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GE 108 - Ethics (BEED 2-TE 20)

Further Information
The term ethics is derived from the Greek word ethos, which originally means custom or character. Broadly construed, ethics is a
branch of philosophy that studies the rightness or wrongness of a human action. In particular, this branch of philosophy is
concerned with questions of how human persons ought to act, and the search for a definition of a right conduct and the good life. It
is for this reason that the attempt to seek the “good” through the aid of reason is the traditional goal of ethicists (Albert, Denise &
Peterfreund 1984, p. 1-2).

It must be noted, however, that there is no single, absolute definition of ethics. This is because ethics as a discipline is constantly
evolving as a result of a change in socio-cultural and political context. For example, in the Greek tradition, ethics was conceived as
relating to the concept of the “good life”. Thus, the ethical inquiry during this time was directed toward discovering the nature of
happiness. In fact, Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics does not only present a theory of happiness but also provides ways in which
happiness is attained. Now, centuries later, a quite different orientation was introduced by the Judeo-Christian tradition. In this
ethical tradition, the ideals of righteousness before God and the love of God and neighbor, not the happy or pleasant life, constitute
the substance of ethics. Indeed, if we make an effort to reconcile these views, we are faced with the difficult task of defining the
relationship between “doing what is right” and “being happy”. Again, it is for this reason that we cannot have an absolute definition
of ethics. The least that we can do, in my opinion, is to describe the nature and dynamics of ethics based on a specific time and
context.

It is also important to note that ethics is not the same with morality, although many philosophers believe that the two terms can be
used interchangeably. This is because the former denotes the theory of right action and the greater good, while the latter indicates
practice, that is, the rightness or wrongness of a human action. In other words, ethics undertakes the systematic study (that is,
questioning and critical examination) of the underlying principles of morality. Hence, it is interested primarily in the illustration of a
more general problem and the examination of underlying assumptions and the critical evaluation of moral principles.

Morality, on the other hand, is more prescriptive in nature. It tells us what we ought to do and exhorts us to follow the right way.
According to Terrance McConnell (1994), “morality is characterized as an ‘end-governed rational enterprise’ whose object is to
equip people with a body of norms (rules and values) that make for peaceful and collectively satisfying coexistence by facilitating
their living together and interacting in a way that is productive for the realization of the general benefit”. For example, a religious
leader may ask her followers to be good at all times. In this way, a moralist may want to keep alive the values she considers to be
worthwhile and to improve the moral quality of the community where she belongs. Hence, morality, at the very least, aims to guide
one’s action by reason and gives equal weight to the interests of each individual affected by one’s decision. Indeed, this gives us a
picture of what it really means to be a morally upright person.

Based on the brief discussion above, we may conclude that ethics is the science of morals, while morality is the practice of ethics

Types of Ethics

During the mid-20th century, according to Sumner (1967), a “certain theory in the methodology of ethics has gradually become
more and more widely accepted, at least by British and American moral philosophers”. According to this position, there are two
ways of doing ethical inquiry, namely, normative ethics and metaethics.

On the one hand, normative ethics is prescriptive in nature as it seeks to set norms or standards that regulate right and wrong or
good and bad conduct. This may involve articulating the good habits that we should acquire, the duties that we should follow, or
the consequences of our behavior on others. Hence, normative ethics normally attempts to develop guidelines or theories that tell us
how we ought to behave. For example, Immanuel Kant’s claim that an act is morally right if it is done for the sake of duty is an
example of a normative ethics.

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Metaethics, on the other hand, is descriptive in nature. According to Sumner (1967), “metaethics is allegedly constituted, at least in
part, by questions of the meanings of the various ethical terms and functions of ethical utterances.” Hence, if a normative ethical
inquiry is evaluative and prescriptive, metaethics is analytical and descriptive. Put simply, metaethics is a type of ethical inquiry
that aims to understand the nature and dynamics of ethical principles. It asks questions about the nature and origin of moral facts, as
well as the way in which we learn and acquire moral beliefs. Thus, for example, if normative ethics urges us to do good at all times,
metaethics asks the question “What is good?”. For sure, if a moral philosopher attempts to address the questions “What is good?”,
“What is justice?”, “Why should I be moral?”, then that moral philosopher is doing metaethics. Hence, when Plato proposed an
answer to the question “Why should I be moral”, Plato was doing metaethics―indeed, Plato raised a metaethical question.

In the course of the development of ethics, applied ethics became its third major type. As its name suggests, applied ethics is the
actual application of ethical or moral theories for the purpose of deciding which ethical or moral actions are appropriate in a given
situation. For this reason, casuists (that is, the adherents of applied ethics) are concerned with individual moral problems, such as
abortion or euthanasia, and attempt to resolve the conflicting issues that surround these particular moral problems. Casuists may
also act on some occasions in an advisory capacity, such as guiding individuals in their choice of actions. For example, they may
attempt to resolve the conflicting duties of a mother suffering from ectopic pregnancy who has no other option than to abort the
fetus.

Applied ethics is usually divided into different fields. For example, we may talk about business ethics, which deals with ethical
behavior in the corporate world; biomedical and environmental ethics, which deal with issues relating to health, welfare, and the
responsibility we have towards people and our environment; and social ethics, which deals with the principles and guidelines that
regulate corporate welfare within societies.

Finally, the difference between the three major types of ethics can be illustrated in the following situation:

A police officer shoots a terrorist who is about to blow up a crowded shopping mall.

The act of the police officer is morally wrong according to metaethics because it is always wrong to kill. As is well known, killing
in itself is intrinsically wrong. However, if the police officer does not shoot the terrorist, many innocent people will die or get
injured. Though the police officer’s act may be wrong, the adherents of normative ethics may say that it is the right thing to do in
this particular situation because not doing so will result in the death of so many people. Hence, the action might be morally correct.
Finally, the casuists may say that the police officer is just doing his best to fulfill his duty, that is, to protect as many innocent lives
as possible.

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