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КИЇВСЬКИЙ НАЦІОНАЛЬНИЙ УНІВЕРСИТЕТ

ІМЕНІ ТАРАСА ШЕВЧЕНКА
HH ІНСТИТУТ МІЖНАРОДНИХ ВІДНОСИН

Навчально-методичні матеріали по темі

“THE NATURE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW”

для студентів IІ курсу HH ІМВ

Київ-2022

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Київський національний університет
імені Тараса Шевченка
HH Інститут міжнародних відносин
Кафедра іноземних мов

доц. Полєєва Ю.С.

Савельєва Л.Ю.
Василенко Т.П.

Навчально-методичні матеріали по темі

“THE NATURE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW”

для студентів ІI курсу HH ІМВ

Затверджено на засіданні кафедри

іноземних мов
Протокол №___ від ___ _________ 2022 р.

Київ-2022

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UNIT 9 THE NATURE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW
SECTION 1.
READING & VOCABULARY
LEAD-IN:
I. Comment on the following:
1. “International law? I better call my lawyer; he didn't bring that up to me.”– George W. Bush.
(an American politician who served as the 43rd president of the United States from 2001 to
2009, born July 6, 1946).

2. “Insofar as international law is observed, it provides us with stability and order and with a
means of predicting the behavior of those with whom we have reciprocal legal obligations.”
– J. William Fulbright (an American politician, academic, and statesman, he is best known
for the creation of the international fellowship program bearing his name, the Fulbright
Program, 1905 –1995).

3. “The sovereignty of states must be subordinated to international law and international

institutions.” – George Soros (a Hungarian-born American businessman and
philanthropist, born August 12, 1930).

4. “Nicaragua dealt with the problem of terrorism in exactly the right way. It followed
international law and treaty obligations. It collected evidence, brought the evidence to the
highest existing tribunal, the International Court of Justice, and received a verdict - which, of
course, the U.S. dismissed with contempt.” – Noam Chomsky (an American linguist,
philosopher, cognitive scientist, historical essayist, social critic, and political activist, born
December 7, 1928).

5. “If I were doing the Security Council today, I'd have one permanent member, the United
States, because that's the real reflection of the distribution of power in the world. All
international laws are invalid, meaningless attempts to constrict American power.” – John
Bolton (an American attorney, diplomat, Republican consultant, and political commentator,
born November 20, 1948).

II. Discuss the problem.

1. What is the nature of international law?
2. Is International law the real law? What are the weaknesses of international law?
3. What are the sources of international law? From where does it derive its legal validity?
4. What are the theories of the basis of international law? Explain the maxim 'ubi societas, ubi
jus'.
5. What is the future of international law?
I. Read and translate the text.
TEXT 1:

WHAT IS INTERNATIONAL LAW?

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 Every country, or state, has its own set of 1) laws and 2) legal 1. закон,
system. The laws of one country will 3) apply to everyone in that country, право
but generally do not apply outside that country’s borders. These laws are 2. правова система
called 4) national or domestic laws. Domestic laws are the laws that 3. застосовувати
affect people in their daily lives – usually divided between civil laws, such 4. національне
as employment laws and highway speed limits, and criminal laws against законодавство
harmful activities such as murder and 5) trafficking 6) illicit drugs. A 5. контрабанда,
country’s constitution is usually the 7) supreme law of the land, which наркоторгівля
“trumps” other national or local laws if there is a conflict between them. 6. заборонені
Each country develops its own system of laws, so there are many different наркотики/
systems of domestic law. препарати
International law 8) picks up where domestic law ends. It 7. основний/
governs the way countries 9) interact with one another, and in specific найвищий закон
circumstances, also sets how and when an international government, like 8. підхоплювати
the United Nations, intervenes in how a government interacts with its 9. взаємодіяти
citizens or other people within the state. International law applies across 10. забезпечення
borders, and unlike domestic laws, there is only one system of (реалізації) прав
international law. 11. збройні сили
Some of the main subjects of international law include: 12. мирним шляхом/
• human rights: 10) ensuring the fundamental rights of every засобами
individual 13. захист
• regulating the use of 11) armed force: making universal rules so 14. взаємодії між
that countries resolve differences 12) through peaceful means 15. встановити
• 13) protection of individuals during times of war правила
• trade and development 16. забезпечення,
• the law of the sea обслуговування
• environmental issues and climate change: creating universal 17. забезпечити
rules for the preservation of natural resources and protection of дотримання
the environment закону
• transportation: setting safety standards for international travel by 18. утриматися від
air, rail, and sea 19. звичай, традиція
• telecommunications: 15) setting rules for building and 20. усталені звички
16) maintaining communication systems that cross state borders. 21. звичаєве право
Unlike with the domestic laws of individual countries, there is 22. неодноразово
no single international government that creates and 17) enforces 23. насправді,
international law. Consequently, international law has developed as a фактично, дійсно
result of countries agreeing to act, or 18) refrain from acting, in certain 24. дипломатичний
ways toward one another. There are two main ways that international laws імунітет/
are developed: through the adoption of customs and the signing of treaties. недоторканість
Customary international law 25. юридично
Usually when we think about 19) customs, we think about the обов’язковий
20) established habits or behaviours of a community that have developed 26. зобов’язаний
and become accepted as rules. The international community also has виконувати
certain customs that have developed and been followed over long periods 27. неточний
of time. These customs become international 21) customary law after 28. зобов’язання
countries 22) repeatedly behave in a particular way because their leaders 29. з огляду на
believe they are required to do so. Whether or not countries are 30. універсальний,
23) actually1 required by a formal law to act that way doesn’t matter, so різнобічний
long as countries believe they must act in a particular way and continue 31. ратифікувати
to do so over a period of time. Customary law is based on what countries 32. згода,
actually do, rather than what they have formally agreed to do – as we shall схвалення
see, this is how customary international law differs from the signing of 33. завершувати,
treaties. зрештою
34. статут,
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 When enough countries engage in a particular behaviour for long хартія
enough, that behaviour will become part of customary international law. 35. договір,
For example, the law of 24) diplomatic immunity – which protects угода
diplomats from harm or lawsuits when in a foreign country – began as a 36. юриспруденція
custom. There are no rules that set out how many countries must 37. праці вчених
participate in the behaviour or for how long. If certain behaviours become 38. підкорятися/
a part of customary international law, then they will be 25) legally коритися
binding on all countries. The strength of customary international law is законам
that all countries can 26) be bound to follow it even if they don’t 39. санкціонований
expressly agree to follow a particular behaviour. The weaknesses are that 40. не зважаючи на
it is slow to change because it is based on continued behavior over time, 41. врегулювати
and often the laws that result from customary behaviour are unclear and суперечки
27) imprecise because of the way they developed. Because these laws 42. перемовини
may be imprecise, disputes between countries over what is actually part 43. загострюватися
of the law may arise. 44. нейтральна третя
Treaties сторона/
The term “treaty” refers to a formal agreement between two or посередник
more states that sets out their mutual legal rights and 28) obligations. 45. вирішення спорів
Treaties are often made 29) with regard to peace, the creation of 46. здійснюється,
alliances, commerce and trade, and other international relations. проводиться
International treaties may establish general rules of law, such as the 47. приєднатися до
protection of human rights, or provide for contract-like obligations 48. звертатися,
between countries, such as treaties dealing with international trade. оскаржувати
Treaties may be very specific or quite broad, making them 30) versatile 49. згідно з/
for the creation of law. відповідно до
For a state to be bound by a treaty, the state must 31) ratify, or договору
officially 32) consent to be bound by that treaty. Signing a treaty is not 50. сторони,
the same thing as ratifying a treaty. Treaties may be bilateral, meaning учасники
that an agreement is formed between two countries, or multilateral, 51. слухати справу
meaning that the agreement is between three or more countries. A
multilateral treaty may even include most of the countries in the world.
The advantages of treaties are that they can be created quickly
and contain a clear explanation of the law being created. Treaties may also
influence the behaviour of countries toward one another and 33) end up
affecting other types of international law, such as customary international
law. A disadvantage of treaties is that they only bind those countries that
agree to be part of the treaty.
International treaties go by many names. Some of these include:
• conventions
• 34) charters
• 35) covenants
• protocols
• pacts
• acts
• statutes
• agreements
Although treaties and custom are the main sources for
international law, several other sources exist that can be important for
lawyers arguing a case on international law. These sources are the
decisions of other courts on matters of international law (36)
jurisprudence), 37) the writings of scholars and academics on
international law matters, and general legal principles, such as the rule of
law.

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 Another difference between domestic law and international law
is the way in which the laws are enforced. Under domestic law,
individuals are required 38) to obey the laws enacted by the government.
However, in international law, states have much more say as to which
laws are going to apply to them. For example, states are free to decide
whether or not they wish to agree to an international treaty. If a state does
not ratify the treaty, the terms of the treaty do not apply to that country,
and it cannot be 39) sanctioned if that state acts contrary to the terms of
the treaty. Remember, however, that in the case of customary
international law, all states are bound by customary laws 40) regardless
of whether they agreed to those laws or not.
But what happens if a state that is signatory to an international
treaty violates the laws of that treaty? Under the UN Charter2, Member
States are required 41) to settle disputes peacefully, but what counts as a
peaceful means of dispute resolution? International law provides a variety
of ways that disputes may be settled peacefully. The most common
method is through negotiation. Negotiation involves the parties to the
dispute initiating 42) talks to attempt to come to a resolution that is
agreeable enough to all parties that the dispute does not 43) escalate.
Disputes may also be addressed through mediation or
conciliation, in which a 44) neutral third party or committee assists the
disputing parties to come to a resolution. Another method for 45) dispute
resolution is through the international courts. Where a treaty is
46) administered by the United Nations, states that have 47) signed on
to that treaty may 48) appeal to the International Court of Justice if they
believe another state is not living up to their obligations 49) under the
treaty. If the 50) parties to the dispute agree that the court has power
51) to hear the matter, the International Court of Justice can issue a
binding decision on the parties involved. Where disputes cannot be settled
through peaceful means, the UN Security Council3 may become involved
to attempt to prevent an armed conflict.

Compiled from © Understanding International Law Classroom Resources | Macdonald Nyamajiwa. Academia.edu
https://www.academia.edu/28944182/ Understanding_International_Law_Classroom _Resources

Notes:
1
actually – is an example of a Translator’s false friend; in normal English it means “in fact”, and the adjective “actual”
means “real”. Most western European languages have a look-alike word – актуальний, actuel, aktuell, actual and so
on – but they all mean “current/currently”. So when a non-native speaker of English says “actually” you can never be
sure whether they mean “really” or “at the moment”.
2
the UN Charter – is the founding document of the United Nations. It was signed on 26 June 1945, in San Francisco, at the
conclusion of the United Nations Conference on International Organization, and came into force on 24 October 1945.
3
the UN Security Council (UNSC) - is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN) and is charged with
ensuring international peace and security, recommending the admission of new UN members to the General Assembly,
and approving any changes to the UN Charter. Its powers include establishing peacekeeping operations,
enacting international sanctions, and authorizing military action. The UNSC is the only UN body with the authority to
issue binding resolutions on member states.

READING COMPREHENSION

I. Answer the questions.

1. What laws are called national or domestic laws?

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 2. What does the international law govern?
3. What do some of the main subjects of international law include?
4. Is there a single international government that creates and enforces international law?
5. What are the two main ways that international laws are developed?
6. When do customs become international customary law?
7. What is customary law based on?
8. What is the strength and what are the weaknesses of customary international law?
9. What does the term “treaty” refer to?
10. What other sources exist that can be important for lawyers arguing a case on international
law but for treaties and customs that are the main sources for international law?

II. Decide which statement is TRUE and which is FALSE. Use the required information from
the text above and correct the false statements.
1. Domestic laws are the laws that affect people in their daily lives – usually divided between
civil laws, such as employment laws and highway speed limits, and criminal laws against
harmful activities such as murder and trafficking illicit drugs.
2. International law picks up where national law ends.
3. Customary law is based on what countries actually have formally agreed to do, rather than
what they do – as we shall see, this is how customary international law differs from the signing
of treaties.
4. There are a number of rules that set out how many countries must participate in the behaviour
or for how long.
5. Treaties are often made with regard to peace, the creation of alliances, commerce and trade,
and other international relations.
6. For a state to be bound by a treaty, the state must ratify, or officially consent to be bound by
that treaty.
7. Signing a treaty is actually the same thing as ratifying a treaty.
8. A disadvantage of treaties is that they only bind those countries that agree to be part
of the treaty.
9. International law provides a variety of ways that disputes may be settled peacefully. The most
common method is through the international courts.
10. Where disputes cannot be settled through peaceful means, the UN Security Council may
become involved to attempt to prevent an armed conflict.
III. Complete the following sentences using the required information from the text above.
1. A country’s constitution is usually ______________________, which “trumps” other national
or local laws if there is a conflict between them.
2. International law governs the way countries interact with one another,
______________________, like the United Nations, intervenes in how a government interacts
with its citizens or other people within the state.
3. For example, the law of diplomatic immunity – ______________________ – began as a
custom.
4. International treaties may establish general rules of law, such as the protection of human
rights, ______________________, such as treaties dealing with international trade.
5. Treaties may be bilateral, ______________________, or multilateral, meaning that the
agreement is between three or more countries.
6. These sources are the decisions of other courts on matters of international law (jurisprudence),
______________________, and general legal principles, such as the rule of law.
7. If a state does not ratify the treaty, ______________________, and it cannot be sanctioned if
that state acts contrary to the terms of the treaty.

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 8. Negotiation involves the parties to the dispute ______________________that is agreeable
enough to all parties that the dispute does not escalate.
9. ______________________through mediation or conciliation, in which a neutral third party
or committee assists the disputing parties to come to a resolution.
10. Where a treaty is administered by the United Nations, ______________________if they
believe another state is not living up to their obligations under the treaty.
IV. a. Make up a plan of the text.
b. Write a short summary from 200-250 words. Make use of the linking words (see
APPENDIX 1).
ACTIVE VOCABULARY
I. Transcribe the following. Consult APPENDIX 2 if necessary.

law, circumstances, to intervene, to ensure, individual, consequently, to accept, imprecise, dispute,

mutual, legal, alliance, commerce, consent, bilateral, multilateral, lawsuits, arguing, jurisprudence,
through, negotiation, agreeable, neutral, committee, to administer
II. Define or explain the terms used in the text, consult English-English Dictionary (for
reference see APPENDIX 3).
law, legal system, national (domestic) law, civil laws, criminal laws, trafficking, illicit drugs,
constitution, armed force, the law of the sea, transportation, telecommunications, custom, treaty,
diplomat, diplomatic immunity, lawsuits, dispute, commerce, ratify, consent, charter, covenant,
protocol, pact, jurisprudence

III. a. Find in the text equivalents of the following words.

unlawful, fundamental law, national laws, to cooperate, men-at-arms, defense, to abstain from,
established habits, again and again, in fact, talks, the study of law, to resolve disputes

b. Find in the text opposites of the following words.

to deprive of the rights, by military means, precise, dissent, null and void, to begin, to veto,
to decrease, to break the laws, due to the fact, to accept orders from, authorized

IV. Translate the following sentences, paying attention to the Active vocabulary of the text.
1. The court was satisfied that there was no basis for holding that the decision was unlawful
according to domestic law. TIMES, SUNDAY TIMES
2. This is not about whether such an inquiry is desirable in the public interest, or whether the
use of armed force was lawful in international law. TIMES, SUNDAY TIMES
3. We need action now to enforce the law. THE SUN
4. He systematized customary law, recorded cases as precedents, and replaced trial by combat
with the examination of witnesses under oath. CHRISTIANITY TODAY
5. These would not be legally binding, but could be used as evidence in a civil court if
a mother or father reneged on the deal. TIMES, SUNDAY TIMES
6. This miniature size is very versatile. THE GUARDIAN
7. This consent for law has historically ensured a degree of respect for it. THE GUARDIAN
8. Rather than risk a second referendum, the government and rebels decided to ratify the new
deal in Congress. TIMES, SUNDAY TIMES
9. Trading and commercial concerns use international arbitration because they prefer this
method of dispute resolution to going to national courts. TIMES, SUNDAY TIMES
10. She had applied to the college to read jurisprudence and was invited to attend an interview.
TIMES, SUNDAY TIMES
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 11. But last week came the draft of the new charter and there was a minor miracle. THE
GUARDIAN
12. It will continue to do so regardless of whether it remains part of the global deal. THE
GUARDIAN
13. Three agents have also been sanctioned for their roles in the case. THE SUN
14. Our legal system was not designed to protect the rights of future generations. THE GUARDIAN
15. And those two things interact and reinforce each other despite all the educational reforms.
THE GUARDIAN
V. Complete each sentence with the correct form of the following words. There is one word too
many.
diplomatic immunity repeatedly talks trafficking to refrain from
to ratify regardless of imprecise consent escalate jurisprudence

1. He was sentenced to ten years in prison on charges of drug ____________.

2. He appealed to all factions ____________violence.
3. Both men have ____________ denied the allegations
4. The embassy official claimed diplomatic immunity and was later released.
5. The charges were vague and ____________.
6. The sale of any assets will require the ____________ of all the parties concerned.
7. The parliaments of Australia and Indonesia have yet ____________the treaty.
8. Progressivism also contributed to the advent of sociological ____________, a critical
reappraisal of the moral ambitions of liberal law.
9. The US and Pakistan met in Washington last March for a round of ____________ on regional
and global non-proliferation issues.
10. The protests ____________ into five days of rioting.
VI. Translate into English using Active Vocabulary of Text 1.
1. У травні цього року Байден підписав історичний документ закон про лендліз для
України. Лендліз спрощений порядок надання військової допомоги.
2. Пітер Ніл також вивчав право, проходив стажування під час президентської
кампанії Гілларі Клінтон і в Білому домі під час президентства Барака Обами.
3. Міністр закордонних справ Нідерландів Вопке Хукстра заявив, що Росія "неправильно
висловлюється про правову систему Нідерландів". За його словами, це "перевернутий
з ніг на голову світ" і Росія порушує всі принципи міжнародного права.
4. Зловмисники викрадали людей і змушували їх займатися наркоторгівлею. У разі
відмови били й погрожували вбивством, повідомили в пресцентрі СБУ.
5. Чимало світових зірок були засуджені за різні злочини. Деякі мали проблеми із
забороненими речовинами, а хтось міг влаштувати бійку чи порушувати правила
дорожнього руху.
6. За словами президента, визвольна операція наших Збройних сил у Херсоні є для
України аналогією багатьох битв минулого, що ставали переломними моментами у
війнах.
7. Генпрокурор Ірина Венедіктова нагадала, що загальна заборона катування стала
генетичним кодом, закріпленим через звичаєве право у положеннях щодо захисту
прав людини та правилах і звичаях війни.
8. На переконання аналітиків, ЗСУ не будуть зупиняти контрнаступ навіть із приходом
зими. Адже Залужний неодноразово говорив, що ЗСУ не приймуть жодних
переговорів, домовленостей чи компромісних рішень.
9. Приєднання Фінляндії і Швеції до НАТО мають ратифікувати всі члени блоку. До
теперішнього моменту це зробили понад 20 з 30 країн, що входять в Альянс.

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 10. Представники Американського союзу громадянських свобод заявили, що закон може
суперечити процесуальним гарантіям Конституції США, бо не дозволяє оскаржувати
дії уряду в суді, пише The Washington Post.

READING 2
SUBTOPIC: CYBER SECURITY IN INTERNATIONAL LAW

1. Before you read TEXT 2 study the List of key legal acronyms:

List of key legal acronyms

BCCA British Columbia Court of Appeal

BCSC British Columbia Supreme Court
CAT Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading
Treatment or Punishment
CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
Against Women
CERD Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child
CRPD The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
HTG Hul’qumi’num Treaty Group
ICC International Criminal Court
ICCPR International Convention on Civil and Political Rights
ICJ International Court of Justice
IWRP International Women’s Rights Project
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
R2P Responsibility to Protect
UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights
UN United Nations
UNDRIP United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
WILPF The Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom
2. Use the words and phrases below to complete the text. Read the text again and translate
it. Underline or write out all useful expressions. Make a short presentation based on the
theme of the article.

TEXT 2: POLITICAL AGENDAS AND INTERNATIONAL LAW

➢ legal instruments
➢ to implement
➢ political agendas
➢ hereinafter
➢ laws and regulations
➢ multilateral treaties
➢ cyber security strategies
➢ to allude to
➢ nuclear fission and fusion
➢ cybercrime

Cyber security is now routinely cited and consistently placed on the top of 1) __________.
Governments from around the world have endeavored to secure cyberspace and its systems.
Particularly, they have devised and adopted countless 2) __________ and corresponding regulations.
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Examples are China with its Cybersecurity Laws, Singapore with its Cybersecurity Act, and the
United States with its National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST) Cybersecurity
Framework.
In addition, international law also attracted more attention during the last few years. Nation
States have undertaken (at least partly concerted) efforts 3) __________ new or enhanced multilateral
cyber 4) __________. This is done with the objective to adapt to the shifting environment and address
the need for coordinated action created by the inherently transnational nature of the issue and the
resulting need to achieve cyber security on a global level.
However, despite the flurry of activities and initiatives relating to cybersecurity, there is, for
the time being, no truly universal and comprehensive instrument in this field. Rather, the global
picture is one of fragmented membership of instruments at the international and regional level and of
a patchwork quilt of sectoral laws at national levels. Amidst this patchwork of protection, there
appears to be some confusion as to what legislation 5) __________. Nonetheless, some legal
instruments that address the challenges of 6) __________ and cyber security do exist.
Security in general (not cyber security in particular) has been a regulatory topic for quite some
time in 7) __________ for example governing telecommunications or international trade:
(i) The term “security” is defined in numerous Recommendations of the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU); the definitions are not identical, but in essence consistent. (ii) The
international trade law (GATT and GATS of the World Trade Organization [WTO]) refers to
“essential national security interests” such as military establishments, 8) __________, wartime or other
emergency in international relations; attempts to fructify these notions also for cyber security by
broadening their scope can now be seen.
9) __________, the global legal efforts addressing cyber security will first be discussed, followed
by the more detailed considerations to the European and to other supra-State 10) __________ having
been put in place during the last two decades.
__________________________________________________________
© Cyber Security in International Law, Prof. Dr. Rolf H. Weber (University of Zurich) AAIL 2019 Colloquium, 15/16
August 2019, Hong Kong at https: 2019colloquium.aail.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/AAIL_HKG_Cyber-Security-
in-International-Law_20190604_RWE

READING 3
SUBTOPIC: THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
1. Before you read TEXT 3 study the definition of the International Court of Justice (ICJ)
from its official website given below:
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations
(UN). It was established in June 1945 by the Charter of the United Nations and began work in
April 1946. The seat of the Court is at the Peace Palace in The Hague (Netherlands) (see Picture
1). Of the six principal organs of the United Nations, it is the only one not located in New York
(United States of America). The Court’s role is to settle, in accordance with international law,
legal disputes submitted to it by States and to give advisory opinions on legal questions referred
to it by authorized United Nations organs and specialized agencies. The Court is composed of 15
judges, who are elected for terms of office of nine years by the United Nations General Assembly
and the Security Council. It is assisted by a Registry, its administrative organ. Its official
languages are English and French.

11
 Picture 1. The Peace Palace in The Hague, the Netherlands

2. Fact file: prepare 10 facts about the ICJ, make sure to visit the official website at
https://www.icj-cij.org/en/
3. Familiarize yourself with the ICJ Press release No. 2022/43, Allegations of Genocide under
the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Ukraine
v. Russian Federation). Put the following prepositions in each space in the text below:
in, upon, under, on, to, with, of. Read the text again and translate it. Underline or write
out all useful expressions.

TEXT 3: PRESS RELEASE

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

Peace Palace, Carnegieplein 2, 2517 KJ The Hague, Netherlands
Tel.: +31 (0)70 302 2323 Fax: +31 (0)70 364 9928
Website Twitter YouTube LinkedIn
Press Release
Unofficial

No. 2022/43
22 September 2022

Allegations of Genocide under the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime
of Genocide (Ukraine v. Russian Federation)

The Republic of Estonia files a declaration of intervention in the

proceedings under Article 63 of the Statute

THE HAGUE, 22 September 2022.

12
 Today, the Republic of Estonia, invoking Article 63 of the Statute of the Court, filed 1) _____
the Registry of the Court a declaration of intervention 2) _____ the case concerning Allegations of
Genocide 3) _____ the Convention 4) _____ the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Ukraine v. Russian Federation).
Pursuant 5) _____ Article 63 of the Statute, whenever the construction of a convention
6) _____ which States other than those concerned 7) _____ the case are parties is 8) _____
question, each 9) _____ these States has the right to intervene in the proceedings. 10) _____ this
case, the construction given by the judgment of the Court will be equally binding 11) _____ them.
To avail itself 12) _____ the right of intervention conferred by Article 63 of the Statute, Estonia
relies 13) _____ its status as a party 14) _____ the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide (the “Genocide Convention”). In its declaration of intervention, Estonia
states that in its view the “case raises important issues concerning the Genocide Convention”, and
that “[a]s a Contracting Party to the … Convention, the Republic of Estonia has a direct interest
15) _____ the construction that might be placed 16) _____ provisions of the Convention by the
Court in these proceedings”.
17) _____ accordance 18) _____ Article 83 of the Rules of Court, Ukraine and the Russian
Federation have been invited to furnish written observations 19) _____ Estonia’s declaration of
intervention.
Estonia’s declaration of intervention will be available 20) _____ the Court’s website shortly.

Note: The Court’s press releases are prepared by its Registry for information purposes only and do not constitute
official documents.
_______________________________
© ICJ press releases at https://www.icj-cij.org/en/press-releases

TRANSLATION
1. Render the following text into English using some of the studied vocabulary.

РОСІЯ, УКРАЇНА ТА МІЖНАРОДНЕ ПРАВО:

ПРО ОКУПАЦІЮ, ЗБРОЙНИЙ КОНФЛІКТ ТА ПРАВА ЛЮДИНИ
Питання та відповіді

24 лютого президент Путін оголосив війну Україні, почалися ракетні та артилерійські

обстріли багатьох українських міст.

Які міжнародні норми регулюють збройний конфлікт між Росією та Україною?

Військові зіткнення між російськими та українськими збройними силами є
міжнародним збройним конфліктом, який регулюється міжнародними гуманітарними
конвенціями (насамперед чотирма Женевськими конвенціями 1949 року та першим
додатковим протоколом до неї 1977 року (Протокол I), Гаазькими конвенціями 1907 року, що
регулюють засоби та методи ведення війни), а також загальноприйнятими нормами
міжнародного гуманітарного права. І Україна, і Росія є сторонами Женевських конвенцій 1949
року та Протоколу I.
У чому полягають основні принципи законів війни?
Міжнародне гуманітарне право, або закони війни, ставить за умову захист цивільного
населення та інших некомбатантів від потенційних ризиків, спричинених збройним
конфліктом. Воно стосується ведення бойових дій — засобів і методів ведення війни — усіма
сторонами конфлікту. Перш за все це правило, згідно з яким сторони конфлікту повинні
завжди розрізняти комбатантів і цивільних. Цивільне населення ніколи не може бути
навмисною мішенню атак. Як це обговорюється далі, сторони конфлікту зобов’язані вживати
всіх можливих запобіжних заходів задля зведення до мінімуму шкоди цивільному населенню
13
та цивільним об’єктам, а також не здійснювати напади, під час яких не розрізняють
комбатантів та цивільних осіб або завдають невідповідної шкоди цивільному населенню.
Чи діє зараз в Україні міжнародне право у сфері прав людини?
Так. Міжнародне право у сфері прав людини залишається чинним і продовжує
застосовуватися в будь-який час, в тому числі під час збройних конфліктів та окупації, на які
також поширюються закони війни. За деяких обставин норма гуманітарного права може мати
перевагу над нормою у сфері прав людини як lex specialis, або більш конкретною для певних
обставин нормою.
Україна та Росія обидві є сторонами низки регіональних та міжнародних договорів у
сфері прав людини, у тому числі Європейської конвенції з прав людини (ЄКПЛ),
Міжнародного пакту про громадянські та політичні права (МПГПП) та Конвенції проти
катувань та інших жорстоких, нелюдських або тих, що принижують гідність видів поводження
та покарання (CAT). В цих договорах містяться гарантії щодо основних прав, багато з них
відповідають правам, які мають комбатанти та цивільні особи згідно з міжнародним
гуманітарним правом (наприклад, заборона катувань і нелюдського та такого, що принижує
гідність, поводження, вимоги щодо недискримінації, право на справедливий суд).
Хоча як ЄКПЛ, так і МПГПП дозволяють певною мірою обмежувати деякі права під
час війни або офіційно оголошеної надзвичайної ситуації, що «загрожує життю нації», будь-
яке зменшення прав під час надзвичайної ситуації має носити винятковий та тимчасовий
характер і бути обмеженим «тією мірою, наскільки суворо цього вимагають обставини». Деякі
основні права, такі як право на життя та право на захист від катувань та іншого жорстокого
поводження, заборона на несанкціоноване затримання, обов’язок забезпечити судовий
контроль законності затримання та право на справедливий суд, мають дотримуватися завжди,
навіть під час надзвичайної ситуації.
________________________________________________________________
© Human Rights Watch at https://www.hrw.org/uk/news/2022/04/25/russia-ukraine-international-
law-occupation-armed-conflict-and-human-rights (Abridged)

LEXICAL CLINIC

❖ LAW
❖ APPLY
❖ OBEY
❖ APPEAL
❖ BIND
❖ OBLIGATION
❖ PROTECTION
❖ SUPREME
❖ CUSTOM
❖ RESOLUTION

1. law (n) /lɔː/ 1. uncountable the whole system of rules that everyone in a country or society must
obey 2. a particular branch of the law (e.g. tax/employment law); 3. countable a rule that deals with a
particular crime, agreement, etc. 4. uncountable the study of the law as a subject at university, etc.;
the profession of being a lawyer (e.g. a law student/professor; Jane is studying law; He's at law
school.) 5. the law singular used to refer to the police and the legal system (e.g. Jim is always getting
into trouble with the law.) 6. countable the fact that something always happens in the same way in an
activity or in nature (e.g. the laws of nature/physics) 7. countable a scientific rule that somebody has
stated to explain a natural process (e.g. the first law of thermodynamics;also Murphy's
law; Parkinson's law humorous).
Phrases:
14
to pass a law
law against (doing) something Police don't have the resources to enforce the law against dumping
waste.
law on something The company's actions violated the law on equal employment.
against the law In Sweden it is against the law to hit a child.
within the law Defence attorneys can use any means within the law to get their client off.
outside the law to operate outside the law
by law British schools are required by law to publish their exam results.
under the (…) law Under existing law, journalists cannot refuse to provide information to a jury.
above the law Do not think you are above the law (= that you cannot be punished by the law).

lawful (adj) /ˈlɔːfl/ allowed or recognized by law; legal (e.g. his lawful heir) OPPOSITE: unlawful

lawfully (adv) /ˈlɔːfəli/ in a way that is allowed or recognized by law; legally OPPOSITE:
unlawfully

lawlessness (n) /ˈlɔːləsnəs/ the fact that laws do not exist, or are not obeyed or respected

lawless (adj) /ˈlɔːləs/ 1. (of a country or an area) where laws do not exist or are not obeyed (e.g.
lawless streets; the lawless days of the revolution)2. (of people or their actions) without respect for
the law (lawless gangs)

lawbreaker (n) /ˈlɔːbreɪkə(r)/ a person who does not obey the law

2. apply (v) /əˈplaɪ/ 1. to make a formal request, usually in writing, for something such as a job, a
loan, permission for something, a place at a university, etc. 2. to affect or be relevant to
somebody/something (e.g. The law applied only to foreign nationals.) 3. to put or spread something
such as paint, cream, etc. onto a surface (e.g. The paint was applied with a fine brush.) 4. to work at
something or study something very hard (e.g. apply yourself: You would pass your exams if you
applied yourself).
Phrases:
apply for something (a visa/passport/grant/licence)
apply to somebody/something
apply to somebody/something for something
apply to do something

application (n) /ˌæplɪˈkeɪʃn/ 1. a formal (often written) request for something, such as a job,
permission to do something or a place at a college or university (e.g. a planning/patent/visa
application) 2. the practical use of something, especially a theory, discovery, etc. 3. the act of making
a rule, etc. operate or become effective (e.g. strict application of the law) 4. an act of putting or
spreading something, such as paint or medical creams, onto something else.
Phrases:
application for something an application for asylum/a licence
application to do something After graduating she made an application to join the BBC.
application to somebody (for something) His application to the court for bail has been refused.
application to somebody to do something They submitted an application to the council to build two
houses.
on application to somebody Further information is available on application to the principal.

15
applicant (n) /ˈæplɪkənt/1. a person who makes a formal request for something (= applies for it),
especially for a job, a place at a college or university, etc.

applicable (adj) BrE  /əˈplɪkəbl/or/ˈæplɪkəbl/ 1. that can be said to be true in the case of
somebody/something

3. obey (v) /əˈbeɪ/ 1. to do what you are told or expected to do (e.g. Children must obey their parents.)
2. to act according to what you have been asked or ordered to do by someone in authority, or
to behave according to a rule, law, or instruction (to obey a command/an order/rules/the law; to obey
the rules of international law) 3. if your body or part of your body does not obey you, it does
not work in the way it should OPPOSITE: disobey
obedience (n) /əˈbiːdiəns/1. the fact of doing what you are told to do or of being willing to obey
(e.g. blind/complete/unquestioning/total obedience) OPPOSITE: disobedience
Phrases:
obedience to somebody/something He has acted in obedience to the law.
obedient (adj) /əˈbiːdiənt/ doing what you are told to do; willing to obey (e.g. an obedient child)
OPPOSITE: disobedient
Phrases:
obedient to somebody/something He was always obedient to his father's wishes.
obediently (adv) /əˈbiːdiəntli/ in a way that obeys what you are told to do.

4. appeal (n) /əˈpiːl/ 1. a deeply felt request for money, help or information that is needed
immediately, especially one made by a charity or by the police (e.g. to launch a TV appeal for
donations to the charity) 2. uncountable a quality that makes somebody/something attractive or
interesting (e.g. The Beatles have never really lost their appeal.) 3. countable, uncountable a formal
request to a court or to somebody in authority for a judgement or a decision to be changed
Phrases:
mass/wide/popular/broad/universal appeal
an appeal against a decision/sentence/order/ruling
 British English to lodge an appeal but North American English to file an appeal
 British English an appeal court/judge but North American English an appeals court/judge

appeal court (n) 1. (also court of appeal) a court that people can go to in order to try and change
decisions that have been made by a lower court (e.g. They took their case to the Appeal Court.)
2. Appeal Court (also Court of Appeal) singular the highest court in England and Wales (apart
from the Supreme Court), which can change decisions made by a lower court 3. Appeals Court BrE
/əˈpiːlz kɔːt/ AmE /əˈpiːlz kɔːrt/ (also court of appeal, court of appeals) (US English) one of the
courts in the US that can change decisions made by a lower court

appeal (v) /əˈpiːl/ 1. to make a deeply felt request, especially for something that is needed
immediately 2. to attract or interest somebody (e.g His movies appeal to a broad audience.) 3. to
make a formal request to a court or to somebody in authority for a judgment or a decision to be
changed

5. bind (v) /baɪnd/ ( bind-bound-bound) 1. to tie something or someone tightly or

to fasten something 2. to make people, organizations, etc. feel united so that they live or work together
more happily or effectively (e.g. Organizations such as schools and clubs bind a community

16
together.) 2. to force somebody to do something by making them promise to do it or by making it
their duty to do it

bind (n) /baɪnd/ a difficult or annoying situation in which you are prevented from acting as you
might like

binding (adj) /ˈbaɪn.dɪŋ/ (especially of an agreement) that cannot be legally avoided or stopped (e.g.
a binding agreement/contract/commitment)
Phrases:
binding on sb The court ruled that verbal distribution agreements are binding on both parties.

binding (adj) /ˈbaɪn.dɪŋ/ the type of cover that a book has

6. obligation (n) BrE /ˌɒblɪˈɡeɪʃn/ AmE /ˌɑːblɪˈɡeɪʃn/ the state of being forced to do something
because it is your duty, or because of a law, etc. 2. something which you must do because you have
promised, because of a law, etc. (e.g. legal/professional/financial obligations)

Phrases:
obligation to do something
under any/no obligation
without obligation
obligation to/toward somebody
obligation on somebody
fulfil an obligation
meet the obligations
sense of obligation

obligatory (adj) BrE /əˈblɪɡətri/AmE /əˈblɪɡətɔːri/ 1. (formal) that you must do because of the law,
rules, etc. 2. (often humorous) that you do because you always do it, or other people in the same
situation always do it (e.g. In the mid-60s he took the almost obligatory trip to India.)
oblige (v) /əˈblaɪdʒ/ 1. to force somebody to do something, by law, because it is a duty, etc. (e.g.
oblige somebody to do something) 2. to help somebody by doing what they ask or what you know
they want (e.g. Call me if you need any help – I'd be happy to oblige.)
obliged (adj) /əˈblaɪdʒd/ used when you are expressing thanks or asking politely for something, to
show that you are grateful to somebody (e.g. Thank you. We are very much obliged to you.)
7. protection /prəˈtekʃn/1. the act of protecting somebody/something; the state of being protected
2. insurance against fire, injury, damage, etc. (e.g. protection against something: Our policy offers
complete protection against fire and theft.) 3. the system of paying criminals so that they will not
attack your business or property (e.g. to pay protection money, to run a protection racket)
Phrases:
protection against something
protection from something
protection of somebody/something (against/from something)
protection for somebody/something (against/from something)
for protection
under protection
under the protection of somebody/something
data protection laws
environmental protection

17
protect (v) /prəˈtekt/ 1. to make sure that somebody/something is not harmed, injured, damaged, etc.
2. to introduce laws that make it illegal to kill, harm or damage a particular animal, area of land,
building, etc. 3. to provide somebody/something with insurance against fire, injury, damage, etc. (e.g.
protect somebody/something against something: Many policies do not protect you against personal
injury.) 4. (computing) to limit access to data, a web page, etc., for example by
using passwords or encryption (= special codes) (e.g. All these pages are password-protected.)

Phrases:
to be protected by something Polar bears have been protected by law in Norway since 1973.
protect somebody/something/yourself from something They huddled together to protect
themselves from the wind.
protect against something a paint that helps protect against rust
protect from something Vitamin B12 may have a role in protecting from heart disease.

protective (adj) /prəˈtektɪv/ 1. able to keep someone or something safe from injury or damage
2. economics intended to help a country's trade or industry
protectionism (n) /prəˈtekʃənɪzəm/ the principle or practice of protecting a country’s own industry
by taxing foreign goods (e.g. economic protectionism)

8. supreme (adj) /suˈpriːm/ 1. highest in rank or position (e.g. the Supreme Commander of the armed
forces) 2. very great or the greatest in degree (e.g. a supreme effort)

the Supreme Court (n) /suːˌpriːm ˈkɔːt/ singular 1. The final court of appeal in the United Kingdom
for civil cases, which also hears appeals in criminal cases from England, Wales, and Northern Ireland.
Established in 2009 to assume the judicial functions of the House of Lords 2. (in the US) the
highest Federal court, possessing final appellate jurisdiction and exercising supervisory jurisdiction
over the lower courts, consisting of nine judges 3. (in many states) the highest state court
supremacy (n) /suˈpreməsi/uncountable a position in which you have more power, authority or
status than anyone else (e.g. the battle for supremacy in the region)

the Act of Supremacy /ði ˌækt əv suˈpreməsi/ (in England and Wales) an Act of Parliament in 1534
that made King Henry VIII the head of the Church of England. This left the Pope with no power in
England

9. custom (n) /ˈkʌstəm/ 1. an accepted way of behaving or of doing things in a society or a community
2. the way a person always behaves 3. business the fact of a person or people buying goods or services
at a shop or business (e.g. Thank you for your custom. Please call again.
customs (n) /ˈkʌstəmz/ the place at a port, airport, or border where travellers' bags are looked at
to find out if any goods are being carried illegally
Phrases:
to go through customs
customs officials
customs officer

customary (adj) /ˈkʌstəməri/ 1. is what people usually do in a particular place or situation, usual
2. typical of a particular person

18
customary law (n) is a body of rules, unofficial and generally unwritten, established through cultural
or societal norms (customs). Customary law applies in international law when the conduct of
countries becomes so consistent that it is universally believed to be codified as actual law.

10. resolution (n) /ˌrezəˈluːʃn/ 1. a definite decision to do or not to do something (e.g. I made a New
Year resolution to give up smoking.) 2. a formal statement of an opinion agreed on by a committee or
a council, especially by means of a vote (e.g. to pass/adopt/approve a resolution) 3. the act of solving
or settling a problem, argument, etc. (e.g. dispute/conflict resolution) 4. the power of a computer
screen, printer, etc. to give a clear image, depending on the size of the dots (= marks) that make up
the image (e.g. a monitor capable of a 1 024 by 768 pixel resolution)

joint resolution (n) /ˌdʒɔɪnt rezəˈluːʃn/ (in the US) a decision that has been approved by the Senate
and the House of Representatives

resolve (v) BrE /rɪˈzɒlv/ AmE /rɪˈzɑːlv/ to find an acceptable solution to a problem or difficulty
(e.g. to resolve an issue/a dispute/a conflict/a crisis) 2. to make a definite decision to do something
3. (of a committee, meeting, etc.) to reach a decision by means of a formal vote
Phrases:
resolve itself Be patient and the situation may resolve itself.
fully resolved

resolutely (adv) /ˈrezəluːtli/ in a way that is strong and determined (e.g. She resolutely refuses to talk
about it.)

EXERCISES:

I. Paraphrase the expressions given in bold type using Lexical Clinic.

1. Such actions are normally based on legitimate claims or, as the government claims, are 'internal
conflicts within the people'. 2. The police was/were out in force at the demonstration. 3.
She’s studying legal science at Georgetown University.4 This part of the law is only relevant to
companies employing more than five people. 5. Candidates for planning permission need
to follow the correct procedures. 6. She was so tired her legs just wouldn't work her any longer.
7. Ministers in conflict with their parishioners were quick to insist on the obligations of unconditional
subordination. 8. Teachers' authority is seldom challenged, and this authoritative role awes the
students into disciplined listeners. 9. He also called for a campaign of civil insubordination
indiscipline against Government's cuts. 10. I am asking for money on behalf of the famine victims.
11. The highest courts in England and Wales which can change decisions made by a lower court
regularly hear and determine appeals with great expedition, where it is necessary to do so. 12. He had
been forced to secrecy, to promise not to tell people about anything. 13. British sources have
suggested recently that he might press for a legally compulsory protocol. 13. The country has
promised to comply with its international commitments. 14. Security products are designed to limit
access to data information from unauthorized access. 15. The agreement obliges WTO Members to
secure the rights, including copyrights and trademarks, of citizens of all other Members. 16. Chapter
11 would grant legal treatment from creditors while the company attempts to reorganize. 17. The
President and First Lady would attend, and all but one of the nine Justices of the highest court in
the US. 18 The president has been able to assert his ultimate dominance over the prime minister.
19. If applied generally, this approach might have the result that conventions are merely placeholders
for nascent unwritten international law. 20. We thought tipping wasn't traditional in Japan.

II. Learn the following chains of words and use them or their derivatives in the given sentences.
1. law x2 (n) – lawbreaker – lawful – unlawful – lawfully – lawlessness

19
1. Newton's ___________of motion 2. She is his ___________ wife, and so is entitled to inherit the
money. 3. The jury agreed that the doctor had acted ___________. 4. The climate here is one of
violence and ___________. 5. They argue that treating ___________ well encourages more crime.
6.They led the fight to impose ___________ on smoking. 7. A pushed-in window indicated
___________ entry.

2. apply x2 (v) – applicant – applicable – application

1 Special conditions ___________ if you are under 18. 2. She combed her hair and carefully
___________her make-up.3. What are the practical ___________ of this work? 4. The new
qualifications are ___________to all European countries. 5. Successful ___________ will receive
notification within the week.

3. obey – disobey – obedience – disobedience – obedient – obediently

1. He was arrested when he failed ___________a police instruction to stop. 2. He demands

unquestioning ___________from his soldiers. 3. A naughty boy who often ___________ his mother
and father. 3. Students are expected to be quiet and ___________ in the classroom. 4. She nodded
___________ as I gave my instructions. 5. Britain will be hit by a wave of protests, civil
___________ and strikes over cuts this year, a union chief has warned.

4. appeal x2 (n) – appeal (v) – appeal for – appeal court

1. Police are making a fresh ___________ to the public for any information that may help them. 2.
They have launched ___________ against their convictions.3. The ___________shortened sentences
of three of the defendants who appeared in court that day. 4.They're
___________clothes and blankets to send to the devastated region. 5. Maguire ___________to the
Supreme Court to stop her extradition.

5. bind (v) – bind (n) – binding (adj) – binding (n)

1. This contract ___________ the state to use this land as a park, said Judge Harry Smith.
2. Borrowing money may put you in a real ___________. 3.
The contract wasn't legally ___________. 3. Its books are noted for the quality of their paper and
___________.

6. oblige x2 (v) – obligation x3 (n) – obligatory

1. They reminded him of his contractual ___________. 2. I'm much ___________to you for helping
us. 2. He suffered a serious injury that ___________ him to give up work. 3. It is
___________ for all employees to wear protective clothing. 3. She did not feel under any
___________ to tell him the truth. 5. The company did not have enough money
to meet its ___________.

7. protection – protect (v) – protect from – protect against – protective – protectionism

1. These people remain under the ___________ of the United Nations. 2. A majority of Democrats
believe that such regulations ___________the public. 3. Troops have been sent ___________aid
workers ___________ attack. 4.They produce a self-adhesive plastic cover designed
___________CDs ___________scratches. 5. Politicians unsurprisingly often opt for ___________in

20
response to pressure from domestic groups. 6. If ___________ barriers disappeared overnight, the
country's infant car industry could be wiped out.

8. supreme – supremacy – the Supreme Court – The Act of Supremacy

1.The company has established total ___________ over its rivals. 2. It took the intervention of
___________for a winner in the election to be declared. 3. The country's present constitution gives
___________ authority to the presidency. 4. ___________is the name of two different acts passed
by the English Parliament, both of which establish the English monarch as the head of the Church of
England and removed the powers of the Pope as the head of the church.

9. custom – customs – customs officer – customary – customary law

1. The official law makes no reference to this ___________ relationship. 2. They are designed to deal
with customary disputes under ___________. 4. They were madehad to wait twenty minutes before
going through ___________. 3. The women gathered around the coffin and began to wail, as was the
___________in the region. 5. She was stopped by a ___________ who opened her luggage.

10. resolution – joint resolution – resolve – fully resolved – resolutely

1. The UN Security Council unanimously adopted a ___________ calling for a halt to hostilities. 2.
The committee unanimously ___________ that the party chairman should step down.
3. The minister ___________ defended the tough policy. 4. Passage of the ___________to propose
a constitutional amendment to balance the budget by the year 2002 or two years after ratification by
three-quarters of the states. 5. In our view, the issue of impunity can be ___________only if tension
is eased and political stability achieved in the relevant regions.

III. Find examples of the Vocabulary (all derivative forms) usage in the current news. Translate
sentences into Ukrainian. Be sure to provide references.
e.g. “And then, there’s this question of authority versus conscience, OBEDIENCE versus individual
freedom and liberty.” – And David Noyce, The Salt Lake Tribune, 4 Sep. 2022.

IV. Write out verbs/adjectives/adverbs that are used with the Vocabulary (derivatives). Be sure
to use a combinatory dictionary.
e.g. BLIND OBEDIENCE

IDIOMS
Legal- or law-related idioms are commonly used in the English language as English speakers, just
like many other groups of people from around the world, frequently talk about peace and order, justice,
redress, crimes, and offenses.

I. Match the following idioms and expressions with their definitions and provide their
Ukrainian equivalents.

legal beagle: 1. canceled and invalid

e.g. I’ve got a legal-beagle who can get me

out of this scrape.

21
 null and void: 2. a legal term that originated in Roman law and is
used in legal and insurance circles when discussing
e.g. All old agreements stand null and void any act which is outside human control and
after the takeover of the company by the therefore not the responsibility of any individual or
new owner. corporation. The term was first used in this way in
the mid-19th century. Peter Simmonds' Dictionary
of Trade Products, 1858

an act of God: 3. the important information (often legal

information) written in very small text that people
• e.g. By Common Law, Carriers are insurers often do not read
against every loss of property entrusted to
their care, except losses arising from the
Act of God, or the King's enemies."
[treason]
lemon law: 4. an especially clever, aggressive, or skillful
attorney
e.g. The jury award to Margeson included
the maximum amount allowed for Ford’s
violation of California’s lemon law,
totaling $214,537.34, plus legal fees.
fine print: 5. a law requiring an automobile manufacturer or
dealer to replace, repair, or refund the cost of an
e.g. Please make sure you read the fine automobile that proves to be defective after
print before buying a supersaver flight. You purchase
may not be able to get any refund if
something happens.

II. Make up sentences using the given idiomatic expressions.

1.______________________________________________________________________________
2.______________________________________________________________________________
3.______________________________________________________________________________
4.______________________________________________________________________________
5.______________________________________________________________________________

III. Fill in the gaps.

fine print an act of God null and void lemon law legal beagle

1. This contract shall be rendered __________immediately should either party fail to fulfill their
obligations.
2. I might be considered something of __________now, but I had to work for years to get enough
experience to build my reputation.
3. If you read all __________, you’d never take any pharmaceutical medications.
4. Kovacs found a lawyer in Michigan who specializes in __________cases and negotiated a
deal with Ford.
5. Force-majeure, a French commercial term for unavoidable accidents in the transport of goods,
from superior force, __________, etc.

PHRASAL VERBS

22
In English, there are often several ways of saying the same thing. For example, ‘put by’, ‘put away’
and ‘put aside’ can all be used to describe the process of saving money to spend later. Another
example of this is ‘put down’, which can mean the same as ‘take down’ and ‘write down’ (record in
writing).

PHRASAL VERB PUT

I. Match the phrasal verbs with their definitions:
1. put across a. make formal request

2. put in for b. ensure something is submitted, approved or

implemented
3. put out c. suggest someone as a candidate

4. put through d. give opinion clearly, explain an idea well,

describe articulately
5. put up e. broadcast, publish, produce and make public,
introduce to market

II. Make up a short story using as many phrasal verbs PUT as possible. Use the Model from
UNIT 1.

III. Fill in the gaps.

1. The Democrats have chosen not __________a candidate in this constituency.
2. With this substantial majority, the ruling party can __________its new measures on housing.
3. The police have __________an official statement following the bank robbery.
4. Have you __________your provisional driving licence yet?
5. I thought the Prime Minister __________her views on politics really well during the
discussion.

GRAMMAR CLINIC

❖ The use of Modal Verbs in Legal English

I. GRAMMAR: THE BASICS

1. Study and revise grammar material.

Legal English is the style of the English language used by lawyers in their work and as well
as other professional languages is fundamentally different from the language of general use. Legal
language is used in wide variety of documents, from the drawing up of statutes, treaties, declarations,
conventions, etc. to the closing of agreements and contracts between individuals or corporations.
Legal documents are composed in most cases by professionals (contract drafters) who have to be sure
that every sentence in document says exactly what it is intended to say and to avoid misinterpretation
at the same time. It has its both lexical and grammar features.
Legal English is used to regulate the rights and obligations, therefore, Modal Verbs
expressing obligations and intentions are widely used, especially median modal verb SHALL and
low-value modal verb MAY. However, CAN, COULD, MIGHT and WOULD, etc. are commonly
used in daily communication, but hardly appear in legal texts. The frequency of Modal Verbs in
23
different registers is different, and their modal values are not fixed. According to the research “A
Corpus-Based Study of the Central Modal Verbs in Legal English” publish year 2020, the distribution
of Modal Verbs in Legal texts is as follows:

1. SHALL
2. MAY
3. MUST
4. SHOULD
5. WILL
6. CAN
7. WOULD
8. COULD
9. MIGHT

As can be seen, “shall” and “may” are used most frequently in legal texts.

SHALL
In a word, we can see that one of the specific features of the verb shall in Legal English is
its flexibility as it marks many types of meanings. Besides its primary purpose (“obligation”, “duty”),
shall in Legal English can state circumstances, give a direction, to create a condition precedent or
subsequent, to grant a right, to express intention or the future.

SHOULD
The verb should in legal documents can be often used as a synonym of the verb shall in the
meaning of obligation. It must be mentioned that the modal verb should in contract documents is
often used with inversion. In this respect it usually replaces the conjunction if making the sentence
conditional.

MAY
May is frequently used to mark “permission” to a person or a party and grant rights to
authorities. What’s more, the modal verb may is used to express “possibility” to perform or not to
perform any action, which often depends on circumstances or conditions sometimes stipulated in the
legal text.

WILL
Will is usually used to create a promise or contractual obligation.

Thus, the main modal meanings of legal character are “obligation”, “prohibition”,
“permission”, “possibility”, “promise”. Identified semantic features of Modal Verbs in Legal English
have to be taken into consideration when interpreting and translating legal documents to avoid
uncertainty, ambiguity and mistakes that can’t be allowed in legislation.

II. TEST YOURSELF

1. Account for the use of Modal Verbs in the examples below, translate into Ukrainian.

1. The Commission shall be responsible for promoting and facilitating nuclear research in the
Member States and for complementing it by carrying out a Community research and training
programme.
2. The Parties shall take all necessary measures to implement this Agreement.
3. Such an agreement should be without prejudice to the decision-making autonomy of the
European Union.

24
 4. The identification number under which VAT is paid should therefore be communicated in
advance to enable customs authorities to check its validity upon importation of the goods.
5. Should there be any major difficulties in implementing a decision as referred to in this Article,
a Member State shall refer them to the Council which shall discuss them and seek appropriate
solutions.
6. Should management and labour so desire, the dialogue between them at Community level
may lead to contractual relations, including agreements.
7. The Customs Sub-Committee may decide to amend the provisions of this Protocol.
8. A court which would be required to decline jurisdiction may stay its proceedings if the
jurisdiction of the other court is contested.
9. If the other Party cannot agree to such proposed compensation or other remedial action within
two months after the rendering of the panel report, it may propose to the panel the suspension
or withdrawal of equivalent benefits under this Agreement.
10. The provisions of the Charter shall not extend in any way the competences of the Union as
defined in the Treaties.
11. The President of the European Council shall not hold a national office.
12. The European Union will decide whether third States will be invited to participate in an EU
crisis management operation.
13. The Treaty will enter into force on 1 January 2009.
14. The provisions of the Charter shall not extend in any way the competences of the Union as
defined in the Treaties.
15. The President of the European Council shall not hold a national office.
16. Everyone's right to life shall be protected by law. No one shall be deprived of his life by
saving in the execution of a sentence of a court following his conviction of a crime for which
we can commit suicide This Penalty is provided by law.
17. A single judge may declare inadmissible or strike out of the Court 's list of cases in an
application submitted under Article 34.
18. The Standing Committee may return the law in question but shall not amend it.
19. The President shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United
States, or any of them.
20. But Congress may by a vote of two-house, remove such disabilities.

SECTION 2.
LISTENING & WRITING

International Criminal Law: The Nurenberg trials

Before listening:
Nürnberg trials, Nürnberg also spelled Nuremberg, series of trials held
in Nürnberg, Germany, in 1945 – 46, in which former Nazi leaders were indicted and tried as war
criminals by the International Military Tribunal.

✓ 5 things you may not know about the Nuremburg Trials:

1. Nuremberg was chosen as the location for the trials because of its symbolic value.
2. The Nuremberg Trials marked the first prosecutions for crimes against humanity.
3. The trials marked the introduction of simultaneous translation.
4. It was the first trial of its kind with judges from four countries.
5. A prosecutorial advisor originated the term “genocide.”

25
 Picture 2. The defendants at the Nuremberg Trials.

Front row (L-R): Hermann Goering, Rudolf Hess, Joachim Von Ribbentrop, Wilhelm Keitel and Ernst Kaltenbrunner.
Back row (L-R): Karl Doenitz, Erich Raeder, Baldur von Schirach and Fritz Sauckel. Bettmann Archive/Getty Images

2. Study the definitions of words and word-combinations given below. Provide equivalents in
Ukrainian.

natural person (n) is an actual human being, which is different from an “artificial person,” which is
a distinction under the law to establish whether a person is acting or appearing as himself, acting or
appearing on behalf of a business or other entity
acquittal (n) the decision of a court that someone is not guilty
legacy (n) something that is a result of events in the past
the Holocaust (n) the killing of millions of Jews and others by the Nazis before and during the
Second World War
atrocity (n) an extremely cruel, violent, or shocking act
prosecution (n) the act of officially accusing someone of committing an illegal act, esp.
by bringing a case against that person in a court of law
jurisprudence (n) the study of law and the principles on which law is based
vested interest (n) a strong personal interest in something because you could get an advantage from
it
proceedings (n) the act of using the legal system to settle an argument, etc.
redemption (n) (formal) the act of saving or state of being saved from the power of evil; the act
of redeeming
perpetuate (v) to make something such as a bad situation, a belief, etc. continue for a long time
merit (n) the quality of being good and deserving praise
conspiracy (n) the activity of secretly planning with other people to do something bad or illegal

3. Practise the word pronouncing.

Nuremberg / ˈnjʊərəmˌbɜːɡ /
tribunal /traɪˈbjuːnl/
Nazi /ˈnɑːtsi/
indictment /ɪnˈdaɪtmənt/
jurisdiction /ˌdʒʊərɪsˈdɪkʃn/
individual  BrE /ˌɪndɪˈvɪdʒuəl/ AmE /ˌɪndɪˈvɪdʒuəl/
Rwanda BrE /ruˈændə/ AmE /ruˈɑːndə/
envisage /ɪnˈvɪzɪdʒ/
26
soldiers  /ˈsəʊldʒə(r)/
the Holocaust BrE /ˈhɒləkɔːst/ AmE /ˈhəʊləkɔːst/or /ˈhɑːləkɔːst/
ally /ˈælaɪ/
equity /ˈekwəti/
prosecute BrE /ˈprɒsɪkjuːt/ AmE /ˈprɑːsɪkjuːt/
bias /ˈbaɪəs/

Listening:
4. Listen to the Lecture “The International Criminal Law: The Nuremberg Trials” from the
Law Academy channel, available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9YAwDy1d2EM&t=411s
5. Fill in the gaps.
a. Watch the video and fill in the gaps with the missing words or word-combinations:

Introduction

(0:00 – 1:01)

In the last lesson, what we did was introduce 1) __________, as a branch of international law that
deals with the most 2) __________ committed by man and specifically relating to four crimes
individually things like 3) __________, crimes against humanity, war crimes and 4) __________. In
this lesson, what we are going to do is we are going to talk about 5) __________ of international
criminal law, as we know it today, by examining the Nuremberg trials. By examining really, where
these conceptions of the international criminal law began. We're going to talk about 6) __________,
we're going to talk about the lead up, we'll talk about 7) __________ and the legal authority, that
withheld with the Nuremberg trials, because they have a lot of criticism even to this day, arguing that
they may not have had 8) __________, they may have maybe bias in some way etc., etc., and we'll
address all those questions as we go along.

Establishment of the Nuremberg IMT

(1:02 – 2:34)

This establishment of the Nuremberg international military tribunal, that's what the IMT stands for,
began when we talk about the idea that there would be 9) __________ for those responsible for
international crimes during the Second World War. This is something that was envisaged by the
10) __________. In 1943 this process was really put into account when we have the Moscow
Declaration. This was issued by 11) __________ specifically the United States, United Kingdom and
the Soviet Union. And what the Moscow Declaration did was stated that German criminals, those
who have committed these international crimes and whose 12) __________ have no particular
geographical location, specifically relating to the fact that they are international crimes, these people
would be punished by 13) __________ of governments. Now the Moscow Declaration was followed
by the London Charter, which was negotiated in August 1945. The London Charter was the
establishment and 14) __________ for the Nuremberg international military tribunal. It was in the
London Charter that we find a lot of the substantive law when it comes to the jurisdiction and
15) __________ of the IMT.

b. Watch the video and fill in the gaps with the prepositions:

The Authority of the Nuremberg Trials

(2:35 – 4:37)

27
The IMT officially received the indictment 16) __________ October of the same year. When we're
talking about the Nuremberg trials, one of the first criticisms that's often levied and was in fact levied
17) __________ defendants who were 18) __________ trial 19) __________ Nuremberg. One of the
things was that they had no authority to try these individuals 20) __________ these international
crimes. The question 21) __________ authority is an important one that plays a role. The Nuremberg
trials had three main legal sources of authority, three main legal arguments that can be made when it
comes to their legal authority in being able to try these defendants. The first being that it had the
authority of the allies seems as the allies were the de facto territorial rulers 22) __________ the
defeated states. So, 23) __________ the Second World War ended the allied powers had de facto
power effectively they had de facto rule over, play over most 24) __________ Europe and specifically
Germany. The second is that the justification and the jurisdiction of the allies was argued to have
universal jurisdiction. This being because of the nature 25) __________ the crimes in question being
international crimes. And one of the things that's important is the question of universal jurisdiction
26) __________ international criminal law, something that we're going to discuss in a separate lesson.
Then thirdly, it had broader authority 27) __________ the international community, don't forget the
Rome Statute for the International Criminal Court, which was established many years later, said and
stated clearly that the crimes that are tried are crimes that shock the very conscience of humanity. It
has there is an interest 28) __________ an international perspective. The international community
have a vested interest in the trial and the and the prosecution 29) __________ people who commit
international crimes. It was seen that they had legal authority on behalf of the international
community.

c. Watch the video and fill in the gaps with the numerals:

The Trial Itself

(9:20 – 9:46)

The trials itself took place over 30) __________ months and they tried 31) __________ defendants,
only 32) __________ of which physically stood trial. And following the Nuremberg trials there were
33) __________ death sentences, that were handed down, 34) __________ sentences of imprisonment
and 35) __________ acquittals. So we see that there is a significant percentage of death sentences
compared to imprisonment.

After Listening:
6. Write five good questions to this talk. When you have finished, interview other students.
1.______________________________________________________________________________
2.______________________________________________________________________________
3.______________________________________________________________________________
4.______________________________________________________________________________
5.______________________________________________________________________________

7. FREE WRITING. Write a HISTORY STORY on Nuremberg Trials (include facts, dates,
legal basis, war criminals, trials summary, aftermath etc). Make research if necessary.

8. LETTER: Write a letter to Ben Ferencz, the last surviving prosecutor of the Nuremberg
Trials (born March 11, 1920) on “Nuremberg executions”. Ask him three critical questions and
give him three of your opinions on the issue.

28
9. ACADEMIC WRITING. Write an essay (for Guidelines see APPENDIX 4) on one of the
following topics.

1. International Law: Definition and Uses

2. International Law, Security, and Global Peace
3. Identifying the Concepts of the International Law
4. International Law is not really law
5. International Law in the 20th Century History
6. Human Life Regulation by United Nations Documents
7. Legal Standard of Genocide: The Enduring Problem
8. International Law: War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity
9. Nuclear Weapons Resolutions and International Law
10. Vienna Convention on Law of Treaties

10. WRITE A PIECE OF POETRY. Here are the two poems under the same heading “LAW”
composed by different authors centuries apart. First, read them out loud in class and then
discuss.

LAW

Laws, as we read in ancient sages,

Have been like cobwebs in all ages.
Cobwebs for little flies are spread,
And laws for little folks are made;
But if an insect of renown,
Hornet or beetle, wasp or drone,
Be caught in quest of sport or plunder,
The flimsy fetter flies in sunder.
by James Beattie (1735-1803)

LAW

Law rules the poor,

Rich rules the law,
Every law has flaw
On poor, it is rich man’s paw,
Cases are adjourned
Witnesses are manipulated,
Justice may be delayed,
But Lawyers are survived!
Rich man predicts verdict
Poor man fails to detect
Law veiled by black coat
Penal code brooded in the court
Law, Law, Law still it is raw
Still might is right
Still justice is in dim light

29
 by Mula Veereswara Rao (April 19, 2008)

• What message do the poets try to convey in their poems? Did you like the poems?
• Prepare (literary) translation of the poems into Ukrainian.
• Compose the poem of your own on the topic of the Unit using the Active Vocabulary.

SECTION 3
SPEAKING & DISCUSSION
1. INTERNATIONAL LAW IN THE NEWS. Do an online search and present the current
news dealing with International Law (see APPENDIX 6). Prepare and deliver a five-minute
speech.
Requirements:
1. The speech should have an introductory paragraph, a main body, a conclusion. Use linking devises
to bridge the paragraphs.
2. Give references to the following information:
− an author of the article/video report/programme;
− a source (a newspaper/a magazine/a programme, etc.);
− the date of the publication.
3. In order to be audience-oriented provide key words/word-combinations with the transaltion into
Ukrainian that may be unfamiliar to your groupmates.
Be ready to maintain a discussion on the topic of the current news.
2. ANALYTICAL DISCUSSION. Analyze the following cartoons:

3. CASE STUDY. Comment on the following cases:

International Space Law
30
1. Algomaspace, a private corporation made up of International Law students and based in Sault
Ste. Marie, Ontario launched a satellite –Algomasat- to Outer Space in January, 2008 from a
small launch site built near Algoma U. The satellite exploded when achieving an altitude of
100 km and disintegrated. One of its pieces re-entered the Earth near Lyon, France and killed
over 100 people.

Who is legally responsible for this incident? How will the families of the victims be
compensated?

2. Boeing – a US company, and LMI – a Russian firm jointly launched a satellite from a
privately-owned launch site in Australia. The satellite failed in Outer Space, disintegrated and
killed 200 in Chile. Boeing and LMI had signed a contract saying that LMI would be liable
for all damages caused by the satellite. The contract was signed by the US and Russian
governments and reaffirmed that only the Russian government would be responsible for
damages caused by the satellite and exonerated the US government from liability. The
victims’ families in Chile sue the US government.

Is this legal? Do they have to sue the Russian government only?

3. A Russian satellite collides with a Chinese satellite, and the Chinese satellite crashes against
the International Space Station, killing 3 US astronauts on board. A technical investigation
reveals that the Russian satellite failed because Russian engineers had made a mistake in the
fuel calculations.

Who is legally responsible for the killing of the US astronauts? Who can the US government
sue?

4. A Canadian astronaut in the International Space Station attempts to murder a French astronaut.
The French government complains to Canada, but the Canadian government replies that the
Canadian astronaut was under extreme pressure and he intended to kill his French colleague
in an effort to be brought back to Earth earlier than scheduled. The Canadian government
announces that it will not prosecute the Canadian astronaut. When the astronaut is brought
back to Earth in the United States, both the French and the Canadian government request the
US government to send the astronaut to France and to Canada, respectively.

The US government seeks your International Law advice.

4. Questions for discussion.

1. What is International Law? Define it.
2. What is the purpose of International Law? Is it effective?
3. Do you think International Law affects your everyday life? If so, how?
4. What is the Difference between Domestic and International Law?
5. What are some of the topics of International Law?
6. Who are the main international actors? Are non-state actors and States are equal in matters
of international law?
7. Considering the fact that all states jealously guard their sovereignty, is it possible to have
effective compliance with international law?
8. What is Customary International Law?
9. What is jus cogens? What is the difference between customary law and jus cogens?
10. What makes something a formal source of international law?
11. What are the four sources of international law Based of off Article 38(1) of ICJ statute?
12. What is meant by the principle of pacta servanda as it relates to treaties?
31
 13. Can states be bound by a treaty, as a treaty even if they do not consent to it?
14. Is there a system of public courts in the international system?
15. Who can bring a case before the ICJ Court?
16. What do you think are the greatest challenges of international criminal justice, in the context
of changes brought by modern technologies?
17. Why was the ICC established?
18. What States voted against the ICC? Why?
19. What is the role of victims in procedures before the ICC?
20. Why can’t the ICC impose the death penalty? What is your opinion about the death penalty
for international crimes?
21. What are the rights of those accused of a crime by the ICC?
22. What are some of the predecessors to the ICC?
23. What were the Nurnberg trials?
24. When did the Nurnberg trials take place?
25. What were the verdicts of Nurnberg trials?
26. Why was Nuremberg chosen for the International Military Tribunal?
27. Which four allied countries in 1945 had judges present at the International Military Tribunal
held by the victorious allies?
28. What is extradition? Do an online search of the Roman Polanski, Julian Assange, Leonard
Peltier extradition cases. What happened?
29. Choose a country and analyze its extradition laws.
30. What is the war in /demilitarization and de-nazificaton of/ Ukraine about?
31. Discuss major developments in Ukraine since the collapse of the Soviet Union: a) foreign
debt; b) the 1996 Constitution; c) Yanukovich.
32. What is the connection between the first Trump impeachment and the war in Ukraine?
What is Joe and Hunter Biden’s involvement in Ukraine?
33. What are Russia’s arguments for invading Ukraine? What do you think of these arguments?
34. How did the U.S. respond to the crisis? Why? Has it been effective? What about other Western
countries? Are Western’s sanctions legal under international law?
35. What are Russia’s military operations legal under International Law?
36. Was Russia’s annexation of Crimea legal under international law? Why or why not?
37. What similarities and differences do you see between the Ukraine crisis and the Cold War?
Are Russia and the West headed toward a new Cold War?
38. Should Ukraine become a member of NATO? Why or why not? What would this mean for
Russia?
39. Should Ukraine become a member of the EU? Why or why not?
40. What do you know about the implementation of international law in Ukraine?

SUPPLEMENTARY
1. Take the quiz and compare your answers.

QUIZ: INTERNATIONAL LAW

Q1: Who is called ‘father of International Law’?

A. Marx
B. Hugo Grotius
C. Openhiem

32
Q2: International Law is factually a:
A. Strong Law
B. Weak Law
C. Not a law at all

Q3: Which one of the following is not a source of International Law?

A. International Contracts
B. International Principles of Law
C. International Financial Transactions

Q4: Which law governs international contracts:

A. Law of Treaties
B. Law of Agreements
C. Law of Contracts

Q5: Under what pretext International Law allows use of force:

A. For Occupation
B. For Aggression
C. In Self-Defence
Q6: Which institution is custodian of International Law:
A. UN
B. EU
C. UNESCO

Q7: Which is the judicial organ of the UN?

A. International Court of Justice
B. International Criminal Court
C. UNESCO

Q8: Headquarters of ICJ lies in:

A. New York
B. The Hague
C. Vienna

Q9: Name of regulatory law of ICJ is?

A. ICJ Statute
B. ICJ Charter
C. ICJ Act

Q10: ICJ is successor institution of:

A. EU
B. Permanent Court of International Justice
C. ICC

Q11: Permanent Court of International Justice was established under:

A. League of Nations
B. UNO
C. European Union

Q12: Which law delimits world seas?

A. UN Charter

33
B. Document on Law of Oceans
C. UN Convention on law of Seas

Q13: High Seas refer to part of ocean beyond:

A. Territorial Waters
B. Exclusive Economic Zone
C. Contiguous Zone

Q14: Exclusive Economic Zone ranges to a distance of:

A. 100 NM
B. 200 NM
C. 300 NM

Q15: Piracy is an offense within the jurisdiction of the:

A. Flag State
B. Offenders State
C. All the States

Q16: Landlocked state is:

A. Surrounded by water from all sides
B. Surrounded by enemy states from all sides
C. Surrounded by land from all sides

Q17: Tobar Doctrine is related to:

A. The recognition of a state
B. The recognition of a government
C. The recognition of insurgents

Q18: Asylum is recognized in International Law as a:

A. Duty
B. Privilege
C. Right

Q19: Extradition of criminals is made after:

A. Signing a treaty
B. Paying Money
C. Signing a memorandum

Q20: Vienna Conference of 1961 is related to

A. Diplomatic inter course and immunities
B. Prisoners-of-war
C. Recognition of states

2. PERSONALITY FILE.
1. Read the biography of Sir Hersch Lauterpacht and be ready for the test.

34
 Born:

August 16, 1897 – May 8, 1960, in the small town

of Żółkiew/ Жовква in the Austro-Hungarian
Empire (now Ukraine), near Lemberg, the capital
of East Galicia.

Sir Hersch Lauterpacht is considered one of the most

influential international legalists of the twentieth
century, if not the founder of modern international law,
due to his remarkable contributions to the foundation of
the international protection of human rights after 1945.

GLOSSARY 9

actually apply
administered apply to
allude to armed force
an act of God atrocity
appeal be bound to
appeal bind
Appeal Court (also Court of Appeal) binding
applicable charters
applicant consent
application conspiracy
35
covenants legal system
custom legally binding
custom lemon law
customary maintain
customary law meet the obligations
customs merit
cyber security strategies multilateral treaties
cybercrime national laws
data protection laws natural
diplomatic immunity acquittal
disobedience neutral third party
disobedient nuclear fission and fusion
disobey null and void
dispute resolution obedience
domestic laws obedient
end up obediently
enforce law obey
ensure rights obey the laws
environmental protection obligation
escalate obligation on somebody
established habits obligation to do something
fine print obligation to/toward somebody
for protection obligations
fulfil an obligation obligatory
fully resolved oblige
hear the matter obliged
hereinafter parties to
illicit drugs perpetuate
implement pick up
imprecise political agendas
interact proceedings
joint resolution prosecution
jurisprudence protection
jurisprudence protection
law protection against something
lawbreaker protection for somebody/something
lawful (against/from something)
lawfully protection from something
lawless protection of somebody/something
lawlessness (against/from something)
laws protectionism
laws and regulations protective
legacy put across
legal beagle put in for
legal instruments put out

36
put through talks
put up the Holocaust
redemption the Supreme Court
refrain from the Act of Supremacy
regardless through peaceful means
repeatedly trafficking
resolutely under any/no obligation
resolution under protection
resolve under the protection of
resolve itself somebody/something
sanctioned under the treaty
sense of obligation unlawful
set rules unlawfully
settle disputes versatile
sign on to vested interest
supremacy with regard to
supreme without obligation
supreme law writings of scholars

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