Unit – 1

1. Definition of env
ENVIRONMENT is derived from the word Environner which mean “encircle or surround”.
ENVIRONMENT refers to surroundings which vary from place to place and continent
depending upon Physiography, Topography, Climate and the available Natural resources.

2.scope of env
Scope of Environmental Science [all units names]

• Natural Resources — their conservation and management

• Ecology and Biodiversity

• Environmental Pollution and Control

• Social Issues in Relation to Development and Environment

• Human Population and Environment

3. Importance of env
Importance of Environment

• Involves daily human interaction with surroundings.

• Highlights wildlife protection and biodiversity's role in ecological balance.

• Provides knowledge about population growth and water conservation.

Importance of Environmental Science

• Helps control pollution and maintain ecological balance.

• Develops skills to assess environmental impact.

• Promotes biodiversity protection and sustainable development.

• Educates about environmental duties and supports agriculture.

4.components of env
Abiotic Components: Non-living physical and chemical factors like air, water, soil, and
rocks that influence living organisms.

Biotic Components: Living organisms such as microbes, plants, animals, and human
beings.
5.types of env
Natural Environment: Includes naturally occurring elements like air, water, land, plants,
and animals.

Man-Made Environment: Includes human-created surroundings like buildings, parks,

roads, and cities.

6.segments of earth
Lithosphere: The solid outer layer of Earth, including the crust, mantle, and core.

Hydrosphere: All the water bodies like oceans, seas, and rivers on Earth.

Atmosphere: The layer of gases around Earth, mostly within 30 km but extending up to
120 km.

Biosphere: The region of Earth where all forms of life exist.

7. Need for awareness

Overuse of natural resources

Pollution is silently affecting human health

Loss of biodiversity

Climate change

Industrial and vehicular emissions

Waste mismanagement

Unawareness leads to careless behavior, like littering, overusing water, and ignoring
conservation laws.

8. Methods for spreading awareness

Environmental education

Through media

Through organizing seminars & conferences

Entertainment

Science centers

Involvement of youth

Through print, broadcast and internet

9. Natural Resources [WMFFLE]
Natural Resources: Use and Overutilization

Natural resources are materials or substances found in nature that are used by humans for
survival and development. Overutilization means using them faster than they can naturally
replenish, leading to scarcity and environmental problems.

1. Water Resources

• Use: Water is essential for drinking, agriculture (irrigation), industries, and sanitation.

• Overutilization: Excessive withdrawal of groundwater, pollution of rivers and lakes,

and wastage lead to water scarcity and degraded water quality.

2. Food Resources

• Use: Food crops and livestock provide nutrition to human populations.

• Overutilization: Overfarming, use of chemical fertilizers, and destruction of

agricultural land reduce soil fertility and affect food security.

3. Forest Resources

• Use: Forests provide timber, fuel, medicinal plants, and help regulate climate.

• Overutilization: Deforestation for agriculture, urbanization, and logging leads to loss

of biodiversity and increases carbon dioxide levels.

4. Mineral Resources

• Use: Minerals like coal, iron, gold, and oil are used for energy, manufacturing, and
construction.

• Overutilization: Excessive mining depletes non-renewable resources, causes land

degradation, and pollutes the environment.

5. Energy Resources

• Use: Energy from sources like coal, oil, natural gas, solar, and wind is used to power
industries, homes, and transportation.

• Overutilization: Heavy dependence on fossil fuels leads to their depletion and causes
major air pollution and climate change.

6. Land Resources

• Use: Land is used for agriculture, housing, industries, and recreation.

• Overutilization: Overgrazing, deforestation, and urban expansion lead to soil erosion,

desertification, and habitat loss.
10. classify the energy resources [renewable and non renewable]

1. Renewable:

These are resources that can be replenished naturally over time and are considered more
sustainable since they don’t deplete with use.

• Solar Energy: Energy from the sun, harnessed through solar panels.

• Wind Energy: Energy derived from wind using turbines.

• Hydropower (Water Energy): Energy generated from flowing water, typically through
dams.

• Biomass Energy: Energy from organic materials like wood, agricultural waste, or
animal waste.

• Geothermal Energy: Heat from beneath the Earth’s surface used for electricity
generation and heating.

2. Non-Renewable Energy Resources

These are finite resources that are not replenished on a human timescale, and their overuse
leads to depletion.

• Fossil Fuels:

o Coal: A solid fuel used for electricity generation and industry.

o Petroleum (Oil): Liquid fuel used in transportation, heating, and industry.

o Natural Gas: Gas used for heating, electricity generation, and as an industrial
feedstock.

• Nuclear Energy: Energy produced from nuclear reactions (fission), typically using
uranium or plutonium.

11. Write the types of water resources and enumerate the benefits and problems of
constructing huge dams.
Types of Water Resources

• Surface Water: Water in rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, easily accessible for human use.

• Groundwater: Water stored underground, accessed through wells and springs.

• Rainwater: Water from rainfall, harvested for domestic or agricultural use.

 • Glaciers and Ice Caps: Ice that melts to feed rivers and groundwater.

• Desalinated Water: Water from seawater, made fresh by removing salt.

Benefits of Constructing Huge Dams

• Water Storage: Provides water for drinking, irrigation, and industry.

• Flood Control: Reduces downstream flooding by controlling river flow.

• Hydropower Generation: Produces renewable energy using water flow.

• Agricultural Benefits: Supplies irrigation water for farming.

• Recreation: Reservoirs allow for activities like fishing and boating.

Problems of Constructing Huge Dams

• Environmental Impact: Disrupts ecosystems and wildlife.

• Displacement of People: Requires relocation of communities.

• Sedimentation: Traps sediments, degrading river ecosystems.

• Risk of Failure: Rare but can cause catastrophic flooding.

• Water Quality: Can lead to polluted and stagnant water.

• High Costs: Expensive to build and maintain.

12. Mineral
Types of Mineral Resources

1. Metallic Minerals: Contain metals for industrial use (e.g., iron, gold).

2. Non-metallic Minerals: Used in industries but don’t contain metals (e.g., salt,
gypsum).

3. Energy Minerals: Used for energy production (e.g., coal, oil).

4. Industrial Minerals: Essential for construction and manufacturing (e.g., sand,

marble).

Benefits of Extracting Mineral Resources

1. Economic Growth: Generates jobs and boosts economies.

 2. Industrial Use: Key materials for manufacturing and infrastructure.

3. Energy Production: Provides energy sources like coal and oil.

4. Technological Advancements: Enables innovations in electronics and transport.

Problems of Extracting Mineral Resources

1. Environmental Damage: Causes deforestation, erosion, and pollution.

2. Pollution: Releases harmful chemicals and dust.

3. Depletion: Over-extraction can exhaust mineral resources.

4. Health Hazards: Exposes workers and communities to health risks.

5. Social Impact: Displaces communities and causes conflicts.

6. High Costs: Requires significant investment in infrastructure and management.

13. Forest
Timber: Wood used for construction, furniture, paper, and fuel.

Non-timber Forest Products (NTFPs): Products like fruits, nuts, medicinal plants, and
resins.

Fuelwood: Wood used as a source of energy for cooking and heating.

Biodiversity: The variety of plant and animal species in the forest ecosystem.

14. Land resources

Types of Land Resources

1. Agricultural Land: Land used for growing crops and raising livestock.

2. Forests: Land covered with trees, providing timber, biodiversity, and ecosystem
services.

3. Pastureland: Land used for grazing animals.

4. Urban Land: Land used for cities, towns, and infrastructure development.

5. Mineral Land: Land where minerals are extracted through mining.

 6. Wetlands: Land areas saturated with water, important for biodiversity and water
regulation.

15. Impacts of mining

Impacts of Mining on the Environment

• Deforestation: Large areas of forests are cleared for mining, destroying habitats.

• Soil Erosion: Removal of vegetation and topsoil leads to increased erosion.

• Water Pollution: Mining chemicals and waste contaminate rivers, lakes, and
groundwater.

• Air Pollution: Dust and toxic gases from mining operations degrade air quality.

• Loss of Biodiversity: Destruction of ecosystems and habitats leads to species loss.

• Climate Change: Mining activities release greenhouse gases contributing to global

warming.

16. causes of land degradation

Deforestation

Overgrazing

Agricultural Activities

Urbanization

Industrial Activities: Mining, construction

Landfills

Climate Change
Unit – 2
1. Ecosystem definition
An Ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals and micro-organisms in an
area functioning together with all of the non-living things.
An ecosystem is the smallest unit of biosphere that has all the characteristics to support
life.
for eg:- Pond ecosystem, forest ecosystem, desert ecosystem, marine ecosystem, urban
ecosystem are some of the examples for ecosystems.
An ecosystem vary in sizes from a few square kms to hundreds of square kms.

2. Concept of ecosystem
concept: the interaction of biotic and abiotic organisms with its environment.
A single bacteria in the soil interacts with water, air around it within a small space while a
fish in a river interacts with water and other animals, rivals in a large space.

3. Kinds of Ecosystems

1. Artificial Ecosystem: Created and maintained by humans, where both biotic and
abiotic components are controlled.

o Examples: Artificial ponds, urban areas.

2. Natural Ecosystem: Ecosystems that are maintained naturally without human

intervention.

o Subtypes:

▪ Terrestrial Ecosystem: Land-based ecosystems where vegetation plays

a key role in influencing climate, soil, and the exchange of gases like O₂
and CO₂.

▪ Aquatic Ecosystem: Water-based ecosystems, including both

freshwater (rivers, lakes) and saline water (oceans). Water quality
factors like pH, depth, and temperature affect the ecosystem.
4. Structure of an Ecosystem

• Abiotic Structure: Non-living components like soil, temperature, light, water, and
chemical substances (N, C, H, K, P, S, carbohydrates, proteins).

• Biotic Structure: Living components like plants, animals, and microorganisms,

classified as

o Autotrophs (Producers)

o Heterotrophs (Consumers)

o Micro-consumers (Decomposers)

5. Function of Ecosystem (Short)

• Definition: Ecosystem functions through energy flow, nutrient cycling

(biogeochemical cycles), and ecological regulation between organisms and
environment.

Roles:

1. Autotrophic Components (Producers):

o Make food using sunlight (photosynthesis) or chemicals (chemoautotrophs).

o Examples: Algae, green plants, bacteria.

2. Heterotrophic Components (Consumers):

o Depend on producers or other consumers for food.

o Types:

▪ Herbivores: Eat plants (e.g., rabbit, deer).

▪ Carnivores: Eat herbivores (e.g., snake, lizard).

▪ Tertiary Consumers: Eat other carnivores (e.g., lion, tiger).

▪ Omnivores: Eat plants and animals (e.g., humans, hawks).

3. Decomposers (Micro-consumers):

o Break down dead matter, recycle nutrients for producers.

o Examples: Bacteria, fungi.

6.Energy flow/cycle

7. explain food chain and the types in short

• Food Chain:
Transfer of energy by eating and being eaten, linking producers → consumers →
decomposers.
The transfer of food energy from the producers ( plants ) through a series of
organisms (Herbivores, Carnivores) successively with the repeated activities of eating
and being eaten is known as food chain. In an ecosystem(s), one organism is eaten by
the second which in turn is eaten by the third and so on... This kind of feeding
relationship is called food chain.

• Producers:
Green plants make food via photosynthesis.

• Consumers:
Animals and humans that eat plants or other animals.

• Decomposers:
Bacteria and fungi break down dead matter, returning nutrients to soil.
Types of Food Chain:

1. Grazing Food Chain:

Starts with living green plants → herbivores → carnivores.
(Example: Grass → Rabbit → Fox → Tiger)

2. Detritus Food Chain:

Starts with dead organic matter → decomposers → detritivores → carnivores.
(Example: Dead leaves → earthworms → Insects → Birds)

8. Food Web

• Food Web:
A network of interconnected food chains where organisms have multiple options
for food at each trophic level (position in the food chain).

• Example:
Grass → Grasshopper → Hawk
Grass → Grasshopper → Lizard → Hawk
Grass → Rabbit → Hawk
Grass → Mouse → Hawk
Grass → Mouse → Snake → Hawk

9.feeding levels
1) producer
2) consumer
3) decomposer

10. Ecological pyramid

An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation in the form of a pyramid that shows the
relationship between different organisms at each trophic level in an ecosystem, based on
their number, biomass, or energy. • Hence, all producers belong to the I trophic level; all
primary consumers belong to II trophic level and organisms feeding on these consumers
belong to the III trophic level and so on.

The ecological pyramids are of three types. [NBE]

1. The pyramid of Numbers ( showing population ).

2. The pyramid of Biomass ( showing total mass of organisms ).

3. The pyramid of energy ( showing energy flow ).

1. Pyramid of Numbers

• Represents the number of individual organisms at each trophic level.

• Example: Many grass plants → fewer grasshoppers → even fewer frogs → one snake.

2. Pyramid of Biomass

• Represents the total dry mass of all organisms at each trophic level.

• Shows how much living material is available at each level.

 • Example: A large mass of grass → smaller mass of herbivores → even smaller mass of
carnivores.

3. Pyramid of Energy

• Represents the flow of energy from one trophic level to the next.

• Always upright because energy decreases at each level (only about 10% is passed
on).

• Example: Sun → plants → herbivores → carnivores.

11. Nutrient Cycle

Consumers that are eaten transfer the nutrients on to the predator at the next feeding level.
• Consumers that are not eaten die and transfer nutrients in their decaying tissues to the
decomposers that feed on them.

• The decomposers recycle these nutrients back into the ecosystem.

• They transfer the nutrients back into the soil and air, where the nutrients become available
to producers.

• Nutrient cycle is the movement and exchange of nutrients (like carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus) between living organisms and the environment.

• It ensures that essential elements are reused and recycled in the ecosystem.

• Examples:

o Carbon cycle (movement of carbon through atmosphere, plants, animals,

soil).

o Nitrogen cycle (conversion of nitrogen into usable forms for plants and
animals).

o Phosphorus cycle (movement of phosphorus through soil, plants, and

animals).

12. Biogeochemical Cycles (same as nutrient cycle)

• Movement of essential elements (carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, etc.)

between living organisms and the environment.

• Elements are recycled through processes like respiration, excretion, and

decomposition.

• Examples of important cycles:

o Carbon Cycle: Movement of carbon through air, plants, animals, and soil.

o Nitrogen Cycle: Conversion of nitrogen into usable forms for plants and
animals.

o Water Cycle: Continuous movement of water between atmosphere, land, and

oceans.

o Oxygen Cycle: Circulation of oxygen through respiration and photosynthesis.

o Phosphorus Cycle: Transfer of phosphorus through rocks, soil, plants, and

animals.

o Sulphur Cycle: Movement of sulphur through the atmosphere, soil, and living
organisms.

13. Carbon cycle

Plants take in CO₂ via photosynthesis, animals and decomposers release it through
respiration, and combustion of fossil fuels adds CO₂ to the atmosphere. Some carbon is
stored in the Earth as mineral carbon or in decaying organisms.

14. Nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen (N₂) is abundant in the atmosphere but cannot be used directly by plants and
animals.

Nitrogen fixation: Special bacteria (like Rhizobium in legumes and blue-green algae) or
lightning convert atmospheric nitrogen into usable forms like nitrates.
 Ammonification: When plants and animals die, decomposers turn nitrogen in their bodies
into ammonia (NH₃).
Organic nitrogen compounds → NH₃ (Ammonia)

Nitrification: Bacteria convert ammonia into nitrites (NO₂⁻) and then into nitrates (NO₃⁻),
which plants absorb.

Denitrification: Other bacteria convert nitrates back into nitrogen gas (N₂), releasing it
into the atmosphere and completing the cycle.

15. water cycle

16. oxygen cycle

Main Steps of the Oxygen Cycle:

1. Photosynthesis (by plants, algae, cyanobacteria):

o Plants use carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water (H₂O) in the presence of sunlight to
produce oxygen.

o Reaction:

o
Oxygen is released into the atmosphere as a by-product.

2. Respiration (by animals, plants, humans, decomposers):

 o Living organisms consume oxygen to break down food (glucose) to release
energy.

o Reaction:

o
Oxygen is used up and carbon dioxide is released.

3. Decomposition (by bacteria and fungi):

o Decomposers break down dead plants and animals, using oxygen and
releasing carbon dioxide and minerals back into the environment.

4. Ozone Formation and Breakdown (in the atmosphere):

o Some oxygen molecules (O₂) absorb ultraviolet (UV) light and split into single
oxygen atoms, which combine with other O₂ molecules to form ozone (O₃).

o Ozone protects life by absorbing harmful UV radiation.

5. Oxidation (chemical reactions in nature):

o Oxygen reacts with metals and minerals (rusting, weathering) and organic
matter.

Summary

• Photosynthesis releases oxygen.

• Respiration, decomposition, and oxidation consume oxygen.

• Ozone cycle also involves oxygen transformations in the atmosphere.

17. Potassium Cycle

• Potassium (K⁺) is essential for plants (osmotic balance, enzyme activation) and
humans (muscle function).

• Sources: Potassium is found in soil (from weathered rocks like feldspar and mica),
fertilizers (potassium chloride - KCl), and animal manures.

• Plant Uptake: Plants absorb potassium directly from the soil solution.

• Return to Soil: When plants and animals die, potassium returns to the soil through
decomposition.

• Leaching: Excess potassium can wash away into rivers, lakes, and oceans if it exceeds
soil capacity.
 • Natural Recycling: Marine sediments and evaporated salts can eventually bring
potassium back to rocks, restarting the cycle.

18. Phosphorus Cycle (Short Explanation)

• Phosphorus is found mainly in rocks as phosphate.

• Through weathering, phosphates dissolve into soil and water.

• Plants absorb these phosphates, often helped by fungi (symbiosis).

• Animals get phosphorus by eating plants, and it becomes part of bones, teeth, DNA,
and ATP.

• After death, decomposers return phosphorus to the soil or water.

• Some phosphates end up in oceans, becoming part of sediments, which can later
form rocks again.

• Marine birds (through guano) help recycle phosphorus back to land.

19. Aquatic Ecosystem

• Eco system that exists in water is known as aquatic ecosystem .

• Water is the primary requirement for life in biological community.

• The aquatic ecosystems range from a small pond to a large ocean

Life is influenced by factors like water depth, light, temperature, salinity, oxygen, and
carbon dioxide levels.

• Aquatic ecosystems are broadly classified into fresh water (lakes, ponds, rivers) and
marine water(salt lakes, seas) ecosystems.

• In some regions, the marine and fresh water environments overlaps creating “Estuaries”

Ponds & Lake Ecosystems:

• Ponds are small, often artificial, water bodies, with a short lifespan (weeks or
months). Lakes are larger, natural bodies of water, with lifespans depending on size,
location, and depth.

• The epilimnion (upper warm layer) and hypolimnion (colder lower layer) are
separated by the thermocline. In rainy seasons, the temperature evens out due to
water mixing, but mixing is limited in non-rainy seasons.
 • Abiotic components include light, heat, pH, and organic compounds like CO2, O2, Ca,
N, P. Biotic components include autotrophs (plants, bacteria), consumers (herbivores,
insects, fish), and micro-consumers (bacteria, fungi).

Stream & River Ecosystems:

Rivers and streams are flowing fresh water bodies. Out of all natural ecosystems, rivers are
the most intensively used ecosystems by man. The organization of river and stream
ecosystem include:

• Abiotic components include water volume, flow speed, dissolved oxygen, and
temperature. Energy mainly flows from organic matter sourced from adjacent land
ecosystems.

• Biotic components include:

o Producers: algae, grass, amphibians

o Consumers: leeches, water insects, snails, fish, crocodiles, reptiles

o Decomposers: bacteria, fungi, protozoa.

Ocean or Marine Ecosystems:

• The marine environment is characterized by high salt and mineral concentrations.

Major oceans include the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic.

• Water in oceans contains NaCl, Mg, Ca, and K, with temperatures ranging from 0°C to
30°C and pressure varying from 1 ATM at the surface to 1000 ATM at the ocean's
bottom.

• Biotic components: Producers (phytoplankton, marine plants), consumers (mollusks,

fish), decomposers (bacteria, fungi).

• Abiotic components: Na, Cl, Mg, Ca, sulfur, dissolved oxygen, light, temperature,
pressure variations.

Estuarine Ecosystems:

• Location: Estuaries(very fertile) form where rivers meet the sea

• Abiotic components: Features like salinity, temperature, and tidal activity are more
variable compared to oceans.

• Biotic components: Includes producers like macrophytes (seaweeds, marsh grasses),

phytoplankton, and benthic flora (algae). Consumers include zooplankton, oysters,
 crabs, and some fish. Decomposers like bacteria and fungi break down dead organic
matter, enriching the ecosystem.

20. Forest Ecosystem Overview:

• Introduction: Forests are land-based ecosystems consisting of trees, shrubs, and

vegetation, and serve as renewable resources. Forest types depend on geographical
location and environmental factors like temperature and moisture.

• Types of Forests:

1. Savannas: Seasonal rainfall, found in areas like North Africa and India.

2. Tropical Forests: Warm, high rainfall (Amazon, India), soils are acidic and
nutrient-poor.

3. Deciduous Forests: Broad-leaved trees, moderate rainfall (Europe, North

America).

4. Coniferous Forests: Long winters, low rainfall (e.g., Moscow).

5. Tundras: Frozen ground, no trees, short growing season (Northern Europe,

North America).

• Forest Types in India:

o Tropical (Western Ghats)

o Deciduous (Dehradun, Eastern Ghats)

o Littoral (Sunderbans)or mangrove

o Thorn (Punjab, Gujarat)

o Alpine Scrub (Ladakh, Sikkim)

• Abiotic Components: Inorganic and organic matter, light conditions vary due to
stratification in the vegetation.

• Biotic Components:

o Producers: Trees, plants (e.g., Quercus, Acer, Pinus).

o Consumers: Primary (ants, deer), secondary (snakes, foxes), tertiary (lions,

tigers).

o Decomposers: Microorganisms like fungi and bacteria break down dead

matter.
21. Desert Ecosystem Overview:

• Characteristics: Deserts have low rainfall (250–500 mm), high evaporation, and are
found 30° north and south of the equator. The soils are mineral-rich but low in
organic matter. Day temperatures are extremely hot, and nights are cold.

• Adaptations of Desert Plants:

o Plants like the Saguaro cactus store water in stems.

o Some plants have thorns or toxins for protection.

o Others have wax-coated leaves or deep roots to conserve or access water.

• Flora and Fauna:

o Few plants (e.g., cacti, acacias) and animals (e.g., insects, camels) can
withstand harsh conditions.

o Animals are typically nocturnal and small.

• Abiotic Components: Key factors include temperature, rainfall, soil, and water.

• Human Impact: Human activities like heavy vehicle traffic, groundwater depletion,
and mining damage desert ecosystems.

• Case Study - Thar Desert:

• • Location: Thar Desert spans across four Indian states (Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,
Gujarat) and two in Pakistan, covering 446,000 sq km.
• • Population: It's the most densely populated desert globally, with about 13 million
people.
• • Rainfall: Receives 100-500 mm of rainfall annually.
• • River: Ghaggar river, which dries up in Rajasthan.
• • Flora: Includes Khejra, Babul, Rohida trees, and fruit trees like Ber and Pilu.
• • Fauna: Common animals include sheep, goats, camels, wild ass, black buck deer,
hare, red lynx, jackal, and wild dog.
• • Reptiles: 23 species of lizards and 25 species of snakes.
UNIT-5
1. Watershed
A watershed is an area of land that collects and drains water, typically defined by ridges or
peaks that direct rainwater into streams, rivers, and eventually the sea. It includes all the
land, water, and ecosystems within its boundaries and impacts the people living
downstream. Watersheds are crucial for managing water flow, land use, and environmental
health, as they affect everything from soil erosion to water quality. Proper watershed
management is essential for sustainable development, conservation, and agricultural
productivity.

2. Watershed management
Watershed management involves the integrated management of land, water, and
vegetation resources within a watershed to ensure sustainable development. The primary
goal is to conserve soil and water, improve land's ability to retain water, recharge
groundwater, and enhance agricultural productivity, rainwater harvesting.

Characteristics of watershed:

• Size: Affects water retention and drainage.

• Shape: Influences water flow, based on geology and structure.

• Physiography & Slope: Affects water movement and distribution.

• Climate: Determines rainfall and water availability.

• Vegetation & Geology: Dictates the health and water cycle.

3. Soil conservation techniques

Contour: Planting along the contour lines to reduce soil erosion and water runoff.

Gully control: Preventing erosion and sediment loss in areas prone to gully formation
through measures like check dams or vegetation.

Reclamation of alkaline soil: Neutralizing high pH soils using substances like gypsum or
organic amendments to improve fertility.

Green carpeting: Establishing vegetation cover, such as grasses or legumes, to prevent soil
erosion and improve soil quality.
4. Rainwater harvesting
Rainwater Harvesting is the process of collecting and storing rainwater for future use, often
to reduce dependency on conventional water sources.

Components of Rainwater Harvesting:

• Catchments: Surface area where rainwater is collected (e.g., rooftops).

• Coarse Mesh: Filters large debris from the collected rainwater.

• Conduits: Pipes or channels that transport rainwater to storage.

• Storage Facility: Tanks or reservoirs where water is stored for future use.

Methods of Rainwater Harvesting:

1. Rooftop Harvesting: Collecting rainwater from rooftops via gutters and downspouts.

2. Surface Harvesting: Storing rainwater in ponds, lakes, or reservoirs.

3. Check Dams: Small dams built across seasonal streams to store rainwater.

4. Recharge Pits: Water is directed into pits to replenish groundwater.

uses:-

Drinking water, agriculture, irrigation, groundwater recharge, stored in dams, lakes,

ponds,etc

5.env ethics
Environmental Ethics is a branch of philosophy that explores the moral relationship between
humans and the natural environment. It addresses ethical decisions and actions regarding
environmental issues, such as the impact of human activities on nature.

Some of the examples are below –

– Should we need to cut forests for furniture ?
– Does the present natural resources suffice the future generations ?
– Switching off the lights when not in use
– Swacch Bharath
– Switching to renewable sources of energy
6. Sustainable development
Sustainable Development is the practice of improving quality of life by using natural
resources responsibly, ensuring they are available for future generations. It focuses on
"development without destruction." Key measures include population control, biodiversity
conservation, recycling, limited resource consumption, water management, and awareness
programs. However, threats such as energy depletion, climate collapse, ecological
degradation, and global recession challenge sustainability efforts.

7. Population explosion
Population Explosion:

• Rapid increase in population

• India is currently experiencing this phase

• Leads to poverty and hinders development

Causes:

• Illiteracy

• Poor family planning

• Increased agricultural and industrial productivity

Impacts:

• Poverty

• Malnutrition

• Environmental degradation

• Spread of diseases

• Economic inequality

• Over-exploitation of resources

• Sanitation problems

8. Global warming
Global Warming:

• Rise in global temperatures causes melting of ice caps in the Arctic and Antarctic.

• Results in rising sea levels, submerging land, and threatening ecosystems.

 • Affects biodiversity, particularly species in icy regions.

Causes:

• Emission of greenhouse gases (CO2, NO2, CH4, O3) from both natural and human
activities.

solutions:

• • Use less energy: Turn off lights and electronics when not in use.
• • Switch to clean energy: Opt for solar or wind power where possible.
• • Use eco-friendly transport: Walk, bike, or use public transportation instead of
driving.
• • Plant trees: Trees help absorb CO2 and improve air quality.
• • Recycle and reduce waste: Minimize waste and reuse items to cut down on
emissions from landfills

9. Acid Rain
occurs when pollutants like sulfur dioxide (SOx) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) mix with water
vapor in the atmosphere to form acids. These acids then fall as rain.

Effects of Acid Rain:

• Deforestation: Damages forests by leaching essential nutrients.

• Soil Fertility Loss: Makes soil less fertile.

• Corrosion: Erodes buildings and sculptures.

• Health Issues: Can cause skin problems and respiratory issues.

Preventive measures include reducing emissions from industries and vehicles.

10. Ozone Layer Depletion:

• The ozone layer in the stratosphere protects Earth by filtering harmful UV rays.

• It is being depleted by CFCs and HCFCs from household items like refrigerators and
air conditioners.

Effects:

• Eye cataracts

• Weakened immunity

• Lung dysfunction
 • Increased skin cancer risk

• Negative impacts on crops, disrupting the food chain and ecosystem.

The solution involves reducing CFCs and HCFCs, and using eco-friendly alternatives.

11. Forest Fires:

• Forest fires are uncontrolled fires that spread rapidly across forest areas, damaging
ecosystems.

• Causes include natural factors like lightning, as well as human activities such as
arson, campfires, and deforestation.

Effects:

• Loss of biodiversity

• Soil degradation

• Air pollution (due to smoke and CO2)

• Destruction of homes and livelihoods

12.contemporary issues
Contemporary issues refer to current and pressing challenges facing society, particularly
those that have a widespread impact on the environment, economy, and social well-being.
These can include problems such as climate change, pollution, overpopulation,
technological disruptions, forest fires, ozone depletion, acid rain, sustainability concerns.
The term highlights ongoing issues that require immediate attention and solutions in the
present day.
UNIT-3
1. Biodiversity
The word biodiversity is a combination of two words: “biological and diversity” and refers to
the variety of life on the Earth which include a large number of living things that exist in a
certain area ( in the air, on land or in water).

Biodiversity is the variety of life forms on Earth, encompassing three main levels: [GSE]

1. Genetic Diversity: Variation in the genetic makeup of individuals within a species,

which allows for adaptation to changing environments.

2. Species Diversity: The variety of different species in a given area, ranging from plants
and animals to microorganisms.

3. Ecosystem Diversity: The diversity of ecosystems in a region, including forests,

wetlands, deserts, and marine systems, each supporting different life forms and
ecological processes.

Genetic Diversity:

• Example: Different breeds of dogs like Labrador, Beagle, and Poodle are examples of
genetic diversity within the species Canis lupus familiaris. Or blacks and whites and
yellows and browns.

Species Diversity:

• Example: A rainforest ecosystem, which may include various species such as jaguars,
monkeys, and a wide range of plant species like orchids and ferns.

Ecosystem Diversity:

• Example: The Amazon Rainforest and the Sahara Desert are different ecosystems,
each supporting unique species and environmental processes.

2. importance of biodiversity
Ecosystem Health: Ensures ecological balance and stability.

Resources: Provides raw materials for food, medicine, and clothing.

Economic Benefits: Supports industries like agriculture and tourism.

Climate Regulation: Helps in controlling climate and carbon levels.

Cultural Value: Influences traditions, practices, and cultural heritage.

3. biogeographic regions of india and why is india mega diverse (SEE FROM TOP TO DOWN
OF INDIA ACC TO MAP)
• It is estimated that over 75000 species of animals and over 45000 species of plants are
found in India.
• India, as a subcontinent representing a major part of South Asia is rich in flora and fauna
and hence it is one of the world’s “MEGADIVERSITY NATIONS” .

Trans-Himalayan Zone: Cold, arid region with sparse vegetation and high-altitude animals.

Himalayan Zone: Rich biodiversity due to varied climate; home to many unique species.

Desert Zone: Arid land with adapted flora and fauna.

Semi-arid Zone: Includes regions with less rainfall, supporting scrub vegetation.

Western Ghats: Biodiversity hotspot with tropical forests and endemic species.

Deccan Zone: Characterized by plateaus, dry forests, and grasslands.

Gangetic Plain Zone: Fertile region with rich biodiversity in river systems.

NE Indian Zone: Rich in forest types, flora, and fauna.

Coastal Zone: Marine and terrestrial ecosystems with mangroves and coastal forests.

Islands: Unique biodiversity with distinct ecosystems, such as the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
4. Values of Biodiversity (SPACE)
Consumptive Value: Provides essential resources like food, medicines, and fuel from
plants and animals.

Productive Value: Organisms offer commercially usable products like silk, wool, and
medicines.

Social Value: Includes the cultural, religious, and spiritual significance of species in various
societies. (people worship cows, snakes, trees)

Ethical Value: Refers to the intrinsic worth of species, even if humans don’t directly
benefit from them. (giraffe, kangaroo)

Aesthetic Value: Enhances well-being through beauty and eco-tourism, contributing to

both mental health and economic revenue

5. Biodiversity hotspots in india

Western Ghats:

• Nilgiri Tahr (an endangered mountain goat)

• Lion-tailed Macaque

Himalayas:

• Snow Leopard

• Red Panda

Sundaland: (andaman and Nicobar)

• Dugong (marine mammal)

Indo-Burma:

• Assam Roofed Turtle

• Jerdon’s Courser

• Bengal Tiger (in some areas)

6. threats to biodiversity
Habitat Destruction: Deforestation, urbanization, and agricultural expansion destroy
natural habitats.

Climate Change: Alters ecosystems, disrupting species' survival and migration.

Pollution: Chemical, plastic, and air pollution harm species and ecosystems.

Overexploitation: Overfishing, hunting, and resource extraction reduce species

populations.

Invasive Species: Non-native species outcompete, prey on, or bring diseases to native
species, disrupting ecosystems.

7. Endangered species and endemic

Endangered species are those whose population has decreased to the point where they are
at immediate risk of extinction. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
classifies species into the following categories:

• Endangered species: In immediate danger of extinction. (Bengal tiger)

• Vulnerable species: Species whose numbers are significantly reduced. (rhino)

• Threatened species: Species at risk of becoming endangered in the near future.

(Asiatic lion)

• Rare species: Species that are naturally uncommon due to their specialized habitat or
low numbers. (peacock and sparrow)

Endemic Species is a species that confined to a certain region and are restricted to
particular areas. Eg: Penguins usually found on a single ice-land or glaciers.

8. Conservation of biodiversity
 •
Conservation of Biodiversity: The overall process of protecting and preserving the
variety of life on Earth, including species, ecosystems, and genetic diversity.

• In-situ conservation: Protection of species in their natural habitats.

• National Parks: Designated areas where wildlife and natural resources are
protected from human interference.

• Wildlife sanctuaries: Protected areas created to conserve specific species or

habitats, allowing limited human activity.

• Ex-situ conservation: Protection of species outside their natural habitats.

• Seed bank: Facilities that store seeds to preserve plant genetic diversity for
future use.

• Genes Bank: Repositories that maintain genetic material (e.g., DNA, tissues)
of organisms for conservation and research.

• Home gardens, sacred gardens: Cultivated spaces, often community-

managed, where traditional or culturally significant plant species are
preserved.

• Botanical gardens; Zoological garden(ZOO); Aquariums: Controlled

environments outside natural habitats where plants, animals, and aquatic
species are conserved and studied.

UNIT-4
1. Environment Protection Act
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 was enacted in response to the Bhopal tragedy of
1984, where a gas leak caused thousands of deaths and injuries.
features:
The Environment Protection Act, 1986 restricts industries from operating without
safeguards.

Sets emission and effluent standards for 61 industries.

Violations can lead to up to 5 years of imprisonment or a fine of up to ₹1 lakh.

Industries must submit an annual environmental audit report by September 30th.

2. Air Act (Prevention & Control of Pollution)
The Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 was enacted to prevent and control air
pollution. Key features include:

• Establishment of Central and State Boards to address air pollution.

• Provisions for industry measures (e.g., dust collectors, noise recorders).

• Emission standards for pollutants like CO, SO2, and NO2.

• Penalties for violations (up to closure of industries or disconnection of electricity).

• Appeal provisions for industries facing penalties.

The Act aims to maintain high air quality and control air pollution.

3. The Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 was enacted to prevent water
pollution and maintain the quality of water resources. Key features include:

• Maintenance of surface and ground water quality.

• Establishment of State Pollution Control Boards.

• Prevention of pollution from industries, agriculture, and domestic waste.

• Dispute resolution between States by central board

• Utilization of treated wastewater or sewage in agriculture.

The Water (Pollution) Cess Act, 1978 requires water consumers to pay a cess based on the
type of water usage. This includes industrial use, mining, electricity production, and
domestic use. Industries polluting water with toxic effluents are also charged. However,
industries with treatment plants for effluent control can get a 70% rebate on the cess
payable.

4. Forest act
The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 was enacted to protect and conserve India's forests.

Key Features:

• Prohibits non-forest use of forest land without Central Government approval.

• Restricts clearing forest land for cultivation.

• Protects forests from hunting, fishing, and deforestation.

• Allows the regulated removal of forest products under licenses.

 • Ensures forest protection against fire and damage.

The act aims to conserve forest areas, safeguard biodiversity, and maintain ecological
balance.

5. Wildlife act
The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 aims to protect India's rich wildlife, including
endangered species. Key features include:

• Establishing National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries for conservation.

• Prohibiting the hunting of endangered species.

• Protecting specific endangered plants.

• Regulating trade of wildlife with licenses.

• Providing legal authority for enforcement and penalties for violations.

• Initiating species-specific conservation projects (e.g., tiger, crocodile).

• Balancing forest dwellers' rights with conservation needs.

6. Issues of environmental legislation / Principles of env leg

The Precautionary Principle: prevention is better than cure

The Polluter-Pays Principle: This principle holds that those responsible for pollution
should bear the costs of monitoring, controlling, and mitigating their environmental impact,
ensuring that they pay for the damage caused.

Freedom of Information: This principle ensures transparency by providing the public,

NGOs, and authorities access to environmental information.

7. Salient Features/Responsibilities of CPCB:

• Established in 1974 under the Water Act.

• Provides technical services to the Ministry of Environment and Forests.

• Advises the central government on water pollution control.

• Works on improving air quality and controlling air pollution.

• Organizes training programs for pollution control.

• Publishes data on pollution and sets water quality standards.

 • Collaborates with State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) for regional pollution
control.

SPCB Responsibilities: (write above ones also)

• Advise state governments on pollution prevention.

• Inspect industrial plants and pollution control areas.

• Establish pollution standards for industries.

UNIT-4
1. Pollution definition
Pollution is “an undesirable change in the characteristics of air, water and land that
harmfully affect the life and also create health hazards for all living organisms on the globe”.

Basically the Pollution is of two types viz., (1) Natural Pollution: This type of pollution is
limited in its occurrence generally from natural hazards like volcanic eruptions, emissions of
natural gas, soil erosion, ultraviolet rays, cosmic rays etc and (2) Man made Pollution: Most
of the pollution is man made only. . However, Pollution is usually categorized as Air Pollution;
Water Pollution; Thermal Pollution; Noise Pollution; Land & soil Pollution; Radio Active
Pollution and Marine Pollution .

2. Air pollution
Pollutants:

• Substances or energy that cause pollution are called pollutants.

Classification of Air Pollutants:

1. According to Origin:

o Primary Pollutants:
Emitted directly into the atmosphere.
Examples: Carbon (C), Carbon Monoxide (CO)[blood poisoning/
asphyxiation], Carbon Dioxide (CO₂), Sulphur Oxides (SOₓ)[Smog and acid
rain], Nitrogen (N), Sulphur (S), Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen Oxides (NOₓ)[cough,
shortness of breath, respiratory problems, acid rain], CFCs[ozone depletion].
 o Secondary Pollutants:
Formed by chemical reactions between primary pollutants or with
atmospheric components.
Examples: Ozone (O₃)[skin cancer and respiratory issues], Smog[acid rain
and visibility and breathing], Peroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN), Acid Rain[building
corrosion, making water acidic], Aerosols[particulate pollution].

2. According to State of Matter:

o Solid Pollutants: Dust, Smoke, Fumes.

o Liquid Pollutants: Fog.

o Gaseous Pollutants: Benzene (C₆H₆), Methane (CH₄), Butane, Aldehydes,

Ketones, various inorganic gases.

Effects of air pollution:

Health Effects:

• Causes respiratory diseases like asthma, bronchitis, and lung cancer.

• Aggravates heart problems and can lead to strokes.

• Eye irritation and skin allergies.

• Weakens the immune system.

Environmental Effects:

• Leads to acid rain, which damages crops, forests, and aquatic life.

• Depletes the ozone layer (due to CFCs), increasing UV radiation.

• Contributes to global warming and climate change (via greenhouse gases).

Economic Effects:

• Increases healthcare costs.

• Reduces agricultural productivity.

• Damages buildings and monuments.