PYQ + Syllabus topics
1. Reconciliation of rationalism and empiricism (Kant):
• Acc to Kant knowledge means certain knowledge which is found in mathematics and
physics. However, both empiricism and rationalism failed to find certain knowledge.
• The failure of empiricism
- Hume was right in holding that the sense –impressions are passing events. However,
knowledge proper is obtained by ordering them into some system.
- Further, on the basis of experience, strict universality and necessity cannot be obtained.
• The failure of rationalism
- Rationalism successfully explains universality and necessity but the difficulty lies in that
the innate ideas are subjective. Reason unaided by experience, is like building castles in
the air .
• Reconciliation:
- Acc to Kant, knowledge proper is a joint venture of ‘sense’ and ‘understanding’.
- As soon as sense- impressions are obtained, the mind at once is stirred into ordering
activity by apriori elements to form percepts.
- These percepts combine together to from judgments from which categories or concepts are
deduced.
- Knowledge, which consists of ‘synthetic judgments a priori', is combination of percepts
and concepts.
2. Mind-body problem (Descartes):
• Descartes regards God as absolute substance and, mind and body as relative substances
which are independent of each other but both depend on God for their existence.
• However, we intuitively know that there is some relation between mind and body because
bodily activities are influenced by the mind and the mind is also influenced by the body.If
mind and body are independent of each other, how do they influence each other?
• Descartes gives the theory of ‘interactionism’, acc to which mind and body react to each other
through Pineal Gland which is located in the brain and which is considered the seat of the
soul. Just as the rider spurs on the horse to run fast with its own energy, similarly mind
excites the bodily movement
• Criticism:
- It is wrong to say that pineal gland is the seat of the soul since soul being a spirit does not
need a seat like any material body.
- The analogy of the rider and the horse is incorrect because they essentially are of the
same nature, however Mind and Body are of different nature.
- It is difficult to explain passions like love ,hatred ,anger, fear etc. if we stick to this
dualism.
3. Reason as a source of knowledge (Rationalism):
In Western philosophy, reason has long been considered a central source of knowledge. It is the
ability to think logically, critically, and systematically to understand the world and justify beliefs.
Key ideas about reason as a source of knowledge:
• Philosophers like Descartes and Spinoza argued that reason is the primary path to knowledge.
Descartes, for example, famously said, "Cogito, ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am"),
emphasising that reason can provide certain knowledge, independent of sensory perception.
• Rationalists believed in a priori knowledge—knowledge that is independent of experience.
Mathematical truths, for example, were seen as known through reason alone.
• Empiricists like Locke, Berkeley, and Hume critiqued the idea that reason alone could provide
knowledge, arguing instead that knowledge originates in sensory experience.
• Kant synthesised rationalism and empiricism by arguing that while knowledge begins with
sensory experience, it is shaped and organised by reason leading to synthetic a priori
knowledge.
• Criticism:
- Reason unaided by experience is like building castles in air.
- Reason is susceptible to cognitive biases and errors, which can lead to awed conclusions.
- Reason is shaped by contextual and cultural factors, which can in uence our perceptions and
understanding.
4. Sense-experience as a source of knowledge (Empiricism):
• Empiricism posits that knowledge is fundamentally derived from sensory experience.
• Philosophers such as Locke argued that the mind is a tabula rasa (blank slate) at birth, and all
knowledge comes from experiences mediated through the senses. .
• Empiricists deny the existence of innate ideas, asserting that all knowledge must be traceable to
sensory input.
• In contrast, rationalism argues that reason and intellectual deduction can lead to knowledge
independent of sensory experience.
• Kant synthesised rationalism and empiricism by arguing that while knowledge begins with
sensory experience, it is shaped and organised by reason leading to synthetic a priori
knowledge.
• Criticism:
- Sense-experience is subjective and influenced by individual perspectives.
- Sense-experience has limitations in understanding abstract concepts or metaphysical realities.
- Sense-experience cannot provide universal and necessary knowledge
5. Subjective Idealism(Berkeley):
• Berkeley’s system is idealistic since it teaches that reality consists of spirits and ideas only.
• In order to strenghthen his idealism Berkeley says that 'esse est percipi' i.e to be is to be
perceived, which means that if something were not perceived, it would not exist.
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• Personal perception/experience is not the necessary condition to exist. If a thing is not in my
perception/experience it must be in the experience of others. If a thing is not in any one’s
experience then it must be in experience of God. But in any case being experienced remains a
necessary condition for existence.
• Thus, Berkeley’s system be called ‘subjective idealism’. The term’ subjective’ means that that
‘objects’ do not exist independent of mind. In this sense, Berkeley’s idealism is subjective ,since
according to it there are no material substances but just minds or consciousness and ideas
caused by it.
• Criticism:
- Acc to Moore, the term ‘perception’ includes two things, namely - the act of perceiving and
the object perceived.The act of perceiving is mental; but the object perceived is non-mental
and exists in its own rights and.
6. Speculative vs critical method:
1. Speculative Method:
◦ Focus: Developing comprehensive, often abstract systems or theories about the
nature of reality.
◦ Goal: To understand the fundamental structure of the world or existence, usually
through reason, intuition, or metaphysical principles.
◦ Example: Hegel’s dialectical idealism, which sought to explain the development of
reality through a process of contradictions and synthesis.
2. Critical Method:
◦ Focus: Analyzing and evaluating the assumptions, concepts, and limitations of
knowledge.
◦ Goal: To examine the boundaries of human understanding, question what we can
truly know, and critique metaphysical or epistemological claims.
◦ Example: Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason, where he explored the limits of human
knowledge and how we can know the world beyond our experience.
In essence, speculative philosophy constructs grand theories about reality, while critical philosophy
interrogates the foundations and limits of knowledge.
7. Method of analysis:
The method of analysis focuses on clarifying concepts and propositions through systematic
examination. This approach can be seen in philosophy of Descartes, Moore, Russell etc.
Key Aspects of the Method of Analysis:
• Clarification of Concepts: Philosophers often analyze abstract concepts to make them more
precise. For example, terms like "truth," "justice," or "knowledge" are examined to define their
meaning and avoid confusion
• Logical Deconstruction: Analysis frequently involves breaking down arguments into their
fundamental premises and examining their logical structure. This helps identify fallacies or
inconsistencies in reasoning.
• Analytical Philosophy: Philosophers like Russell, Moore, and Wittgenstein focused on analyzing
language, meaning, and the structures of thought.
• Method of Reflection: In some traditions, analysis involves introspective reflection on
experience.This is seen in the works of philosophers like Descartes and Husserl.
Example: Descartes' Method of Doubt - Descartes used analysis to break down all beliefs into their
most basic elements, questioning everything except his own existence ("Cogito, ergo sum").
8. Method of doubt (Descartes):
• In order to obtain certain knowledge in philosophy,Descartes applied mathematical method of
enquiry in philosophy.This method is known as Cartesian method.
• In mathematics(geometry),we start with self-evident axioms and then reach whole body
conclusions by means of deductions.In the same way in philosophy too Descartes wants to find
out a single certain truth to deduce all further truths.
• This single certain truth can be sought by deliberate doubt. After doubting all that can be
doubted , a complete undoubtable certainty is found i.e ‘ I may doubt anything but I cannot
doubt that I am doubting’.Therefore, I must exist as doubting or thinking being.
• Hence,‘ I think, therefore , I am/exist ‘. i.e ‘cogito ergo sum’ is the one certain truth which may
be taken as the foundation of philosophy.
• The doubt of Descartes should not be confused with Scepticism.Skepticism denies any certain
knowledge whatsoever.However, the Cartesian doubt is only a starting point to find out the
certain knowledge.
• Criticism:
- There is faulty use of the verb ‘to be’ i.e ‘am’ which can be used only in conjunction with a
predicate .
- Existence can be maintained not with regard to the subject, but with regard to the predicate
9. Dialectical method (Hegel):
• Hegel says that reality is moving and dialectic in nature.Therefore we need a method that would
be suitable to the nature of reality.So Hegel propounds the dialectical method.
• Hegel’s dialectic method exhibits a systematic tri-rhythmic process-thesis, antithesis ,synthesis-
until it culminates into the Absolute idea.
• The first basic triad of this logic is Being, Nothing and Becoming. Both Being and Nothing are
impossible. Hence, all thought and all reality must fall somewhere between these two extremes
i.e. “Becoming.”
• So we can call Being a thesis (positive), Nothingness an antithesis (negative), and Becoming a
synthesis (combination of positive and negative).Hegel calls this universal structure of all
thought and reality the dialectic.
• Hegel claims that with the help of dialectics man can understand the world exactly in the same
way as does God. Our consciousness of the Absolute is achieved progressively as the mind
moves from art (thesis) to philosophy (synthesis) through religion (antithesis).
10.Primary vs secondary qualities (Locke):
• Locke defines a substance as a substratum underlying a number of simple ideas/qualities
experienced together.
• Substance is divided into three-Matter,Mind ,God.
• There are two kinds of qualities of matter, namely, primary and secondary.
• The primary qualities exist in and are inseparable from the material bodies. There are six such
primary qualities , namely, solidity, extension, figure, motion, rest and number.
• The secondary qualities don’t exist in the material bodies themselves but are powers to
produce various sensations in us by the primary qualities. They include colour, sound, taste, etc.
• The primary qualities are objective but secondary qualities are subjective.
• Locke’s account of the primary and secondary qualities points out that the substance is much
more than “I-Know-Not-What”.
• Criticism by Berkeley:
- Primary qualities never exist apart from the secondary qualities e.g we can’t imagine
extension without its being coloured . Hence we must conclude that both must have the
same kind of existence.As the secondary qualities are taken to be mental, so the so called
primary should also be regarded as mental.
11.Hume's ideas:
• Hume says that what we get through experience is ‘perception’.
• Hume divides perception into - impressions and ideas.
• Impressions are the immediate data of experience, such as sensations.
• Ideas are the copies or faint images of impressions in thinking and reasoning. Thus, what was
called 'idea’ by Locke and Berkeley is called ‘impression’ by Hume.
• Impressions are prior and the ideas are posterior. Further, the impressions have superiority in
force, liveliness and vivacity; but the ideas are weak and faint.
• Hume divides impressions into - sensations and reflections.
• The cause of sensations is unknown but reflections are derived from ideas.
• Ideas may appear either in the form of memory or imagination. Memorial ideas are strong
and lively, and the imaginal ideas are weak and faint. Memory forms simple ideas while
imagination lead to complex ideas.
12.Nature of philosophy in the west:
Key Characteristics of western philosophy:
• Critical thinking: Western philosophy emphasises critical thinking, analysis, and evaluation of
ideas.
• Rational inquiry: It relies on rational inquiry, using logic, reason, and evidence to support
arguments.
• Systematic approach: Western philosophy often employs a systematic approach, building on
previous ideas and constructing comprehensive frameworks.
• Diversity and debate: The Western philosophical tradition is characterised by diverse
perspectives, debates, and disagreements.
Core Branches of western philosophy:
• Metaphysics: Examines the nature of reality, including concepts like existence, time, and space.
• Epistemology: Investigates the nature of knowledge, including its sources, limits, and validity.
• Ethics: Explores moral principles, values, and obligations, guiding human behavior and decision-
making.
• Logic: Develops and applies logical systems, rules, and methods to evaluate arguments and
reasoning.
Evolution of western philosophy:
• Ancient Greek philosophy: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle laid the foundations for Western
philosophy.
• Medieval philosophy : Scholasticism, led by Thomas Aquinas, integrated faith and reason.
• Modern philosophy: Rationalism (Descartes, Leibniz) and Empiricism (Locke, Hume) shaped the
Enlightenment.
• Contemporary philosophy: Analytic philosophy, Continental philosophy, and Postmodernism
continue to evolve and diversify Western philosophy.
13.Method of phenomenological description (Husserl):
• Phenomenology is the study of things as they appear (phenomena), indifferent from their origin
and development.
• It is a presuppositionless and pure description of the content of the consciousness.
• Husserl ,therefore, said “ philosophy begins in absolute poverty” which means it must not have
any assumption or presupposition.
• Husserl says that almost all the philosophers make certain assumptions and hence fail to produce
objective philosophies. In this way, Phenomenology is totally against philosophies like
Rationalism as it presupposes innate ideas, Empiricism as it presupposes the reality of
sensations, and so on.
• According to Husserl , our consciousness is generally polluted by many external and internal
pollutants. External pollutants are our naturalistic beliefs, internal pollutants are our psychological
beliefs . To find objective knowledge we must rid our consciousness of all these pollutants.
• Husserl suggests ‘epoche’ to ged rid of naturalistic beliefs and ‘reductions’ to get rid of
psychological beliefs .Thus through the steps of ‘epoche’ and ‘reductions’, phenomenology
proceeds forward.
14.Necessary and empirical knowledge:
Necessary Knowledge:
• A priori: Known independently of experience, through reason alone.
• Universal and certain: Necessary truths are considered universal, absolute, and certain.
• Examples: mathematical axioms, logical principles, metaphysical truths, etc.
Empirical Knowledge:
• A posteriori: Derived from experience, observation, and sensory data.
• Contingent and uncertain: Empirical truths are considered contingent, relative, and uncertain.
• Examples: Scientific laws, historical facts, observational data, etc.
15.Sources of knowledge:
Western philosophy:
• Reason (Rationalism)
- Associated with Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, etc.
- Emphasises the role of reason, intellect, and innate ideas in acquiring knowledge
• Sense Experience (Empiricism)
- Associated with Locke, Berkeley, Hume, etc.
- Stresses the importance of sensory data, observation, and experience in acquiring knowledge
• Intuition
- Associated with Kant, Friedrich Schelling, Henri Bergson, etc.
- Suggests that knowledge can be acquired through immediate insight or intuition, often
independent of reason or sense experience
• Revelation (Faith)
- Associated with: St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Kierkegaard, etc.
- Emphasises the role of divine revelation, faith, and spiritual experience in acquiring
knowledge
• Language and Culture
- Associated with Wittgenstein, Heidegger, etc.
- Highlights the importance of language, culture, and social context in shaping our knowledg
Indian Philosophy:
• Perception (pratayskha)
• Inference (anumana)
• Verbal Testimony (sabda)
• Comparison (upamana)
• Negation (Anuplabdhi)
• Presumption (arthapatti)
16.Theories of Truth:
• Correspondence theory of truth (CTT):
- CTT posits that truth consists in a relationship between statements and the facts they describe.
- It views language and thought as representations of reality
- For example, the statement "The cat is on the mat" is true if, and only if, there is indeed a cat
on a mat in reality
- Proponents of CTT: Aristotle, Locke, Russel, etc.
- Advantage of CTT: It provides a basis for objective truth, independent of personal opinions or
biases.
- Disadvantage of CTT: It's difficult to verify whether a statement corresponds to reality in
many cases.
• Coherence theory of truth (CTT'):
- CTT' posits that truth is determined by the coherence, consistency, and harmony among a set
of beliefs or statements.
- If a belief about the world aligns with other accepted beliefs without contradiction, it can be
considered true within that system
- Proponents of CTT': Hegel. Spinoza, Leibnitz, etc.
- Advantage of CTT': It doesn't require direct verification of individual statements, instead
focusing on the coherence of the system.
- Disadvantage of CTT': It may lead to circular reasoning, where the coherence of the system is
used to justify the truth of individual statements.
• Pragmatic theory of truth (PTT):
- PTT posits that truth is determined by the practical benefits and usefulness of a statement or
belief rather than mere correspondence to reality
- For example, a scientific theory is considered true if it successfully predicts outcomes and
helps solve problems in the real world
- Proponents of PTT: William James, Dewey, Peirce, etc.
- Advantage of PTT: It avoids dogmatic thinking by emphasising the importance of practical
utility and effectiveness.
- Disadvantage of PTT: It may lead to relativism, where truth is relative to individual
perspectives or goals.
17.Limits of knowledge
• Scepticism (Hume)
- On the basis of impressions, Hume concluded that there is no substance ,neither matter ,self ,
or God.
- We are left with passing impressions only and there could be no necessary connection between
the impressions. Thus, Humean philosophy appears to us sceptical.
- However, Hume can’t be regarded as a sceptic for he held that mathematical knowledge
maintains a perfect exactness and certainty
- Hume was moderate in his scepticism for , by his principles of ‘impressions and ideas’,’laws
of association’,’imagination’,’relations’, he wants to show that knowledge lies in the custom
or habit of imagination .
- Limitation of knowledge to that which is experienced , coupled with his denial of
suprasensible entities like God or soul places him among positivists rather than sceptics.
- Thus he was not a total sceptic but he used scepticism as a powerful weapon of attack against
rationalism.
• Agnosticism (Kant):
- Kant distinguished between the world of appearances (phenomena) and the "things-in-
themselves" (noumena).
- According to him, there is a reality external to us that exists independently of us which he
called Noumena. Noumena exist as the ground of phenomena.
- The three ideas of reason-God,World,Self- point to noumena.
- Our knowledge is limited to phenomena, we cannot know noumena. When rules that apply to
the phenomena are applied to noumena, illusions result.
- Thus, the concept of noumena has introduced an element of Agnosticism in the Kant’s system.
- Criticism: Hegel has criticised Kant that if noumena is unknowable then how can we say that it
exists
18.Idealism, Realism, Materialism:
• Idealism:
- It holds that reality is fundamentally mental or spiritual i.e. mind-dependent.
- The physical world is secondary or derivative.
- For example: Berkeley's "to be is to be perceived"
• Realism
- It holds that reality exists independently of our perceptions or minds.
- For example: Aristotle's view of the objective world
• Materialism
• Everything, including thoughts and consciousness, is made of matter
• For example: Charvaka's view of the world and consciousness
19. God:
• Attributes/Nature of God
- Omnipotence: All-powerful and capable of achieving anything.
- Omniscience: All-knowing and possessing complete knowledge.
- Omnipresence: Present everywhere and at all times.
- Eternal: Existing beyond time and space.
- Immutable: Unchanging and constant.
- Criticism: The existence of evil and suffering i.e Problem of Evil challenges the idea of an
Omnipotent and Omniscient God.
• Theories of God's Nature
- Theism: Belief in a personal, intervening God.
- Deism: Belief in a non-intervening, creator God.
- Pantheism: Belief that God is identical with the universe.
- Panentheism: Belief that God is both immanent and transcendent.
- Monotheism: Belief in one, all-powerful God.
- Polytheism: Belief in multiple gods or divine beings.
• Proofs of God:
- Ontological Argument (by St. Anselm): God's existence is proven by the concept of God as a
perfect being.
- Criticism: By mere thought or concepts we cannot bring anything to existence.
- Cosmological Argument (by St. Thomas Aquinas): God's existence is proven by the need for
an uncaused cause or an unmoved mover.
- Criticism: From contingency we can infer contingency and not its opposite i.e necessary
being
- Teleological Argument (by William Paley): God's existence is proven by the apparent design
and purpose in the universe.
- Criticism: This proof shows that there is an architect/designer of the world, but it does not
show that there is a creator of the universe.
20.Philosophy vs Science:
• Philosophy influencing Science: Historical philosophical ideas have shaped scientific
thought. For instance, concepts like atomic theory originated from philosophical speculation.
• Science influencing Philosophy: Scientific discoveries provide philosophers with empirical
data to inform and challenge their theories. For example, developments in quantum mechanics
have led philosophers to reevaluate concepts of determinism and causality.
• Collaboration between philosophy and science: Science and philosophy collaborate on
interdisciplinary projects such as bioethics.
• Difference between Philosophy and Science: Science employs experimental methods to
derive conclusions about the natural world. In contrast, philosophy seeks to understand the
underlying principles of existence itself through critical analysis and interpretation.
21.Philosophy vs Religion:
• Philosophy influencing religion: Philosophical inquiry challenges and critiques religious
beliefs, promoting critical thinking and reflection
• Religion influencing philosophy: Religious beliefs and practices inspire philosophical
questions and inquiry.
• Similarity between philosophy and religion:
- Both philosophy and religion explore the nature of ultimate reality, including questions
about existence, being, and the divine
- Philosophy and religion both address questions of ethics, morality, and values.
• Conflict between philosophy and religion:
- Philosophy often challenges religious claims by demanding evidence and rational
justification, which can lead to skepticism about certain beliefs.
22.Science vs Religion:
• Science influencing religion: Scientific discoveries can challenge traditional religious beliefs,
prompting reevaluation and reinterpretation, thus encouraging critical thinking.
• Religion influencing science:
- Religious beliefs and values can motivate scientific inquiry, driving exploration and
discovery
- Religious perspectives can inform ethical considerations in scientific research
• Similarity between science and religion:
- Both disciplines investigate the nature of reality, whether through scientific inquiry or
spiritual exploration.
• Conflict between science and religion:
- Conflicts between creationist and evolutionary perspectives on the origin of life and the
universe.
- Disagreements about the application of religious principles to scientific research and
technological innovations.
• Cooperation between science and religion:
- Joint efforts to develop ethical frameworks for environmental sustainability and conservation.
