Training and Development Management

Chapter: 02. Employee Training

Employee Training
Training is a learning experience in that it seeks a relatively permanent change in an individual that will
improve the ability to perform on the job. Training can involve the changing of skills, knowledge, attitudes
or behavior. It may mean changing what employees know, how they work, their attitudes towards their
work or their interaction with their coworkers or supervisor.
For our purposes, we will differentiate between employee training and employee development for one
particular reason. Although both are similar in the methods used to affect learning, their time frames differ.
Training is more present-day oriented; its focus is on individuals’ current jobs, enhancing those specific
skills and abilities to immediately perform their jobs. For example, suppose you enter the job market during
your senior year of college, pursuing a job as a marketing representative. Although you have a degree in
Marketing, when you are hired, some training is in order. Specifically, you'll need to learn the company's
policies and practices, product information and other pertinent selling practices. This, by definition, is job-
specific training or training that is designed to make you more effective in your current job.

Employee Development
On the other hand, generally employee development focuses on future jobs in the organization. As example,
if you become a sales territory manager, the skills needed to perform that job are quite different from those
required for selling the products. Now you will be required to supervise a number of sales representatives;
requiring a broad-based knowledge of marketing and very specific management competencies like
communication skills, evaluation employee performance and disciplining problem individuals. As you are
groomed for positions of greater responsibility, employee development efforts will help prepare you for
that day.

Management Development
Management development is more future oriented and more concerned with education, than is employee
training or assisting a person to become a better performance. By education, we mean that management
development activities attempt to instill sound reasoning processes – to enhance one’s ability to understand
and interpret knowledge – rather than imparting a body of serial facts or teaching a specific set of motor
skills. Development therefore, focuses more on the employee's personal growth.
Successful managers have analytical, human, conceptual, and specialized skills. They are able to think and
understand. Training per se cannot overcome a manager's or potential manager's inability to understand
cause-and-effect relationships, to synthesize from experience, to visualize relationships or to think logically.
As a result, we suggest that management development be predominantly an education process rather than a
training process.

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Determining Training Needs and Priorities
Now that we have an understanding of what training should include, we can look at how we assess whether
there is a need for training. We propose that management can determine this by answering four questions:
1. What are the organization’s goals?
2. What tasks must be completed to achieve these goals?
3. What behaviors are necessary for each job incumbent to complete his or her assigned tasks?
4. What deficiencies, if any, do incumbents have in the skills, knowledge or attitudes required
performing the necessary behaviors?
These questions demonstrate the close link between human resource planning and determination of training
needs. Based on our determination of the organization’s needs, the type of work that is to be done, and the
type of skills necessary to complete this work, our training program should follow naturally. Once we can
answer question4, we have grasp of the extent and nature of our training needs.
The most widely used methods of training take place on the job. This can be attributed to the simplicity of
such methods and the impression that they are less costly to operate. On-the-job training places the
employees in an actual work situation and makes them appear to be immediately productive. It is learning
by doing. For jobs that either are difficult to simulate or can be learned quickly by watching and doing, on-
the-job training makes sense.

Off-the-Job Training
Off-the-job training refers to an education method where employees learn more about their job or the latest
advancements in their field at a location away from their workplace. This type of training essentially helps
employees perform their job more efficiently. During this type of training, employees express their views
and opinions and explore new ideas to bring to the workplace. Before the conclusion of the training,
employees typically receive some form of evaluation. For example, they may receive an evaluation that
tests their understanding of the knowledge the instructor taught them during the off-the-job training. The
evaluation measures the performance and participation of each trainee.
Off-the-job training covers a number of techniques- classroom lecture, films, demonstrations, case studies
and other simulation exercises, and programmed instruction. The facilities needed for each technique vary
from a small, makeshift classroom to an elaborate development center with large lecture halls,
supplemented by small, conference rooms with sophisticated instructional technology equipment.

1. Classroom Lectures
Also known as the lecture method, classroom lectures often train white-collar or management-level
employees. This type of off-the-job training takes place in a classroom-like environment and involves a
trainer providing instruction in a lecture format. Trainees learn crucial skills needed for their jobs, get to
know their job responsibilities and have the opportunity to get their questions answered by experts. In
addition, classroom lectures may teach trainees the administrative or management aspects of their job, make
them aware of certain procedures or provide them with instruction on a certain subject matter. Lectures
designed to communicate specific interpersonal, technical, or problem-solving skills.

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2. Videos and Films
Trainees who receive off-the-job training through a videos and films method learn the material through the
use of various media such as films, television, video and presentations. Education institutions often use this
method to help students remember the learning material more easily. In the corporate world, customer care
center employers often administer this type of training to their employees to teach them how to interact and
behave with customers. Using various media productions to demonstrate specialized skills that are not easily
presented by other training methods.
3. Simulation Exercises
With the simulation method of off-the-job training, trainees get trained through equipment or a machine
that resembles what they'd use in the field or on the job. The simulation method helps them prepare for
handling the equipment and machines in real life. Typically, this training method is reserved for employees
who handle expensive machinery or equipment. For example, an airplane pilot may undergo simulation
training to help them get ready for flying an airplane. Since airplanes are expensive, an employer may not
allow trainees to train using a real airplane in order to avoid costly damage or to avoid putting the trainee's
life in danger. Instead, they'll use a simulator to keep costs low and keep the trainee safe.
4. Vestibule Training
Technical staff, office staff and employees who handle tools and machinery typically undergo vestibule
training. Trainees learn about the equipment they'll use on the job. However, unlike on-the-job training,
vestibule training takes place away from the workplace. This means the tools and equipment used for
vestibule training are available at the training location. Employers typically administer this type of training
to introduce their employees to new or advanced tools and machinery they want them to use to perform
certain duties related to their job. Training on actual equipment on the job, but conducted away from the
actual work setting- a simulated work station.
5. Programmed Instruction
The programmed instructions method involves a series of steps with bits of knowledge and a mechanism
for presenting the series and measuring the trainee's knowledge. Trainees receive questions in a sequence
and receive a sign when they answer each question correctly. Training instructors may use manuals or books
to carry out this off-the-job training. The programmed instructions method is often used to teach information
regarding subjects like math or physics. Condensing training materials into highly organized, logical
sequences. may include computer tutorials, interactive video disks, or virtual reality simulations.
6. Case Studies
With this method, trainees receive a situation or problem in the form of a case study that pertains to their
field. In other words, they receive a written description of a real situation that previously occurred. They're
then instructed to analyze the situation and provide their conclusions in a written format. Training
instructors then review the pros and cons of each option to help trainees improve their decision-making
skills.
7. Role Playing
Often reserved for customer service professions, role playing involves trainees taking on roles and acting
out certain situations to help them better understand the learning concepts. Trainees act as if they're facing

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the situation and having to solve it without guidance or prior rehearsal. Role players have to quickly respond
to the ever-changing situation and react as they would to the situation in real life. This off-the-job training
method essentially involves realistic behavior in a hypothetical circumstance. Examples of situations
trainees may face include hiring, discussing a workplace problem or making a sales pitch to a customer.

Training Needs Assessment

Training is designed to help the organization accomplish its objectives. Determining organizational training
needs is the diagnostic phase of setting training objectives. Just as a patient must be examined before a
physician can prescribe medication to deal with an ailment, an organization or an individual employee must
be studied before a course of action can be planned to make the patient function better. Managers can
identify training needs by considering three sources:

A. Organizational Analyses
The first way to diagnose training needs is through organizational analysis, which considers the organization
as a system. An important part of the company's strategic human resource planning is the identification of
the knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) that will be needed by employers in the future as both jobs and
the organization change.
Both internal and external forces that will influence training must be considered when doing organizational
analyses. The problems posed by the technical obsolescence of current employees and an insufficiently
educated labor pool from which to draw new workers should be confronted before those training needs
become critical. To illustrate, consider a medium-sized telecommunications firm that is facing increasing
competition and changes in its industry. During its strategic planning, the firm recognized that greater
computerization of its operations was needed. The firm identified that establishing an internet in the
company was going to mean that increased internal and external communications were to occur
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electronically. Many employees needed to be trained to use computer software and given laptops to use
both at work and away from the office.
One important source for organizational analyses comes from various operational measures of
organizational performance. Specific sources of information and operational measures for an
organizational-level needs analysis may include the following:
 Grievances
 Accident records
 Observations
 Complaints from customers
 Training committee observations
 Waste/scrap/quality control data

B. Task Analyses
The second way to diagnose training needs is through analyses of the tasks performed in the organization.
To do these analyses, it is necessary to know the job requirements of the organization. Job descriptions and
job specifications provide information on the performances expected and skills necessary for employees to
accomplish the required work. By comparing the requirements of jobs with the knowledge, skills, and
abilities of employees, training needs can be identified.
To continue an example, assume that at a telecommunications firm, analyses were done to identify the tasks
to be performed by engineers who were to serve as technical instructors for other employees. By listing the
tasks required of a technical instructor, management established a program to teach specific instruction
skills needed so the engineers could become successful instructors.

C. Individual Analyses
The third means of diagnosing training needs focuses on individuals and how they perform their jobs. The
use of performance appraisal data in making these individual analyses is the most common approach. In
some instances, a good HR information system can be used to help identify individuals who require training
in specific areas. To assess training needs through the performance appraisal process, an employee's
performance inadequacies first must be determined in a formal review. Then some type of training can be
designed to help the employee overcome the weaknesses. Another way of assessing individual training
needs is to ask both managerial and non-managerial employees about what training they need. The results
can inform managers about what employees believe their problems are and what actions they recommend.
A training needs survey can take the form of questionnaires or interviews with supervisors and employees
on an individual or group basis. The purpose is to gather information on problems perceived by the
individuals involved. The following sources are useful for individual analyses:
 Questionnaire
 Job knowledge test
 Skill tests
 Attitude survey

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  Role playing results
 Data from assessment centers
 Records of critical incidents

Training Approaches (Techniques)

Once objectives have been determined, the actual training can begin. Regardless of whether the training is
job specific or broader in nature, the appropriate training approach must be chosen. The following overview
of common training approaches and techniques classifies them into several major groups. These are:
1. On-the-Job Training (OJT)
The most common type of training at all levels in an organization is on-the-job training (OJT). Whether or
not the training is planned, people do learn from their job experiences, particularly if these experiences
change over time. On-the-job training usually is done by the manager, other employees, or both. A manager
or supervisor who trains an employee must be able to teach, as well as to show, the employee what to do.
Job Instruction Training (JIT)
A special, guided form of on-the-job training is known as job instruction training (JIT). Developed during
World War II, JIT was used to prepare civilians with little experience for jobs in the industrial sector
producing military equipment. Because of its success, JIT is still used. In fact, its logical progression of
steps is an excellent way to teach trainers to train.
Problems with OJT
On-the-job training (OJT) is by far the most commonly used form of training because it is flexible and
relevant to what the employee is doing. However, OJT has some problems as well. A common problem is
that OJT often is haphazardly done. Trainers may have no experience in training, no time to do it, and no
desire to participate. Under such conditions, learners essentially are on their own, and training likely will
not be effective. Another problem is that OJT can disrupt regular work. Unfortunately, OJT can amount to
no training at all in some circumstances, especially if the trainee simply is abandoned by an ineffective
trainer to learn the job alone. However, well-planned and well-executed OJT can be very effective.

2. Cooperative Training
Two widely used cooperative training methods are internships and apprenticeships. Both mix classroom
training and on-the-job experiences.
Internships
An internship is a form of on-the-job training that usually combines job training with classroom instruction
in trade schools, high schools, colleges, or universities. Internships are advantageous to both employers and
interns. Interns get "real-world" exposure, a line on the vita (resume) =, and a chance to examine a possible
employer closely. Employers who hire from campuses get a cost-effective selection tool that includes a
chance to see an intern at work before a final hiring decision is made.

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Apprenticeships
Another form of cooperative training that is used by employers, trade unions, and government agencies is
apprenticeship. An apprenticeship program provides an employee with on-the-job experience under the
guidance of a skilled and certified worker. Certain requirements for training, equipment, time length, and
proficiency levels may be monitored by a unit of the U.S. Department of labor. Apprentice training is used
most often to train people for jobs in skilled crafts, such as carpentry, plumbing, photoengraving,
typesetting, and welding. Apprenticeships usually last two to five years, depending on the occupation.
During this time the apprentice receives lower wages than the certified individual.

Designing an Effective Training Program

The key activities involved with designing a training program include:
1. Setting Program Objectives
Following the assessment of training needs; concrete, measurable training objectives are written. Objectives
specify what the trainee should be able to accomplish after successfully completing the training program.
These objectives are used to achieve the specified outcome.
2. Selecting the Trainer or Vendor
After the program objectives have been identified, decisions must be taken about the development and
delivery of the program. One of the decisions in this regard is whether to design the program internally
purchase if from an outside vendor or use some combination of two. Outside vendors/consultants include
consulting firms, educational institutions, professional societies, government agencies and nonprofit
community-based organizations.
3. Developing a Lesson Plan
Statements of the program objectives alone are not sufficient for determining the content of the training
program, as well as, the training methods and materials. Hence a lesson plan is developed with the program
objectives translated into an excellent training session. A lesson plan acts as a guide to the trainer for the
actual delivery of the training contents. Developing a lesson plan requires the trainer to determine what is
to be covered and how much time to devote to each pat of the session.
4. Selecting Program Methods and Techniques
Once the lesson plan has been prepared, there comes the question of selecting the appropriate training
methods. Regardless of whether, programs are presented in-house or by an outside source, wide variety
methods are available for training employees at all levels. While selecting appropriate methods selected
enable the trainees to acquire skills, knowledge, levels of competence and abilities they need.
5. Preparing Materials
The next logical step is to arrange materials. Irrespective of whether the training program is purchased or
designed by the organization, the training materials must be made available. Programs designed in-house
will require the preparation of materials such as program announcements, program outlines, training
manuals and textbooks.

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6. Scheduling the Program
The purpose of scheduling training is to ensure that the participants are available on time and have their
attention focused on the learning at hand. After the training program has been designed, the next task is to
determine the best schedule while avoiding potential conflicts.

Evaluation of Training
Evaluation of training compares the post-training results to the objectives expected by managers, trainers
and trainees. Too often, training is done without any thought of measuring and evaluating it later to see how
well it worked. Because training is both time-consuming and costly, evaluation should be done. In fact, at
some firms, what employees learn is directly related to what they earn, which puts this principle of
measurement into practice.
One way to evaluate training is to examine the costs associated with the training and the benefits received
through cost/benefit analysis. Comparing costs and benefits is easy until one has to assign an actual dollar
value to some of the benefits. The best way is to measure the value of the output before and after training.
Any increase represents the benefit resulting from training.

Levels of Evaluation
It is best to consider how training is to be evaluated before it begins. Donald L. Kirkpatrick identified four
levels at which training can be evaluated. The ease of evaluating training becomes increasingly more
difficult as training is evaluated using reaction, learning, behavior and results measures.

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1. Reaction
Organizations evaluate the reaction level of trainees by conducting interviews or by administering
questionnaires to the trainees. Assume that 30 managers attended a two-day workshop on effective
interviewing skills. A reaction-level measure could be gathered by having the managers complete a survey
that asked them to rate the value of the training, the style of the instructors, and the usefulness of the training
to them. However, the immediate reaction may measure only how much the people liked the training rather
than how it benefited them.
2. Learning
Learning levels can be evaluated by measuring how well trainees have learned facts, ideas, concepts,
theories, and attitudes. Tests on the training material are commonly used for evaluating learning and can be
given both before and after training to compare scores. To evaluate training courses at some firms, test
results are used to determine how well the courses have provided employees with the desired content. If
test scores indicate learning problems, instructors get feedback, and the courses are redesigned so that the
content can be delivered more effectively. To continue the example, giving managers attending the
interviewing workshop a test at the end of the session to quiz them on types of interviews, legal and illegal
questions, and questioning type could indicate that they learned important material on interviewing. Of
course, learning enough to pass a test does not guarantee that the trainee can do anything with what was
learned or behave differently.
3. Behavior
Evaluating training at the behavioral level involves (i) measuring the effect of training on job performance
through interviews of trainees and their coworkers and (ii) observing job performance. For instance, a
behavioral evaluation of the managers who participated in the interviewing workshop might be done by
observing them conducting actual interviews of applicants for jobs in their departments. If the managers
asked questions as they were trained and they used appropriate follow-up questions, then a behavioral
indication of the interviewing training could be obtained. However, behavior is more difficult to measure
than reaction and learning. Even if behaviors do change, the results that management desires may not be
obtained.
4. Results
Employers evaluate results by measuring the effect of training on the achievement of organizational
objectives. Because results such as productivity, turnover, quality, time sales, and costs are relatively
concrete, this type of evaluation can be done by comparing records before and after training. For the
interviewing training, records of the number of individuals hired to the offers of employment made prior to
and after the training could be gathered. The difficulty with measuring results is pinpointing whether it
actually was training that caused the changes in results. Other factors may have had a major impact as well.
For example, managers who completed the interviewing training program can be measured on employee
turnover before and after the training. But turnover is also dependent on the current economic situation, the
demand for product, and the quality of employees being hired. Therefore, when evaluating results,
managers, should be aware of all issues involved in determining the exact effect on the training.

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