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Conflict and Tension: 1918-1939

This section covers the period between the end of World War I and the start of
World War II, focusing on Europe and key case studies to understand the significant
changes that occurred.

The End of World War I

Armistice of November 1918

Germany signed an Armistice, an agreement to stop the war, which included:

Withdrawal of troops from France, Belgium, and Luxembourg

Handing over Alsace-Lorraine
Demilitarization of the Rhineland
Handing over of military arsenal
Payment of reparations

This armistice proved to be contentious, with Matthias Erzberger, the

leader of the German delegation who signed it, being murdered in 1921
by right-wing extremists.

Paris Peace Conference (January 1919)

Over 30 countries participated in the conference to establish peace terms after World
War I. The Big Three (France, USA, and Britain) had to compromise to agree on
treaties like the Treaty of Versailles. Italy was technically part of the Big Four, but the
focus for this course is on the Big Three.

France: Clemenceau ("The Tiger")

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Aims:
Punish Germany for deaths, infrastructure damage, and effects on French
land.
Maximum reparations to rebuild France and weaken Germany
economically.
Push German borders back to the river Rhine to protect France from future
invasion.
Justification:

Germany would have punished allies harshly, referring to the Treaty of

Brest-Litovsk.

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk annexed large amounts of land

and imposed a fine of 300 million Rubles on Russia.

Britain: David Lloyd George

Aims:
Cautious about punishing Germany to maintain economic stability and
prevent the spread of communism.
Confiscation of Germany's colonies.
British naval supremacy.
Positions:
Published the Fontainebleau Memorandum in March 1919, opposing
French demands for Allied occupation of the Rhineland.
Endorsed the League of Nations.
Concerns:
The Russian Revolution (1917) and the Bolshevik threat spreading
through Poland and Germany.

America: Woodrow Wilson

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Aims:
A fair peace to prevent Germany from seeking revenge.
Proposed the Fourteen Points for a better world.
Fourteen Points:
Freedom of the Seas
Self-determination
Creation of the League of Nations
Criticism:

Faced criticism in America due to a widespread desire for isolationism.

Isolationism: The idea that America should stay out of

European affairs.

Treaty of Versailles (June 28, 1919)

Dealt specifically with Germany. Key aspects can be remembered using the acronym
"territorial, military, economic, and psychological." The reactions to the treaty were
mixed due to the need for massive compromise.

Treaty of Versailles Terms

Military Restrictions
Demilitarization of the Rhineland: Germany was forced to demilitarize the
Rhineland, a significant concession though not a full annexation as France
desired.
Army Size: The German Army was limited to 100,000 volunteer men.
Conscription Prohibited: Germany was not allowed to enforce conscription.
Prohibited Weaponry: Germany was forbidden from possessing tanks,
submarines, or aircraft.
Arms Trade Ban: Germany was prohibited from engaging in the arms trade.
Navy Size: The German Navy was restricted to 15,000 men and 1,500 officers,
reflecting British desires for Naval Supremacy.

Economic Impact

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Reparations: Germany was required to pay substantial reparations, initially set

in 1921 at 6.6 billion pounds.
Saar Region: The Saar region, rich in coal, was handed over to the League of
Nations for 15 years, effectively controlled by France.
Territorial Losses: Germany lost 10% of its land and one-eighth of its
population.
Industrial Impact: 48% of Germany's iron industry was lost due to territorial
changes.

National Pride and Sovereignty

War Guilt Clause (Article 231):

Germany and its allies were to accept all responsibility for World
War I.

Anschluss Ban: Germany was forbidden from uniting with Austria.

League of Nations Exclusion: Germany was not allowed to join the newly
formed League of Nations, impacting its legitimacy.

Territorial Losses
Colonies: German colonies became mandates under League of Nations control,
largely administered by Britain and France.

Polish Corridor: Germany was split into two by the Polish Corridor, with Danzig
(now Gdańsk) becoming a free city.

Specific Lands Lost:

Memel: Given to Lithuania.

Posen and West Prussia: Given to Poland.
Upper Silesia: Given to Poland.
Alsace-Lorraine: Returned to France.
Hultschin: Given to Czechoslovakia.
Malmedy and Eupen: Given to Belgium.
Northern Schleswig: Given to Denmark.

Reactions to the Treaty

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French Reaction
Georges Clemenceau: Unhappy with the treaty's leniency; wanted full
annexation of the Rhineland and higher reparations.
French Right: Viewed the treaty as too lenient.
French Left: Considered the treaty too harsh.
Public: Mixed feelings; liked control over the Saar coalfields but felt
Clemenceau didn't do enough.
Foch: Famously called it an Armistice for 20 years.

British Reaction
Lloyd George: Happy with British Naval Supremacy and colonial gains, but
concerned about harsh reparations affecting German trade and predicted
another war in 25 years.

Public: Initially praised Lloyd George due to anti-German sentiment during the
war.

Keynes: Called it a Carthaginian peace, aimed at crushing Germany.

A Carthaginian Peace is a peace treaty that is deliberately designed

to cripple the defeated country

Harold Nicholson: Called the treaty's creators "stupid".

American Reaction
Woodrow Wilson: Moderately unhappy; pleased with the League of Nations
but discontent with the disregard for his Fourteen Points.
Public: Felt the treaty was harsh and unfair.
U.S. Senate: Refused to ratify the treaty due to isolationist concerns and
partisan political divisions, preventing the U.S. from joining the League of
Nations.

Here is a table summarizing the territorial losses of Germany:

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Territory Given To

Memel Lithuania
Posen Poland
West Prussia Poland
Upper Silesia Poland
Alsace-Lorraine France
Hultschin Czechoslovakia
Malmedy Belgium
Eupen Belgium
Northern Schleswig Denmark

Treaties After World War I

The Failure of the Treaty of Versailles in the US

The Treaty of Versailles was not ratified by the US Senate, preventing the U.S. from
joining the League of Nations, which undermined the league's power. This was due
to the Senate not reaching the required two-thirds majority.

Other Treaties and Punishing Germany's Allies

The Allies negotiated additional treaties to address the punishment of Germany's
allies, including:

Treaty of Saint-Germain
Treaty of Neuilly
Treaty of Trianon
Treaty of Sèvres
Treaty of Lausanne

Treaty of Saint-Germain (Austria)

Signed on September 10, 1919, this treaty dealt with Austria, which was formerly
part of Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary was a multi-ethnic empire, with many
groups desiring self-determination.

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Austria-Hungary was unlike other empires in that it contained Poles, Ukrainian

Key provisions of the treaty:

Land was taken to create new countries like Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.
Galicia was given to Poland.
Bucovina was given to Romania.
South Tyrol was given to Italy.
Bohemia was given to Czechoslovakia.
Austria's army was limited to 30,000 men, with no navy or conscription
allowed.
Austria agreed to reparations, but the amount was never set and not fully paid
due to economic collapse in 1921.
Austria was forbidden from uniting with Germany (Anschluss Clause).
Austria was forced to break trade deals with countries like Egypt, China, and
Morocco.
Austria was banned from naming themselves "German Austria".

Economic hardship in Austria led to payments being made with animals. There was
also the Spanish Flu outbreak.

Treaty of Neuilly (Bulgaria)

Signed on November 27, 1919, this treaty dealt with Bulgaria. Key provisions
included:

Loss of land to new countries such as Yugoslavia and Greece.

The rich wheat-growing area of Southern Dobruja was given to Romania.
Western Thrace was given to Greece, resulting in Bulgaria losing access to the
Aegean Sea, which it had gained in the Balkan Wars of 1913.
Reparations of 100 million pounds were imposed.
The army was limited to 20,000 men, with only four battleships and no air force
allowed.
Bulgaria was forced to recognize the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.
A convention on population exchange with Greece was signed.

Treaty of Trianon (Hungary)

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Signed on June 4, 1920, this treaty was particularly harsh on Hungary. Hungary lost
over two-thirds of its pre-1918 territory to neighboring countries.

Hungary losing Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales is a good analogy for how

Key provisions:

Parts of Ruthenia and Bratislava were given to Czechoslovakia.

Transylvania was given to Romania.
Fiume was given to Italy.
Articles 61-66 stated that all Hungarians living outside new Hungarian borders
would lose their nationality in one year.
Post-treaty, Hungary produced 500% more agricultural goods than needed.
Economic interdependence with Austria was broken, leading to economic
collapse in 1921 and unpaid reparations.
The army was limited to 30,000 men, with no conscription and only three patrol
boats for the Navy.
No access to the sea.

Treaty of Sèvres (Turkey)

Signed on August 10, 1920, this treaty was notably harsh but ultimately rejected by
Turkey.

Look at a map of the Treaty of Sevres and compare it to the modern day map of

Key provisions:

Smyrna (Izmir), Eastern Thrace, and Adrianople were given to Greece.

The Dodecanese Islands were handed over to Italy.
Palestine became a British mandate.
Syria and Lebanon became French mandates.
The Dardanelles and Bosphorus Straits were internationalized and forcibly
opened.
Allies took control of the Ottoman Bank and other economic institutions.
The army was limited to 50,000 men, with just seven sailboats and six torpedo
boats.

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Atatürk and his nationalist government rejected the treaty and demanded
renegotiation, leading to the Turkish War of Independence and eventually the
Treaty of Lausanne. This rejection demonstrated to figures like Hitler that treaties
could be successfully challenged.## Treaty of Lausanne

The Treaty of Lausanne was much milder and more pro-Turkish compared to the
Treaty of Sèvres, which was seen as a humiliation.

Key provisions of the Treaty of Lausanne:

Turkey gave up territorial claims to the Dodecanese Islands, Cyprus, Egypt,

Syria, and Iraq.
Eastern Thrace and Smyrna were returned to Turkey.
Turkish territory in Europe expanded.
Plans for an independent Armenia and Kurdistan were abandoned.
Turkish sovereignty over its Straits was recognized but managed by an
international commission until the 1936 Montreux Convention.
The treaty led to the international recognition of the new Republic of Turkey.
Turkey agreed to minor financial burdens and tariff restrictions, but war
reparations were canceled.

Some would argue that Turkey got a way fairer peace than with Sèvres.

Interwar Agreements and Diplomatic

Relations

Washington Arms Conference (1921-1922)

A conference held by the U.S. to encourage disarmament and the limitation of
the naval arms race.
Led to agreements and treaties such as the Five-Power Naval Limitation
Treaty.
Resulted in the scrapping of 26 American, 24 British, and 16 Japanese
warships.
Treaties limited warship weight to 35,000 tons and regulated submarine use.
These treaties only lasted 14 years.
The League of Nations had no part in this conference.

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Treaty of Rapallo (1922)

A Soviet-German agreement where both countries renounced territorial and
diplomatic claims against each other.
Initiated increased military cooperation, allowing Germany to develop
weapons banned by the Treaty of Versailles in secret laboratories on Soviet soil.
Both were non-members of the League, highlighting the League's weakness.
Germany-Soviet ties angered the Allies due to concerns about the spread of
Communism.

The Dawes Plan (1924)

Arranged by Britain and the U.S. to help Germany economically and
diplomatically.
Key points:
Withdrawal of foreign troops from the Ruhr.
Resetting of reparations.
Allied supervision of the Reichsbank.
A $200 million loan from the U.S.

A plan arranged by Britain and the U.S. to help Germany economically

and diplomatically

Locarno Treaties
A series of agreements aiming to improve diplomatic relations between
Western European countries.
Germany and France promised never to attack each other.
Germany accepted the Treaty of Versailles and its terms.
Early evacuation of Allied troops from the Rhineland.
Led to Germany joining the League of Nations in 1926.
Germany didn't agree to the securing of its eastern borders.
The League was not involved in the Locarno Treaty.

Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

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An international agreement between 62 countries promising to avoid using war

as a means of solving disputes.
Germany was treated equally, showing it could be viewed as a respected
power.
The U.S. and the Soviet Union participated.
Realistically unenforceable, as there were no consequences for violating the
pact.
The League of Nations had nothing to do with it.

Young Plan (1929)

A revision of the Dawes Plan that reduced Germany's reparations to two billion
pounds.
Called for all occupying troops to leave Germany.
Encouraged the Allies to stop intervention in the German economy.
Infuriated German extremists.
Doomed by the Wall Street Crash of 1929, which led to countries focusing on
their own economies.

League Initiatives

League's Disarmament Conferences (1926)

The League set up a commission to hold a disarmament conference.
Britain and France refused to cooperate.## League of Nations

Failure of the World Disarmament Conference

The World Disarmament Conference was convened by the League of Nations some
years after its establishment. Despite proposals for naval size reductions and
armored moratoriums, no final agreements were reached. The conference's failure led
to Germany leaving the league, further diminishing the League of Nations' status.

Overview of the League of Nations

The League of Nations was an organization for international cooperation established
in Geneva in January 1920, created by the Treaty of Versailles.

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The League's main goal was to prevent the repetition of events similar to
The Great War.

Initially, it had 42 members. Its aims, summarized by the acronym DIPS, included:

Disarmament
Improving Global Welfare
Preventing War through collective security
Settling Disputes between countries through negotiation or diplomacy

The League had mixed success, with both failures and achievements.

Structure of the League

The League of Nations comprised several bodies:

Council: The main part of the League, consisting of members who met five
times a year or during emergencies. France, Italy, Britain, and Japan were
permanent members, with 49 countries as temporary members. Members could
veto decisions, and the assembly could only recommend actions to the council.
Assembly: An international parliament where each member state sent a
representative to yearly meetings. It discussed and voted on issues, but
decisions had to be unanimous.
Secretariat: An international civil service that managed the League, writing
laws and handling administration.
Special Commissions: Played a crucial role in the League's successes.
Permanent Court of International Justice: A court of law that settled
disputes between countries and advised parties involved in arguments,
though its rulings were not compulsory.
International Labor Organization: An agency that sought to promote
social justice, human rights, and good working conditions globally.
Representatives from governments, employers, and workers met annually
to discuss improvements.

Strengths and Weaknesses of the League

The strengths and weaknesses of the League of Nations can be summarized as
follows:

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Strengths Weaknesses

Written into each post-war The U.S. was not a member due to isolationism and
treaty Article 10, undermining the process of sanctions.
Consisted of 42 countries The USSR was not allowed to join until 1934, and
initially, including powerful Germany was not part of it until 1926, excluding
economies major global players.
Commissions tackled social It was set up by the Treaty of Versailles, which was
and economic problems widely disliked, compromising its legitimacy.
Had a range of powers like
The League had no army, and self-interested Britain
mitigation and economic
and France were reluctant to send their troops.
sanctions
Poor organization and ineffective management, with
the assembly requiring unanimous votes for decisions
and meeting only once a year.
The council's permanent members had a veto, and the
Secretariat was understaffed.
The Conference of Ambassadors kept overruling the
council's decisions, adding another layer of
obstruction.

The League's Commissions

The commissions were arguably the most successful part of the League.

League of Nations Commissions and

Committees
The League of Nations had several commissions and committees focused on specific
areas. Here's an overview of their aims, successes, and failures:

Slavery Commission

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Aim: To end slavery.

Successes:
Organized raids on slave trader camps in Sierra Leone, freeing 200,000
people.
Influenced nations like Nepal to emancipate slaves in 1926.
Failures:
Despite progress, a universal set of laws prohibiting slavery
internationally was not established by the 1926 Slavery Convention.

Economic and Financial Committee (EFC)

Aim: To improve economic conditions.
Successes:
Sent international financial experts to Austria and Hungary to help rebuild
their economies.
Developed codes for importing and exporting goods.
Failures:
Failed to cope with the 1929 Wall Street Crash.

Commission for Refugees

Aim: To help people return home and find new homes after the war.

Successes:

Helped free 427,000 out of 500,000 prisoners of war after World War I
and helped them return to their homeland by 1921.
Provided aid to fleeing Russians escaping the Civil War, helping 1.5
million people settle in refugee camps by 1921.

Failures:

Failed to help Jewish refugees fleeing Germany in the 1930s, despite

attempts and the signing of documents like the Bernheim Petition.

The Bernheim Petition was a petition by Jewish refugees.

Organization for Communications and

Transport

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Aim: To help countries with transport and transit links.

Successes:
Introduced shipping lanes, reducing collisions.
Produced an international Highway code.
Failures:
None mentioned.

Health Committee
Aim: To improve public health and eradicate diseases.
Successes:
Focused on ending leprosy, malaria, and yellow fever by setting up a
mosquito extermination campaign.
Worked with the USSR to combat typhus spread.
Sent doctors to Turkish refugee camps in the 1920s.
Set up research institutes in places like London, Copenhagen, and
Singapore.

International Labor Organization (ILO)

Aim: To improve working conditions and the standard of living, particularly for
workers.
Successes:
Recommended banning the use of white lead in paint in 1922.
Helped Greece and Romania set up systems of social insurance in 1930.
Helped Egypt set up a labor department in 1932.
Organized an agreement between 77 countries to set a minimum wage in
1928.
Failures:
Failed to stop children under 14 from working due to opposition in 1919.
Failed to pass a convention guaranteeing workers' rights to join trade
unions in 1927.
Faced opposition for suggesting the working day should be less than
eight hours long in 1935.

Permanent Central Narcotics Board

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Aim: To tackle the trade of illegal drugs like opium.

Successes:
The 1925 Geneva Conventions made companies who import opium
present certificates to show their legality.
Blacklisted four large companies involved in the illegal drug trade.
Failures:
Some continued profiting off opium trade.

Case Studies: Territorial Disputes

The League of Nations aimed to solve disputes without war.

Teschen Dispute (1919)

Parties: Poland and Czechoslovakia
Issue: Fought over the coal-rich Teschen region.
League's Resolution: Divided Teschen along the Olza River, giving Poland the
eastern districts and city, while Czechoslovakia received the suburbs.
Outcome: Fighting stopped, considered a League success despite Polish
dissatisfaction.

Vilna Dispute
Parties: Poland and Lithuania
Issue: Territorial dispute over Vilna
League's Resolution: N/A. The study guide abruptly ends here.

League of Nations Disputes

Vilnius Dispute

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Vilnius (modern capital of Lithuania) was occupied by multiple countries,

showcasing a classic dispute over invasion, occupation, and territory.
Conclusion of World War I didn't end war in Eastern Europe.
The Second Polish Republic, Baltic countries, Czechoslovakia, Ukraine,
Belarus, Georgia, and Russia were all fighting.
Bolsheviks (Russians) invaded Ukraine.
The Polish-Soviet War included:
Poland.
Bolshevik Russia.
Briefly existing West Ukrainian People's Republic.
Vilnius was repeatedly occupied by both countries.
In 1920, violence broke out between Polish and Lithuanian forces.
The League attempted a partial armistice, placing Vilnius under Lithuanian
control in October.
Poland ignored the League and occupied Vilnius.
The League, lacking an army, couldn't stop Poland.
Vilnius was occupied by Poland until Poland's partition in 1939.
Ironically, Vilnius was returned to Lithuania by Stalin.
The League's failure to resolve the Vilnius dispute underscored its limitations.

Upper Silesia Dispute

This dispute exemplifies a compromise.
Germany and Poland both wanted Upper Silesia after the Treaty of Versailles.
In 1921, the League arranged a plebiscite (vote) to decide ownership.
Germany won 60% of the vote.
Poland argued that many voters for Germany no longer lived in Upper Silesia.
The League split the area into regions based on the vote:
Germany received most of the rural areas.
Poland received most of the industry.
Both countries accepted the agreement but were not fully satisfied.
Germany lost three-quarters of its regional coal mines.
Poland received one-third of the land.
The outcome was a mixed success or failure.

Åland Islands Dispute

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Sweden and Finland both claimed the Åland Islands in the Baltic Sea.
The League investigated and decided the islands should go to Finland, despite
90% of the population identifying as Swedish.
Conditions:
Finland was not allowed to build forts on the islands.
Schools had to teach children Swedish.
Both Sweden and Finland accepted the terms, leading to a peaceful resolution
and a League success.

Corfu Incident
In August 1923, Italian General Tellini and his team were killed while visiting
the Greco-Albanian border.
Benito Mussolini demanded the Greek government pay compensation and
execute the murderers.
When Greece failed to comply, Mussolini retaliated by bombarding the Greek
island of Corfu, killing 15 people.
The League morally condemned Italy.
The Conference of Ambassadors overturned the League's decision and forced
Greece to pay compensation.
This incident is considered a League failure because the victim was forced to
pay.

Greece-Bulgaria Dispute (Petrich Incident)

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Greek soldiers were killed on the Bulgarian border near Petrich.

Greece attacked Bulgaria.
Bulgaria appealed to the League for help.
The League condemned Greece, ordering them to withdraw troops and pay a
fine of £45,000.
Greece complied to avoid displeasing powerful League members.
Many viewed this as a double standard compared to the League's response to
Italy during the Corfu crisis.
It was a mixed success; fighting stopped, but it sent the wrong signals.
Also known as the "War of the Stray Dog."

Allegedly, a dog ran over the Greek-Bulgarian border, and a Greek

soldier chased it. A Bulgarian guard, thinking it was an attack, shot
the soldier and the dog. This is more of a legend.

The Great Depression

Overview
The interwar 1920s period ended with the Great Depression, initiated by the
Wall Street Crash of 1929.
It triggered a period of global decline.

Impact on the USA

A third of all American banks failed.
Unemployment rose to 25%.
The economy shrank by 50% during the first five years.
The U.S. used protectionism (tariffs on imports) to support its workers.

Protectionism: the economic policy of restraining trade between

states through methods such as tariffs on imported goods,
restrictive quotas, and a variety of other government regulations

Impact on Britain

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The Depression was less dramatic than in the U.S., but still impactful.
By the end of 1930, 2.5 million people were unemployed.
Britain's exports fell in value by 50%.
The government issued an emergency budget in 1931, cutting welfare and
public sector spending.

Global Impact
The Depression was a shock that sent waves around the globe.
In France, by 1935, industrial production was still at 80% of its 1928 levels.
The Depression was milder than it was in the US.

The Great Depression's Impact

Economic and Political Turmoil

The Great Depression had severe consequences:

Falling wages and living standards.

Increased political instability.
Rise in popularity of extremist parties with populist promises.

In May 1936, a Socialist-Communist Coalition came to power in France, reflecting

the desperation for change.

Nationalization in Italy
Many Italian banks, like Banco di Milano, crashed in May 1931.

Mass nationalization: When the state seizes enterprises to stabilize the

economy.

By the late 1930s, Italy had the highest rate of state ownership of an economy in the
world, second only to the USSR.

Deflation in Japan
Deflationary policies in Japan caused significant problems.

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Agricultural prices fell by 40%.

Textile prices fell by nearly 50%.
The price of silk plummeted, severely impacting the Japanese silk industry.

In 1931, impoverishment in rural regions like Tohoku was so severe that farmers
sold their daughters for prostitution.

League of Nations and International Crises

Rise of Dictators
The economic catastrophe of the late 1920s laid the foundation for an era of
dictators. Leaders often engage in foreign adventures to distract from domestic
issues, a concept described as "politicians 101." Imperialism was a natural product of
the economic catastrophe in the 1930s.

The question was whether the League of Nations could stop these dictators. The
answer, unfortunately, was no.

Japan's Expansionist Ambitions

Japan's economic downturn in the early 1930s led to increased support for the
military and nationalists.

Aims of right-wing movements:

End liberal foreign policy (Shidehara diplomacy).
Defend Japanese interests in Mongolia and Manchuria.
Military expansion.

Tensions were already present in the region due to the 1929 Sino-Soviet conflict,
where the Red Army's victory over China demonstrated Chinese weakness. The
Japanese Army was growing stronger than the government.

In March 1931, an attempted coup d'etat occurred, and China's regional government
in Manchuria was weakening.

Manchurian Crisis

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In September 1931, an explosion occurred at the South Manchurian Railway in

Mukden (Mukden Incident). Japan accused China of causing it and used this as an
excuse to invade Manchuria. They already controlled Korea, making the invasion
easier.

By 1932, the region was renamed Manchukuo, and a puppet leader was installed.

By spring 1934, all Chinese territory north of the Great Wall was annexed. China's
initial policy of non-resistance and the League of Nations' failure led to the Second
Sino-Japanese War in 1937.

League of Nations' Failure: A Case Study

Reaction to the Manchurian Crisis

The League's reaction was weak and ineffective.

Timeline Action Result

October (Month League passed a resolution

Ignored by Japan
after invasion) ordering Japanese troops to leave
Lord Lytton led a commission to
January 1932
investigate
Lytton Report published, proving
October 1932 No action taken
Japan's actions unlawful
Assembly voted to demand Japan Japan's delegation walked
February 1933
leave the region out; no sanctions imposed

Countries were too economically frail to sanction Japan due to the ongoing
Depression. The League was spineless and dependent on its members, rendering it
incapable of action.

Italy and Abyssinia: Another Test for the

League

Mussolini's Ambitions

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Benito Mussolini, the fascist dictator of Italy, aimed to re-establish the Roman Empire
and referred to the Mediterranean as "mare nostrum" (our sea).

In April 1935, Italy joined the Stresa Front, uniting countries against Adolf Hitler.
Mussolini believed that Britain and France would avoid offending him to maintain the
alliance against Hitler. He saw the weak reaction of the League to Japan's invasion of
Manchuria.

Abyssinia (modern-day Ethiopia) was rich in natural resources, and Italy already
controlled Eritrean Somaliland, making Abyssinia a clear target.

Abyssinian Crisis

Border Clash and Initial Appeals

December 1934: A border clash occurred between Abyssinians and Italians at
the Walwal Oasis, located in Abyssinian territory near Italian Somaliland.
January 1935: The Mussolini-Laval Accord allowed Italy to occupy Ethiopia,
with France and Britain's behind-the-scenes approval.
Ethiopia appealed to the League for arbitration in January, but the response was
inconclusive.
June 1935: Emperor Haile Selassie addressed the League, but his plea was not
heeded.

Italian Invasion and Atrocities

October 1935: Italian troops invaded Abyssinia after Mussolini's declaration,
facing minimal resistance from the League of Nations.
Italy used mustard gas (an illegal practice), bombed hospitals and ambulances,
and executed prisoners without trial.
A caricature mocked the invasion, portraying Italian actions as civilization
against Ethiopian barbarism.
May 1936: Italy captured Addis Ababa, annexed Ethiopia, and later left the
League of Nations.

League's Ineffective Response

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Britain and France did not close the Suez Canal to impede the invasion, fearing
upsetting Mussolini due to the Stresa Front.
Ethiopia's request for arbitration was delayed by six months, highlighting the
League's disorganization, understaffing, and issues with its assembly, council,
and conference of ambassadors.
The UK placed an arms embargo on both Abyssinia and Italy, weakening
Abyssinia and enabling Italy to transport military aid.
October 1935: The League condemned the invasion and imposed economic
sanctions, excluding coal and oil (Italy's main imports).
The U.S., Switzerland, and Germany continued trade with Italy, undermining the
sanctions.
British and French foreign ministers proposed the Hoare-Laval Pact to
Mussolini, offering Italy two-thirds of East Abyssinia, which was later leaked to
the press.

Impact of the Crises on the League

Undermining the League's Authority

The Manchurian Crisis exposed the League's inability to enforce its rules, as
permanent council members violated the Covenant.
The League's responses were slow and ineffective, failing to prevent the 1937
war.
The Abyssinian Crisis revealed the League's weakness to all, with countries like
the U.S. not being members undermining its authority.
The Hoare-Laval Pact exposed the self-interest of League leaders like Britain
and France, who were willing to appease aggressors even if it violated the
League's principles.
The League was unable to protect smaller countries against larger ones,
effectively killing the principle of collective security.

Loss of Faith
After the Manchurian Crisis, some faith remained in the League, but the
Abyssinian Crisis shattered this, demonstrating its inability to stop the rise of
militarism and extremism.

Steps to World War II

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Adolf Hitler's Aims

Adolf Hitler's aims can be summarized with the acronym "COLDER":

Create a Gross Deutschland with a volk-Stitch (german-speaking people

across a big Germany)
Overturn the Treaty of Versailles
Laban's realm (living room) for the Aryans to live in East taken away from
Bolsheviks
Destroy communism
Exploit the inferior undesirables (untermench)
Re-armament

German Rearmament
After leaving the League's disarmament conference in October 1933, Hitler
began rapidly re-arming the German Army.

The German Army increased in size from 100,000 people in 1933 to

550,000 in 1935, and then to 3.7 million by 1939.
It was renamed to the aggressive Wehrmacht in 1935.

Schacht, the Finance Minister, financed the military secretly through MEFO bills
until 1935 when Hitler openly announced the breaking of Versailles with army
growth, conscription, and 2,500 Luftwaffe planes.

American companies (e.g., General Motors and Ford) helped Germany rearm.

Rearmament and Initial Expansion

Allied Response to German Rearmament

After 1934, Britain and France, initially reluctant to confront Hitler, started
rearming due to his blatant treaty violations and expansionist ambitions.
Britain invested in the Singapore Naval base, and the Anglo-German Naval
Agreement of 1935 indirectly supported German rearmament.

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The Dolphus Affair: A Setback for Hitler

Hitler sought to unite all German-speaking people (Volk).
Engelbert Dolphus, the leader of Austria, established a fascist dictatorship and
resisted Hitler's unification efforts (Anschluss).
In July 1934, Austrian Nazis, under Hitler's orders, attempted a coup and
assassinated Dolphus.
Mussolini, viewing Austria as a buffer, guaranteed Austrian independence and
mobilized his army, forcing Hitler to back down.

The Saarland Referendum: A Victory for Hitler

Following the Treaty of Versailles, the Saarland was under French League of
Nations control for 15 years.
A referendum was held to decide the Saarland's fate, with 90% voting to rejoin
Germany.
This plebiscite boosted Hitler's expansionist goals, demonstrated support for
Großdeutschland (Greater Germany), and granted access to the Saar's coal
fields and industries.

Remilitarization of the Rhineland

Strategic and Political Context

Hitler aimed to avoid a two-front war like in World War I.
In March 1936, he took advantage of the League's preoccupation with
Abyssinia and the anti-German Franco-Soviet Pact.
Hitler sent 22,000 troops into the Rhineland, a move considered risky by his
military advisors due to Germany's limited rearmament.

Allied Inaction and German Success

German troops were met with cheering crowds, not resistance.
The Rhineland's resources were secured, and Allied talks on a response failed.
The remilitarization was treated lightly by other countries.

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Reasons for Allied Passivity

The Abyssinian Crisis had diverted British forces to the Mediterranean.
France was occupied in Tunisia and sought British support.
British public sentiment was that Germany was simply entering their own "back
garden".
French politicians were in the midst of an election campaign.

Consequences of Remilitarization
Hitler undermined his military generals by successfully remilitarizing the
Rhineland.
The Allies were exposed as weak, accelerating rearmament efforts.
The Maginot Line became strategically vulnerable, leading Germany to
construct the Siegfried Line.

Development of International Ties

The Need for Stronger Allies

Germany sought stronger allies than those in World War I.

Relations with Italy

Initially, Mussolini and Hitler were not on good terms.
Italy and Germany started to bond after sending volunteers to aid General
Franco in the Spanish Civil War in 1936.
After 1937, they signed the Anti-Comintern Pact and, in 1939, formed the Pact
of Steel, a full-fledged alliance.

Relations with Japan

Japan joined the Anti-Comintern Pact in 1936, forming a coalition against Soviet
Bolshevism.
In 1940, Japan joined the Tripartite Pact against the US.

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Other Alliances
In 1939, Germany allied with Finland, which sought support against the Soviet
Union during the Winter War.
The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was signed with the Soviet Union in 1939.

Road to Anschluss
Germany was becoming stronger on the international stage.

Austria and Anschluss

Rise of Schuschnigg
After Dolphus was assassinated by Austrian Nazis, Schuschnigg became the leader
of Austria in 1934.

The Rome-Berlin Axis

In 1936, Mussolini and Hitler formed the Rome-Berlin Axis due to the Spanish Civil
War. This meant Austria could no longer rely on Mussolini's protection.

Schuschnigg's Agreement with Hitler

Schuschnigg attempted to sign an agreement with Hitler, promising that his
government would cooperate with Austrian Nazis in order to prevent an invasion.

Discovery of Nazi Plot

In January 1938, the Austrian police raided Nazi headquarters and discovered a plot
to remove Schuschnigg from power.

Meeting at Berchtesgaden

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Schuschnigg met with Hitler at Berchtesgaden, where he was forced to appoint Nazi
Seyss-Inquart as interior minister and give Nazis freedom in Austria.

Failed Referendum
In March 1938, Schuschnigg called for a referendum in Austria to undermine the idea
that all of Austria wanted to join Germany.

Hitler pressured him to postpone it and then to resign.

Seyss-Inquart's Invitation to Germany

Seyss-Inquart asked Germany to restore order in Austria, which was a pretext for
Hitler to invade.

Invasion and Annexation

In March 1938, Austria was invaded. In April, Hitler held a referendum under
occupation, and Austria voted to join Germany with 99.7% approval.

Czech Crisis and Appeasement

Sudetenland Issue
In early 1938, Heinlein, the Sudeten Nazi leader, complained that Germans were
being mistreated in Czechoslovakia.

Hitler's Plans
In May 1938, Hitler announced his plans to destroy Czechoslovakia and save the
three million Germans there.

Policy of Appeasement

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Appeasement is a diplomatic policy of making political or material

concessions to an aggressive power in order to avoid conflict.

Daladier and Chamberlain chose to appease Germany, even though France had
promised to protect Czechoslovakia.

Chamberlain's Negotiations
In September 1938, Chamberlain flew to Berchtesgaden to negotiate with Hitler and
prevent a war. He agreed that areas with over 50% German ethnicity should be given
to Germany and forced France and Czechoslovakia to agree.

Hitler's Demands
One week later, Hitler demanded that the Sudetenland be handed over by October 1,
and Czechoslovakia be divided between Poland and Hungary.

Munich Conference
In September, Chamberlain persuaded Mussolini to organize the Munich Conference.

Betrayal of Czechoslovakia
Britain, France, Germany, and Italy met in Munich without the USSR or
Czechoslovakia. Hitler ordered the Czech military to leave the Sudetenland and for
the invasion to occur between October 1 and 10.

Chamberlain's Declaration
Chamberlain proclaimed, "There will be peace in our time."

Annexation of Sudetenland
The Sudetenland was annexed, leading to chaos and panic in Czechoslovakia.

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Invasion of Czechoslovakia
In March 1939, the new Czech leader Hacha was told by Hitler that Prague would be
bombed. Hacha ordered his forces to stand down, and the whole nation was invaded.

Consequences of Appeasement

Hitler's Confidence
As a result of appeasement, Hitler gained more confidence and resources to start
World War II.

Chamberlain's Perspective
Chamberlain wanted to avoid another war, especially after the devastation of World
War I. Britain and France were not fully prepared for war and were buying
themselves time.

Objective History
The Saar coalfields strengthened German industry. The Anschluss added 100,000
soldiers to the Reich. The Rhineland militarization made France more vulnerable. The
Czech crisis gave Germany access to Skoda armament factories and other industry.

Territory/Event Impact on Germany

Saar Coalfields Strengthened German industry

Anschluss Added 100,000 soldiers to the Reich
Rhineland Militarization Made France more vulnerable
Czech Crisis Access to Skoda armament factories and industry

Nazi-Soviet Pact

Need for an Agreement

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Germany had been strengthened and was moving east toward Poland. To avoid a
war with France and the Soviet Union, Hitler needed an agreement with the Soviets.

Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact
Stalin ordered his foreign minister Molotov to negotiate a non-aggression pact with
the Germans. In August 1939, the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was agreed upon,
where both sides agreed not to attack each other for 10 years.

Events Following the Nazi-Soviet Pact

Following the Nazi-Soviet Pact, several key events unfolded:

On September 1, Germany attacked West Poland.

On September 17, the USSR invaded the east of Poland.

On November 30, 1939, the USSR attacked Finland.

In the summer of 1940, the USSR moved into the Baltic states.

Stalin's Motivations and Actions

Stalin had multiple motivations for aligning with Hitler:

He aimed to avoid fighting on two fronts.

There were secret protocols in the Nazi-Soviet Pact.

These protocols involved Stalin dividing up Eastern Europe with Hitler

into spheres of influence.

Stalin even fired his Jewish foreign minister, Litvinov, and replaced him with
Molotov to demonstrate his commitment to the alliance.

World War II Context

The lecture provides context for the start of World War II:

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The conflict was initiated by dictators in the 1930s.

World War II resulted in approximately 75 million deaths.

The war defied the hopes of politicians from the 1910s and 1920s that World
War One would be the "war to end all wars."

The failure of the Versailles peace, the fading "Locarno spirit," and the Wall
Street Crash led to the Great Depression. These factors all contributed to the
end of world peace.

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