V CEPHALOPODS

R. SARVESAN

The cephalopods (squids, cuttlefish and octopi) are exclusively marine

molluscs. These are commercially important and are fished in large quantities in
several countries. The average annual world catch of cephalopods during the
period 1963-1969 was 901 thousand tonnes which is about 30% of the average
total world mollusc production of 2,971 thousand tonnes for the same period
(Table VI). Represented by over 650 species (Choe, 1966), cephalopods occur
in all the oceans of the world, and are distributed from shallow inshore areas to
deep oceanic waters. They widely range in size from tiny sepiolids to giants like
Architeuthis sp, which grow to a size of over 60 feet in total length. They provide
food for man and form part of the diet of animals such as whales, seals,
oceanic birds and certain valuable food fishes.
Cephalopods are caught in seas around India in fair quantities, but largely
incidentally in nets that are operated for other commercial fishes, almost all
through the year. Several species have been reported but to mention a few of the
commonly occuring cephalopods are Sepia pharaonis Ehrenberg, S. aculeata
Ferussac & d'Orbigny, S. thurstoni Adam & Rees, S. brevimana Steenstrup and
Sepiella inermis (Ferussac & d'Orbigny) among cuttlefish, Sepioteuthis arctipinnis
Gould, Loligo duvauceli d'Orbigny, Loligo hardwickii, Loliolus investigatoris
Goodrich and Euprymna stenodactyla Grant among squids and Octopus dollfusi
Robson, O. rugosus (Bosc), O. globosus Appellof, O. herdmani Hoyle and
O. hongkongemis Hoyle among octopi (Rao, 1958; Silas, 1968).
At the present time utilization of cephalopods as food is very limited in
India. Only the coastal dwelling people have taken advantage of these nutritious
items and the people of interior places are not much familiar with the shellfish.
Our annual average cephalopod catch for the period 1959 to 1969 is estimated to
be only 523 tonnes. This figure appears to be far below the exploitable resources
of our seas. Apart from the above listed common littoral species, the recent
exploratory surveys and planktological investigations conducted off the west coast
and in the Laccadive sea have brought to light the availability and distribution of
many potentially important oceanic squids and cuttlefish (Silas 1968, 1969; Silas
and Sarvesan, 1968). The oceanic squids constitute the hitherto untapped
resources of the seas around India. They are chiefly members of the family
Ommastrephidae, the most important of them being Symplectoteuthis oualaniensis
(Lesson) which is abundantly distributed in the northern and central parts of the
Indian Ocean (Filippova, 1968).
64 R. SARVESAN

TABLE VI

World catches of marine invertebrates for the period

1963 to 1969. Figures indicate landings of live weight
in thousand tonnes (Source: F. A. O. 1969a, 1970a).

Cephalopod
Crustaceans, catches express-
molluscs and Cephalopods ed as percen-
Years other inverte- All molluscs tages of total
brates. molluscan
catches

1963 4090 2924 959 32.8

1964 3847 2646 624 23.6
1965 4049 2830 844 29.8
1966 4219 2911 824 28.3
1967 4456 3065 938 30.6
1968 4761 3325 1168 35.1
1969 4535 3101 950 30.6
Average 4279 2971 901 30.3

There are a few works available on the systematics of Indian cephalopods

in which technical descriptions of all the common species are found (Goodrich,
1896; Massy, 1916; Adam, 1938 and 1939, Adam and Rees, 1966; Gravely, 1941;
Satyamurti, 1956). Key to the field identification of the different genera of
cephalopods to which the common species belong is given below. The external
and the more familiar internal characters are utilized for distinguishing them.
1. Cephalopods with eight circumoral arms, without tentacles; arm suckers
arranged in two rows, without horny rings and stalks. Third arm tip of
male spoon-shaped (hectocotylized) (Octopodidae) Octopus.
Cephalopods with ten arms eight being short and circumoral and two slender
and tentacular. Suckers of the arms and tentacles stalked and equipped
with armature 2
2. Shell (cuttlebone) internal calcareous in nature, body ovoid and dorso-
ventrally somewhat flattened. Fins narrow, marginal in position and
extending on either side along the entire length of the mantle, not uniting at
the end. Arms with mostly quadriserial suckers... (Sepiidae) 3
Shell (gladius or pen) internal but chitinous in nature. Body cylindrically
elongate. Fins either terminal or marginal in position uniting at the apex
of the mantle 4
 CEPHALOPODS 65

3. Cuttlebone broadly oval in shape and with a spine at the posterior end. The
mantle without a glandular pore at the posterior extremity Sepia
(S aculeata Fig. 7 A and S. pharaonis Fig. 6 A)
Cuttlebone smaller in size, oval in shape and devoid of the spine. The
mantle bears a small but distinct glandular pore at the posterior extremity...
Sepiella (Sepiella inermis Fig. 7 C, D, E)
4. Fins triangular or rhomboidal in shape, restricted to the posterior margin of
the mantle Loligo (Loligo duvauceli Fig. 5 C)
Fins broad and extending almost to the entire length of the mantle
Sepioteuthis (Sepioteuthis arctipinnis Fig. 5 A)

COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT CEPHALOPODS

Very little is known about the fishery and biology of Indian cephalopods.
Hornell (1917, 1922 and 1951c) has given a general account of the fishery of
Palk Bay squids and octopus in Ramand district in Tamil Nadu. Rao's (1954)
work on the biology and fishery of the Palk Bay squid, Sepioteuthis arctipinnis is
the only detailed study of its kind available on the cephalopods of this country.
SQUIDS
Squids belong to the order Teuthoidea (Decapoda) which includes the
majority of cephalopods, possessing a stream-lined soft body with a pair of fins
varying in shape, size and disposition. The distinct head in front is with ten
circumoral arms provided with toothed suckers or claws or both. An internal
shell known as pen or gladius, when present is imbedded in the dorsal
mantle skin. The gladius of squids is almost transparent, thin and chitinous in
nature. It varies in shape in different species. Squids exhibit enormous power
of swimming and their swift progression through water is effected by the combined
action of the mantle and the specialized structure called siphon or funnel situated
on the ventral side. Such fast moving squids are distributed from shallow to
varying depths of all oceans.

SEPIOTEUTHIS ARCTIPINNIS Gould

COMMON NAMES

Tamil-Ekkikanavai, Kundal kahavai

Sepioteuthis arctipinnis is a common Indo-Pacific species. In India this is
widely distributed but large concentrations are confined to the south-eastern coast
especially the Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar. This particular species is readily
distinguished from all other squids by the presence of very wide and long fleshy
66 R. SARVESAN

fins extending almost the entire length of the mantle and the presence of chitinous
pen. The following description of the species and account of its biology is based
on the work of Rao (1954).

DESCRIPTION

The mantle is elongate, conico-cylindrical in outline, tapering to a blunt

point behind; anterodorsally the mantle extends over the nuchal region into a
round point, and anteroventrally below the funnel it bears a deep eraargination;
fins, attached on either side traversing almost all along the entire length, are large,
thick and muscular; the fins are narrow in front, gradually widening behind and
broadest about the posterior third of the body beyond which they narrow down
rapidly and meet each other at the posterior extremity; head slightly narrower
than the body; eyes large and prominent; funnel large, broadest at the base and
provided with a valve (Fig. 5 A).

Arms unequal in length in the order 3 - 4 . 2 . 1 . the second and third pair of
arms are prominently keeled; suckers of all arms are arranged in two alternating
rows; the horny rings of the suckers equipped with teeth on their outer margins;
In the males the left ventral arm is hectocotylized by the modification of suckers
and pedicles of the distal half of the arm. Proximally there are about 20 normal
suckers followed by 6 pairs of enlarged pedicles with smaller suckers. Beyond
this, on the distal portion of the arm, suckers are absent and the pedicles are
enlarged into fleshy conical papillae; dorsal row of pedicles slightly larger than
the ventral rows.

Tentacles moderately long and the stalks are slightly laterally compressed;
tentacular clubs large and provided with trabeculate protective membranes on the
sides. The club suckers are quad riser ially arranged, suckers of medial rows
larger than those of the margial rows; chitinous rings of the club suckers are
denticulate.

Mouth surrounded by seven lappets; the tips of the lappets possess minute
suckers with homy rings having about 25 blunt teeth. The gladius is chitinous
and lanceolate in shape and colourless (Fig, 5 B). The colour of the animal is
whitish in fresh condition with greenish tinge surrounding the eyes. Chro-
matophores present all over the body excepting the ventral surface of fins. On
the dorsal surface of the mantle and fins grey coloured transverse streaks are
found which are distinct in males.

Fig. 5. A. Sepioteuthis arctipinnis Gould Dorsal view of male. B. Gladius of

S. arctipinnis. C. Loligo duvauceli d' Orbigny Dorsal view of female. D. Gladius of
L. duvauceli.
CEPHALOPODS 67

u,
68 R. SARVESAN

FOOD
5. arctipinnis chiefly feeds on smaller fishes and sometimes on crustaceans
consisting of crabs and prawns. They also consume smaller individuals of their
own species. The cannibalistic habit is reported to be quite common among
other species also (Allan, 1950; Fields, 1965). Generally squids are predaceous
carnivores known to go in pursuit of their prey and tackle them with good amount
of skill. Presumably, 5. arctipinnis actively chases its prey consisting mostly of
the fingerlings of fishes like Sar<//ne//a spp., Syngnathoides bimaculatus, Atherina
forskalii, Pelates quadrilineatus, Upeneus vittatus, Therapon puta. Gerres poeti.
Leiognathus spp. etc., and attack them with their powerful beaks.
GROWTH
They grow to a size of 95 mm, 166 mm and 219.5 mm in dorsal mantle
length by the end of first, second and third years of their lives. At first they grow
at a faster rate; the growth rate in the first year is 95 mm, in the second year
71 mm and in the third year 53 mm. Generally males tend to grow to a larger
size than the females. Males attain a maximum size of about 259 mm weighing
about 600 grams and the females 181 mm weighing about 300 grams. As the
individuals grow older the sexual dimorphic characters become well-marked. The
males attain maturity at the age of 6 to 14 months within a size range of 67.5 mm
to 112.5 mm and females at the age of 12 to 14 months within a size range of
102.5 mm to 112.5 mm in dorsal mantle length. Mature male squids, prior to
spawning are normally in very good condition. The testes are glossy in appearance
and the Needham's sac is full of spermatophores. The females contain ovaries
with numerous ripe eggs, the nidamental glands are glossy and large in size, and
the accessory nidamental glands orange in colour.
SPAWNING
Spawning in these squids appears to commence from January in the oif-
shore waters when spawning population starts its migration into inshore shallow
waters and coastal lagoons where they continue to spawn till the end of June.
The members of the principal spawning group do not seem to feed. They deposit
their eggs on objects like sea weeds, twigs, branches etc. After spawning squids
show tremendous changes in their condition. The spent females lose their weight
considerably, their mantles become flaccid, the nidamental and accessory nida-
mental glands become thin and less glossy. Males also show changes but not as
profound as in the case of females; their mantles and fins alone become some-
what limp. Such post-spawning changes are presented by other species also
(McGowan, 1954; Fields 1965). In the case of S. arctipinnis the life span of the
individuals is reported to be two years for females and three years for males.
The egg capsules of 5. arctipinnis are most commonly met with in Palk Bay
and Gulf of Mannar during the spawning period. Each egg capsule contains
 CEPHALOPODS 69

about 6 to 7 eggs arranged in a single row (Alagarswami, 1966). It takes about

a little more than 13 days for the eggs to develop into young ones and hatch out
under normal conditions at a temperature range of 22 to 29° C. The just hatched
young are about 7.5 mm in total length and 3.0 mm in width. The mantle of the
tiny young is transparent and the well-developed visceral organs arc clearly seen
through the mantle. Chromatophores are present all over the body except on
the ventral side of the fins. Remarkably, the just hatched young do not possess
the characteristic broad fins but they are present in the posterior extremity of the
mantle as a pair of small flaps. Normally they do not survive for prolonged
period in aquarium.

LoLiGO DUVAUCELi d' O r b i g n y

( = L. indica Pfefifer)
COMMON NAME

Tamil - Oosi kanavai, Oosi kadama, Nedurg kadama.

This is a common Indo-Malayan species occurring from South Africa to
Formosa (Voss, 1963). In India it is commonly found on the east and west coasts

L. duvauceli is a smaller species readily distinguishable from Sepioteuthis

arctipinnis from the following characters: the mantle is slender and tubular in
outline and tapers gradually from about the middle to a blunt posterior end; the
fins are smaller and rhomboidal in shape (Fig. 5 C). Unlike S. arctipinnis. the
fins in this species are restricted to the posterior end of the mantle. The narrow
head possesses ten arms including the two long slender tentacles. Sessile arms
usually in the order 3.4.2.1. in length; suckers arranged in two rows in all arms;
chitinous rings of the arm suckers possess about 6 to 8 teeth and sometimes more
as in the case of larger suckers of males; tentacular clubs bear four rows of
suckers, the rings of which are equipped with 17 to 20 teeth; distal half of the left
arm of the male is hectocotylized; the gladius is narrow and slightly brownish in
colour (Fig. S D); the ink sac possesses two small light organs one on either side.
No published information is available on the biology of this squid. They
are usually caught in shore seines, boat seines and largely in trawl nets almost
all through the year from Cape Comorin to Calcutta on the east coast and all
along the west coast. Although-they are caught all round the year in varying
amounts their abundance appears to be from May to September in the Palk Bay.
The peak of the season appears to be from Jime to August when large heaps of
them are regularly seen in the markets along with other squids and cuttlefish. The
size ranges from SO mm to 120 mm and occasionally around 160 mm in dorsal
mantle length. The females tend to grow larger than the males.
70 R. SARVESAN

Apart from the afore-mentioned species others are considered unimportant

as they occur only in stray numbers or because they are not utilized as food.
Euprymna stenodactyla is usually caught in shore seines in good numbers in early
hours of the day. They are commonly preyed upon by fishes like carangids.
Loliolus imestigatoris is a smaller squid which is occasionally caught in good
quantities in seines and trawl nets but they are used neither for food nor bait
owing to their small size. Symplectoteuthis onalaniensis is a larger ommastrephid
squid an oceanic species which is occasionally captured in drift nets from Palk Bay
and Gulf of Mannar.
CUTTLEFISH
Cuttlefishes belong to the order Sepioidea. Like squids, they possess well-
defined head and ten arms. They have a broad and flattened body with narrow
fins running along the sides to the full length of the body. The arms are compa-
ratively short and provided with subequal suckers mostly arranged in four trans-
verse rows. The two long, slender tentacles are retractile into special pockets and
used at the time of capturing the prey. The characteristic internal shell or the
cuttlebone is calcified and differs in shape and size in difl'erent species.
They are only three of species of cuttlefish viz., Sepia pharaonis. Sepia
aculeata and Sepiella inermis which occur widely in India.
SEPIA PHARAONIS Ehrenberg
(~S. rouxii Fferussac and d'Orbigny)
This is the largest of species of cuttlefish found in our waters. Widely
distributed in the Indo-Pacific it occurs all along the Indian coasts.
DESCRIPTION

The body of the cuttlefish is stout and oval in outline and widest at the
anterior end. In front, the mantle is produced middorsally into a triangular
lobe and midventrally slightly emarginated; fins very wide and fleshy and originate
a few millimetres behind the anterior margin of the mantle; fins broad,
extend along the periphery of the mantle and reach the posterior extremity;
funnel large and thick walled, reaching almost to the base of the ventral arms;
a triangular valve present in the funnel (Fig. 6 A).
X
The head is a little narrower than the mantle opening; mouth surrounded
by seven buccal lappets, the edges of which are beset with minute suckers; arms
subequal in length and attenuated ; suckers arranged in four transverse rows on
the arms and bordered by protective membranes; horny rings of the arm
suckers have numerous palisaded teeth; tentacles long, thick and triangular in
cross section; tentacular clubs are broad and fringed with strong swimming
 CEPHALOPODS 71

Fig. 6. A. Sep/ap/wraowsEhrenberg Dorsal view. B. CuttleboiM o( S. pharaonis.

membrane on the right side; there are about 113 unequal suckers arranged in
five to seven oblique rows; of the suckers, two rows in the middle are greatly
enlarged in about seven series, the seventh and the eighth from the base are
exceedingly large; horny rings of club suckers smooth.
72 R. SARVESAN

Cuttlebone is elongate and broadest at about the middle ; there are three
low longitudinal ribs and broad chitinous margins on the dorsal surface ; ventral
surface is concave posteriorly and convex anteriorly; there is a shallow but
distinct median groove running along the entire length of the striated area ; the
striae are distinctly A shaped; the inner cone of the bone forms a charac-
teristic plate-like callosity at the posterior end; a small but thick spine is
present at the posterior extremity (Fig. 6 B).

The dorsal surface of the mantle integument, head and arms is ornamented
with conspicuous transverse stripes. The species is readily distinguished from
all other cuttlefish by the presence of these stripes on the body, enlarged suckers
of the clubs, broad plate-like inner cone, A shaped striae and the distinct medium
furrow on the ventral side of the cuttlebone.

FISHERY

These cuttlefish are usually captured in small numbers in many places like
Visakhapatnam, Cuddalore, Nagapattinam, Kilakarai and Rameswaram. Good
quantities are caught with hand-line and scoop nets at Cape Comorin, Colachel
and Vizhinjam. The cuttlebone of this species is commercially important and
large quantities are collected from the beaches during November and December
at Rameswaram and during March and April at Thiruppalakudi and Tondi in
Ramanathapuram district. Considerable quantities are also collected from
Kerala coast. Despite its availability in good abundance S. pharaonis seems to
be commercially a less utilized species. Spawning grounds of S. pharaonis have
been located ofifOrissa and Visakhapatnam (F.A.O./UN, 1961).

SEPIA ACULEATA Fferussac and d'Orbigny

Unlike the former species this is caught in much larger quantities

especially along with Loligo duvauceli from Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar
in trawl nets. Geographically this is distributed in the Indo-Pacific and in India
reported from both the coasts.

DESCRIPTION

The mantle is roughly oval, broadest near the anterior end; ventral margin
of the mantle concave in the middle, middorsal projection has well-excavated
sides ; fins narrow and originate a little behind the anterior margin of the mantle
on the sides and extend to the end of the body where they are almost in contact
with each other; head narrower than mantle opening ; funnel short and does
 CEPHALOPODS 73

not reach the base of the ventral arms; buccal lappets surrounding mouth are
seven, with minute suckers at their extreme ends (Fig. 7 A).
Arms short and subequal in length ; dorsal arms slightly rounded ventral
arms provided with strong' swimming membranes. Suction cups uniformly
quadriserial on all arms and have dentate horny rings; ventral arm of the male is
hectocotylized at the base; tentacles slender and relatively thinner than the
sessile arms; tentacular clubs elongate but not much expanded; swimming
membrane of the club very narrow ; suckers are numerous and minute in size ;
the cuttlebone possesses a longitudinal mid-ventral ridge in the striated area and
the striae are notched in the middle; the posterior inner cone is not plate-like but
raised into a thick rounded ridge ; there is a small spine at the posterior extre-
mity which is slightly pointed upwards (Fig. 7 B).
The commercial catches are represented by individuals ranging in size
between 50 mm and 150 mm in dorsal mantle length and 17 and 500 grams in
weight. A preliminary analysis of the gut contents of the cuttlefish shows that
chiefly fishes and crustaceans and occasionally polychaetes comprise the main
items of diet. S. aculeata appears to breed biannually (Rahaman, 1967). The
first period of breeding season extends from February to April and the second
period between July and August.
SEPIELLA INERMIS (F^russac and d'Orbigny)
This species can be readily recognized by its smaller size, presence of a
distinct minute pore at the posterior end of the mantle, and the absence of a
spine in the cuttlebone. The cuttlebone is altogether different in shape (Figs.
7 C, D and E). Widely distributed in the Indian Ocean, from Red sea to
Indonesia and Cochin-China it is reported from both the coasts of India (Adam
and Rees, 1966). The species range in size between 40 mm and 55 mm in the
commercial landings. Though they are quite commonly caught in trawl nets in
good numbers they do not seem to have any commercial value. When.caught in
large quantities they are either used for bait or discarded from the catch but not
used for food. Nevertheless, in some places like Madras and Pondicherry they
are favoured as food but only by certain fishermen and poor classes of people,
and are sold either at the landing centres or markets in fresh condition.
OCTOPI
Octopi belonging to the Order Octopoda, possess a short rounded body
and a distinct head fringed with eight arms, which are provided with a broad
interbrachial membrane. The saccular mantle lacks fins. The suckers, arranged
in two rows, are without stalks and horny rings. The animals are solitary in
habit and mostly live in shallows crawling on the bottom, often hiding themselves
in the crevices among rocks. Crabs and bivalves form their favourite food and
74 R. SARVESAN

TcT

Fig. 7
 CEPHALOPODS 75

smaller shrimps and fishes are also preyed upon by them. Several octopi are
known to occur in Indian seas. Octopus herdmani Hoyle, O. globosus Appelofi".
and O. dollfusi are the common shallow water forms of the Palk Pay and the
Gulf of >Mannar. No information is available on the biology of these octopi.
They are called pey kanavai in Tamil. Octopi are well-known sea food in Japan
and the people of countries like Spain, Italy and Philippines also relish octopi
(Araya, 1967), Octopus is not much liked as food in India, excepting by those who
are accustomed to eating it. In the Laccadives octopi are sought for being used as
food and regular 'octopus hunting' is pursued. Their use as bait is widespread in
the south-eastern coast of India. A number of octopi are caught in specially devised
shell traps exclusively for bait in hook and line fishery especially along the Palk
Bay (Homell, 1917). A smaller species of Octopus locally called sangu kanavai is
largely caught in this bait fishery. Octopi usually thrive well in capitivity.
Preliminary observations on 0. dollfusi show that they lay their eggs in festoons-
They brood over the developing eggs with good amount of care till they hatch.
Generally it takes about two weeks for the eggs to hatch out. The just hatched
young range in size between 3.3 and 3.8 mm in mantle length.
The common species of octopus which usually abound on the pearl banks
is Octopus herdmani Hoyle. Considerable damage is inflicted by these octopi
upon pearl oysters by preying upon them. Many instances of O. herdmani predat-
ing on young oysters have been reported (FAO/UN, 1960). Another small, slender
octopus locally known as visha kanavai (poisonous octopus) is said to be dange-
rous owing to its poisonous bite and they are never used as bait or food. When
encountered in nets it is usually discarded immediately. Otherwise it tries to
fasten on the limbs and bite through the skin. The pain received from the bite is
likened to the sting of a scorpion and if not treated immediately the limb will
swell and a feeling of giddiness will be experienced and sometimes the effect lasts
for several months.
METHODS OF FISHING
The squids, cuttlefish and octopi are captured by various means. In
general they are caught incidentally along with other. food fishes in shore seines,
trawl nets, boat seines and cast nets. In special methods a knowledge of the
behaviour of the particular form is also made use of for capture. The shoaling
behaviour and the shoreward migration during the spawning of squids and cuttle-
fish are exploited in fishing.
In the inshore waters of Palk Bay a special type of shore seines called ola
valai is used for the capture of squids exclusively Sepioteuthis arctipinnis from
Fig. 7 A. Sepia aculeata Fifussac and d'Orbigny Dorsal view. B. Cuttlebone of
S. aculeata. C. Sepiella inermis (Firussac and d' Orbigny) Dor$al view. D. S. inermis
Ventral view. E. Cuttlebone of 5. inermis.
76 R. SARVESAN

April to June and to minor extent from October to November. The ola valai
(olai. palm leaf; valai, net) is utilized for squid fishing during the peak of the
season i.e.. May to June in Rameswarara Island, Mandapam, Devipatnam and
Tondi along Palk Bay and in certain places like Rameswarara, Pamban,
Mandapam, Pudumadam, Periapatnam, Kilakarai and Muthupettai along the
Gulf of Mannar. The details of squid fishing by this method has been described
by Rao (1954). The ola valai consists of a close-meshed rectangular bag about
8 m X 2 m and wing ropes of about 270 ra in length. The latter bear strips of
palm-leaf along the length in three or four close-set rows near the wings and in a
double or single row in the rest of the length. The mode of operation is like that
of any shore seine. Leaving one of the wing ropes ashore, the net is set from a
rowing boat in a semicircular way, with the opening of the net facing the shore,
thereby encircling a school of squids that may be present. The other end of the
wing rope is brought back to the shore and subsequently the net is hauled. The
palm-leaf strips of the wing ropes are intended to entice the squids into the bunt
of the net.
Throughout April and May when shoals of squids appear oif Rameswarara,
Mandapam, Tondi and Devipatnam the ola valai are operated regularly and large
quantities are landed. Squids are obtained in Gulf of Mannar in shore seine
catches throughout the year in small numbers.
During the peak of the season special squid jiggers were used previously
for capturmg squids and the larger species of cuttlefishes in the Palk Bay region
as described by Hornell (1917), In this method a special Y-shaped pole called
machan with a bar across the bifurcated branching of the pole is erected in
shallow coastal areas. The machan is used as a look-out post by the fisherman
who sits on the cross bar with a long jigger consisting of 5 to 6 hooks arranged
in grapnell fashion. The hook-end of the jigger is hidden under a heap of leaves
arranged near the machan as a lure for the squids. When female squids and
males in pursuit of them approach the leaves for depositing eggs, they are lifted
off water with a jerk movement of the jigger.
This once extensively used method is not practised now. At the present
time squid jigging is followed in a modified way. When shoals are seen,
fishermen especially at Devipatnam, Thiruppalakudi and Rameswarara go in
canoes or catamarans equipped with jigger. The jigger consists of a 35 to 40
cms long sturdy wire furnished at one end with three or four strong hooks.
The other end is tightly tied to a slender pole which serves as the handle. When
squids move within the reach of the jigger fishermen cautiously hook them
individually with a quick jerk of the jigger and haul them into the boat. In this
manner a large number of them are caught in a day. Occasionally large species
of cuttlefishes like Sepia pharaonis are also captured by this method when they
are encountered.
 CEPHALOPODS 77

The squid Loligo dmauceli and the cuttlefish Sepia aculeata are usually
captured in shore seines and boat seines only in small numbers. Until the
introduction of trawl fishing on the south-east coast and other parts of the
country it was generally considered that they were less abundant. Now, with the
use of mechanised vessels and extension of fishing to the offshore areas much
higher yields of Sepia aculeata and Loligo duvauceli are regularly obtained. The
season for these species lasts from March to August. Although available
extensively throughout India, they are fished to a greater extent from the Palk
Bay and Gulf of Mannar close to Mandapam and Rameswaram.
Baited hooks and scoop nets are employed to catch Sepia pharaonis
occasionally at Vizhinjam, Colachel and Cape Comorin. Fishermen reach the
fishing ground in catamaran trolling a hand-line consisting of baited hooks which
serve as snare. The cuttlefish thus attracted by the bait are dragged near the
catamaran by slowly raising the line and taken with scoop net. In this way
considerable number of them are procured.
The octopi are captured by employing various methods. The techniques
range from hunting with spear to fishing with traps. In Minicoy island men,
boys and girls collect octopus called appalu in local language from the coral
reefs with two thick iron rods during favourable tide. As soon as the octopus
is spotted among the crevices or holes in coral reefs one of the sharp ends of
the rods is thrust into the quarry forcibly and hauled with the help of another
rod. The octopus is then killed by the widely practised method called ' turning
the cap' i.e, by pushing the viscera out through the mantle opening.

Another method of catching octopus is also used in the bait fishery in

the coastal villages bordering Palk Bay particularly at Tondi and Thiruppalakudi.
The octopi, especially O. globosus are captured in shell traps. The shell traps
are made of indigenous materials such as empty sea shells, thin coir ropes and
wooden floats. Empty molluscan shells, largely Lambis lambis, Tonna doliumi
Rapana bulbosa. Murex virgineus and Hemifusus are utilized for making
such lines. The finger-like projections of Lambis lambis are usually broken oflF
before being used, 100 to 120 of these shells are strung along a thin coir rope
each 15 to 20 cm apart. A number of such lines are laid at the bottom of the
sea at four to six metres depth and the ends of the lines buoyed with large
wooden floats. Such traps are raised daily by the fishermen and the small octopi
O. dollfusi and O. globosus which take refuge in the hollows of the shells are
extracted with a strong needle and utilized as bait. The shell traps are again laid
at the same place for further use. After prolonged time of using the lines are
periodically brought ashore and dried. The bait fishery is suspended during the
rainy seasons.
It is of interest to mention briefly the methods that are employed in the
78 R. SARVESAN

cephalopod fishery in other parts of the world. One of the most widely practised
methods for capturing squids and cuttlefishes is jigging. The Japanese squid
jigging method is very efficient for squid fishing. Jigging is the method by which
the world's largest catch of cephalopods is fished by Japan. The jigger consists
of hooks fixed with a lead weight at one end in a circular fashion or with a bait fish.
The hooks are sometimes intensely coloured to attract squids. The jigger is
lowered into the water either with or without bait and the squids which rush
towards the jigger are captured with a hand net or the jigger is hauled quickly
into the boat. Multiple mechanical jiggers are used at present in Japan
(Araya, 1967).
The commercial squid fishing in California is carried out with lampara nets,
Fishing is done during night by encircling the school of squids, attracted by
lights, from the boat, and hauling into the boat by power lifted dip nets (Fields,
1950). With a view to avoid brailing and to reduce the crew required in this
method of fishing, squid slurp has been recently experimented in California squid
fishery in San Pedro (Anonymous, 1970).

PREPARATION OF THE CATCH FOR THE MARKET

Mostly squids and cuttlefish are sold in the markets in fresh condition and
only limited quantities in dried condition. After capture the larger species of
squids and cuttlefish are split open on the midventral plane to remove the ink
sacs as otherwise the whole lot will become undesirably stained vvith the dark
ink. Generally the ink sac of smaller species like Loligo duvauceli is not removed
before being sent to the markets. At Mandapam where large quantities of L.
duvauceli are caught in trawl nets the entire catch is loaded in baskets with
crushed ice and sent to Ramnad and Kilakarai markets where they are sold in
lots. Usually Sepioteuthis fetches a higher price than other cephalopods. The
price varies according to the size from 25 ps. for smaller individuals to 75 ps.
for larger ones. Loligo duvauceli and Sepia aculeata are sold in lots each
consisting on an average of 4 to 6 numbers. Each lot varies in price from 25 ps.
to 35 ps. at Ramnad market and fetches rather higher price at Kilakarai market
where the local population very much relish them.
When the catches are enormous, as during the peak of the seasons, a small
portion of them is cured. For this purpose Sepioteuthis arctipinnis and
Sepia pharaonis are spilit open and the ink sac, viscera and the shell are removed
on the field. To remove the shell a small slit is made at the anterior end of the
dorsal side of the mantle and the shell is pulled out. The pigmented integument
of the mantle is peeled off and the mantle is washed in sea water. Then the
mantle appears whitish and attractive. Sometimes the head and the arms are
also discarded and the mantle portion alone utilized. The mantles are sun-dried
either with or without salt. On drying the product usually becomes a little hard.
 CEPHALOPODS 79

In the case of smaller cephalopods like Loligo duvauceli. Sepia aculeata and
Sepiella inermis, they are simply dried without washing and removal of shell and
visceral components. Such crude product is inferior in quality and sold at
relatively cheaper rate.
An improved method has recently been attempted in the Indo-Norwegian
Project to process cuttlefish and squids. The new product developed is called
' fingers' of squids and cuttlefish. Iced squids and cuttlefish {Loligo sp. and
Sepia aculeata) are used to manufacture these. The raw materials are well washed
in bacteriologically pure and chlorinated water and the cuttlebone and outer
chromatophoric layer of mantle are removed. The mantles of the squids and
cuttelfishes are then cut into uniform strips each measuring about 2 to 2*5 cm. in
thickness and suitable size. The resulting ' fingers' are packed in cartons which
are lined with a sheet of polythene. The cartons thus packed are quick frozen
at a temperature o f - 3 5 ° C t o - 4 0 ° C . This frozen product remains in good
condition up to six months with flavour that is comparable with fresh product.
The product is especially fine with spices (Padmanabhan, 1970).
UTILIZATION AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF CEPHALOPODS

Most of the squids cuttlefish and octopi are valued as food and bait in
many parts of the world. Especially people of Japan, Korea, Mediterranean
countries, Philippines, Malaysia. Indonesia and Taiwan extensively utilize
cephalopods as food. In India only squids are relished to a large extent among
the cephalopods. The meat of cephalopods is clean, attractive and has
good flavour. It is also highly nutritive. The basic organic constituents of the
squid meat and utility of the meat as human food from the point of view of
digestibility and nutrition have been extensively studied by Japanese workers
(Takahashi, 1960; Tanikawa and Suno, 1952). As a result it is considered
that the squid meat may be a perfect source of protein (Takahashi, 1965).
Generally the percentage yield of the edible portion of squid at 80 % of which
the mantle forms 50% and arms 30%. The protein content of the squid is
nearly 20 % wet weight which is in favourable comparison with commercially
important fishes. The calorific value of the Japanese squid when seasoned is
estimated at 117 cal / 100 g and the main constituents are crude protein 17'3 %,
fat 1-83% and carbohydrates 7-11% wet wt (Tanikawa and Suno, 1952;
Dracowich and Kelly, 1963).
The meat of cephalopods is prepared in many ways for food. Fresh meat
is cut into slices and treated with spices and fried, or cooked into curries, cutlets
or soup. In most of the preparations the white meat is sliced to frying' size and
well pounded before being cooked to render the flesh soft. In the Philippines
the meat of squids and octopus is first boiled in vinegar with crushed garlic and
then fried with oil and spices (Voss, 1963).
80 R. SARVESAN

Cephalopods are used as bait. Cephalopods are utilized as biological

material in neuro-physiological researches pertaining to the conduction of nerve
impulses (Walford, 1958). Squids are used as manure (Clarke, 1963). The
cuttlebones of cuttlefish are commercially valuable because of their calcium
content. They are used in the preparation of abrasives and dentrifices (Dees,
1961). They are used in poultry and bird cages as a source of calcium and as
grinding stone for beaks. Certain medicinal properties are also attributed to the
bones and ink of cuttlefish {vide Boycott, 1957). The ink has been used by artists
as a natural 'sepia' pigment in olden times. The pulvurized cuttlebones are
used for rendering smooth the surface of wood-work and motor vehicles before
they are painted. They are also used in jewellery making for moulding
purposes.
Certain by-products such as oil and liver extract are also produced from
squids, especially in Japan. The squid liver extract is used as human food and
the same in condensed or dehydrated form serves as feed for live-stock
(Takahashi, 1965). The viscera of squids is supposed to be ideal material as
domestic poultry feed (Kawata et. al., 1955). Cephalopods form an indirect
source of another commercially much valued commodity, ambergris, which is
widely used as a fixative in perfumery (Idyll, 1958). Ambergris is supposed to
be formed directly from the sperm whales faeces adhering round horny beaks of
squids (Lane, 1962).
At present in India squids and cuttlefish are largely fished to meet the
domestic demand that exists mainly in coastal villages. Our annual production
is meagre when compared with other well developed fisheries elsewhere. As
shown in Table VII the annual landings of India for the period from 1959 to 1969
fluctuate between 94 tonnes in 1961 and 1515 tonnes in 1968. The average annual
TABLE VII
Cephalopod landings and their percentage in total marine landings in
India from 1959 to 1968. Figures in tonnes. (C.M.F.R.I., 1969 a; 1969 b)
Cephalopod Total marine Percentage of
Year landings landings Cephalopods
1959 349 584587 0.05
1960 467 879681 0.05
1961 94 683569 0.01
1962 97 644244 0.01
1963 260 655484 0.03
1964 464 859582 0.05
1965 265 832777 0.03
1966 952 890311 1.00
1967 521 863879 0.06
1968 1515 902772 1.60
1969 769 913630 0.80
 CEPHALOPODS 81

landings are estimated at 498 tonnes for the period. Cephalopod landings of
different states are given in Table VIII. It is evident from the Table that Kerala
and Maharashtra on the west coast and Tamil Nadu and Andhra on the east coast
are the principal states that contribute higher percentages of landings. Though
there seems to be no regular organised fishery for cephalopods on the west coast
TABLE VIII
State-wise and year-wise cephalopod landings during the period 1959 to
1968 in India. Figures in tonnes, (after C.M.F.R.I., 1969 a)

State 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968
West Bengal &
Orissa 6 12 1 5 1 19
Andhra 3 1 5 10 22 13 4 71
Madras 18 5 2 29 74 84 195 140 188
Kerala 288 417 28 17 180 340 174 714 374 1122
Mysore 15 14 1 7 13 1 1 1 13
Maharashtra 42 12 53 53 27 22 7 26 2 101
Gujarat 1 1 1 1 1 1
Goa 1 5 1 1

the incidental catches amount to 82% of the total cephalopod catches (Table IX).
There is good scope for India to increase cephalopod catches by exploiting the
resources in the continental shelf and beyond it. Some of the potentially
TABLE IX

Cephaloped landings of the West and East coasts of India during 1959 to
1968. Figures in tonnes, (after CM.F.R.!., 1969 a).

Year West coast East coast Total

1959 346 3 349
1960 448 19 467
1961 83 11 94
1962 78 19 97
1963 220 40 260
1964 363 101 464
1965 183 82 265
1966 743 ^9 952
1967 377 144 521
1968 1237 278 1515
82 R. SARVESAN

important species which occur in fair abundance in the Indian Oce^n are
Symplectoteuthis oulaniensis, S. luminosa, Ommastrephes bartrami, Todarodes
sagittatus and Notodarus sloanii. Of these S. oulaniensis is the most abundant
and predominantly distributed in the northern and central parts of the Indian
Ocean and O. bartrami and T. sagittatus are distributed in the southern parts
(Filippova, 1968).
There exists an export market for Indian cuttlebones. Cuttlebones are
regularly reported to U.K., U.S.A. and Burma. For this purpose cuttlebones of
Sepia pharaonis are preferred to others because of their larger size. The cuttle-
bones are exported through agents in Tuticorin. Before shipment the bones are
well washed with soap water and perfectly dried. The chitinous edges of the
bones are trimmed and quantities of such products are exported. Between 1963
and 1968 a total of 63,184 kg of cuttlebones valued at Rs. 2,41,431 have been
exported from India (Table X).

TABLE X

Quantity and commercial value of cuttlebones exported from India

between 1963 and 1968 (after C.M.F.R.I., 1969 a).

Year Quantity of cuttlebones (Kg) Value in Rupees

1963 421 11,139

1964 7,715 18,890
1965 7,968 37,184
1966 17,345 50,384
1967 2,507 25,783
1968 27,228 98,051
Total : 63,184 2,43,431
Average 10,530 40,571

The present status ': f the world cephalopod fisheries is shown in Table XI.
Annually about 0*9 million tonnes of squids, cuttlefish and octopi are landed.
While cephalopods are caught almost in all maritime countries large scale
fisheries are centered in North Pacific, especially in the seas around Japan and
California, in the Mediterranean and in the North Atlantic. Japan has consis-
tently been the world's largest producer of cephalopods contributing more than
75% annually to the world total cephaloped landings. Other important countries
where large cephaloped fisheries exist are Korea, Spain, Italy, Philippines, China
 CEPHALOPODS 83

TABLE XI

Cephalopod landings of diiferent countries for the period 1963 to 1969

(landings in thousand tonnes) (after F.A.O., 1970a).

Country 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

Japan 396-4 577-5 550-8 695-8 695-0 876 0 683-4

Korea 118-5 87-8 71-6 78-2 43-6 92-7 67-6
Spain 43-5 53-0 91-6 91-8 98-5 34-2 81-7
Italy 20-6 27-5 30-4 32-1 30-7 30-8 27-9
Philippines 6-8 7-6 100 11-4 99 17-9 13-1
China (Taiwan) 15'7 13-5 14-2 18-7 13-8 14-0 15-5
United States (Pacific) 5-2 7-5 8-4 8-7 9-0 11-5 9-4
United States(Atlantic) 2'2 1-0 1-2 1-2 1-8 1-7 1-7
Hongkong 1-9 1-5 1-4 2-4 1-7 2-5 3-8
Norway 0-5 1-5 10-8 2-5 1-9 01 -
England & Wales 0-1 01 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-2
Scotland 0-2 0-1 0-1 0-0 01 01 01
Canada (Atlantic) 2-4 10-8 7-9 5-1 7-0 0-0 00
Portugal 5-4 4-2 6-3 4-6 5-8 - 3-6
France 3-3 1-8 3*9 3-7 3-9 • -

(Taiwan), U.S.A. and Canada. Japan exports huge quantities of cephalopods

annually. She exported 7-1 thousand tonnes in 1969 to several countries like
Malaysia, Philippines, Greece, Italy and Portugal (F.A.O., 1969b). Hongkong
exports hundreds of tonnes of dried squids and cuttlefish to south-east Asian
countries.