures decrease the risk and
they are mostly effective, but they usually involve management problems. On the other hand,
nonstructural measures reduce vulnerability and when they are permanent they are reliable but can
be socially costly while when they are temporary and less costly they become less reliable
(Working Group F, 2010). These can be classified as passive and active where active non-structural
measures are those that promote direct interaction with people, such as training, local management,
early warning systems for people, public information, while passive measures involve policies,
building codes and standards, and land use regulations (Acosta-Coll et al., 2018). Some of the
adaptation measures involve the on-site improvement of retention, infiltration, evaporation, and
rainfall water recycling with the use of green roofs, permeable or porous pavements, rain
gardening, urban rainwater harvesting, or the application of water-absorbing geocomposites
(Szewrański et al., 2018b). The problem of pluvial flooding is slowly starting to receive more
attention, according to the interviews conducted by Mees et al. (2016) and numerous research
papers (Candela & Aronica, 2016; Falconer et al., 2009; Szewrański et al., 2018a/b; Fritsch et al.,
2016), conferences and workshops (Third Hydrology Forum, Oslo, 2016; Flash Floods and Pluvial
Flooding Workshop, Calgari, 2010; 3rd European Conference on Flood Risk Management, Lyon,
2016) done on this topic. Through further examples of different projects, strategies and initiatives
implemented in European countries separately or in mutual cooperation across the continent,
various methods of urban pluvial flooding management will be observed. For instance, The EU
Directive on the assessment and management of flood risks (pluvial floods included), often
referred to as the Floods Directive, entered into force on 26th November 2007, which main aim is
to reduce and manage the risks posed by floods to human health, the environment, cultural heritage
and economic activity (Bakker et al., 2013). Floods Directive contains a three-stage approach: first,
a preliminary flood risk assessment must be undertaken, then flood hazard maps and flood risk
maps are to be prepared and in the final stage, member states must establish Flood Risk
Management plans. Priest et al. (2016) did an analysis which indicates that the effect of the Flood
Directive is highly variable among the six European countries they studied (Belgium, England,
France, the Netherlands, Poland, and Sweden), but despite the shortcomings of the Flood Directive
in directly affecting flood risk outcomes, it has had a positive influence in stimulating discussion
and flood risk management planning in member states that were perhaps lagging behind. Or,
another example, according to Land Use Consultants (2003) Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems,
involves moving away from conventional piped systems and toward engineering solutions that
mimic natural drainage processes and minimize adverse effects on the environment which may
take the form of infiltration systems whereby water is soaked away into the ground or they may be
attenuation systems, which release flows gradually to watercourses or sewers. Separate storm
water and foul water systems can increase drainage capacity and reduce the likelihood of sewage
mixing with pluvial flood water (Houston et al., 2011). As mentioned previously, there are
different uncertainties that surround risk assessments for urban flooding, particularly connected to
the climate change models and small-scale projections of extreme precipitation. Kaspersen &
Kirsten (2017) proposed a way to address these uncertainties by using a very detailed integrated
data and modelling approach, such as the DIAS Danish Integrated Assessment System tool they
described in detail, which can help identify particularly vulnerable and valuable assets that climate
change adaptation measures should protect. While the warning about extreme weather events in
Germany is done nationwide by the German Meteorological Service, flood forecasting and
warning is decentralized in Germany which poses the main challenge of handling of measured data
coming from various providers and monitoring networks in individual formats (Osnabrugge et al.,
n.d.). German Water Association (DWA) set up different working groups with the aim to establish
technical standards and provide affected interest groups with guidelines and practical advice which
in the year 2013 during a heavy rainfall event with a return period of about 100 years has proven
to significantly reduce flood risk and gain acceptance in public (Fritsch et al., 2016). As a further
example, Hamburg has introduced a separate rain water drainage system in recent years and
introduced financial penalties, if rain water is not locally drained by home owners (Schlünzen &
Bohnenstengel, 2016). Projects related with pluvial flooding issues The following table represents
various examples of different projects, strategies and initiatives implemented in European
countries separately or in mutual cooperation across the continent that deal with and manage
pluvial flooding. Good examples of pluvial flooding risk management could be found outside of
Europe as well and perhaps studied further in the attempt to adapt good practices from across the
world. For example, China is currently in the process of implementing a policy initiative called
sponge cities to holistically tackle urban pluvial flooding while promoting sustainable urban
development with reduced environmental impact. This initiative is well-grounded in scientific
under .Conclusions Pluvial flooding, or flooding that is a result of intense localized rainfall that
exceeds the capacity of a drainage system, is getting wider awareness in Europe. The estimates
that cumulative damage from pluvial flooding over the years can be just as high as from fluvial
flooding events or even higher is worrying and a cause for a concern. Risks posed by pluvial
flooding are numerous, from economic losses, destruction of private buildings and urban
infrastructure to the loss of human lives, decrease of water and health impacts. With climate change
projections that there will be an increase in the frequency and intensity of rainfall events
throughout Europe and with ongoing urbanization with its own effects, adaptive and sustainable
solutions should be explored and pursued as soon as possible. The problem of pluvial flooding is
most certainly starting to receive more attention and some countries have already developed their
strategies for dealing with this hazard. As this review shows, there are already numerous
researches, papers, studies, conferences and workshops dedicated to the problem of pluvial
flooding and its management. Various project strategies and initiatives that deal with pluvial
flooding risk management have been implemented in some of the European countries separately
or in cooperation with one another. Some of the measures presented include spatial planning,
constructional measures, risk acceptance, information systems, early warning systems for people,
reducing land sealing through policies, building codes and standards and land use regulations, as
well as adaptation measures such as the on-site improvement of retention, infiltration, evaporation,
and rainfall water recycling with the use of green roofs, permeable or porous pavements, rain
gardening or urban rainwater harvesting.
Acosta-Coll, M., Merelo, F., Peiro, M.M., & De la Hoz, E. (2018). Real-Time Early Warning
System Design for Pluvial Flash Floods—A Review. Sensors, 18, 2255.
DOI:10.3390/s18072255 Arnbjerg-Nielsen, K., Willems, P., Olsson, J., Beecham, S.,
Pathirana, A., Gregersen, I., Madsen, H., & Nguyen, V.-T.V. (2013). Impacts of Climate
Change on Rainfall Extremes and Urban Drainage Systems. Water science and technology,
68(1), 16-28. DOI:10.2166/wst.2013.251 Ashley, R., Blanksby, J., Maguire, T. & Leahy, T.
(2019). Frameworks for Adapting to Flood Risk: Experiences from the EU’s Flood Resilient
City Project. Bakker, M.H.N., Green, C., Driessen, P., Hegger, D., Delvaux, B., van
Rijswick, M., Suykens, C., Beyers, J.C, Deketelaere, K., van Doorn-Hoekveld, W., &
Dieperink, C. (2013). Flood Risk Management in Europe: European flood regulation. STAR-
FLOOD Consortium, Utrecht, The Netherlands. ISBN: 978- 94-91933-04-2 Bernet, D.B.,
Prasuhn, V., & Weingartner, R. (2017). Surface water floods in Switzerland: what insurance
claim records tell us about the damage in space and time. Natural Hazards and Earth System
Sciences, 17, 1659-1682. https://doi.org/10.5194/ nhess-17-1659-2017 Candela, A., &
Aronica, G.T. (2016, September). Derivation of Rainfall Thresholds for Pluvial Flood Risk
Warning in Urbanised Areas. XXXV Convegno Nazionale di Idraulica e Costruzioni
Idrauliche, 14th – 16th September 2016, Bologna, Italy.
https:// doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20160718016 Crichton, D. (2005). Flood risk & insurance in
England & Wales: are there lessons to be learned from Scotland? Technical Papers 1
Benfield Greig Hazard Research Centre Dawson, R.J., Speight, L., Hall, J.W., Djordjevic, S.,
Savić, D., & Leandro, J. (2008). Attribution of flood risk in urban areas. Journal of
Hydroinformatics, Vol. 10, No. 4, 275-288. DOI: 10.2166/hydro.2008.054 Douglas, I.,
Garvin, S., Lawson, N., Richards, J., Tippett, J., & White, I. (2010). Urban pluvial flooding:
a qualitative case study of cause, effect and nonstructural mitigation. Journal of Flood Risk
Management, 3, 112–125. DOI:10.1111/j.1753-318X.2010.01061.x Environment Agency
(2007). Review of 2007 summer floods. Environment Agency, Bristol. European
Environment Agency (2012). Urban adaptation to climate change in Europe. Challenges and
opportunities for cities together with supportive national and European policies. EEA Report
No 2/2012. Copenhagen, Denmark. Evans, E.P., Simm, J.D., Thorne, C.R., Arnell, N.W.,
Ashley, R.M., Hess, T.M., Lane, S.N., Morris, J., Nicholls, R.J., Penning-Rowsell, E.C.,
Reynard, N.S., Saul, A.J., Tapsell, S.M., Watkinson, A.R., & Wheater, H.S. (2008). An
update of the Foresight Future Flooding 2004 qualitative risk analysis. Cabinet Office,
London. Falconer, R. (2009, November). Pluvial Flooding and Surface Water Management.
European Water Management and Implementation of the Floods Directive. 5th EWA
Brussels Conference, 6th November 2009, Brussels, Belgium. Falconer, R., Cobby, D.,
Smyth, P., Astle, G., Dent, J., & Golding, B. (2009). Pluvial flooding: New approaches in
flood warning, mapping and risk management. Journal of Flood Risk Management, 2, 198 -
208. DOI: 10.1111/j.1753-318X.2009.01034.x Falkenhagen, B. (2010, May). Flash flood and
pluvial flooding from the point of view of the insurance industry. EUROPEAN
COMMISSION – WFD COMMON IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY, WG F Thematic
Workshop on Implementation of the Floods Directive 2007/60/EC, “FLASH FLOODS AND
PLUVIAL FLOODING”, 26th – 28th May 2010, Cagliari, Italy Faust, E. (2018). Parts of
Germany under water. Available at: https://www.munichre.com/topics-online/ en/climate-
change-and-natural-disasters/naturaldisasters/floods/floods-in-germany-2018.html Fritsch, K.
Assmann, A., & Tyrna, B. (2016, October). Long-term experiences with pluvial flood risk
management. 3rd European Conference on Flood Risk Management, E3S Web of
Conferences. 7. 04017. 17th – 21st October, 2016, Lyon, France.
DOI:10.1051/e3sconf/20160704017. Gaume, E., Bain, V., Bernardara, P., Newinger,
O.,Barbuc, M., Bateman, A., Blaškovičová, L., Blöschl, G., Borga, M., Dumitrescu, A.,
Daliakopoulos, I., Garcia, J., Irimescu, A., Kohnová, S., Koutroulis, A., Marchi, L., Matreata,
S., Medina, V., Preciso, E., & Viglione, A. (2009). A Collation of Data on European Flash
Floods. Journal of Hydrology, 367, 70-78. DOI:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2008.12.028 Gaume, E.,
Borga, M., Llassat, M.C., Maouche, S., Lang, M., & Diakakis, M. (2016). Mediterranean
extreme floods and flash floods.The Mediterranean Region under Climate Change. A
Scientific Update, IRD Editions, 133-144, Coll. Green, C., Dieperink, C., Ek, K., Hegger,
D.L.T., Pettersson, M., Priest, S., & Tapsell, S. (2013). Flood Risk Management in Europe:
the flood problem and interventions (report no D1.1.1), STAR-FLOOD.
Consortium, Utrecht, the Netherlands. ISBN: 978- 94-91933-02-8 Guerreiro, S.B., Glenis,
V., Dawson, R., & Kilsby, C. (2017). Pluvial Flooding in European Cities—A Continental
Approach to Urban Flood Modelling. Water, 9(4):296. DOI:10.3390/w9040296. Houston,
D., Werritty, A., Basset, D., Geddes, A., Hoolachan, A., & Mcmillan, M. (2011). Pluvial
(Rain Related) Flooding in Urban Areas: The Invisible Hazard. Project Report. Joseph
Rowntree Foundation, Bristol. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change – IPCC. (2014).
Fifth Assessment Report - AR5 Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and
Vulnerability. IPCC - Working Group Report Jiang, Y., Zevenbergen, C., & Ma, Y. (2018).
Urban pluvial flooding and stormwater management: A contemporary review of China’s
challenges and “sponge cities” strategy. Environmental Science & Policy, Volume 80, 132-
143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. envsci.2017.11.016 Jongman, B. (2018). Effective adaptation
to rising flood risk. Nature Communications, 9 (1). DOI: 10.1038/ s41467-018-04396-1
Jonkman, S.N., & Vrijling, J.K. (2008). Loss of life due to floods. Journal of Flood Risk
Management, 1(1):43 – 56. DOI:10.1111/j.1753-318X.2008.00006.x Kaspersen, P. S.,
Høegh Ravn, N., Arnbjerg-Nielsen, K., Madsen, H., & Drews, M. (2017). Comparison of the
impacts of urban development and climate change on exposing European cities to pluvial
flooding. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 21(8), 4131-4147. DOI: 10.5194/hess-21-
4131-2017 Kaspersen, P.S., & Kirsten, H. (2017). Integrated climate change risk assessment:
A practical application for urban flooding during extreme precipitation. Climate Services, 6.
DOI:10.1016/j.cliser.2017.06.012. Kazmierczak, A., & Cavan, G. (2011). Surface water
flooding risk to urban communities: Analysis of vulnerability, hazard and exposure.
Landscape and Urban Planning 103, 185– 197. DOI: 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.07.008
Kömüşcü, A.U., & Çelik, S. (2012). Analysis of the Marmara flood in Turkey, 7–10
September 2009: an assessment from hydrometeorological perspective. Natural Hazards.
DOI 10.1007/s11069-012-0521-x Kundzewicz, Z.W., Pińskwar, I., & Brakenridge, G.R.
(2012). Large floods in Europe, 1985–2009, Hydrological Sciences Journal.
DOI:10.1080/02626667.201 2.745082 Kundzewicz, Z.W. (2015). Climate change track in
river floods in Europe. Proc. IAHS, 369, 189–194. DOI: 10.5194/piahs-369-189-2015 Land
Use Consultants, CAG Consultants and SQW Limited (2003). Living with Climate Change
in the East of England. Stage 1 Report: Guidance on Spatial Issues. Technical Report
prepared for Hertfordshire County Council on behalf of the East of England Regional
Assembly and East of England Sustainable Development Roundtable Li, C. (2012).
Ecohydrology and good urban design for urban storm water-logging in Beijing, China.
Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology, 12(4):287–300. DOI:10.2478/v10104-012-0029-8. Lugeri,
N., Genovese, E., Lavalle, C., & De Roo, A. (2006). Flood risk in Europe: analysis of
exposure in 13 Countries. Institute for Environment and Sustainability and European
Commission Joint Research Centre Markošek, J. (2008). A case-study of an extreme rainfall
event in NW Slovenia. The European Forecaster, Newsletter of the WGCEF, N°13, Météo-
France. Mees, H., Crabbé, A., Alexander, M., Kaufmann, M., Bruzzone, S., Lévy, L., &
Lewandowski J. (2016). Coproducing flood risk management through citizen involvement:
insights from cross-country comparison in Europe. Ecology and Society 21(3):7. http://
dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-08500-210307 Menne, B., & Murray, V. (2013). Floods in the WHO
European Region: Health effects and their prevention. World Health Organization, Regional
Office for Europe, Copenhagen.
Miller, J.D., & Hutchins, M. (2017). The impacts of urbanisation and climate change on
urban flooding and urban water quality: A review of the evidence concerning the United
Kingdom. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 12, 345–362. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2017.06.006 Moreau, K., & Roumagnac, A. (2010, September). Feedback
on floods in Var, south of France, 15th June 2010: different societal impacts and responses
linked to levels of prevention, organization and information. 12th Plinius Conference on
Mediterranean Storms, 1st – 4th September 2010, Corfu Island, Greece. Nicklin, H., Leicher,
A.M., Dieperink, C., & Van Leeuwen, K. (2019). Understanding the Costs of Inaction – An
Assessment of Pluvial Flood Damages in Two European Cities. Water, 11(4):801. DOI:
10.3390/ w11040801. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development – OECD.
(2013). Water and Climate Change Adaptation: Policies to Navigate Uncharted Waters,
OECD Studies on Water, OECD Publishing Osnabrugge, B. van, Meissner, D., Macia-
Sorribes, H., & Louise Arna, L. (n.d.). Flood Early Warfning and Forecasting across Europe
– An Insider’s View by IMPREX Early Career Scientists. Available at:
https://imprex.eu/flood-early-warning-and-forecasting-across-europe.
Pregnolato, M., Ford, A., Wilkinson, S.M., & Dawson, R.J. (2017). The impact of flooding
on road transport: A depth-disruption function. Transportation Research Part D: Transport
and Environment, Volume 55, 67-81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. trd.2017.06.020 Priest, S.J.,
Suykens, C., Van Rijswick, H.F.M.W., Schellenberger, T., Goytia, S.B., Kundzewicz, Z.W.,
Van Doorn-Hoekveld, W.J., Beyers, J.-C., & Homewood, S. (2016). The European Union
approach to flood risk management and improving societal resilience: lessons from the
implementation of the Floods Directive in six European countries. Ecology and Society,
21(4):50. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-08913-210450 Rusjan, S., Kobold, M., & Mikos, M.
(2009). Characteristics of the extreme rainfall event and consequent flash floods in W
Slovenia in September 2007. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 9, 947-956. https://doi.
org/10.5194/nhess-9-947-2009 Santato, S., Bender, S., & Schaller, M. (2013). The European
Floods Directive and Opportunities offered by Land Use Planning. CSC Report 12, Climate
Service Center, Germany Schlünzen, K.H., & Bohnenstengel, S.I. (2016). Socioeconomic
Impacts—Urban Climate. In: Quante M., Colijn F. (eds) North Sea Region Climate Change
Assessment. Regional Climate Studies. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-
39745-0_15 Silk, J. (2019). Storm ‘Axel’ causes travel disruption, flooding in Germany,
Austria. Available at: https:// www.dw.com/en/storm-axel-causes-travel-disruption-flooding-
in-germany-austria/a-48820037 Sörensen, J., Persson, A., Sternudd, C., Aspegren, H.,
Nilsson, J., Nordström, J., Jonsson, K., Mottaghi, M., Becker, P., Pilesjö, P., Larsson, R.,
Berndtsson, R., & Mobini, S. (2016). Re-Thinking Urban Flood Management—Time for a
Regime Shift. Water, 8, 332. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8080332 Stuart-Menteth, A. (2007).
U.K. Summer 2007 Floods. Risk Management Solutions. Sušnik, J., Strehl, C., Postmes,
L.A., VamvakeridouLyroudia, L.S., Maelzer, H.J., Savic, D.A., & Kapelan, Z. (2014).
Assessing Financial Loss due to Pluvial Flooding and the Efficacy of Risk-Reduction
Measures in the Residential Property Sector. Water Resources Management, 29. DOI:
10.1007/ s11269-014-0833-6. Swart, R.J., Fons, J., Geertsema, W., van Hove, L.W.A., &
Jacobs, C.M.J. (2012). Urban Vulnerability Indicators. A joint report of ETC-CCA and ETC-
SIA. Technical Report, no. 01/2012, ETC CCA, Bologna Szewrański, S., Chruściński, J., van
Hoof, J., Kazak, J., Malgorzata, S., Tokarczyk-Dorociak, K., & Żmuda, R. (2018a). A
Location Intelligence System for the Assessment of Pluvial Flooding Risk and the
Identification of Storm Water Pollutant Sources from Roads in Suburbanised Areas. Water,
10(6):746. DOI: 10.3390/w10060746. Szewrański, S., Chruściński, J., van Hoof, J., Kazak,
J., Malgorzata, S., Tokarczyk-Dorociak, K., & Żmuda, R. (2018b). Pluvial Flood Risk
Assessment Tool (PFRA) for Rainwater Management and Adaptation to Climate Change in
Newly Urbanised Areas. Water, 10(4):386. DOI: 10.3390/w10040386. The Technical and
Environmental Administration, City of Copenhagen (2009). Copenhagen Climate Adaptation
Plan, Copenhagen Carbon Neutral by 2025. Wilson, D., & Spiers, M. (2003, June). The
Strategic Response to Glasgow East End Flooding, Paper No 4. Scottish WaPUG Meeting,
19th June 2003, Dunblane World Meteorological Organisation. (2016). Overview of the
Global FFG System. Third Hydrology Forum, 20th - 23rd September 2016, Oslo, Norway.
Working Group F on Floods. (2010, May). Flash Floods and Pluvial Flooding Workshop.
Report of Cagliari workshop, 26th – 28th May 2010, Calgari, Italy. ISBN: 978-88-448-0511-
1 Zhou, Q., Mikkelsen, P.S., Halsnæs, K., & ArnbjergNielsen, K. (2012). Framework for
economic pluvial flood risk assessment considering climate change effects and adaptation
benefits. Journal of Hydrology, Volumes 414–415, 539-549. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.11.031.
Internet 1: Amsterdam Rainproof https://www.rainproof.nl Internet 2: Civil Engineering &
Environmental Hydraulics | HR Wallingford http://www.hrwallingford.com Internet 3:
Climate change and flood risk in European cities
https://www.eea.europa.eu/highlights/climate-change-and-flood-risk Internet 4: Facts About
Floods In The UK - Flooding Statistics UK - Rainbow Int. https://rainbow-
intfranchise.co.uk/flooding-statistics-uk/ Internet 5. Find out if you’re at risk of flooding in
England. https://www.gov.uk/check-flood-risk Internet 6. Flash floods and Urban flooding.
https:// www.climatechangepost.com Internet 7. FloodCitiSense. https://jpi-urbaneurope.
eu/project/floodcitisense/ Internet 8. FloodList – Floods and Flooding News from across the
Globe. http://floodlist.com/ Internet 9. Four Cities Gain Rain. http://www.raingain.eu Internet
10. Major flash floods hit urban areas of Catania, Sicily (2018). http://www.severe-
weather.eu/ news/major-flash-floods-hit-urban-areas-of-catania-sicily/
Internet 11. Making Space for Water - Urban Flood Risk and Integrated Drainage (2008).
https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20090731150607/
 http://www.defra.gov.uk/environ/fcd/policy/strategy/ha2.htm Internet 12. PLANAT National
Platform for Natural Hazards Information platform on natural hazards in Switzerland.
http://www.planat.ch Internet 13. STAR-FLOOD. http://www.starflood.eu Internet 14.
Urban-Prex. http://www.urban-prex.org Internet 15. Urban pluvial flooding and climate
change: London (UK), Rafina (Greece) and Coimbra (Portugal).
https://www.imperial.ac.uk/grantham/research/resources-and-pollution/water-security-and-
flood-risk/urban-flooding.

View publication stats