Biology

CHAPTER
1 Cell-Unit of life

The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in living organisms.
Cytology : The branch of biology which deals with the study of morphological, organizational, biochemical,
physiological, genetical, developmental, pathological and evolutionary aspects of cell & its components.

1.1 Invention of microscope

The simplest microscope was constructed in the year 1600 and later used by Galileo and Anton van Leeuwenhoek.
In 1665 Robert Hook observed a thin slice of cork (dead cell) under the microscope and saw honeycomb-like
structures which he called cells. Actually it was dead cells of outer cover of the plant called periderm (bark).
Thin slice of any part is called sections. If you cut along the length, you are taking a longitudinal section and
if you cut across the structure, you make a transverse section.

Eye-piece lens

Focusing
knobs

Objective lens

Specimen
Slide Stand
Stage
Light
Mirror

The microscope. Light is reflected by the mirror (a) Transverse (b) Longitudinal
and directed through the specimen into the lenses of the section section
microscope. These lenses produce a greatly magnified
image of the specimen which can be studied directly or
photographed.
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Worki n g of a M i c ros c op e
(i) The object on a glass slide is kept on a stage bearing a central hole under an objective lens.
(ii) Light is reflected through the specimen with the help of a mirror and condenser from below the stage.
(iii) Through an eyepiece at the top of the microscope one can see the magnified image of the object.
(iv) Focusing is done by adjustors (coarse and fine) fitted in the microscope.
(v) Eyepiece lenses of magnification 5X, 10X, 15X and objective lenses of high (40X, 100X) and low (10X)
powers are available.

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Cell size
Some cells are visible to the naked eye but most are microscopic in size, ranging from 10 to 100 microns.
Example-ostrich egg having the largest volume in the animal cell and smallest cell is PPLO (pleuropneumonia
like organism) which measures 0.1 to 0.5 µ. (1 µ =10 –6 m).

Under microscope cells become magnified so we can observe easily.

Observed size
Magnification =
Actual size

In light microscope 10X and 45X types of objective lenses are there and eyepiece may have 10X or more
type of lenses so magnification becomes 100X to 450X. The best light microscopes can magnify structures
upto 1500 times their original size (× 1500).

Two major factors set the limit of cell size i.e., (i) nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio, which determines the range of
control of metabolic activities by the nucleus and (ii) ratio of surface area to volume.

1.2 Cell organization

All cells have common three major functional regions. These are

(i) Plasma membrane or cell membrane

(ii) Cytoplasm

(iii) Nucleus

Cytoplasm and nucleus together known as protoplasm.

Plasma membrane
All cells are bound by a membrane called plasma membrane. It encloses the living substance of the cell called
protoplasm.

Main characteristics of Plasma membrane are -

(i) It is made up with proteins and lipids (fats).

(ii) Proteins are scattered in the phospholipid bilayer.

(iii) It is selectively permeable i.e. only selective solute can pass through the membrane.

(iv) Most excepted model was given by Singer and Nicholson (1972) which is called fluid mosaic model.

(v) It is less than 1/10,000 mm in thickness.

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(vi) Structure of membrane can explain all the characteristic functions like diffusion, osmosis, movement of
ions etc.

(vii) The polysaccharides are attached to the memberane proteins or the lipids are involved in cell to cell recognition
mechanism. eg. fertilization (when sperm and egg recognize each other)

(viii) The lipid bilayer is a barrier to water and anything that is water soluble. But, the majority of a chemicals
that need to pass in or out of the cell are water soluble. The protein molecules in the membrane act
as hydrophilic pores, water-filled channels that allow water-soluble chemicals to pass through. Pores are
usually small and highly selective : they allow only some molecules or ions to pass through them.

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(ix) Water is a polar molecule (it has regions of positive and negative charge) and is a solvent for polar substances
such as sugars, charged ions (Na+ , Cl– , Ca2+ , K + ), B and C vitamins and amino acids. Polar substances
do not dissolve in lipids and so can only cross a cell surface membrane by going through pores.
Most fats, oils and lipids are non-polar molecules (they do not have charged regions) and do not dissolve
in water. Other non-polar substances (such as vitamins A, D, E and K) can dissolve in lipids and so can
cross a cell surface membrane without going through pores.
Carbohydrate chain
External surface memberane Glycolipid

Hydrophilic head Glycoprotein

Protein
molecule

Internal surface membrane

Phospholipid bilayer
Hydrophobic tail

Plasma Membrane
Diffusion

It is movement of substances from their higher concentration to their lower concentration.

eg. O2 from environment flows towards the lungs because lungs having low O 2 concentration.

CO2 from lungs flows outside because it has high concentration in lungs as compare to outer environment.

Osmosis

It is a process in which water molecules moves from its higher concentration to lower concentration through
semipermeable membrane (only solvent can pass from this type of membrane). The hydrostatic pressure due
to the amount of water inside the cell, caused by osmosis is called as turgor pressure.

According to permeability membranes are of following types

(i) Permeable-solvent and solute can pass.

(ii) Semipermeable-only solvent can pass.

(iii) Selectively permeable-solvent and selected solutes can pass

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(iv) Impermeable-nothing can pass.

Active transport

Active transport is the movement of any substance through the cell membrane that requires energy. The
energy is provided by adenosine triphosphate (ATP) produced by aerobic respiration in the mitochondria. Active
transport is a rapid process and is usually unidirectional. Some membrane proteins act as carrier molecules
and transport the substance to the other side of the membrane.

Transport proteins are complex molecules embedded in the cell membrane which help move substances into
and out of the cell.

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Cell wall
(i) It is only found in plants, fungi and bacterial cells.
(ii) It is an additional protective covering outside the cell membrane which made the cell rigid.
(iii) It is made up with cellulose which is a type of carbohydrate.
(iv) Cell wall is totally dead and make the wall permeable for all type of solutes and solvents.
(v) Wall gives the shape to the plant cell.
(vi) Being rigid it provides mechanical strength to the cell.
(vii) Cell wall is made up with middle lamella, primary wall and secondary wall.
(viii) The middle lamella is the cementing layer and is common to two cells.
(ix) The primary wall is the first formed elastic wall and is thinner. It is formed of cellulose microfibrils and
pectin polysaccharides.
(x) The thicker secondary wall occurs inner to the primary wall in mature and non-dividing cells only.
Cell wall material in all eubacteria and cyanobacteria is peptidoglycan or murein. In some cells an extra
protective layer may present outside the cell wall which is known as Glycocalyx. In some bacteria it is in
the form of loose sheath called slime layer, other may have a thick and tough covering called capsule.
In fungi cell wall is made up of chitin.
Nucleus
(i) Discovered by Robert Brown (1831).
(ii) Most of the cell which posses single nucleus are called uninucleated. Certain protista such as Paramecium
are binucleated i.e., have two nucleus. Cells of bone marrow, striated muscles, certain algae and fungi
possess many nuclei and are called multinucleated.
(iii) Nuclear envelope is double membranous structure that surrounds the nucleus and separates the cytoplasm.
(iv) Nuclear envelope is having pores which are called nucleopores that allows large macromolecules and
ribosomes to pass through it.
(v) Nucleus contains nucleoplasm which contains nucleoproteins, nucleotides and number of enzymes.
(vi) All above material is required to synthesize DNA (deoxy ribonucleic acid) which is a genetic material.
(vii) DNA forms the condensed structures at the time of cell division called chromosomes which control the
hereditary characters.
On the basis of the presence or absence of a well developed nucleus, organisms can be of two types
(1) Prokaryotes : organisms, whose cells lack a nuclear membrane and the genetic material lies freely in the
form of nucleoid, are known as prokaryotes. Ex. Bacteria, blue green algae.
(2) Eukaryotes : organisms, whose cells have a well organized nucleus with nuclear membrane are known as eukaryotes.
Ex. All plant and animal cells.

Ribosomes

RER
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Nucleolus Nuclear Pores

Chromatin
material

ER

Outer Membrane Nuclear

Inner Membrane
Perinuclear Space Envelope
Ribosomes
Nucleoplasm

Nucleus
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Structure of Chromosomes
The most ideal time to study the structure of a chromosome is the metaphase stage of mitosis in cell division
because chromosomes are highly condensed at this stage of cell division. The gross structure of metaphase
chromosome shows the following parts:

(i) A chromosome consists of two identical halves, the chromatids, held together at one point, the centromere.
(ii) Each sister chromatid has a kinetochore, a specialized protein structure located at the centromere.

(iii) A chromatid contains a single fine chromatin fibre, which is very long and greatly coiled to be accommodated
in a short chromatid. The chromatin fibre is composed of DNA, combined with histone proteins.

(iv) The terminal parts of linear chromosome are called telomeres. They are regions of highly repetitive
DNA. Telomere prevents the adhesion of one chromosome to another at the telomeric ends. When a
chromosome breaks, the telomeric ends ensure that the broken chromosomes are reunited at the broken
end only.

(v) The electron microscope shows a chromatin fibre as a chain of repeating units called nucleosomes.

(vi) The central part or core of a nucleosome is made up of histone proteins which are of four types - H2A,
H2B, H3, and H4 (H for histones). There are two molecules of each of these, which together form an
octamer (eight molecules) in the centre.
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(vii) DNA surrounds the histone octamer by 1 turns and is 2 nm in diameter. This part of DNA consistss
4
of 146 base pairs.

(viii) There is another histone protein H1 which binds to the DNA of the nucleosome where it enters and leaves.
H1 helps in DNA packing (a process of condensing a chromatin into chromosomes). This process enables
a very large amount of DNA to fit into the nucleus of a cell.

(ix) The part of the DNA that connects two adjacent nucleosomes is called linker DNA or spacer DNA.

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Solenoid chroma tin fibre

The packing of DNA as a 30-nm fibre of chromatin which results from the helical winding of at least five
nucleosome stands is defined as solenoid DNA.

Euchromatin and heterochromatin

The chromatin is observed only in the interphase and is differentiated into two regions - euchromatin and
heterochromatin.

( a ) Euchromatin : The lightly stained and diffused region of the chromatin which is highly active is known
as euchromatin. It contains comparatively large amount of DNA.

( b ) Heterochromatin : The darkly stained, tightly packed, or condensed region which is comparatively
inactive part of the chromatin is known as heterochromatin.

Classification of Chromosomes
A chromosome may have either equal or unequal arms depending on the position of the centromere. Accordingly,
the chromosomes are of four types :

( a ) Metacentric chromosome: Here, the centromere is near the middle and the two arms are almost equal
in length.

( b ) Submetacentric chromosome: The centromere is slightly away from the middle point and consequently
its one arm is slightly shorter than the other arm.

( c ) Acrocentric chromosome: Here , the centromere is near the end and consequently its one arm in very
short and the other arm very long.

( d ) Telocentric chromosome : The centromere is at the tip of chromosome and the arm is on one side
only.

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DNA
(i) Model given by - Watson & Crick.

(ii) It consist two polynucleotide chains which form a double helical staircase.

(iii) Single nucleotide is made up w ith nitrogenous bases, phosphate group and pentose sugar.

(iv) Both the chains are joined together by weak hydrogen bonds present between the nitrogen bases.

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Nucleotide

Sugar
phosphate
back bones
34Å

Two anti
parallel chains

3.4Å
Base

20Å RNA ribo nucleic acid genetic

material eg: Viruses

(v) There are two types of nitrogen bases.

(a) Purines - Adenine (A) and Guanine (G)

(b) Pyrimidine - Cytosine (C) and Thymine (T)

The pairing is such that always:

Adenine pairs with Thymine and has two hydrogen bonds, A = T

Cytosine pairs with guanine and has three hydrogen bonds, C G

(vi) Total amount of purine is equal to total amount of pyrimidine in any DNA. i.e., A + G = C + T.

This was established by Chargaff and is known as Chargaff' s rule of base equ ivalence.

(vii) Double helix is twisted. It takes a complete turn after every 34 Å.

(viii) There are 10 nitrogen base pairs in a complete turn (34 Å).
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(ix) Width of DNA molecule is 20 Å.

Significance of DNA
(i) DNA controls all the activities of the cell, both directly and indirectly. The unique feature of the DNA
is its property of duplicating itself during cell division (replication).

(ii) It is the genetic material. It contains the genetic code which guids the synthesis of proteins. DNA synthesises
RNA which helps in protein synthesis.
(iii) DNA can undergo mutations and recombinations to bring about variations, which play an important role
in speciation (formation of new species from preexisting forms).

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Ribonucleic Acid
RNA occurs in all living cells and in viruses. In eukaryotic cells, more than 90% of the RNA is found in the
cytoplasm and the rest in the nucleus. RNA has been found to be the genetic material in some plants, animals,
viruses, and in bacteriophages. Such RNA is called the genetic RNA. In other organisms, where the genetic
information is contained in the DNA, RNA occurs in the nucleus, cytoplasm, ribosomes, chloroplasts, and
mitochondria. Such an RNA is called non-genetic RNA.
Like DNA, RNA is a macromolecule and is a polynucleotide chain.
But it is a single-stranded molecule and is shorter than the DNA molecule.
It may twist by itself so as to form loops and helical regions. The pentose
sugar in RNA is ribose. Nitrogenous bases of RNA are distinguished
based on structure and functions. They are messenger RNA (mRNA),
transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
All types of RNA are synthesised on one of the strands of DNA by
a process called transcription.
(i) Messenger RNA (mRNA) accounts for about 5 -10% of the total
cellular RNA. Because it carries information from the DNA for
protein synthesis, it is known as messenger RNA.
(ii) Transfer RNA (tRNA) or adapter RNA consists of about 70 -90
nucleotides and forms about 10 -12% of the total RNA in the
cytoplasm. tRNA molecules transfer a specific amino acid from the
amino acid pools to the ribosome during protein synthesis. Hence
it is called transfer RNA (tRNA).
(iii) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) forms about 80% of the total RNA in a cell. rRNA helps in binding the mRNA
and tRNA to the ribosomal surface. It coordinates the process of protein synthesis, and acts as an enzyme
ribozyme.
Gene
(i) Each chromosome consists a number of genes.
(ii) A gene is a short segment of DNA.
(iii) Genes are arranged in a linear order on a chromosome. Each gene has a specific position and carry
specific function. At times a set of genes is required for a single function.
Nucleolus
It is naked, rounded or irregular body which is attached to chromatin at specific region. It was discovered
by Fontana (1781) and present name was given by Bowman (1840). A nucleolus has four regions-amorphous
matrix, granular region, fibrillar region and chromatin part.
Functions of nucleus
(i) It contains all the genetic information required for the growth, development of the organism, reproduction,
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metabolism and behavior.

(ii) It passes all the genetic information to the daughter cells.
(iii) Nucleus takes part in the formation of ribosome.
(iv) It develops genetic variations that contribute in evolution.
(v) It controls all metabolic activities of cell.
Nucleoid
In prokaryotes true nucleus is absent so it is known as nucleoid.
Key point
Study of chromosome sets is known as karyotyping.

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Golgi body
(i) In 1898 Camillo Golgi discovered this apparatus in nerve cell of owl and cat.
(ii) In animal cell it is localized near the nucleus but in plant cell it is unconnected unit called dictyosomes.
(iii)It is composed with cisternae, vesicles, tubules and vacuoles. Golgi body is single membrane covering.
(iv) Functions of golgi body are-secretion, formation of carbohydrates, glycoproteins, cell wall, cell membrane,
lysosomes, acrosome of sperm, cell plate formation.
(v) Cisternae are stack one above another and form shallow bowl like structure.
(vi) The convex side called forming or cis face lies towards the cell membrane, while the concave side called
maturing or trans face remains towards the nucleus.
Maturing Golgian
vacuoles Secretion
face vesicles

Rough
vesicle
Cisternae

Tubules

Forming E.R. vesicles

face

Golgi Complex
Mitochondria
(i) It is popularly known as power house of the cell or ATP generation site.
(ii) It is enclosed in double membrane envelop. Outer membrane is smooth but inner membrane surrounds
a fluid filled central cavity called matrix.
(iii) The inner membrane is infolded into the matrix as incomplete partition called cristae, which increase
the surface area.
(iv) Cristae bear small tennis racket like particles called elementary particals, F 0-F 1 particles or oxysomes.
(v) These particles are associated to respiration and formation of energy in the form of ATP (adenosine tri
phosphate) so mitochondria is called as power house of the cell.
(vi) Mitochondria is a semi autonomous body because it has its own DNA and ribosome and can self replicate.

Mitochondrion

Outer
membrane
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Free
ribosomes
in the
mitochondrial
matrix Inner
membrane
Cristae
Matrix

Mitochondrial 100nm
DNA
Mitochondrion
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ATP is a form of energy which is synthesized by the mitochondria and stored for further use.ATP synthetase
enzyme is responsible for the formation of ATP.

Plastid
(i) Plastids are semi autonomous organelles having DNA and double membrane envelope.

(ii) Depending upon colour, plastids are of three types-leucoplasts, chromoplasts and chloroplasts.
(iii) Leucoplast is colorless and used to store proteins (Aleuroplast), oil (elaioplasts) and starch (amyloplast).
(iv) Chromoplast are colored and contain pigments other than green.

(v) Chloroplast is green which takes part in the synthesis of organic food (by photosynthesis).
(vi) The ground substance is called Stroma, number of membranous structures called thylakoids run throughout
stroma. Thylakoids have chlorophyll and are placed one above the other like stack of coins to form grana.
(vii) Main functions are-photosynthesis, fix CO2, store fats.

Chloroplast

matrix
starch pairs
lipid droplets
grana (stereogram)
ribosomes
lamellae of the stroma

stroma granum double

membrane

TEM of the granum showing thylakoid

membranes in which chlorophyll pigments
are held (× 38000)

thylakoid membrane
of the grana
chlorophyll pigments are contained
in the grana, sandwiched between lipids
and proteins of the thylakoid membranes
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Endoplasmic reticulum
(i) ER is a three dimensional complicated and interconnecting system of membrane lined channels that run
through the cytoplasm.
(ii) It remain continuous with the plasma membrane, nuclear envelop and Golgi body.
(iii) ER is made up with cisterne, vesicles and tubules. Depending upon the nature of the membrane, it is
of two types-smooth ER and rough ER.
(iv) SER is engaged in the synthesis and storage of glycogen, fat and steroids and detoxification of drugs and
poisons.
(v) RER is associated with protein synthesis because of ribosome present on its surface.

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Cytoplasmic
matrix
Ribosomes

Rough
Endoplasmic reticulum

Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum

Lumen of E.R.
Membrane of E.R.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Ribosome
(i) Ribosomes are also called "organelle within an organelle" and protein factory of the cell.
(i) Ribosome is small sub-spherical granular organelles, not enclosed by any membrane.
(ii) Each ribosome is made up with two unequal sub units which join together only at the time of protein
synthesis in the presence of Mg 2+ ions in specific concentration (translational step).
(iii) They are made up with r-RNA and proteins. And at the time of protein synthesis, they attach with m-
RNA and form polyribosome.
(iv) In prokaryotes two sub units are 30S and 50S (together 70 S) and in eukaryotes they are 40S and 60S
(together 80S).
(v) Most ribosomes occurs in clusters of two to six attached to messenger RNA (m-RNA) called polyribosomes
or polysomes.

Central protuberance
Cleft
Valley Stalk
Head
Ridge

Base
Large subunit
Smaller subunit Large subunit

Different Subunits of Ribosome

(vi) In mammals 55 S type of ribosomes present in mitochondrial matrix.
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Lysosomes
Lysosomes were first reported by Christian de Duve in 1955. They occur in most animal cells and in the
meristematic cells of a few plants. They are absent in bacteria and mature mammalian erythrocytes.
Structure
Lysosomes are tiny, membrane-bound, vesicular structures of the cytoplasm which perform intracellular digestion
of the cell. They are polymorphic (i.e., of four types) - primary lysosomes, secondary lysosomes, residual bodies,
and autophagic vacuoles. Lysosomes regularly engulf bits of cytosol containing waste (foreign material and
worn out cell organelles), which are digested there. Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes capable of digesting
proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.

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F un c ti on s
(i) Lysosomes are involved in the digestion of microorganisms such as bacteria entering the cell by phagocytosis.

(ii) In certain pathological conditions, lysosomes start to digest the various organelles of cells and this process
is known as autolysis. Hence, lysosomes are called digestive bags.

(iii) Lysosomes are sometimes called suicide bags because the enzymes they contain could digest the whole
cell if they burst.

(iv) Lysosomal enzymes are used in the process of apoptosis (i.e., the programmed cell death of body tissues).
For example, the gradual disappearance of tail in tadpole during metamorphosis is due to lysosomal enzymes.

Difference between plant cell and animal cell

Rough endoplasmic reticulum Middle lamella

Plasmodesmata Cell walls of adjacent cells

Nuclear pore
Free ribosomcs scattered
throughout cytoplasm
Nuclear envelope Endoplasmic reticulum
bound ribosomes
Nucleolus
Cross-section of a pSant cell

Chloroplasts
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Cell surface Rough endoplasmic reticulum

membrane
Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
Mitochondrian
Microtubule – often near
cell periphery
Cytoplasm Golgi apparatus

Tonoplast
Golgi vesicle
Vacuole
Cross-section of a plant cell

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Absorption or secretion at Microvillus-increased surface

base of microvilli area for absorption or secretion
Exocytosis of
Pinocytotic vesicle
secretory product

Secretory vesicle or
secretory 'granule' Two centrioles right-angled
to each other and close to nucleus
Golgi vesicles

Nuclear envelope
Golgi (double membrane)
apparatus
Nuclear pore
Cell surface
membrane
Nucleolus

Cytoplasm
Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum Free ribosomes scatter
Mitochondrion Endoplasmic reticulum throughout cytoplasm
Lysosome bound with ribosomes
Smooth endoplasmic
recticulum
Animal cell

Plant Cell Animal cell

1. A plant cell is usually larger in size. 1. An animal cell is comparatively smaller in size.
2. A rigid cell wall in addition to plasma membrane. 2. It is enclosed by a thin, flexible plasma
membrane only.
3. It can not change its shape. 3. An animal cell can often change its shape.
4. Plastids are present. Plant cells exposed to sunlight 4. Plastids are usually absent,
contain chloroplast.
5. A mature plant cell contains a large central vacuole. 5. An animal cell often possesses many small
vacuoles.
6. Nucleus lies on one side in the peripheral cytoplasm. 6. Nucleus usually lies in the centre.
7. Centriole are usually absent except in motile cells of 7. Centriole is practically present in all animal
lower plants. cells.
8. Golgi apparatus consists of a number of distinct or 8. Golgi apparatus is either localized or consists of
unconnected units called dictyosomes. a well connected single complex.
9. Lysosomes are rare. Their activity is performed by 9. Lysosomes are always present in animal cells.
specialised vacuoles.
10. Glyoxysomes may be present. 10. Glyoxysomes are absent.
11. Tight junctions and desmosomes are lacking. 11. Tight junctions and desmosomes are present
between cells.
12. Reserve food is generally in the form of starch or fat. 12. Reserve food is usually in the form of glycogen
and fat.
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13. Plant cell can synthesize all the amino acids, 13. Animal cell can not synthesize all the amino
Coenzymes and vitamins required by them. acid coenzymes and vitamins required by them.
14. Crystals of inorganic substances may occur inside the 14. Crystals are usually absent.
cell.
15. Spindle formed during cell division is anastral i.e., 15. Spindle formed during cell division is
without asters at the poles. amphiastral Le., has an aster at each pole.
16. Cytokinesis occurs by cell plate method. 16. Cytokinesis occurs by constriction or furrowing.
17. Plant cell do not burst if placed in hypotonic 17. Animal cells burst hypotonic solution due to the
solution due to the presence of cell wall. absent of cell wall.

A plant cell has the potential to develop whole plant when it is kept in culture medium. This property of
cell is known as totipotency, used in micropropogation.

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Glyoxisomes
In plant cells, some organelles show morphological similarities to the peroxisomes of animal cells but they
contain enzymes of glyoxylate cycle. They are related to metabolism of fats. The glyoxylate cycle allows fungi,
protozoa and plants to convert fats into carbohydrates.
Discovered by Beever in oil containing seeds, yeast cells, guard cells etc.
(i) Glyoxysomes occurs only in plants especially in fatty seeds (castor seed), guard cells of stomata and unripe
fruits. Glyoxylate cycle in linked with the TCA cycle and used and used for production of acids in fruit.
(ii) Glyoxysomes are considered as a highly specialised peroxisomes.
Sphaerosomes
(i) Hanstein (1980) first observed them in groundnut. Perner (1953) named them sphaerosomes. Sphaerosomes
occur only in plant cells. They are major site of lipid storage and synthesis in plants.
(ii) Sphaerosomes also have lysosome like activity so they also termed as plant lysosomes.
Peroxisomes or Uricosomes
Discovered by Rhodin and Tolbert. Urate oxidase, Amino acid oxidase, Hydroxy acid oxidase, Peroxiase (Smallest),
Catalase (Largest) enzymes occurs in it.
(i) In animal cells peroxisomes concerned with peroxide (H2O2) metabolism, Urate oxidase, Amino acid oxidase
and peroxidase. Peroxidase induces the oxidation of animo acids to producing H2O 2. Catalase degrade
the H2O 2 into water and oxygen.
(ii) In plants, peroxisomes occurs in cells of green tissues and concerned with photorespiration (glycolate pathway).
(iii) Peroxisomes may involved in -oxidation of fatty acids.
(iv) They also detoxify alcohol in liver cells.
Centrioles (Centrosome)
Centriole (Greek, centrum = centre) was discovered by Van Beneden in 1887 and its structure was elaborated
by Boveri in 1888. Centrioles are found in all animal cells except the mature mammalian RBCs. They are
absent in prokaryotes, fungi, and higher plant such as gymnosperms and angiosperms.
C en triole s
(i) It is non-membranous, cylindrical structure present near the nucleus in the animal cells only.
(ii) It is made up with microtubules arranged in specific manner (9+0). It is not bound by membrane.
(iii) Centriole helps in cell division. In plant cells, polar caps are present which function as centrioles.
(iv) Centriole form basal body of Cilia and flagella.
Structure
Centrioles are barrel-shaped organelles found in the cells of animals and protists. They occur in pairs, usually
at right angles to each other near the nucleus. The region surrounding the pair of centrioles is known as
centrosphere. Each centriole is a short cylinder with a 9 + 0 pattern of microtubule triplets, that is, a ring
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F un c ti on s
(i) At the time of cell division, centrioles move to the poles and from asters which organise the spindle fibres
during the process of cell division.
(ii) Centrioles give rise to cilia and flagella in animal cells.

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Vacuoles
Vacuoles are membrane bound non-cytoplasmic sacs that contain non living liquid or solid contents.
They are common fluid filled vacuoles which occur in both plant and animal cells. In animal and young plant
cells, sap vacuoles are small. In mature plant cells, there is a large central vacuole occupying 50–90% of cell
volume. The covering membrane of the sap vacuole is called tonoplast. The fluid content of the vacuole is called
cell sap. Sap vacuole stores salts, sugar, amino acid, organic acids and some proteins. It is also a dump for
waste products in plant cells. Sap vacuole helps in maintaining turgidity and rigidity of the cell. It is also required
in osmotic absorption of water.

Cell Communication
In multicelled organisms, individual cells must communicate and join with one another to create a harmonious
organism. Cell junctions can be classified in three functional groups: tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions,
and plasmodesmata.
Tight junctions are belts around the epithelial cells that line organs and serve as a barrier to prevent leakage
into or out of those organs. In the intestinal epithelium, tight junctions keep the contents of the intestine within
the intestine. In the urinary bladder, they prevent the urine from leaking out of the bladder into the surrounding
body cavity.

Tight Junction
De smosomes are found in many tissues and have been compared to spot welds that rivet cells together.
They consist of clusters of cytoskeletal filaments from adjacent cells that are looped together. They occur
in tissues that are subjected to severe mechanical stress, such as skin epithelium and the neck of the uterus,
which must expand greatly during childbirth.

Filaments
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Desmosome

Gap junctions permit the passage of materials directly from the cytoplasm of one cell to the cytoplasm
of an adjacent cell. In the developing embryo, gap junctions serve to couple cells together as cells take on
different identities and begin to differentiate. In the muscle tissue of the heart, the flow of ions through the
gap junctions coordinates the contractions of the cardiac cells.

15
Class IX

Channels

Gap Junction
Plasmodesmata connect one plant cell to the next. They are analogous to gap junctions in animal cells.
The signal transduction pathway relies on plasma membrane proteins in a multistep process in which
a small number of extracellular signal molecules produce a major cellular response. Three stages occur in
this type of cell signaling: reception, transduction, and response. In reception, the signal molecule, commonly
a protein that does not enter the cell, binds to a specific receptor on the cell surface, causing the receptor
molecule to undergo a change in conformation. This change in conformation leads to transduction, a change
in signal form, where the receptor relays a message to a secondary messenger. This secondary messenger,
such as cyclic AMP (cAMP), induces a response within the cell. Cell-to-cell recognition is the cell's ability
to distinguish one type of neighboring cell from another and is crucial to the functioning of a multicelled organism.
A feature of all cells that aids in cell communication is the glycocalyx, which consists of oligosaccharides (small
chains of sugar molecules) attached to integral proteins within the plasma membrane. The glycocalyx is responsible
for such phenomena as contact inhibition, the normal trait of cells to stop dividing when they become too
crowded.
Why cells grow and divide ?
In order to keep alive, every cell has to obtain organic and inorganic and inorganic materials from its immediate
environment, metabolise the same, and dispose the metabolic waste products into the environment. These
processes not only generate the flow of bioenergy but also result in the biosynthesis of macromolecular components,
which lead to the steady growth of cells. The metabolic reactions are controlled by the genetic material present
in the nucleus. As the cell grows, the normal equilibrium between cell volume and surface area on one hand
and between the volume of cytoplasm and size of nucleus on the other hand gets distributed. After ataining
the optimum growth, it becomes obligatory for the cell to divide and restore equilibrium if it has to survive.
Cell Division
Cell division functions in growth, repair, and reproduction. Two types of cell division occur, mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis produces two genetically identical daughter cells and conserves the chromosome number (2n). Meiosis
occurs in sexually reproducing organisms and results in cells with half the chromosome number of the parent
cell (n).
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Any discussion about cell division must first consider the structure of the chromosome. A chromosome consists
of a highly coiled and condensed strand of DNA. A replicated chromosome consists of two chromatids, where
one is an exact copy of the other. The centromere is a specialized region that holds the two chromatids together.
The kinetochore is a disc-shaped protein on the centromere that attaches the chromatid to the mitotic spindle
during cell division.
The cell cycle
Living and dividing cells pass through a regular sequence of growth and division called the cell cycle. The
timing and rate of cell division are crucial to normal growth and development. Two important factors limit
cell size and promote cell division, the ratio of the volume of a cell to the surface area and the capacity
of the nucleus.

16
 Biology
Ratio of the cell volume to surface area
As a cell grows, the area of the cell membrane increases as the square ot the radius while the volume of
the cell increases as the cube of the radius. Therefore, as a cell grows larger, the volume inside the cell increases
at a faster rate than does the cell membrane. Since a cell depends on the cell membrane for exchange of
nutrients and waste products, the ratio of cell volume to membrane size is a major determinant of when the
cell divides.
Capacity of the Nucleus
The nucleus must be able to provide enough information to produce adequate quantities to meet the cell's
needs. In general, metabolically active cells are small. However, cells that have evolved a strategy to exist
as large, active cells exist in several kingdoms. Large sophisticated cells like Paramecium have two nuclei
that each control different cell functions. Human skeletal muscle cells are giant multinucleate cells. The fungus
slime mould actually consists of one giant cell containing thousands of nuclei.
Phases of the cell cycle
The cell cycle consists of five major phases: G1, S, and G2 (which together are called interphase), mitosis,
and cytokinesis.
Cytokinesis

G1 phase
D ivisio n

S
is
tos phase
Mi
C e ll

G2 phase

I nt er ph as e
Interphase consists of G1, S, and G2. The G phase is a period of intense growth and biochemical activity.
S stands for the synthesis or replication of DNA. G2 is the phase when the cell continues to grow and to
complete preparations for cell division. More than 90 percent of the life of a cell is spent in interphase.
When a cell is in interphase and not dividing, the chromatin is threadlike, not condensed. Within the nucleus
are one or more nucleoli. Centrosomes, consisting of two centrioles, can be seen in the cytoplasm of an animal
cell. Plant cells lack centrosomes but have microtubule organizing centers, MTOCs.
Mitosis
Mitosis consists of the actual dividing of the nucleus. It is a continuous process. However, scientists have divided
it into four arbitrary divisions: prophase,metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Here are the characteristics
of each phase.
Prophase
• The nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate.
• The strands of chromosomes begin to condense into discrete observable structures.
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• The nucleolus disappears.

• In the cytoplasm, the mitotic spindle begins to form, extending from one centrosome to the other.
• Prophase is the longest phase of mitosis.
M e t ap h a s e
• The chromosomes line up in a single file located on the equator or metaphase plate.
• Centrosomes are at opposite poles of the cell.
• Spindle fibers run from the centrosomes to the kinetochores in the centromeres.
Anaphase
• Centromeres of each chromosome separate, and spindle fibers pull apart the sister chromosomes.
• This is the shortest phase of mitosis.

17
Class IX
Te loph as e
• Chromosomes cluster at opposite ends of the cell, and the nuclear membrane reforms.
• The supercoiled chromosomes begin to unravel and return to their normal, pre-cell division condition as
long, thread like strands.
C yt o ki n e s i s
Cytokinesis consists of the dividing of the cytoplasm. It begins during mitosis, often during anaphase. In animal
cells, a cleavage furrow forms down the middle of the cell as actin and myosin microfilaments pinch in the
cytoplasm. In plant cells, a cell plate forms during telophase as vesicles from the Golgi coalesce down the
middle of the cell. Daughter plant cells do not separate from each other. A sticky middle lamella cements
adjacent cells together.
Cell division and cancerous cells
Most cells grow and divide until they become too crowded; then they stop dividing. This reaction to overcrowding
is a normal trait and is called contact inhibition. In addition, most cells have a predetermined life span.
They normally divide for a set number of cell divisions and then die. This cannot be prevented. It is a means
by which tissues limit cell proliferation. If cells lose their contact inhibition and begin to divide uncontrollably,
they are said to be cancerous. Cancerous cells are potentially immortal as they can divide indefinitely. The
cells of a human cancer cell line, called HeLa cells, named after the woman from whom the cells were taken
more than forty years ago, are the most widely studied line of cultured human cells. These cells typically
contain 70-80 chromosomes, instead of the normal 46, and are immortal.
Meiosis
Meiosis is a form of cell division that produces gametes (sex cells, or sperm and ova) with the haploid chromosome
number (23). There are two stages in meiosis. Meiosis I (reduction division) is when homologous chromosomes
separate. Meiosis II (Equational division) is like mitosis. In meiosis I, each chromosome pairs up precisely with
its homologue into a synaptonemal complex by a process called synapsis and forms a structure known as
a tetrad or bivalent. Synapsis is important for two reasons. First, it ensures that each daughter cell will receive
one homologue from each parent. Second, it makes possible the process of crossing-over by which homologous
chromatids exchange genetic material. Crossing-over is a common and highly organized mechanism to ensure
greater variation among the gametes. In meiosis II, sister chromatids separate. The two stages of meiosis
are further divided into phases. At the beginning of meiosis cells have the diploid chromosome number. By
the end of meiosis cells contain the monoploid or haploid chromosome number (n). Each meiotic cell division
consists of the same four stages as mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Meiosis I
P roph as e I
• Synapsis and crossing-over occur. Chiasmata, the visible manifestations of the cross-over events, are visible.
• This is a longest phase.
Metaphas e I
• The homologous pairs of chromosomes are lined up double file along the metaphase plate.
• Spindle fibers from the poles of the cell are attached to the centromeres of each pair of homologous
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chromosomes.
Anaphas e I
• Homologous chromosomes are separated as they are pulled by spindle fibers and migrate to opposite
poles.
Telophase I
• Homologous pairs continue to separate until they reach the poles of the cell. Each pole has the monoploid
number of chromosomes.
C yto k in es i s I
• Cytokinesis usually occurs simultaneously with telophase I.
In some species, an interphase occurs between meiosis I and meiosis II. In other species, none occurs. In either
case, chromosomes do not replicate between meiosis I and II because chromosomes already exist as double
or replicated chromosomes.
18
 Biology
M eiosi s II
Meiosis II is functionally the same as mitosis and consists of the same phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
telophase, and cytokinesis. The chromosome number remains haploid, and daughter cells are genetically identical
to the parent cell. Each parent cell contains four chromosomes. The cell undergoing meiosis. is showing one
crossover.
Meiosis and Genetic Variation
Three types of genetic variation result from the processes of meiosis and fertilization. They are independent
assortment of chromosomes, crossing-over, and random fertilization of an ovum by a sperm. Independent
assortment of chromosomes during meiosis, homologous pairs of chromosomes separate depending on
the random way in which they line up on the metaphase plate during metaphase. Each pair of chromosomes
can line up in two possible orientations. There is a 50 percent chance that a particular gamete will receive
a maternal chromosome and a 50 percent chance it will receive a paternal chromosome. Given that there
are 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans, the number of possible combinations of maternal and paternal
chromosomes in each gamete is 23, or about 8 million. Crossover produces recombinant chromosomes that
combine genes inherited from both parents. For humans, an average of two or three crossover events occur
in each chromosome pair. In addition, at metaphase II, these recombinant chromosomes line up on the metaphase
plate in random fashion. This increases the possible types of gametes even more.
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19
Class IX
Ra ndom Fe r tili zati on
One human ovum represents one of approximately 8 million possible chromosome combinations. The same
is true for the human sperm. Thus, when one sperm fertilizes one ovum, 8 million x 8 million recombinations
are possible.

Difference between prokaryotic & eukaryotic cell

Characteristic Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Size of cell Typically 0.2-2.0 µ m in Typical 10-100 µm in
diameter diameter
Nucleus No nuclear membrane True nucleus, consisting of
or nucleoli nuclear membrane &
nucleoli
Membrane Absent Present ; examples include
enclosed lysosomes, Golgi complex,
organelles endoplasmic reticulum
mitochondria, chloroplasts
Cell wall Usually present ; When present, made up of
made up of peptidoglycan cellulose or chitin

Plasma membrane No carbohydrates and Steroid and carbohydrates

generally lacks steroid that serve as receptors
are present
Cytoplasm No cytoskeleton or Cytoskeleton ; cytoplasmic
cytoplasmic streaming streaming present
Ribosomes Smaller size (70S) Larger size (80S) ; smaller
size (70S) in organelles
Chromosome Single circular Multiple linear chromosomes
chromosome
Cell division Binary fission/ Amitosis Mitosis, meiosis

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20
 Biology

EXERCISE
Multiple choice questions

1. A plant cell has potential to develop into a full plant. This property of a plant cell is called

(1) Tissue culture (2) Totipotency (3) Cloning (4) Budding

2. Fluid mosaic model of cell membrane state that it has lipid bilayer with

(1) Proteins on both the surface (2) Proteins on the outer surface only

(3) Proteins embedded in it only (4) Some proteins embedded and some on the surfaces

3. Fluid mosaic model of cell membrane was proposed by

(1) Robertson (2) Daniell and Davson (3) Singer and Nicholson (4) Watson and Crick

4. Glycoproteins function in cell recognition which depends on its

(1) Carbohydrate portion (2) Protein portion

(3) Carbohydrate and proteins portion (4) Lipid portion

5. Which is true of active and passive transport ?

(1) Active transport is less rapid

(2) Active transport require energy whereas passive transport follows concentration gradient

(3) Active transport in connected with cations, whereas passive transport is related to anions

(4) Active transport is random whereas passive transport is selective

6. Cell recognition and adhesion is facilitated by certain components of cell membrane. These components are
generally

(1) Proteins and lipids (2) Glycoproteins and glycolipids

(3) Lipids only (4) Proteins only

7. Two animal cells are inter connected by

(1) Cell wall (2) Plasma membrane (3) Desmosomes (4) Plasmodesmata

8. If a solution outside a cell is made more concentrated so that the cell loses water to its environment and
shrinks, the external solution is said to be______to the cell contents.

(1) Hypotonic (2) Isotonic (3) Hypertonic (4) Sugar Solution

9. Cell drinking is a term used for

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(1) Pinocytosis (2) Phagocytosis (3) Endocytosis (4) Exocytosis

10. Solar energy is converted into ATP/chemical energy by

(1) Mitochondria (2) Peroxisome (3) Ribosome (4) Chloroplast

11. A membrane covering is lacking around

(1) Lysosome (2) Nucleolus (3) Mitochondria (4) Plastid

12. Cell wall shows

(1) Semi permeability (2) Permeability

(3) Impermeability (4) Differential permeability

21
Class IX
13. Photorespiration occurs in plant cells in

(1) Dictyosomes (2) Glyoxisomes (3) Peroxisomes (4) Endoplasmic reticulum

14. A membranous bag containing hydrolases used for intracellular digestion of macromolecules in a cell is called

(1) Ribosome (2) Lysosome (3) Nucleosome (4) Chromosome

15. Outer and inner membranes of mitochondria are
(1) Structurally and functionally similar
(2) Structurally and functionally different

(3) Structurally similar but functionally differrent

(4) Structurally different but functionally similar
16. In plants cytoplasm of one cell is continuous with that of the adjacent one through
(1) Cell wall (2) Plasmodesmata
(3) Endoplasmic recticulum (4) Middle lamella
17. Normally, in the process of osmosis, the net flow of water molecules in or out of the cell depends upon differences
in the :
(1) Concentration of water molecules inside and outside the cell

(2) Concentration of enzymes on either side of the cell membrane

(3) Rate of molecular motion on either side of the cell membrane
(4) Rate of movement of insoluble molecules inside the cell

18. The bacterial cell wall is composed of

(1) A phospholipid matrix (2) A lipoprotein
(3) Chitin (4) A polymer of sugars (Peptidoglycan)

19. Cell wall is present in

(1) Plant cell (2) Prokaryotic cell (3) Algal cell (4) All of the above
20. The average thickness of plasma membrane is
(1) 100-150 Å (2) 75-100 Å (3) 60-75 Å (4) 75-100
21. Middle lamella is chemically formed of
(1) Cellulose (2) Hemicellulose (3) Pectin (4) Lignin
22. Vacuolar membrane of a cell
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(1) Plasmalemma (2) Tonoplast (3) Rhizoplast (4) Mesosome

23. The cell wall of most fungi is made of
(1) Lignin (2) Suberin (3) Chitin (4) Pectin
24. The transportation of materials in the cell is done by
(1) Ribosomes (2) Lysosomes (3) Mitochondria (4) ER
25. An old living plant cell is characterized by the
(1) absence of vacuole (2) presence of two nuclei
(3) absence of nucleus (4) presence of large vacuole
22
 Biology
26. Ali performed an experiment in which he put two different cells P and Q in pure water, P swelled up and burst
eventually while cell Q became tight and firm but did not burst.

Which of the following is the most appropriate inference?

(1) Cell sap of cell P is isotonic to the pure water

(2) Cell sap of cell Q is isotonic to pure water

(3) Cell P has been obtained from a plant

(4) Cell Q is a bacterium

27. The plant cell wall possesses

(1) Cellulose (2) Hemicellulose (3) Pectin (4) All of these

28. DNA is found in

(1) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (2) Ribosome

(3) Nucleus (4) Lysosomes

29. The genetic material in the cell is

(1) m-RNA (2) r-RNA (3) t-RNA (4) DNA

30. All organelles are contained by the

(1) Cell membrane (2) Nuclear envelope

(3) Thylakoid membrane (4) None of the above

31. The part of the cell responsible for maintaining cell shape, internal organization, and cell movement is the

(1) Vesicle (2) Nucleus

(3) Endoplasmic reticulum (4) Cytoskeleton

32. Nucleoid is present in

(1) Plant cell (2) Animal cell (3) Green algal cell (4) Bacterial cell

33. Which structure includes all of the other structures?

(1) Nucleolus (2) Nucleus (3) Chromosome (4) Genes

34. The organelle having flattened cisternae near the nucleus is

(1) Mitochondrion (2) Nucleolus (3) Centrosome (4) Golgi apparatus

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35. Which one takes part in acrosome formation ?

(1) Golgi apparatus (2) Lysosome (3) Nucleus (4) Mitochondria

36. The Golgi apparatus is involved in
(1) Transporting proteins that are to be released from the cell
(2) Packaging proteins into vesicles
(3) Altering or modifying proteins
(4) All of the above

23
Class IX
37. Ribosomes are made up of

(1) Proteins (2) Lipids

(3) RNA (4) Both (1) & (3)

38. Aerobic respiration takes place in

(1) Glyoxisomes (2) Mitochondria

(3) Lysosomes (4) Chloroplasts

39. Besides nucleus DNA is also present in

(1) Ribosomes (2) Mitochondrion

(3) Lysosomes (4) Golgi complex

40. The plastids which make flowers and fruits conspicuous to animals for pollination and dispersal are :

(1) Chloroplast (2) Chromoplast

(3) Leucoplast (4) None of these

41. The type of plastids commonly found in the cells that are not exposed to light are

(1) Leucoplasts (2) Chromoplasts

(3) Chloroplasts (4) All plastids

42. Within chloroplasts, light is captured by

(1) Thylakoid within grana (2) Grana within cisternae

(3) Cisternae within grana (4) Grana within thylakoids

43. Detoxification site in the liver cell is

(1) Golgi apparatus (2) Free ribosomes (3) RER (4) SER

44. Which of the following is not present in prokaryotes?

(1) DNA (2) Cell membrane

(3) Cell wall (4) Endoplasmic reticulum

45. In which of the following is endoplasmic reticulum absent?

(1) Cells of pancreas, salivary glands (2) Erythrocytes of mammals and prokaryotes
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(3) Cells of brain (4) Nephrons

46. Which of the following is useful for the synthesis of proteins and enzymes?

(1) SER (2) Golgi complex

(3) RER (4) Mitochondria

47. Semi-autonomous and self replicating cell organelles are

(1) Lysosomes (2) Mitochondria

(3) Ribosomes (4) ER

24
 Biology
48. Refer the given Venn diagram and select the correct option.

Helps in
synthesis and
Takes part in P modification
cell transport
of proteins
Q
R
S
Provides strength
to cell cytoplasm

(1) P - Golgi apparatus; R - Microtubules (2) Q - Endoplasmic reticulum; R - Ribosomes

(3) S - Microtubules; Q - Ribosomes (4) S - Golgi apparatus; P - Lysosomes
49. Ribosomes are made up of ______ subunits.
(1) 0 (they are only one unit) (2) 2

(3) 4 (4) 3

50. Proteins synthesized by the rough ER are generally

(1) Exported from the cell

(2) For internal regulation

(3) For internal storage

(4) To digest food in lysosomes

51. The smallest cell organelle is

(1) Mitochondria (2) Microfilament

(3) Microtubule (4) Ribosome

52. Which of the following is not membrane bound?

(1) Sphaerosome (2) Mitochondria

(3) Ribosome (4) Lysosome

53. If the ribosomes of a cell are destroyed then

(1) Respiration will not take place

(2) Fats will not be stored
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(3) Carbon assimilation will not occur

(4) Proteins will not be formed

54. Which of the following is the most primitive cell organelle ?

(1) Ribosome (2) Nucleus

(3) Mitochondria (4) Plastid

55. Centrioles and centrosomes occur in the cells of

(1) Green plants (2) Animals

(3) Bacteria and Cyanobacteria (4) Both (2) and (3)

25
Class IX
56. Which of the following structures is usually present only in animal cells?

(1) Vacuoles (2) Cell wall

(3) Nucleus (4) Centrioles

57. Which cell organelle reduces the number of other organelles ?

(1) Oxysome (2) Mitochondria

(3) Lysosome (4) None of these

58. Polymorphic cell organelle is

(1) Glyoxysome (2) Golgi complex

(3) Lysosome (4) Peroxisome

59. Anthocyanin occurs in

(1) Chloroplasts (2) Leucoplasts

(3) Lysosomes (4) Vacuoles

60. Organelle covered by a single unit membrane is

(1) Peroxisome (2) Glyoxysome

(3) Lysosome (4) All of these

61. Enzymes for changing fats to carbohydrates occur in

(1) Golgi apparatus (2) Glyoxysomes

(3) Lysosomes (4) Sphaerosomes

62. Plants differ from animals in that plants have

(1) An endoplasmic reticulum (2) A central large vacuole

(3) Golgi complexes (4) Vesicles

63. Store houses of the cell are

(1) Mitochondria (2) Chloroplast

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(3) Nucleus (4) Vacuoles

64. Mitochondria are absent in

(1) Green algae (2) Bacteria

(3) Red algae (4) Brown algae

65. Which of the following is an incorrectly matched pair ?

(1) Autolysis of cell - Peroxisomes (2) Control centre of the cell - Nucleus

(3) Units of hereditary characteristics - Genes (4) Formation of spindle fibres - Centrioles

26
 Biology
66. Which of the following is correct for the given figure ?
b
a

c
(1) The part labelled 'b' is called thylakoid.
(2) The part labelled 'c' is called granum.
(3) The part labelled 'a' is the site of dark reaction.
(4) The parts labelled 'a', 'b' & 'c, all possess chlorophyll containing photosynthetic pigments.
67. Correct the given statements by replacing the underlined words and select the correct option.
(i) The viscous fluid present in the nucleus is called cytoplasm.
(ii) Vacuoles are rod shaped structures which oxidize food to provide energy.
(iii) Mitochondria contain green pigment chlorophyll and take part in photosynthesis.
(iv) Lysosomes take part in synthesis of protein.
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(1) Nucleoplasm Lysosomes Plastids Centrosome
(2) Protoplams Ribosomes Centrosome Golgi bodies
(3) Nucleoplasm Mitochondria Chloroplasts Ribosomes
(4) Protoplasm Plastids Endoplas mic Ribosomes
reticulum
68. The given figure represents a plant cell after being placed in a strong sugar solution. The different parts have
been labelled as a, b, c, d & e. Which of the following is the correct labelling ?

a b c d e
(1) Cell wall Sugar Protoplasm Vacuole Cell
solution membrane
(2) Cell Sugar Protoplasm Vacuole Cell wall
membrane solution
(3) Cell wall Sugar Vacuole Protoplasm Tonoplast
solution
(4) Cell Sugar Vacuole Protoplasm Tonoplast
membrane solution
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69. Match Column I with Column II and select the correct option from the codes given below.
Column I Col um n I I
(a) Suicide bag of the cell (i) Mitochondria
(b) Power house of the cell (ii) Ribosome
(c) Protein factory of the cell (iii) Lysosome
(d) Kitchen of the cell (iv) Endoplasmic reticulum
(e) Circulatory system of the cell (v) Chloroplast
(1) a-(iii), b-(i), c-(ii), d-(iv), e-(v) (2) a-{iii), b-(i), c-(iv), d-(v), e-(ii)
(3) a-(iii), b-(i), c-(ii), d-(v), e-(iv) (4) a-(i), b-(iii), c-(ii), d-(v), e-(iv)

27
Class IX
70. Refer the given figure of a cell. Which organelle is more in number ? Also, identify among P, Q, R and S, the
organelle which is responsible for transmission of hereditary information.

(1) Endoplasmic reticulum; P (2) Mitochondrion; Q

(3) Ribosome; R (4) Golgi body; S

ANSWERS
Qu e. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
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Ans . 2 4 3 1 2 2 3 3 1 4 2 2 3 2 2
Qu e. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans . 2 1 4 4 2 3 2 3 4 4 4 4 3 4 1
Qu e. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans . 4 4 2 4 1 4 4 2 2 2 1 1 4 4 2
Qu e. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans . 3 2 2 2 1 4 3 4 1 2 4 3 3 4 4
Qu e. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
Ans . 2 2 4 2 1 3 3 1 3 2

28
 Biology

Improvement in
6
CHAPTER
Food Resources
6.1 Plant Breeding
Crop improvement simply means to develop crops with desired characters such as higher yield, better qualities,
resistance to different stresses, shorter duration of maturity, etc. The scientists who are concerned with the
improvement of plants are called plant breeders and the science of improvement of crop varieties is called plant
breeding.
Today the science of plant breeding aim towards development of superior heredity involving various
biotechnological methods including mutation, tissue culture, genetic engineering etc. the various methods of
crop improvement are:-
1. Selection : It is the selection of plants with best characteristics. It may be mass selection i.e., large no of plants
are selected or pure line selection in which pure or self pollinated plants are selected.
Mass selection : It is the oldest and commonest method of breeding crop plants. In this method, large number
of plants having similar characters are selected and their seeds are mixed and grown together. Out of these
plants which have desirable characters like height, disease resistance, growth rate, grain characters, etc., are
selected and their seeds are again grown. From these plants, again undesirable plants are eliminated. This
procedure is repeated till the desired plants and their seeds are obtained. It is also known as the 'German
method of crop breeding.
Pure line selection : Pure line is progeny of a single self-pollinated (self-fertility) individuals having same type
of genetic characters. In this method also desirable plants are collected from a large different genetic type of
population. These selected plants are self-pollinated for a few generations till a true breed or pure line progeny
is obtained. After obtaining a true breed, these plants are multiplied on a commercial scale. Pure lines are
specially important in the improvement of self pollinated crops. Most of the improved varieties of wheat, rice,
pulses, oil, seeds, etc., have been developed by this process. Concept of pure line selection was given by
Wilhelm L. Johannsen a (a Danish geneticist).
2. Hybridization : It is the process of making a cross between two genetically diverse parents to obtain a progeny
with the desired traits. A hybridization may be (a) intervarital-between the two plants belonging to same species
(b) intraspecific-between the two varities of the same species (c) interspecific-between the different species of the
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same genus (d) intergeneric-between two different genera. Procedure of hybridization (i) selection of parents
with desired characters (ii) emasculation-removal of stamens (iii) bagging-to cover the flowers to avoid the cross
pollination (iv) tagging (v) pollination. It is not necessary that the hybrids do combine the desirable characters,
usually only one in few hundred to thousand crosses shows the desirable combination.
3. Polyploidy breeding : Majority of flowering plants are diploid (2N). Thus the organisms which possesses more
than two sets of chromosomes is called polyploidy and termed accordingly like triploid (3N), tetraploid (4N),
pentaploid (5N), hexaploid (6N) etc.
4. Induced mutation : Sudden heritable changes are called mutation. By the use of UV radiation, X-rays, cosmic
rays, gamma rays etc .,the genotype of an organism may be altered. Co60 or Cs 137 are used for producing
gamma rays.
5. Plant tissue culture : It is a technique of growing cells, tissues or organs in sterilized medium. A part of plant
called explants is used to grow the undifferentiated mass of tissue called callus, by which we can obtain the whole
plants in good number in small space and in less time.

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6. Genetic engineering : Recombinant DNA technology or genetic engineering is the technique in which we can
alter the characteristic of the organism.
For crop improvement, manipulation of gene (DNA) instead of complete chromosome set is done. In it a specific
segment of DNA from living organisms is isolated and purified .DNA sequence is broken off at two desired
places to separate specific part of DNA. This part is later inserted into the DNA of the bacterial plasmid at a
desired place. This DNA, thus obtained is called recombinant DNA. The method used is called genetic engineering.
By this method one can add, or remove or repair part of genetic material and thus can change the qualities of
an organism.
Plant breeding programmes are carried out in a systematic way world wide-in government institution and
commercial companies. The main steps in breeding a new genetic variety of a crop are-
(i) Collection of variability-genetic variability is the root of any breeding programme. The entire collection of
plants or seeds having all the diverse alleles for all genes in a given crop is called germplasm collection.
(ii) Evaluation -all the plants are evaluated and make them pureline for desirable characters.
(iii) Cross hybridization-selected parent plants are crossed to obtain hybrid seeds.
(iv) Selection and testing of recombinants-hybrids are checked that desirable characters appeared in the progeny.
(v) Release of new cultivars- new varieties are tested in different agro climatic zones then they are released in
the market for the farmers.
Hybrid Vigour or Heterosis
This F1 hybrid is superior to the two genetically dissimilar parents. Term heterosis was proposed by George H.
Shull. Heterosis is measured in terms of size, growth rate, yield ect. These cross pollinated species are heterozygous
i.e., different from both the parents. Heterosis produces useful characters, like increased size, vigour resistance
to diseases and pests, and yield, etc. It is important in crops like maize, wheat, sorghum, bajra, rice, cotton,
sugar-beets, sunflower, tomato, brinjal, onion, etc. Hybrid vigour is lost by continuous inbreeding and hence
maintained in vegetatively reproducing crops, like mango, guava, apple, chrysanthemum, dahlia, etc.
Improvement in crop yields
Crops : Plants of same kind which are grown and cultivated at one place on a large scale are known as crops.
Types of crops
( i ) Cereals : These are rich in carbohydrate and thus provide energy.
Example : Rice, wheat, maize, sorghum, barley, millets.
(i i) Pulses : These are rich in protein and thus helpful for body building.
Example : Gram(chana), moong, pea(matar), lentil(masoor), urad(blackgram), pigeon pea.
(ii i) Oil seed crops : These are rich in oil and fatty acids. Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\09th\Advance\CCP\Biology\06 Improvement in Food Resources.p65

Example : Groundnut, linseed sunflower, soyabean, mustard, sesame.

(i v) Vegetable crops : These provide vitamins, minerals along with small quantities of carbohydrate,
protein and oils.
Leaves : Cabbage, spinach, trigonella, lettuce
Roots : Carrot, radish, turnip, sweet potato
Stems : Potato, corms, rhizomes (ginger)
Bulbs : Onion, garlic
Fruits : Tomato, brinjal, gourd, cucumber
Flowers : Cauliflower, bauhinia
( v ) Spices : They are used for enhancing palatability.
Example : Chilly, black pepper, ginger, turmeric.
(v i) Fodder crops : These provide green fodder to the cattle.
Example : Berseem, sorghum, maize, oat, sudan grass, alfalfa.

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Different types of crops require different climatic conditions like temperature, humidity and photoperiods
(duration of sunlight).
Crops are divided into two groups on the basis of growing season.
Kharif crops : These crops are sown in the months of June/July and harvested in September/October every year.
Example : Paddy, maize, sorghum, pearl millet.
Rabi crops : These crops are sown in the months of October/November and harvested in March/April every year.
Example : Wheat, oat, barley and pea.

K ha r if c r ops R a b i c r ops
These are autumn or monsoon The sowing starts in winter season.
crops. The sowing starts in rainy
season.
They are sown in June-July. They are sown in October-November.
They are harvested in September- They are harvested in March-April.
October.
They require warm and wet They require dry and cold weather.
weather.
They need a lot of water. They do not need lot of water.
They can be converted into rabi They can not be converted into kharif
crops if plenty of water is crops.
available.
eg . – Rice, Cotton, Bajra, Jowar, eg . – Wheat, Barley, Gram, Pea,
Groundnut, Maize,Spinach, Mustard, Linseed, Potato, Orange,
soyabean, pigeonpea Apple.

Agriculture : It is an applied biological science which deals with the production of plants and raising of livestock
for human use.
Agriculture

Agronomy Animal husbandry

1. Horticulture - production of fruits 1. Cattle farming
2. Olericulture - production of vegetables 2. Poultry
3. Floriculture - production of flowers 3. Pisciculture
4. Apiculture
In India there has been a four times increase in the production of food grains from 1960 to 2004 with only 25%
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increase in the cultivable land area.

The major groups of activities for improving crop yields can be classified as :
(i) Crop variety improvement (the choice of seed for planting).
(ii) Crop production improvement (the nurturing of the crop plant).
(iii) Crop protection management (the protection of the growing and harvested crops from loss)

Crop variety improvement

Methods of crop improvement
(1) The traditional method of crop improvement is by sexual hybridization, making crosses between two genetically
dissimilar plants with desirable characteristics. At fertilization, the genetic information from each parent recombines,
so characteristics from each parent are inherited to the offspring. However, many other features are also inherited,
along with the desirable one.
In order to obtain improved variety following steps should be taken.

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Choice of Parents : Select two varieties of crop plants, each of which has at least one desirable quality, such as
high yield or resistance to disease.
Cross breeding : Pollen grains of plants of one variety are dusted over the stigmas of plants of the other
variety and vice-versa. It produces a new variety which has good characteristics of both the parents.
Som e hybrid/Gm se e ds
Wheat Kalyan, sarbati sonara, sonalika
Maize Ganga, ambar, jawahar

Rice Jaya, padma, pusa basmati, IR8

Bajra Hb-1, HB-3 and 4

Soyabean JS 335

Pea Bougainvilleae

Brinjal Pusa p urple, Pusa Kranti

Cotton G-57, Bt (Gm)
Hybridization may be of three types
(a) Intervarietal (between two different varieties of same species).
(b) Interspecific (between two different species of the same genera).
(c) Intergeneric (between two different genera).
(2) Alternative methods to develop new crop varieties are to use chemicals or radiation to cause imprecise
alterations to the plant’s genetic information. These cause random changes to the DNA. In some cases,
may be of agricultural benefit to the plant.
(3) Genetic modification, or plant transformation, is the newest method of crop improvement to become available
to plant breeders.
The plant in which the foreign gene has been introduced is called transgenic plant or genetically modified
plant.
For example – Bt cotton is a genetically modified crop which carries bacterial genes that protect the crop
plants from insects.
The various aspects for crop variety improvement carried out are as follows.
(1) Higher yield : To increase the productivity of crop per acre. The main aim of crop variety improvement
is to obtain higher yield e.g. grains, tubers. Such a variety is called HYV or high yielding variety.
Need of higher crop yield : There is an urgent need to continuously increase crop yield because of
(i) Rising human population.
(ii) Rising animal population.
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(iii) Increasing realization about intake of proper diet.
(iv) Limited cropping area.
(2) Better quality : Quality consideration such as baking quality in wheat, protein quality in pulses, oil quality
oil seeds and preserving quality in fruits and vegetables vary from crop to crop.
(3) Biotic and abiotic resistance : Crops production can go down due to biotic (microbes, insects, rodents)
and abiotic stresses (Flood, drought, frost). Varieties resistant to these stresses can improve crop production.
(4) Change in maturity duration : The shorter duration of the crop from sowing to harvesting, the more
economical is the variety.
(i) It helps the farmers in raising multiple rounds of crops in a year from the same field.
(ii) Cost of production is reduced.
(5) Wider adaptability : Developing varieties for wider adaptability will help in stabilizing the crop production
under different environmental conditions.
(6) Desirable agronomic characteristic : Developing varieties of desired agronomic characters helps to
give higher productivity. To achieve high productivity, the food crops (cereals) should be dwarf (short height),
so that they consume less nutrients, become stronger and withstand strong winds (prevent lodging). The fodder
crops should be tall and should have profuse branching.
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Crop production management
For successful crop production thorough understanding of how crops develop and grow, the various factors that
affect crop growth and development and how each factor can be modified or managed are essential. Plant
responses to soil conditions and atmospheric environment must be exploited to the maximum to produce a
high yield per unit area of land. The production practices include ‘‘no cost ’’ production, ‘‘low cost’’
production and ‘‘high cost’’ production. The following are some of the factors that if managed well will help
in increasing crop production :
(a) Nutrient management, (b) Irrigation, (c) Cropping patterns
Nutrient management
It is controlling the selection, timing and amount of nutrient supply to the crops. Plant nutrients are inorganic raw
materials that the plant absorb from their surroundings and utilize the same in building up their organic matter.
There are 16 essential elements for growth and development of plants. They are classify into two groups :
Mac ronutrients : The essential elements utilized by plants in relatively large quantities are called major
nutrients or macronutrients.
Micronutrients : The essential element utilized by plants in relatively small quantities or traces are called
micronutrients.
Sources of Nutrients

S.No. Sources Nutrients Types

1. Air Carbon, Oxygen. Macro nutrients.

2. Water Hydrogen. Macro nutrients.

3. Soil Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Macro nutrients.

Potassium, Sulphur, Calcium,
Magnesium.

Iron, Manganese, Boron, Micro nutrients.

Zinc, Copper, Molybdenum,
Chlorine.

Crop protection management

In fields, crops have to be protected from weeds, insects-pests and disease-causing organisms like fungi.
All these cause damage to crop plants so much that most of the crop is lost. Thus, crops can be protected by
the following methods :
Use of pesticides.
Use of resistant varieties.
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Crop rotation and other cropping systems

Summer ploughing.
Pest
Any destructive organism that causes great economic damage or destroying crop plants are called pests.
Examples : Weeds, insects, mites, nematodes.
Storage of grains
About 9.3% of the food grains produced in our country are lost every year due to improper methods of storage
and inadequate storage.
Fa c tors a ffec tin g st ore d fo od
( i ) Biotic factors : e.g. insects, microorganisms, mites, birds, rodents and other animals.
(i i) Abiotic factors : e.g. moisture, humidity and temperature.
Non perishable food materials are stored on a commercial scale in gunny bags or in grain silos.
Pesticides are applied on the stored food grains either by spraying or by fumigants.
(i) Spraying : Malathion and pyrethrum are commonly used by spraying.
(ii) Fumigants : Volatile pesticides are called fumigants.
Ethylene dibromide (EDB), aluminium phosphide,
Celphos, CH3Br, Zinc phosphide.

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6.2 Animal husbandry

The branch of farming which deals with the scientific management of animal livestock is called animal husbandry
that involves the rearing, feeding, breeding and caring of domestic animals. This needs management of livestock
like proper feeding, proper shelter, breeding, prevention and cure of animal diseases and proper economic
utilization.
Animal breeding
When breeding is between animals of the same breed it is called inbreeding, while crosses between the different
breeds are called outbreeding.
(i) Inbreeding - superior males and superior females among them are identified and mated in pairs. The
progeny obtained from among them are identified for further mating. But repeated inbreeding usually
reduces fertility and even productivity. This is called inbreeding depression. Whenever this becomes a
problem, selected animals of the breeding population should be mated with unrelated superior animals of
the same breed. This helps restoring fertility and yield.
(ii) Out-breeding - Outbreeding is the breeding of the unrelated animals which may be between individual of
the same breed but having no common ancestors for 4-6 generations(out crossing) or between different
breeds(cross breeding) or different species (inter specific hybridization-like mule)
Controlled breeding experiments are carried out using artificial insemination. The semen is collected from the
male that is chosen as a parent and injected in the reproductive tract of females.
Often, the success rate of crossing mature male and female animals is fairly low even through artificial insemination
is carried out. To improve the chances of hybrids, other method is used called Multiple Ovulation Embryo
Transfer Technique (MOET). In this method, a cow is administrated by FSH hormone to induce more ova then
the normal cycle i.e., 6-8 ova. These ova are then fertilized by sperm of elite bull and now fertilized eggs at 8-
32 cells stages are recovered and transplanted to surrogate mothers. The genetic mother is available for further
ovulation. This technology is useful to increase the herd size for cattles, sheep, rabbits and other economically
useful animals.
Farm management practices
Farm management practices are aimed at human farming of animals that look after the health of the animals
as well as production of clean milk. It has four components.
(A) Grooming (B) Shelter (C) Feeding (D) Health care
( A ) Groom in g of c attle
(i) Cattles must be regularly groomed.
(ii) Removing dirt, loose hair and external parasite
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(iii) Washing of animals is carried out to further clean them, as clean animal provide clean milk.
( B ) Sh e lter f or c at tle
(i) Providing suitable shelter to cattle is an important part of animal husbandry.
(ii) Cattle shelters are well demarcated, partially or completely covered areas where animals can live comfortably
and are protected from predators as well as natural factors (heat, cold, rain etc.)
Characteristics of good animal shelter
(i) It should be spacious
(ii) The shelter should be clean, dry, airy and well ventilated.
(iii) There should be proper arrangement for the hygienic disposal of animal waste.
(iv) It should have arrangement of fresh, clean drinking water.
( C ) Feeding of cattle
The "Food" that contains essential components needed for the growth, development and general
maintenance of body of domesticated animal is called feed.
The feed requirement of an animal depends upon age, growth, pregnancy, lactation, nature of work and
state of health.
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Feeding management
The cattle require two kinds of food during breeding :
(i) Maintenance requirement : It contains all the nutrients for the maintenance of health of cattle. It enables
the animals to perform all the basic functions of life, provides strength and makes them resistance to diseases.
(ii) Milk producing requirement : It contain the specific nutrients required during lactation period. It thus
increases the duration of lactation period and increases the milk yield. These food requirement are fulfilled
with a specific diet containing the following components.
Roughage : Fibre – rich food, such as hay, green fodder, silage and legumes, eg., cowpea, berseem, Lucerne.
Concentrates : nutrients – rich food but low in fibres. It contains carbohydrates, vitamins and especially
high amount of proteins. Eg. Maize, oats, barley, jowar, gram and their by products such as wheat bran,
rice bran, gram husk, oil seed cakes, molasses.
Feed additives : These are micro nutrients, hormones etc, that promote health and milk output of dairy
animals.
Disease management
A healthy animal feeds regularly and has a normal posture. For prevention against viral and bacterial diseases
Vaccinations must be given to farm animals.
P a ra s i te s of C at tl e
External parasites - live on skin and cause skin diseases.
Internal Parasites - Eg. Worms and flukes. Worms affect stomach and intestine, while flukes infect and damage
the liver.
Infectious Diseases - they can spread to other animals on the farm and, can sometimes infect humans
too. These disease s can be bacterial (Anthrax, Tuberculosis) or viral (cow pox, foot and mouth disease).
Methods of breeding
There are two methods of breeding animals—natural and artificial. In natural breeding, a selected male mates
with the female in the natural course. This is the traditional method of breeding. Artificial breeding involves the
collection of the semen of a male of good variety and impregnating the female by injecting this semen.
Artificial insemination
The introduction of semen into the genital tracts (vagina) of females by artificial means is called artificial insemination.
The following should be observed for successful artificial insemination.
1. The male donor should be healthy and of the best breed to produce high-quality semen.
2. The female should be of sound health. She should be of proper age for reproduction.
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3. The time of insemination should be proper. It should be done during the reproductive cycle of the female.
4. Proper instruments and techniques should be adopted for inseminating.
Advantages of artificial insemination
This method has the following advantages.
(i) It helps in producing high-yielding breeds of milch animals. In general, the process brings about genetic
improvement.
(ii) This method of breeding animals is cheaper because semen from a single bull can be used to impregnate
several thousand cows (about 3,000) at distant places. The preserved semen in vials can be easily sent to
different places for artificial insemination. There is no need to transport the bulls to different places.
(iii) Artificial insemination ensures good-quality progeny because the selective breeding of animals with desired
characteristics becomes easier.
(iv) This method of breeding animals is more reliable than the natural method of breeding.
(v) High-quality semen is available in preserved conditions throughout the year, while a bull of good breed may
not be available all the time at all the places.

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Breeds of cow and buffalo
Important Indian breeds of cows are Sahiwal, Gir, Red Sindhi, Tharparkar and Haryana. Some of the important
Indian breeds of buffalo are Nagpuri, Surti, Nili-Ravi, Mehsana and Jaffarabadi.

Sahiwal variety of cow

High-yielding breeds of cows have been developed in India at the National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI),
Karnal, Haryana through cross-breeding Indian varieties with exotic breeds such as Jersey of USA, Brown Swiss
of Switzerland and Holstein-Friesian of Holland. Improved Indian breeds of dairy cows are:
(i) Karan-Swiss (crossbreed of exotic Brown Swiss and Indian Sahiwal)
(ii) Karan-Fries (crossbreed of exotic Holstein-Friesian and Indian Tharparkar)
(iii) Frieswal (crossbreed of extic Holstein-Friesian and Indian Sahiwal)

(a) (b)
(b) Holstein-Friesian cow (a) Jersey cow
Dr. V Kurien (born on 26th November, 1921) is regarded as the father of White Revolution, which refers to a
scheme that increased milk production in India. He established and developed this scheme of milk production
successfully. He formed the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) to manage this scheme.
Breeding in cattle
There are many popular breeds of cows and buffaloes in our country. They can be broadly divided into three
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categories : Indigenous breeds (desi breeds - they are native to India) : Eg. Red Sindhi and Sahiwal (show excellent
resistance to diseases), Foreign or Exotic Breeds : Eg. Jersey, Brown Swiss (Have a long lactation period), Cross
Breeds : The breeds chosen for cross breeding have a set of favourable characters that may become a part
of the animal that is born as a result of cross breeding, Eg. Karan fries.

Murrah, a high-yielding variety of bullalo

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Milk production from different breeds of cow
Breeds Average milk production (litres) Lactation period (days)
Sahiwal 2,800 300
Holstein-Friesian 16,000 365
Frieswal 5,000 326

Breeding of poultry
Poultry including hens, ducks, turkeys and geese, is kept for eggs and meat. The practice of keeping and
breeding these birds is called poultry farming. Poultry farming is very common because it involves small investment,
small area, quick returns and easy maintenance. Some indigenous breeds of hen are Aseel, Basara, Cochin,
Brahma, Chittagong and Ghagus. These breeds are hardy and possess natural immunity against common
diseases. But they are small, slow-growing, and produce smaller and fewer eggs. Smaller size and slow growth
also means low-meat yield. The average egg production of a desi hen is about 60 per year.
The exotic varieties of hens which have been introduced successfully in India are excellent egg-layers and good
meat producers. These are White Leghorn, Plymouth Rock. Australorp, White Rock, Light Sussex, Black
Minorcha and Rhode Island Red. The local varieties have been cross-bred with exotic breeds to get hybrid
breeds. These lay a greater number and bigger eggs, grow faster, yield more meat, and are more resistant to
diseases. Some hybrid high-yielding breeds of poultry developed in India are ILS-82, HH-260 and B-77. Birds
for egg production are called egger/layer and those for meat purpose are celled broilers. Broilers need food
riching protein with fats. Vit. A, K are kept high in poultry feeds.

6.3 Apiculture
Apiculture is the process of rearing the honey bees in the artificial hives, called apiaries, for the production of
honey at commercial level.
Species of honey bees
Honey bees belong to phylum Arthropoda and class Insecta. There are several species of honey bees some of
which are indigenous while some of them are exotic which have been introduced to increase the yield of honey.
Indigenous species
( i ) Apis dorsata : It is commonly called rock bee or giant bee (being largest in size). Though it produces
maximum amount of honey but is ferocious and migratory bee so it is difficult to domesticate this variety.
(i i) Apis indica : It is commonly called Indian bee. It can be domesticated easily as it is very gentle in nature but
it is less producing species.
(ii i) Apis florae : It is commonly called little bee (being smallest in size). It is also very docile but yield is less.
Exotic species
Apis mellifera : It is commonly called Italian bee. It is preferred over the indigenous species for the commercial
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production of honey because of its docile nature, high yield of honey, prolific egg production, less swarming and
with good defence mechanism.
Honey bee colony and social organisation : Honey bees are social and polymorphic insects. These live in
large colonies, called hives or combs, of about 40,000 to 100,000 individuals. In a colony, there are three
castes of bees which are structurally and functionally different from one another so polymorphism is associated
with division of labour. These three castes are :
Queen : Every healthy colony has only one fertile female called queen. It is the mother of the colony and has
well developed ovaries. It has long tapering abdomen, short legs and wings. Its sole function is to lay the eggs at
the rate of 1500 to 2000 in a day. While during its life span of about 3 years, a queen lays about 1.5 to 2.0
million eggs. A queen lays two types of eggs : fertilized and unfertilized eggs. Queen and workers develop from
fertilized eggs while drones develop from unfertilized eggs.
Workers : These are largest in number (about 50,000 to 60,000) but smallest sized members. These are most
active and perform variety of jobs like attending the queen and nursery, cleaning the hives, forming a new hive
and producing wax, repairing the comb, keeping the comb cool, defending the members etc. So the workers
have strong wings, long mouth parts, wax glands on abdomen, pollen collecting apparatus on the legs and a
sting at the end of abdomen.
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Drones : These are male members of the colony and are of intermediate size. These have reduced mouth parts
and are sluggish. Their sole function is to copulate with the queen.
Products of honey bees
Honey : It is produced by the workers from the collected nectar and cane sugar. It is formed of levulose, dextrose
(23%), maltose (40%), enzymes ard pigment (25%), minerals: vitamins and water.
Bee wax : It is used in cosmetics, paints, ointments, polishes, microtomy, etc.
Bee venom : It is used to cure certain diseases like gout and arthritis.
Royal jelly: It is used as tonic to heart patients and growing children.
Honey bees are chief cross-pollinating agents.
Apiculture provides additional income generating activity to the farmers.
Management for high yields of honey
Involves all those steps which are required to be undertaken to obtain good quality and higher yield of honey
from the honey bees. It involves following considerations:
Bee Foraga or Pasturage : It includes all those flowering plants
which provide pollens and nectar to the honey bees e.g. Mango, Top cover
coconut, almond, tamarind, berseem, litchi, cotton, shisham, Inner cover
apple, mahua, coriander, cashew, coffee, rubber plant, guava, Super
sunflower, etc. Their pollens form the protein rich food for honey
bees while their nectar acts as raw material of honey. The Brood
chamber
pasturage is different from region to region and depends upon
the geographical location. The quality and taste of honey depend
upon the nature of flora from which the nectar is collected. For Bottom
increased yield, the pasturage should be easily available near board Stand
the apiary. An artificial bee hive (Apiary)
Apiary or bee hive : An artificial and movable bee hive,
commonly called apiary, is about 46 × 23 cm in size and is a
wooden box.
Swarming : It is the process of leaving off the colony by the old queen with some workers and drones to
establish a new colony at a new place and to provide the enisling hive for the progeny. It normally occurs by
the end of spring or early summer. But the frequent swarming decreases the yield of honey and increases the
maintenance cost of the bee hives. So to get higher yield of honey, less swarming variety of honey bees (e.g.
Apis mellifera) should be reared.

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It is an industry devoted to the catching, processing or selling of fish, shell fish or other aquatic animals. Other
aquatic animals such as prawn, crab, lobster, oyster etc. also used for food.
Some of the freshwater fishes which are very common include catla, rohu and common carp. Some of marine
fishes that include-hilsa, sardines, mackerel etc. basically catching, rearing of fishes is known as pisciculture
and rearing for aquatic other animals aquaculture term is used.
Fis h produc tion
In fish production true fish and shell fish (e.g., prawns, molluscs, echinoderms, etc.) are captured or cultured.
True fish belong to the phylum Chordata, class Pisces.
Fish as a Source of Food
Fish provide nutritious food, oil, fertilizers and many other useful products. The term fishery may mean a part of
a sea, lake or river where fish and other edible aquatic organisms are caught or it means the industry of fishing.
For a large number of people, particularly those living in coastal areas, fish and other seafood form an important
part of diet. Fish proteins are important in human nutrition because of their growth-promoting value and easy
digestibility. Vitamins A and D are obtained from fish-liver oil. Shark- and cod-liver oil have great medicinal
value. Fish is an excellent source of protein. Fish production is important in solving the problem of malnutrition,
particularly of protein and vitamin A.

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Types of fish
Fish can be classified into three categories on the basis of habitat: marine, freshwater and estuarine (estuary:
where a river flows into the sea). Common freshwater fish found in ponds, lakes, rivers and canals are rohu,
catla, tirica, singhara, calbasu, mailt magur, etc. Some important marine fish of India are Bombay duck, eel,
hilsa, salmon, sardine and pomphret. India produced about 57 lakh tonnes of freshwater fish during
1999-2000.
Fish farming
In freshwater fisheries or culture fisheries, fish eggs (called fish seeds) are put in nurseries known as hatcheries.
The young fish which hatch from the eggs are fed and nursed. They are harvested when fully grown. Producing
fish in nurseries has improved their survival rate from 30 per cent to 95 per cent. Marine fisheries or capture
fisheries are parts of seas where fish are caught using fishing boats, baits, nets, trawlers and sophisticated
electronic locaters.
There are many freshwater fish-culture systems in India. These include the following types of culture systems.
Carp cu lture (c ompos ite-fish c ulture)
• Air-breathing fish culture
• Fish culture in cages
• Fish culture in paddy fields
• Integrated fish culture
• Fish culture in cold water
• Fish culture in bundhs and dams
• Fish culture in seasonal ponds
• Freshwater pearl culture with pearl oyster
Inland Fisheries
Inland fisheries refers to the conservation and utilisation of fish in the inland water bodies such as ponds, flooded
plains, wetlands, rivers, canals, estuarine bodies, etc. It also includes a study of the way the fish population
interacts with each other in the inland water bodies exceeding 10 ha (ha is the symbol for hectare) in water area.
To optimize fish production from inland water bodies, it is important to develop composite - fish culture. A
combination of six species is used in this culture system. Fish production can also be increased by producing
riverine fish seeds. Fish seeds are baby fish also called fish fries. The culture of air-breathing fish (e.g., magur
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and catfish); the study of ecology of the inland water bodies, (for example, to control aquatic weeds), and the
management of water reservoirs used as fish farms help to increase fish production. Monitoring the environment
and maintaining fish health also comes under the study of inland fisheries. The purpose of such studies is to
optimize fish production from the water bodies.
Marine Fisheries
The broad objectives of marine fisheries are the same as that of inland fisheries, except that it deals with fish
that live in the sea. It aims at optimizing the production and capture of edible and ornamental marine fish and
harnessing their products. At the same time, both fisheries follow similar techniques of induced maturation,
breeding, seed production and determination of contaminants in the environment. The marine species are
different from the freshwater ones. Some of the common marine fish are sardines, anchovies, seer fish, tunas,
tuna live-baits and bil fish, mackerel, Bombay duck, threadfin breams, silver bellies, pomphrets and ornamental
fish (e.g., clown fish and damsel fish). In addition to these, marine fisheries include the culture of shrimpsm,
lobsters, crabs and marine prawns; sea farming of oysters and mussels and pearl culture. Yield increased by
using satellites and echosounds.

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Class IX
C om pos i te -fi s h c u ltu re
Composite-fish culture involves the culture of several species of fish at the same time. In this culture care is taken
so that all the fish do not compete with one another for food and shelter. This is possible because the fish used
for this purpose occupy different zones of the pond. Some feed at the bottom of the pond, e.g., carps. Some
like catla and silver carps are surface feeders. Some like Rohu feed at an intermediate level in the water. There
are some like Mrigal and the common carp that feed at the bottom. Grass carp feed on the aquatic weeds in the
pond. While practicing composite-fish culture, location of the pond, its depth and its width are important
factors. It has to be ascertained whether the water resources, water quality and soil quality (i.e., the type of soil
particles and nutrients) are suitable to sustain the culture.
Induced breeding for seed production
Induced breeding is a method by which eggs and sperms are discharged spawning by fish after injecting them
with hormones extracted from the pituitary gland. This results in the fertilization of a large number of eggs in a
confined space. Induced breeding helps to obtain a large number of fish friesh or fish seeds. The seeds are then
taken in small vessels and put into different ponds or reservoirs to let them grow. Problem with it is, many of
these fishes breed only during monsoon, so major problem lack of availability of good quality seed so ways are
worked out to breed these fishes in ponds using hormonal stimulation.
Technique of fish-seed product ion by induced breedi ng
1. Use of inducing agents Breeding among the fish is synchronized by injecting them with an extract
obtained from the pituitary gland of a donor fish. The pituitary extract contains a hormone called gonadotropin.
This has a stimulating effect on the fish gonads. Nowadays, some synthetic inducing agents are also used for
this purpose. These synthetic agents include ovaprim and ovatide.
2 . Hormone extraction A particular fish is chosen to obtain the extract. Its brain is dissected out and its
pituitary gland (hypophysis) is taken out in a mortar-pestle along with some sand particles. The extracted
gland is ground along with normal saline by the pestle. The ground material is strained with a cheesecloth to
remove the cell debris and sand particles.
3 . Injecting hormones into healthy brooders The filtered material (liquid) is injected into a female fish that
is gravid. A similar dose is injected into the male fish, which too is sexually mature.
4 . Spawning After a few hours of sluggish movement in the water, the brooders discharge gametes. This is
called spawning. As the gametes are in a close proximity, there is an opportunity for the eggs and sperms
to unite and form the zygotes. They may also be called seeds. When the zygotes of a particular species are
not mixed with the zygotes or gametes of other species, they are called pure seeds of that species.
5 . Hatching The pure seeds of eggs begin to develop into embryos and then into fish fries.
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6 . Care of fish fries The fish fries should be collected gently to ensure minimum or no injury to the fish fries.
Some time it is useful to add some antibiotics also so that the fish fries do not catch any infection.
7. Transfer of fish fries Fish seeds are transferred to the nursery pond and then to the rearing pond. As the
fish grow up to a stage called the fingerling, they are transferred to the stocking pond.

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EXERCISE
Multiple choice questions
1. Aim of plant breeding is to produce
(1) Disease free varieties (2) High yielding varieties
(3) Early maturing varieties (4) All of these
2. Agronomy is the practice of raising
(1) Agriculture (2) Fruits and vegetables
(3) Plants and animals (4) Only animals
3. Green revolution refers to
(1) Growing green plants to establish ecological balance
(2) Growing green plants to arrest soil erosion
(3) Maintenance of soil fertility
(4) Development of new crop varieties with increased yield and disease resistance
4. Polyploidy can result due to
(1) Abnormal mitosis (2) Failure of meiosis (3) Double fertilization (4) All of these
5. Mutations are responsible for
(1) Genetic variations (2) Genetic stability
(3) Maintenance of genetic continuity (4) Increasing population rate
6. In hybridization programme, emasculation is done only of
(1) Female reproductive part (2) Male reproductive part
(3) Both (1) & (2) (4) None of these
7. Bagging of female parent is done to avoid
(1) Fertilization (2) Seed formation
(3) Cross pollination (4) None of these
8. Explant refers to the
(1) Starting plant material (2) Plants of previous generation
(3) Plants of tissue culture (4) Plants with totipotent cells
9. In plant tissue culture, the progeny of plants produced from the same callus shows some variations, which
are known as
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(1) Artificial mutation (2) Callus mutations

(3) Spontaneous mutations (4) Somaclonal variations
10. Dr. M.S. Swaminathan was responsible for
(1) Bringing green revolution in India
(2) Introducing improved Mexican wheat variety sonora 64 in india
(3) Developing several improved crop varieties in India
(4) All of these
11. Hybridization methodology consists of
(1) Tagging (2) Bagging (3) Emasculation (4) All of these
12. Emasculation procedure involves
(1) Removal of calyx
(2) Removal of gynoecium
(3) Removal of young anthers from the parent to be used as female
(4) Covering of androecium
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Class IX
13. Micropropagation technique is highly useful for raising
(1) Seedless fruit-yielding plants (2) Hybrid plants
(3) Disease free plants (4) All of these
14. What are the three primary nutrients needed for plant growth?
(1) Calcium, sulphur and magnesium (2) Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
(3) Zinc, boron and copper (4) None of these
15. How many chemical elements are known to be important to plants growth and survival?
(1) 16 (2) 13 (3) 3 (4) 10
16. Manure is a good source of nutrients for plants but what is the another benefit of manure ?
(1) They are nutrient specific (2) Increases number of friendly microbes
(3) Easy to store and transport (4) All of the above
17. What would you use to control dicot weeds in a cornfield?
(1) Cytokinins (2) Abscissic acid
(3) 2, 4 - dichloro phenoxy acetic acid (4) Gibberellins
18. Which of these crops does not require nitrogen fertilizer?
(1) Corn (2) Soyabeans (3) Grass hay (4) Oats
19. What does G.M.O. stand for ?
(1) Genetically Modified Organism (2) Growth Maturity Order
(3) Good Maturing Offspring (4) Gold Medal Order
20. Soil erosion is caused by
(1) Water (2) Wind
(3) Poor farming practices (4) All of these
21. When soil pH is low, which of the following elements can become toxic to plants?
(1) Oxygen (2) Carbon (3) Nitrogen (4) Aluminium
22. Soil includes the decayed remains of organisms known as :
(1) sand (2) humus (3) compost (4) clay
23. What are the physical aspects of the environment like temperature and wind called?
(1) Biotic factors (2) Abiotic factors (3) A community (4) Niches
24. Crop rotation is an important part of organic farming. Why is mono-cropping problematic?
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(1) The crop is vulnerable to organized crop thieves.
(2) It encourages the build up of diseases and pests that destroy that particular crop.
(3) It is economic.
(4) None of these
25. Biotic components include :
(1) all plants (2) all animals (3) water, air and soil (4) all the living organisms
26. Micro-organisms used to increase the growth and yield of crop plants are called :
(1) chemical fertilizers (2) biofertilizers (3) manure (4) inorganic fertilisers
27. Compost prepared with the help of earthworms is called :
(1) manure (2) vermicompost (3) green manure (4) fertilizer
28. The crops grown in rainy season are called :
(1) Kharif (2) Rabi (3) Both (1) & (2) (4) None of these

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29. Growing two or more crops in the same land is called :
(1) mixed farming (2) inter cropping (3) mixed cropping (4) ultra cropping
30. Which of the following is a weed ?
(1) Gokhroo (2) Parthenium (3) Cyprinus (4) All of the above
31. Hybrid is :
(1) homozygous dominant (2) homozygous recessive
(3) heterozygous (4) mutant
32. First step to evolve a disease resistant strain is :
(1) hybridization (2) selection (3) cross breeding (4) farming
33. Successive growing of different crops from season to season is called :
(1) mixed cropping (2) crop rotation (3) intercropping (4) mixed farming
34. Kalyan and Sarbati sonara are genetically modified forms of
(1) Wheat (2) Maize (3) Rice (4) Soyabean
35. Growing two or more crops in definite row pattern is known as :
(1) intercropping (2) mixed farming (3) mixed cropping (4) crop rotation
36. Cross breeding between different genera is :
(1) intervarietal (2) interspecific (3) intrageneric (4) intergeneric
37. The crop commonly used for crop rotation is :
(1) legume (2) cereal (3) vegetables (4) all of these
38. Which of the following is true for intercropping?
(1) Seeds of two crops are mixed before sowing
(2) Harvesting and threshing are not possible separately
(3) Pesticides can be easily applied to individual crops
(4) There are no set pattern of rows of crops
39. The process of cross-breeding of two individuals of different varieties is :
(1) artificial insemination (2) pure line breeding (3) hybridization (4) none of these
40. Which of the following is a micro nutrient?
(1) Potassium (2) Zinc (3) Calcium (4) Magnesium
41. Which of the following is a chemical substance?
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(1) Farm yard manure (2) Compost (3) Vermicompost (4) Fertilizer
42. More frequent irrigation is needed by :
(1) clayey soil (2) alluvial soil (3) black soil (4) sandy soil
43. Which of the following include only weeds ?
(1) Chenopodium, sunflower and triticale
(2) Amaranthus, chenopodium and convolvulus
(3) Convolvulus, barseem and paddy
(4) Amarnathus, convolvulus and sunflower
44. The herbicide that control weeds is :
(1) 2, 4 - D (2) Atrazine (3) Butachlor (4) All of the above
45. Plants can be made disease resistant by :
(1) hybridisation (2) weeding
(3) irrigation (4) none of these

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Class IX
46. Which of the following on reshuffling gives the term that refers to the process of sowing seeds manually by
sprinkling them on soil by hand?
(1) inlgtil (2) glnopuihg (3) atnbrdocaigs (4) giownwinn
47. Complete the given statements by selecting the correct words from the options given below,
(1) __(i)__ is a traditional method of irrigation.
(2) __(ii)__ is a common weedicide.
(3) In __(iii)__ water escapes from revolving nozzle and falls like rain on the crops.
(4) __(iv)__ is a technique for developing new varieties of crops by cross-breeding two different varieties.
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(1) Dhekli Agent orange Drip irrigation Broadcasting
(2) Dhekli DDT Chain pump Crop rotation
(3) Rahat Siniazine Moat Mixed cropping
(4) Rahat Metachlor Sprinkler system Hybridization
48. Rohan grew berseem and cowpea in his field. When the plants were about one foot high, he ploughed them
back into soil. What is the most appropriate reason for this?
(1) The crop has caught some disease.
(2) Extensive growth of berseem has affected growth of cowpea plants.
(3) It helps in nutrient enrichment of soil.
(4) None of these
49. Which of the following agricultural tools is/are used in weeding ?

(1) (iv) & (iii) (2) (iv) only (3) (i), (iii) & (iv) (4) (i) only
50. Which of the following is the method of replenishing the soil with nutrients ?
(1) Organic manure (2) Fallow field
(3) Crop rotation (4) All of these
51. Match Column I with Column II and select the correct option from the codes given below.
Column I Colum n II
(a) Rhizobium (i) Nitrogen fixation
(b) Organic manure (ii) Separation of grains from chaff
(c) Threshing (iii) Sowing of seeds
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(d) Seed drill (iv) Animal excreta, cow dung and plant wastes
(e) Leguminous plants (v) Root nodules
(1) a-(i). b-(iv), c-(ii). d-(iii), e-(v) (2) a-(iv), b-(i), c-(iii), d-(ii), e-(v)
(3) a-(v). b-(iv), c-(iii), d-(ii), e-(i) (4) a-(i). b-(v), c-(ii), d-(iii), e-(iv)
52. Rabi and Kharif crops are the major crops of India. Given below is a list of crops. Categorize them
as Rabi and Kharif crops.
(Paddy, Wheat, Soyabean, Mustard, Maize, Cotton, Barley, Sugarcane)
(1) Rabi crops : Paddy, Wheat, Cotton, Sugarcane
Kharif crops : Soyabean, Mustard, Maize, Barley
(2) Rabi crops : Wheat, Mustard, Barley, Sugarcane
Kharif crops : Paddy, Soyabean, Maize, Cotton
(3) Rabi crops .: Wheat, Mustard, Barley.
Kharif crops : Paddy, Soyabean, Maize, Cotton, Sugarcane
(4) Rabi crops : Paddy, Soyabean, Maize, Cotton, Sugarcane
Kharif crops : Wheat, Mustard, Barley

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 Biology
53. One of the following is an important breed of Indian buffalo?
(1) Nagpuri (2) Gir (3) Sahiwal (4) Red Sindhi
54. Which of the following exotic breed of dairy cattle yields highest milk per lactation period?
(1) Jersey (2) Holstein-Friesian (3) Red-Dane (4) Ayreshire
55. An exotic breed of cow is :
(1) Jersey (2) Frieswal (3) Sahiwal (4) Gir
56. The major constituent of animal feed apart from water is :
(1) minerals (2) antibiotics (3) roughage (4) none of these
57. Poultry includes
(1) Ducks and Geese (2) Turkeys and fowl
(3) Ducks and Guinea fowl (4) All of these
58. The birds which are reared for meat purpose are called
(1) Broilers (2) Layers (3) Turkeys (4) Fowls
59. Birds which are reared for eggs are called
(1) Fries (2) Broilers (3) Layers (4) None of these
60. Milk producing cattle are called :
(1) exotic animals (2) milch animals (3) draught animals (4) buffaloes
61. Jersey cows are preferred to local breeds as they :
(1) have resistance to diseases (2) need less food
(3) need less maintenance (4) have long lactation period
62. Ranikhet is a disease that effects :
(1) fish (2) poultry (3) cattle (4) sheep
63. Aseel is a popular breed of :
(1) fowl (2) cattle (3) fish (4) pig
64. Scientific name of Italian bee is :
(1) Apis indica (2) Apis dorsata (3) Apis mellifera (4) Apis florae
65. Bee-keeping is done for :
(1) honey (2) wax (3) both (1) & (2) (4) none of these
66. Read the given statements.
(i) Bee wax obtained from beehive is deposition of excretory products of honeybee.
(ii) Fish culture is sometimes done in combination with rice crop so that fish are grown in the water
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accumulated in the paddy field.

(iii) Fish feed in different zones of pond to make most efficient use of available food.
(iv) Sahiwal and Murrah are exotic breeds used extensively in cattle farming.
(v) Inter-cropping is growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same field in a definite pattern.
Which of the given statements are incorrect?
(1) (i), (ii) and (iii) (2) (ii), (iii) and (iv) (3) (i) and (iv) (4) (i), (iv) and (v)
67 Which of the following is a marine fish ?

(1) Catla (2) Rohu (3) Bombay duck (4) Both (1) and (2)
68. "Seed" in fisheries refers to :
(1) fish (2) eggs of fishes (3) feeders (4) none of the above

69. The techniques of fish breeding, hatching and growing resulted in _____ revolution.
(1) green (2) silver (3) blue (4) white

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Class IX
70. Inland fishing refers to :

(1) freshwater fishing (2) coastal fishing (3) deep sea fishing (4) brackish water fishing

71. Which of the following is incorrect for the given figure?

(1) It is a type of cropping pattern called intercropping.

(2) The given cropping pattern increases the productivity of crops per unit area.

(3) The given cropping pattern helps in maintaining soil fertility and makes better use of resources.

(4) None of these

72. The word fowl is used for domestic cock or hen. Which of the following variety/varieties of fowl is/are indigenous
one/ones?

(i) Rhode island red (ii) Aseel (iii) Plymouth rock (iv) Leghorn

(1) (i), (ii) and (iii) (2) Only (ii) (3) Only (iv) (4) (i) and (ii)

73. This implement is made of wood and is drawn by a pair of bulls or other animals. It contains a strong triangular
iron strip called share. The main part of it is a long log of wood which is called a shaft.

There is a handle at one end of the shaft. The other end is attached to a beam which is placed on the bulls’
necks.

Which implement are we talking about and for what purpose is it used ?
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(1) Plough- Tilling the soil (2) Hoe- Removing the weeds

(3) Cultivator- Sowing the seeds (4) Seed drill - Tilling the soil

74. In honey bee the drones (males) are produced from

(1) Unfertilized eggs

(2) Fertilized eggs

(3) Larvae from unfertilized eggs, which are fed on royal jelly

(4) Larvae from unfertilized eggs, which are not cared by the workers at all

75. Which of the following is a bottom feeder ?

(1) Catla (2) Silver carp (3) Rohu (4) Mrigal

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76. Harvesting in our country is either done manually by __(i)_ or by a machine called __(ii)_. In the next step, the
grain seeds are separated from the cut crop. This process is called __(iii)___, this is carried out with the help
of a machine called __(iv)__.

Select the correct sequence of words to complete the above paragraph.

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(1) Hoe Cultivator Winnowing Combine

(2) Sickle Cultivator Threshing Seed drill

(3) Hoe Harvester Winnowing Seed drill

(4) Sickle Harvester Threshing Combine

77. Heterosis means
(1) hybrid vigour (2) hybrids are weak

(3) hybrids are weak as well as vigorous (4) hybrids are neither weak nor vigorous

78. Selection of homozygous plant is

(1) Mass selection (2) Pure line selection (3) Mixed selection (4) None of these
79. The technique of obtaining large number of plantlets by tissue culture method is called

(1) Organ culture (2) Micropropagation (3) Macropropagation (4) Plantlet culture

80. Mule is produced by

(1) selection (2) inbreeding

(3) interspecific hybridisation (4) none of these

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ANSWERS
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 4 2 4 4 1 2 3 1 4 4 4 3 4 2 1 2 3 2 1 4
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 4 2 2 2 4 2 2 1 3 4 3 2 2 1 1 4 1 3 3 2
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 4 4 2 4 1 3 4 3 3 4 1 3 1 2 1 3 4 1 3 2
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 4 2 1 3 3 3 3 2 3 1 4 2 1 1 4 4 1 2 2 3

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Class IX

Important Notes

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 Biology

CHAPTER
2 Tissue

Tissue is group of cells similar in structure and work together to achieve particular function.
Study of internal structure of plants or animals is called Anatomy.
Study of tissues is known as Histology. The word was coined by Mayer. Marcello Malpighi is regarded as
the "fa ther of animal h istology " .
In multicellulars division of labour increases the efficiency of performing any function.
The plant tissues
Depending upon the capacity to divide, plant tissues have been classified into two fundamental types-meristems
merist ematic tis sues and permanent tissu es.

2.1 Meristematic tissues

It is the portion of embryonic tissue, which persist in the plant, throughout the life and are responsible for
the formation of new cells are known as meristematic tissues. Nageli (1858) called meristematic tissue as
meristems.
The cells are immature and are capable of dividing indefinitely.
They are small and thin walled cells, without intercellular spaces.
The cells are generally isodiametric (almost of same length and breadth) and are rounded or oval in outline.
They have thin elastic cell wall, made up with cellulose.
The vacuoles are absent; plastids are in proplastid stage, do not store food. They have large and prominent
nucleus and dense cytoplasm with large number of mitochondria.
These cells are mother cells from which other types of cells are formed.
On the basis of origin meristems are of three types-promeristem (these are localized groups of meristematic
cells in germinating embryo), prim ary meri ste m (these are derived from promeristem) and secondary
meristem (these are formed from permanent tissues by the process of dedifferentiation).
On the basis of position they are of three types-apical (it is present at the tip of stem and roots), intercalary
(they are commonly found at the bases of leaves and nodes) both increase primary growth and lateral meristem
(they are located along the lateral sides of stems and root). Lateral meristems : of two types vascular cambium
and cork cambium.

Older leaf

Leaf primordia
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Apical
meristem
Older leaf
Trichome

Bud
primordia

Coleus

On the basis of function they are of three types Protoderm (it is outermost layer of promeristems and give rise
the epidermal tissue system. Ground meristem (it give rise to the ground tissue system) and procambium (it

29
Class IX
give rise to the vascular tissue).
The tissue systems are continuous throughout the plant. For example, the vascular tissue system in a leaf is
continuous with the vascular tissue system in the stem to which it is attached.

Dermal tissue system

Vascular tissue system
Ground tissue system

(a) Leaf

Dermal tissue system

Vascular tissue system
Ground tissue system

(b) Stem
Dermal tissue system
Vascular tissue system
Ground tissue system
(c) Root

2.2
They are formed by the division and differentiation of meristematic tissue. Cells of permanent tissues have lost
the power of division temporarily or permanently.

Permanent
tissue

On the basis of types of cells.

Simple Complex

On the basis of deposition. On the basis of function.

Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma Xylem Phloem

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Aerenchyma

Chlorenchyma

Prosenchyma

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 Biology

Epidermis
Vascular
bundles Cortex

Phloem
Pith fibre cap

Cortex Phloem

Vascular bundle
Vascular
Epidermis cambium
Xylem
Vessel
element

Pith
Simple permanent tissue-These tissues are homogenous in nature and made up of similar type of cells. The
main type of simple permanent tissues are-parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma.
Parenchyma
It is living and basic packing tissue or universal tissue or first evolved permanent tissue which consist of relatively
unspecialised cells.
Tissue systems, tissues, and cell types of flowering plants
Tis s u e S ys t em Tis s u e Cell T ypes Ma in Fu nc t ions of Tis s u e
Gr ou nd t is s u e Storage, Secretion,
Parenchyma tissue Parenchyma cells
s ys t em photosynthesis
Collenchyma tissue Collenchyma cells Support, flexibility
Sclerenchyma cells
Sclerenchyma tissue Support, strength
(sclerieds or others)
V a s c u la r Conduction of water and
Xylem Tracheids
ti s s u e s ys t em nutrient, minerals, support
Conduction of water and
Vessel elements
nutrient, minerals, support
Xylem parenchyma cells Storage
Fibers (Sclerenchyma cells) Support strength
Conduction of sugar in
Phloem Sieve tube elements
solution, support
May control functioning of
sieve tube elements, loading
Companion cells
sugar into sieve tube
elements
Phloem parenchyma cells Storage
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Fibers (Sclerenchyma cells) Support, strength

D er m a l t i s s u e Protective covering over
s ys t em Epidermal cells surface of soft herbacious
part of plant body
Epidermis
Regulate stomata opening or
Guard cells
closing
Trichome Variable function
Protective covering over
Cork cells surface of woody parts of
Periderm plant body
Cork cambium cells Meristematic (for new cells)
Cork parenchyma cells Storage

31
Class IX
Intercellular spaces
Parenchyma cell
Cell wall Description
Living, actively metabolizing: thin primary cell walls
Functions
Starch Storage; secretion: photosynthesis
grains Location and comments
Throughout the plant body: shown is a cross section of
part of a buttercup (Ranunculus) root: note the starch grains filling
the cells
Primary cell walls are
thickened in corners
Collenchyma cell
Description
Living: unevenly thickened primary cell walls
Function
Elastic support
Location and comments
Just under stem epidermis: shown is a cross section of an
elderberry (Sambucus) stem; note the unevenly thickened cell walls
that are especially thick in the corners, making the cell contents
assume a rounded shape in cross section

(i) Cells are thin, elastic cell wall made up with cellulose, isodiametric.

(ii) Intercellular spaces present in between the cells.

(iii) A typical parenchyma is meant for storage of food, provide turgidity to softer tissues.

(iv) Parenchyma cells may contain chloroplast to take part in photosynthesis, such cells are called chlorenchyma.
The chlorenchyma of leaves is termed as mesophyll which is differentiated in palisade and spongy
parenchyma in dicots and only spongy parenchyma in monocots.
(v) In aquatic plants, the parenchyma consists of loosely arranged cells with large air cavities, it is known as
aerenchyma which provides buoyancy.
Collenchyma
(i) Cells possess uneven thickening of the cell wall.
(ii) The thickening is made up with cellulose and pectin.
(iii) No intercellular space present between the cells.
(iv) It provides both mechanical strength and elasticity to the organs.
(v) Some time cells possess chloroplast and are photosynthetic in function.
(vi) It is present below the epidermis of leaf margin and leaf stalk of dicot leaves but totally absent in monocots.
(vii) Absent in monocot and roots of dicot.
Sclerenchyma
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(i) On maturity, cells of sclerenchyma becomes dead due to the thickening of lignin on the cell walls.
(ii) Several unthickend areas called pits often present on the walls.
(iii) Sclerenchyma has two types of cells-sclerenchyma fibers and sclerieds (grit or stone cells).
(iv) Fibers are much elongated, narrow; spindle shaped and pointed tapering ends.
(v) They are the source of natural fibers like jute, hemp, coir, etc.
(vi) Sclerotic cells are short highly thick walled. Commonly present in hard covering of seeds and nuts, pulp of
fruits like guava, pear and sapota etc and give them grittiness.
(vii) Main function of all types of sclerenchyma is to give mechanical strength to the plant.

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 Biology

Wall thickening
Intercellular spaces Nucleus
Vacuole
Cell wall

Cytoplasm
Nucleus End wall
Primary cell wall
Middle lamella (thickened at corners)
Chloroplast
Nucleus
Chloroplast
Vacuole
Cytoplasm
Vacuole
Intercellular space
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Intercellular space
Primary cell wall

Simple
pit pair Narrow lumen
Lignified
thick wall

33
Class IX

2.3 Complex permanent tissues(Heterogenous tissue)

They are made up with more than one type of cells, working together as a unit. The common complex permanent
tissues are xylem and phloem, also known as conductive or vascular tissue.
Xylem
(i) It is complex tissue meant for conduction of sap (water and minerals) in the plant and also provides mechanical
support.
(ii) Xylem is called wood and forms the bulk of root and stem of vascular plants.
(iii) Xylem consists different types of cells both living and non-living-
(a) tracheids End wall with
(b) vessels perforation
(c) xylem parenchyma and
(d) xylem fibers.
(a) Tracheids are elongated tubular dead cells with narrow blunt
ends. They posses hard lignified walls and wide lumen. Some Pits
unthickend areas called pits are present for movement of sap Cell wall
from one cell to another. Lumen
(b) Vessels are much elongated tubular channels with wide
lumen. A vessel is composite structure made up of number of
vessel elements. These are joining together and allow quick
movement of water or sap. End walls of xylem vessels are
highly perforated hence they form a channel which allows
continuous rise of water. They are present only in flowering (a) Tracheid (b) Vessel element
plants.
(c) Xylem parenchyma cells are associated with xylem, they stores food and help in lateral conduction of
sap.
(d) Xylem fibers are sclerenchymatous fibers for the mechanical support to the xylem.
Phloem
(i) They are the main food conducting elements. It is also called bast or laptone.
(ii) Phloem consists of four types of cells
(a) sieve tube
(b) companion cells
(c) phloem parenchyma and
(d) phloem fiber.
(a) Sieve tubes are elongated tubular channels. Each sieve tube
is made up of several cells called sieve tube members, joined
end to end. The end walls have many large pores known as
sieve plates. Each sieve tube is always associated with a
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companion cell. Sieve elements take part in the transport

of organic food. It is usually found in pteridophytes &
gymnosperms.
A mature sieve tube has a peripheral cytoplasm without nucleus. So it is living cell without nucleus.
(b) Companion cells are thin walled elongated cells, which lie on the sides of sieve tubes. They are closely
associated with sieve tube by plasmodesmata so with the death of one, the other cell dies. Nuclei of companion
cells control the metabolic activities of sieve tube.
In non-flowering plants companion cells are absent, they have albuminous cells.
(c) Phloem parenchyma is ordinary cells which stores food and assist in the conduction of food in lateral
direction. Phloem parenchyma is absent in most monocots and some herbaceous dicots.
(d) Phloem fibers are also called bast fibers which are sclerenchymatous; provide mechanical strength used
for making ropes, twines, threads and course textiles.
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 Biology

2.4 Protective tissue in plants

The protective tissue protects the plant from mechanical injury, heat and cold and from undue loss of water
these are epidermis and cork.
Epidermis
(i) Cells of epidermis are barrel shaped and without intercellular spaces.
(ii) Outer wall of cells has a thin coat of water proof layer called cuticle.
(iii) Many cells bear unicellular and multicellular hair (trichome on the stem and root hairs on roots) or glands (in
insectivorous plants).
(iv) Leaves and green stems often have minute opening called stomata in epidermis surrounded by guard cells
which helps in opening and closing of stomata.
Open Closed Open Closed

Guard Subsidiary Guard Subsidiary

cells cells cells cells
(a) Guard cells of dicots are bean shaped. (b) Monocot guard cells are narrow in the center and
thicker at each end (dumbell shape).
Cork
(i) Cork is the outermost waterproof tissue present in older or mature woody stems and roots.
(ii) It is made up with dead cells. Cork is dead because of deposition of suberin.
(iii) It provides insulation from extreme cold and hot.
(iv) Lenticels, the pores present on the outer surface of cork, allow exchange of gases.
Outer cork (periderm)
Inner bark
(secondary phloem)

Wood
(secondary xylem)
Bark
Vascular cambium
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2.5 Animal tissues

The animal tissues have been classified into four major types depending on the function they perform.

Animal tissue

Epithelial Muscular Connective Nervous

tissue tissue tissue tissue

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Class IX

2.6 Epithelial tissue

Simple epithelium
It is made up with single layer of cells which rest on the basement membrane.
( i ) Simple Squamous epithelium : It is formed of thin, flat, disc like polygonal cells, closely fitted like the tiles
in floor. Function is protection from mechanical and chemicals injury and exchange of gases. Ex.-alveoli,
blood vessel, lymph vessel oesophagus, lining of mouth, skin.
(i i) Simple Cuboidal epithelium : This epithelium consists of square or cubical cells with almost equal height
and width. Their free surface may have microvilli so they are called brush-bordered Cuboidal epithelium.
Microvilli increase the surface area. It is present in salivary and pancreatic duct, PCT of urinary tubule, part
of gut lining etc.
(ii i) Simple columnar epithelium : It consists of elongated cells which are placed side by side like columns.
Nuclei are elongated, may have variable position. It is mainly for absorption and secretion. Their free
surface may have microvilli so they are called brush-bordered Columnar epithelium. Microvilli increase
the surface area. Some cells secrete the mucus and are called goblet cells. They found in stomach, intestine
and gall bladder.
(i v) Simple ciliated epithelium : Columnar and Cuboidal both may bear hair like cilia on their free ends and
helps in the transport of materials. Ex. Fallopian tube, terminal bronchioles.
( v ) Pseudo stratified epithelium : This epithelium is made up of a single layer of columnar or cuboidal
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epithelium but it appears two layered because some cells are shorter than the others and have their nuclei
at different level. Ex. parotid gland, salivary gland.
Compound epithelium
The compound epithelium are made up of more than one layer of cells. Only the cells of the deepest layer rest
on basement membrane. Main function of these epithelia is secretion or absorption, protection against mechanical,
chemical, thermal or osmotic stress.
( i ) Stratified epithelium : It consist many layers of the cells. Uppermost may have columnar or cuboidal or
squamous cells. Squamous stratified may have waterproof protein called keratin or horn which replaces the
cytoplasm, this process is called cornification or keratinization which makes them hard and water proof. If
keratin is not formed than it is called non-keratinised epithelium.
(i i) Transitional epithelium : Multilayered and more stretchable than the stratified epithelium. It is found in
urinary bladder, urethra and renal pelvis.

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 Biology

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Main Locations
Linings of kidney tubules; gland ducts
Functions
Secretion and absorption
Description and Comments
Single layer of cell; shows cross section through tubules.; from
the side each cell looks like a short cylinder; some have microvilli
for absorption
(b) Cuboidal

Simple columnar Epithelium

Main Locations
Linings of much of digestive tract and upper part of respiratory tract
Functions
Secretion, especially of mucus; absorption, protection; movement of
layer of mucus
Description and Comments
Single layer of columnar cells; sometimes with enclosed secretory
vesicles (in goblet cells); highly developed Golgi complex; often
(c) Columnar (Ciliated) ciliated
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Basement membrane Cilia

Pseudostratified Epithelium
Main Locations
Some respiratory passages; ducts of many glands
Functions
Secretion; protection; movement of mucus
Description and Comments
Ciliated, mucus-secreting, or with microvilli; comparable in many ways
to columnar epithelium except that not all cells are the same height;
so, though all cells contact the same basement membrane, the tissue
appears stratified
(e) Pseudostratified ciliated epithelium

37
Class IX
Glands (The glandular Epithelium)
(i) The structures which secrete useful materials are known as glands. The glands are formed of epithelial
tissues.
(ii) They may be unicellular (goblet gland) or multicellular (salivary gland).
(iii) On the basis of presence and absence of ducts, the glands are of three types-exocrine (with ducts eg.
Salivary gland), endocrine (without duct so pour their material in blood, eg. Thyroid gland) and heterocrine
(partly exo and partly endo, eg. Pancreas).
(iv) On the basis of mode of secretion, the glands are again of three types-mesocrine (secretion does not involve
loss of cell or their part, eg. Goblet cells), apocrine (the cell loses a part of its cytoplasm during secretion, eg.
Mammary gland) and holocrine (entire cell disintegrated to discharge its secretion, eg.sebaceous gland).

Cilia Unicellular glands

Basement
membrane
a) Goblet cells. These
are unicellular glands
that secrete mucus.

Skin

(b) Sweat gland. Sweat glands are simple (c) Parotid salivary gland.
glands consisting of coiled tubes. Their Compound glands, like the
walls are constructed of simple cuboidal parotid, have branched ducts.
epithelium.

2.7 Connective tissue

The connective tissues consist of variously shaped cells and fibers, lying wide apart in the extra cellular or
intracellular material. It is composed of three components-intracellular medium, cells and fibers. Intracellular
matrix is nonliving, transparent semi fluid made up with glyosaminoglycane and structural glycoprotein.
Cells are-fibroblast (it forms white fibers called collagen, yellow fibres called elastin and reticular fibers), mast
cells (they produce histamine, heparin and serotonin which are responsible to show inflammatory responses),
plasma cells (they produce antibodies), macrophages (for phagocytic action).
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Connective
tissue

Connective Vascular
tissue Skeletal
tissue tissue
proper

Areolar Dense
Adipose Elastic Reticular Cartilage Bone Blood Lymph
fibrous

38
 Biology
Connective tissue proper
( i ) Areolar or loose connective tissue : This tissue is essentially connective in function. It occurs beneath
the epithelium of many hollow visceral organs, skin and walls of arteries and veins. The Areolar tissue joins
different tissues, forms the packing between them and helps to keep the organs in place and normal shape.
It consist of matrix, fibroblasts, mast cells, plasma cells and macrophages.

Some persons have allergic reactions on eating egg or meat or by inhaling pollens or spores. The mast cell
release the histamine to show inflammatory responses like dilation of blood vessels, exudation of fluid, swelling
of skin. Spasms of bronchial or intestinal muscles and other symptoms. Acute allergies may even be fatal.

(i i) Adipose tissue : These are modified form of Areolar tissue containing large spherical fat cells or adipocytes.
Each fat cell contains fat globules, due to which the nucleus and the cytoplasm are displaced to the periphery.
It stores the reserve food, it acts as shock absorbing cushions around the heart, kidney,eye ball etc., the sub-
cutaneous fat prevent heat loss from the body. It is also known as shock absorber.
(ii i) Dense connective tissue : Found in the dermis (lower layer) of connective tissue. Collagen fibres predominate.
Tendons, the cords that connect muscles to bones, and ligaments, the cables that connect bones to one
another, consist of dense connective tisue in which collagen bundles are arranged in a definite pattern.
(i v) Elastic connective tissue : Consists mainly of bundles of parallel elastic fibres. This tissue is found in
structures that must expand and then return to their original size, such as lung tissue and the walls of large
arteries.

( v ) Reticular tissue-It consist star shaped reticular cells, whose protoplasmic processes form a network. These
cells are phagocytic in function. It is present in the spleen, lymph node, bone marrow etc.
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Class IX

Skeletal tissues

The skeletal tissues form the endoskeleton of the vertebrates. They form rigid frame work which support the
body, protects the vital organs and helps in locomotion. There are two types of skeletal tissues:

( i ) Cartilage-The cartilage is a solid but semi-rigid and flexible connective tissue, containing a clear matrix
called chondrin made of proteins and sugars. The matrix is secreted by chondrocytes (cartilage forming
cells). The chondrocytes are larger, bluntly angular cells, which lie in groups of 2 or 3 in fluid filled spaces
called lacunae. They are found at the ends of bone, tip of nose, in external ear, voice box (larynx), trachea etc.

Chondrocytes Lacuna Intercellular

substance

Main Locations
Supporting skeletons in sharks and rays; ends of bones in mammals
and some other vertebrates; supporting rings in walls of some
respira tory tubes; tip of nose; external ear
Function
Flexible support
Description and Comments
Cells (chondrocytes) separated from one another by Intercellular sub-
stance; cells occupy lacunae
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(i i) Bone-Bone is solid, rigid and strong connective tissue. It is the hardest tissue in the body. Matrix of bone
contains calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate, calcium fluoride etc. Matrix is hard and is formed of a
protein called ossein. The matrix occurs in layers which are arranged in concentric rings around narrow
longitudinal cavities, the Haversian canals. In concentric rings minute osteocytes (bone forming cells) are
present inside the lacuna which has fine channels called canaliculi. A Haversian canal and its concentric
lamellae and osteocytes form a Haversian system or osteon. Long bones like humerus, femur contain
the bone marrow which produces the blood cells.

40
 Biology

a) The human skeleton (b) A bone is cut open, spongy

Compact
consists mainly of bone. exposing its internal structure. bony
bone Haversian Blood
canal vessel
Lacuna Cytoplasmic
extension (c) Blood vessels and
nerves run through the
Haversian canal within
each osteon of compact
bone.

Osteon

Matrix
Cytoplasmic Osteocyte
extensions
(d) The bone matrix is rigid and hard. Osteocytes become
trapped within lacunae but communicate with one another by
way of cytoplasmic extensions that extend through tiny canals.
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Vascular tissue
These are fluid connective tissues. The matrix is without fibers. The vascular tissues are of two types: blood and
lymph.

( i ) Blood-blood is mobile connective tissue composed with plasma and the cells called corpuscles. It is slightly
alkaline fluid having pH 7.4. It is bright red when oxygenated and purple when deoxygenated. The fluid
found outside the cells is called extra cellular fluids (ECF). Blood form about 30-35 % of ECF and in adult
person it is about 5 liters.

41
Class IX

Blood is withdrawn from The Composition of Blood : Blood consists of a complex aqueous solution
the arm placed in a test (the plasma), and of numerous cell types and cell fragments. The hematocrit is a
tube and centrifuged. measure of the cellular portion as a percentage of the total blood volume.

Salts Plasma proteins Transported by blood

Sodium, potassium Albumin Nutrients
Components Water (eg. glucose, vitamins)
calcium, magnesium, Fibrinogen
chloride, bicarbonate Immunoglobulins. Waste products of
metabolism
100% Osmotic balance, Osmotic balance, Respiratory gases
Functions Solvent pH buffering, regulation pH buffering, clotting, (O2 and CO2)
of membrane potentials immune responses Hormones

Erythrocytes Leukocytes (white blood cells) Platelets

(red blood cells)

Components

50% Basophil Eosinophil Neutrophil Lymphocyte Monocyte

Hematocrit
Number per
mm3 of blood 5-6 million 5,000 – 10,000 250,000
400,000

Function Transport Destroy foreign cells, produce antibodies

oxygen and roles in allergic responses Blood
10% carbon dioxide clotting

Blood

Formed
Plasma
Elements

Corpuscles Platelets

Erythrocytes (RBC)

Leucocytes (WBC)

Agranulocyte
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Monocytes

Lymphocyte

Granulocyte

Basophiles

Eosinophils

Neutrophils

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 Biology
Plasma constitutes 55 % part of blood. It is pale yellow clear fluid. With 92% water and 8% solids includes
proteins, nutrients, hormones, enzymes, gases, waste products etc. Function of plasma is transport, immunity,
prevention of blood loss, uniform distribution of heat.
(a) RBC-It is circular, biconcave, enucleated, and contains red colored pigment called hemoglobin (4.5 to
5.5 million RBC per cubic millimeter of blood). 100 ml of blood contains 15 g of hemoglobin. It has an
oxygen carrying pigment. It is a conjugated protein which is made up with protein called globin and Fe2+
porphyrin complex called haeme.
The formation of RBC is called erythropoiesis.RBC has average life span of about 120 days. After the
death of RBC iron is returned to the bone marrow for reuse and pigmented part is degraded first to bile
pigment biliverdin (green) and another pigment bilirubin (yellow), which is excreted in bile. The pale
yellow colour of plasma is mainly due to bilirubin. When all the bilirubin is not excreted from the body,
the skin and mucous membrane assume a yellowish colour. This condition is called jaundice.
(b) WBC-They are nucleated with rounded or irregular shape. They can change their shape and are capable
of amoeboid movement. This enables them to squeeze out of capillaries into the tissues, this process is
called diapedesis. The numbers of WBC are from 5,000 to 10,000 per micro liter of blood (total
count of WBC). They survive for 3-4 days in the blood. Types of WBC:
Agranulocyte-These lacking granules in cytoplasm and have non-lobed nucleus. They have two sub
types-a) monocytes-largest among all leucocytes, bean shaped nucleus, phagocytic in nature. b)
lymphocyte-small in size, rounded nucleus, they produce antibodies to destroy the microbes and having
two major groups B and T lymphocytes.
Granulocytes-These contain granules in cytoplasm, have lobed nucleus. On the basis of staining property,
they are of three types- a) Basophils-stain with basic dye like methylene blue, S shaped nucleus; they
release heparin, histamine and serotonin. b) Eosinophils or acidophils-bilobed nucleus, stain with acidic
dye like eosin, they destroy the toxic material produced by microbes. c) Neutrophils-many lobed
nucleus, stain with neutral dye, phagocytotic in nature.
(c) Platelets or Thrombocytes : These are cell fragments rather than true cells. They are non-nucleated
round or oval, biconvex. Their number is 0.15 to 0.45 million per micro litre of blood. Life span is about
one week. When a blood vessel injured, platelets get clumped at the site of injury and release platelet
factors for coagulation of blood.
(i i) Lymph-It is colorless mobile tissue. Lymph is blood minus erythrocytes, platelets and plasma proteins. It is
made up with colorless matrix and WBC, mostly lymphocytes. It flows in lymphatic vessels. The organ which
secretes lymph are called lymphoidal organs which includes lymph nodes,tonsils,thymus gland, spleen and
Payer’s patches. Main functions are transport of food materials and hormones, help in maintaining the
blood volume in the body.
Platelets release substance that cause The fibrin clot seals the wound
An injury to lining of blood
the vessel to contract. Sticky platelets until the vessel wall heals.
vessel exposes collagen fibers,
form a plug and initiate formation of
platelets adhere and become sticky
a fibrin clot.
Platelet

Red blood cells Collagen fibres Platelet plug Fibrin meshwork

Clotting factors
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1. Released from platelets

and injured tissue
2. Plasma proteins synthesized
in liver and circulated in
inactive form

Prothrombin
circulating Thrombin
in plasma

Fibrinogen
Circulating Fibrin
in plasma
Blood Clotting
(a) Damage to a blood vessel initiates a cascade of events that produces a fibrin meshwork.
(b) As the meshwork forms, red blood cells are embedded in the fibrin threads, forming a clot.

43
Class IX

2.8 Muscular tissue

The muscular tissues are made up of highly specialized thin and elongated cells called muscle fibers. The special
property of this tissue is contractility. The cytoplasm of muscle fiber is known as sarcoplasm, ER is known as
sarcoplasmic reticulum, membrane is called sarcolemma. The sarcoplasm is largely occupied by fine longitudinal
protein threads called myofibrils. Based on structure, location and function, these are of three types :

St riat e d mus cl e No n-s tria ted mu scl e Ca r d ia c mus cl e

1. Also known as skeletal muscles Also known as smooth Also known as heart muscles
muscles
2. Elongated, single and Muscle fibers are long, Elongated, cylindrical and
unbranched muscle fibers. narrow, spindle shaped and branched muscle fibers.
tapering at the end.
3. Alternate light and dark bands Bands are absent Bands are present but faint in
are present. colour.
4. Multinucleated Uninucleated One or two nuclei in-between
two intercalated disc.
5. They work according to our Involuntary Involuntary.
wish so known as voluntary
muscles.
6. They occur in the body wall, They are present in the wall of They occur in the heart wall
limbs, tounge, pharynx and hollow organs, iris of eye and only.
beginning of esophagus. dermis of skin. Ureter,
bronchi, lungs
7. They form bundles that are They form sheet or tubes in They form a continuous
attached to skeleton by ends. visceral walls. network.
8. Oblique bridges and intercalated Oblique bridges and Oblique bridges and
disc are absent intercalated disc are absent intercalated disc are present.
9. They have nerve supply from They have nerve supply from They have nerve supply from
central nervous system. autonomic nervous system the brain and the autonomic
nervous system.
10. They have numerous They have less numerous They have numerous
mitochondria and glycogen mitochondria and glycogen mitochondria and glycogen
granules. granules granules
11. They have abundant blood Scanty blood supply. Abundant supply with deep
supply. penetrating capillaries.
12. They contract rapidly and get They contract slowly and do They contract rapidly and
fatigued soon. not get fatigued. never get fatigued.

Nuclei Striations Nuclei Nuclei

Intercalated discs
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Skeletal muscle fibers Smooth muscle fibres

Cardiac muscle fibres

2.9 Nervous tissue

The nervous tissues are made up of cells which are specialized for receiving stimuli and transmitting messages.
Excitability and conductivity are the properties of nerve cells. Brain, spinal cord, nerves are composed of nervous
tissue.
A nerve cell consists of cell body called cyton or perikaryon or soma and fine protoplasmic processes called
neurites.

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 Biology
The cyton is rounded or star shaped, having all the cell organelles with Nissl’s granules and neurofibrils. Nissl's
granules are clumps of RER with ribosomes that synthesize proteins.
Neurons have least power of regeneration because they lack centrioles.
Neurites are of two types-a very long process called axon and short and much branched process called dendron.
Axon ends in synaptic knobs which passes messages from one neuron to another.
Junction of two neuron is called synapse.
Axon may be covered with fatty myelin sheaths which is not continuous, gaps are present in between called
Nodes of Ranvier and fiber is known as myelinated fiber on which conduction of message is very fast. Others are
called non-myelinated fibers.
On the basis of structure, they are unipolar (single axon) bipolar (one dendron and one axon) and multipolar
(many dendron and one axon)
Packing tissue around the nerve cell in the central nervous system is called neuroglia. They provide support,
protection and nutrition to the neurons.
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Class IX

EXERCISE
Multiple choice questions
1. The commercial jute fibres are obtained from
(1) Intercalary fibres (2) Xylem fibres
(3) Phloem fibres (4) None of these
2. Protein present in the matrix of cartilage is known as
(1) Chondrin (2) Casein
(3) Actin (4) Ossein
3. Which type of tissue is responsible for contractions that allow movement of organs or the entire body?
(1) Muscle tissue (2) Nervous tissue (3) Epithelial tissue (4) Connective tissue
4. Which type of tissue lines body cavities and covers body surface?
(1) Nervous tissue (2) Muscle tissue
(3) Epithelial tissue (4) Connective tissue
5. Which type of epithelial tissue lines the inner surface of the trachea?
(1) Squamous (2) Cuboidal
(3) Hyaline cartilage (4) Pseudostratified ciliated columnar
6. Which one of the following tissues does not possess living protoplasm ?
(1) Collenchyma (2) Sclerenchyma
(3) Tracheids (4) Both (2) & (3)
7. The longest cells in the human body are
(1) Nerve cells (2) Bone cells
(3) Muscle cells (4) Cardiac muscles
8. Which of the following is not a granulocyte ?

(1) Lymphocyte (2) Eosinophil

(3) Basophil (4) Neutrophil

9. Inner lining of gut and stomach is made of

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(1) Simple squamous epithelium (2) Simple glandular columnar epithelium

(3) Simple cuboidal epithelium (4) All of these

10. A tissue is made of

(1) cells with similar structures but very different functions

(2) a diverse group of cells that perform similar functions

(3) cells with similar structure and origin and performing common function

(4) cells with very different structures but the same function

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 Biology
11. The given figures show different types of animal tissue. Identify their locations and select the correct option.

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

(1) Gall bladder Gastric glands Thyroid glands Lungs alveoli Fallopian tubes

(2) Gastric glands Gall bladder Lungs alveoli Bronchi Coelomic cavity

(3) Intestinal glands Sweat glands Fallopian tubes Choroid layer of eye Nasal passage
Intestinal glands Bronchi Ciliary body of eye Trachea
(4) Sweat glands

12. The cytoplasm of muscle cells is called

(1) Sarcolemma (2) Elastin (3) Sarcoplasm (4) Axoplasm
13. Collenchyma is considered a living tissue because
(1) It has cell walls (2) It has cellulose in its cell walls
(3) It has protoplasm (4) It has angular thickenings
14. Which of the following is a dead mechanical tissue ?
(1) Parenchyma (2) Collenchyma (3) Sclerenchyma (4) All of the above
15. Which of the following plant tissues does not belong to the group of other three?

(1) (2) (3) (4)

16. In mammals, histamine is secreted by

(1) Fibroblasts (2) Histiocytes
(3) Lymphocytes (4) Mast cells
17. Which of the following proteins is not found in connective tissues ?
(1) Collagen (2) Elastin (3) Actin (4) Ossein
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18. Parenchyma cells containing chloroplasts are called

(1) Aerenchyma (2) Sclerenchyma (3) Chlorenchyma (4) Collenchyma
19. The tissue composed of living, thin walled cells made of cellulose is :
(1) Parenchyma (2) Collenchyma
(3) Sclerenchyma (4) Vessels
20. What used to be described as Nissl granules in a nerve cell are now identified as
(1) Mitochondria (2) Cell metabolites
(3) Fat granules (4) Rough endoplasmic reticulum and Ribosomes

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Class IX
21. Sieve tubes are present in
(1) Phloem (2) Xylem (3) Collenchyma (4) Sclerenchyma
22. Observe the given figures of three different plant tissues and select the correct option.

(1) 'a' and 'b' consist of living cells while 'c' consists of dead cells.
(2) Cytoplasm is present in cells of 'a' while it is absent in cells of 'b' and 'c',
(3) Cell walls of 'a', 'b' and 'c' bear uniform thickening of suberin.
(4) 'a' provides mechanical strength to the plant while 'b' and 'c' serve as storage tissue,
23. Conduction of water occurs through
(1) Parenchyma (2) Phloem (3) Sclerenchyma (4) Xylem

24. Companion cell is associated with

(1) Sclerenchyma (2) Tracheid (3) Tracheae (4) Sieve tube

25. Tracheids are the components of

(1) Xylem (2) Phloem (3) Collenchyma (4) Sclerenchyma

26. Voraciously phagocytic and actively mobile WBCs are

(1) Neutrophils (2) Basophils (3) Lymphocytes (4) Eosinophils

27. The most widely distributed connective tissue is

(1) Adipose tissue (2) Reticular tissue

(3) Fibrous tissue (4) Areolar tissue

28. Blood is

(1) Acidic (2) Slightly alkaline (3) Neutral (4) Watery

29. The epithelium capable of reception of stimulus is

(1) Germinal (2) Sensory

(3) Glandular (4) Pigmented

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30. Myelin sheath is present on

(1) Cell body (2) Dendrite (3) Axon (4) All of these

31. The muscles which do not fatigue are

(1) Striated (2) Unstriated (3) Cardiac (4) None of these

32. The end of bones are composed of_____cartilage.

(1) Fibrous (2) Hyaline

(3) Elastic (4) Calcified

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 Biology
33. Sarcolemma is the membrane that covers

(1) Nerve fibres (2) Muscle fibres (3) Visceral fibres (4) Tendons
34. Nerve fibres differ from muscle fibres in having
(1) Myofibrils (2) Striations (3) Sarcolemma (4) Dendrites

35. Mast cells are found in

(1) Adipose tissue (2) Yellow fibrous tissue (3) White fibrous tissue (4) Areolar tissue
36. The major constituent of vertebrate bone is
(1) Calcium phosphate (2) Sodium chloride (3) Potassium hydroxide (4) Calcium carbonate
37. Cartilage is produced by
(1) Osteoblasts (2) Fibroblasts (3) Epithelium (4) Chondrocytes
38. Cardiac muscles are
(1) Smooth, spindle shaped and involuntary (2) Striated, syncytial and involuntary
(3) Striated, syncytial and voluntary (4) Striated, cross connected and involuntary
39. Connective tissue is derived from
(1) Mesoderm (2) Ectoderm (3) Endoderm (4) All of these
40. Adipose tissue is
(1) Connective tissue (2) Conducting tissue
(3) Vascular tissue (4) Epithelial tissue
41. Muscular tissue is_____in origin.
(1) Mesodermal (2) Ectodermal (3) Endodermal (4) None of these
42. Pseudostratified epithelium is present in

(1) Trachea (2) Urinary bladder (3) Alveoli (4) Nephron

43. The epithelium capable of ultrafiltration is

(1) Squamous epithelium (2) Cuboidal epithelium

(3) Columnar epithelium (4) Compound epithelium

44. The epithelium that undergoes meiosis is

(1) Germinal epithelium (2) Stratified epithelium

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(3) Pseudostratified epithelium (4) Transitional epithelium

45. The inner lining of the blood vessel is known as

(1) Mesothelium (2) Endothelium

(3) Pavement epithelium (4) Stratified epithelium

46. The tissue that commonly forms ground tissue is

(1) Epidermis (2) Parenchyma

(3) Collenchyma (4) Sclerenchyma

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Class IX
47. Collenchyma differs from sclerenchyma in
(1) Having suberin cell walls and protoplasm

(2) Having lignin cell walls and protoplasm

(3) Not having protoplasm and pectin cell walls

(4) Having pectin cell walls and protoplasm
48. The components of xylem which help in lateral conduction of water are :
(1) Trachea (2) Tracheids (3) Xylem fibres (4) Xylem parenchyma

49. Which type of tissues support, defend, and store food in the body?
(1) Epithelial (2) Connective (3) Nervous (4) Muscular

50. Collenchyma in plants provide

(1) Flexibility (2) Buoyancy (3) Support (4) Both (1) & (3)
51. Bone forming cells are

(1) Osteoblasts (2) Osteoclasts (3) Chondroclasts (4) Chondroblasts

52. Nervous system consists of

(1) Brain (2) Spinal cord (3) Nerves (4) All of these

53. Which of the following is not true for a meristematic tissue?

(1) It has living, thin walled cells (2) Cells have dense protoplasm

(3) They have no intercellular spaces (4) They store reserve food material

54. Component of blood responsible for producing antibodies is

(1) Thromobocytes (2) Monocytes (3) Erythrocytes (4) Lymphocytes

55. The plant cell without nucleus but living is

(1) Tracheid (2) Tracheae (3) Sclereid (4) Sieve tube

56. The cell with perforation at the end walls is

(1) Sclereid (2) Tracheid (3) Sieve tube (4) Sclerenchyma

57. Apart from the conduction of water, xylem also

(1) Conducts organic food (2) Gives mechanical strength
(3) Helps in gaseous exchange (4) Helps in transpiration
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58. The meristem responsible for increase in the girth of stem is known as
(1) Apical meristem (2) Promeristem (3) Intercalary meristem (4) Lateral meristem
59. Elongation of internodes of the stems of grasses is facilitated by :
(1) Apical meristem (2) Lateral meristem (3) Intercalary meristem (4) Secondary meristem
60. The dividing tissue present in between xylem and phloem of the stem in the plants is
(1) Cork cambium (2) Apical meristem (3) Intercalary meristem (4) Vascular cambium

61. Tendons are made up of

(1) Collagen (2) Elastin (3) Sarcoplasm (4) Axoplasm

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 Biology
62. Collagen is
(1) Fibrous protein (2) Fat

(3) Epithelial tissue (4) Tight junction

63. Muscles are connected to bones by

(1) Ligaments (2) Tendons (3) Sarcolemma (4) Myofibrils
64. The meristem present at the root or shoot apices is called
(1) Apical meristem (2) Promeristem (3) Intercalary meristem (4) Secondary meristem

65. Which of the following is not a function of connective tissue?

(1) Production of blood cells (2) Bind and support body parts

(3) Line body surfaces and cavities (4) Store food in the form of fats
66. Which tissue includes blood and adipose tissue?

(1) Muscle tissue (2) Nervous tissue (3) Epithelial tissue (4) Connective tissue
67. Which of the following is always non myelinated?
(1) Axon (2) Dendrite (3) Both (1) and (2) (4) None of these

68. Which of the following is a connective tissue ?

(1) Bone (2) Cartilage (3) Blood (4) All of the above

69. The function of adipose tissue is

(1) Storage of fats (2) Storage of water (3) Transport of fats (4) Transport of gases

70. Succulents are capable of storing water in their stems due to the presence of

(1) Parenchyma (2) Aerenchyma (3) Collenchyma (4) Sclerenchyma

71. Which type of tissue is responsible for receiving, interpreting and producing a response to stimuli ?

(1) Muscle tissue (2) Nervous tissue (3) Epithelial tissue (4) Connective tissue

72. Which of the following tissues include bone and cartilage?

(1) Muscle tissue (2) Nervous tissue (3) Epithelial tissue (4) Connective tissue
73. Which of the following tissues includes the epidermis?

(1) Nervous tissue (2) Epithelial tissue (3) Connective tissue (4) Muscle tissue
74. The cells that form a major part of walnut shells are
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(1) Fibres (2) Sclereids (3) Collenchyma (4) Parenchyma

75. The bones are connected to each other by
(1) Tendons (2) Cartilage (3) Ligament (4) Muscle
76. Cell walls of sclerenchyma are rich in
(1) Cellulose (2) Pectin (3) Lignin (4) Hemicellulose
77. The camel's hump is composed of a tissue which provides water when oxidised. It is____tissue.
(1) Skeletal (2) Muscular
(3) Areolar (4) Adipose

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Class IX
78. Which of the following is an example of an organ that contain a smooth muscle?
(1) Iris of eye (2) Uterus (3) Bronchi (4) All of the above
79. The tissue that has central nucleus, tapered at both ends and control movement that are not under conscious
control is
(1) Striated muscle (2) Smooth muscle (3) Cardiac muscle (4) Skeletal muscle
80. Intercalated discs are found in
(1) Striped muscle fibres (2) Cardiac muscle fibres
(3) Nerve cells (4) Ligaments
81. The tissue, which is composed of columnar, ciliated cell that line body cavities is
(1) Connective tissue (2) Adipose tissue
(3) Epithelial tissue (4) Muscular tissue
82. Identify this tissue, it has tight fitting, single layer, flattened cells.
(1) squamous (2) ciliated
(3) striated (4) columnar
83. Which of the following is produced in bones of humans?
(1) Red blood cell (2) Striated cells
(3) Bile (4) Urea
84. Non-keratinised stratified squamous epithelium is found in
(1) Epidermis of skin of land vertebrates (2) Oral cavity and pharynx
(3) Vagina and cervix (4) Both (2) and (3)
85. Basement membrane is made up of
(1) Epidermal cells only (2) Endodermal cells only
(3) Both epidermal and endodermal cells
(4) No cells at all, but is a product of epithelial cells & connective tissue
86. In gymnosperms sieve cells are associated with
(1) Albuminous cells (2) Companion cells
(3) Guard cells (4) Sieve plates

87. The epidermis of root lacks

(1) Cuticle (2) Stomata

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(3) Guard cells (4) All of these

88. The characteristic features of cork is / are

(1) Its light weight (2) Its high compressibility

(3) Its resistance to catch fire easily (4) All of the above

89. A fatty substance deposited on the walls of cork cells is

(1) Cellulose (2) Lignin

(3) Pectin (4) Suberin

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 Biology
90. The only cells of epidermis with chloroplasts are

(1) Trichomes (2) Guard cells (3) Epidermal cells (4) None of these

91. Maximum number of white blood corpuscles is that of

(1) Basophils (2) Neutrophils (3) Monocytes (4) Eosinophils

92. The main conducting part of phloem is

(1) Sieve tubes (2) Companion cells (3) Phloem parenchyma (4) Phloem fibres

93. Lenticles help in

(1) Photosynthesis (2) Mineral absorption

(3) Gaseous exchange (4) Food storage

94. Lignin is the important constituent in the cells of

(1) Phloem parenchyma (2) Parenchyma

(3) Xylem (4) Cambium

95. The apical meristem of the root is present

(1) Only in radicles (2) Only in tap roots

(3) Only in adventitious roots (4) In all the roots

96. The tissue which helps aquatic plants to float in water

(1) Parenchyma (2) Sclerenchyma

(3) Aerenchyma (4) Collenchyma

97. A ___(i)___ is a nonliving, elongated cell with tapering ends. Its walls are highly thickened with ___(ii)___ except
at certain circular spots known as ____(iii)____ . A ____(iv)____ is a cylindrical tubelike structure placed one
above the other end to end. ____(v)_____ is a nonliving, thick walled cell providing mechanical support. Select
the correct sequence of words to complete the above paragraph.

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

(1) Vessel Lignin Stoma Tracheid Xylem fibre

(2) Tracheid Suberin Pits Vessel Parenchyma

(3) Vessel Suberin Stoma Tracheid Sclereid

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(4) Tracheid Lignin Pits Vessel Xylem fibre

98. The flexibility in plants is due to a permanent tissue. This permanent tissue allows easy bending in various parts
of a plant without breaking. It also provides mechanical support to plants. From the given figures identify that
tissue.

Narrow lumen
Lignified thick
wall
(1) (2) (3) (4)

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Class IX
99. All the following terms given in column I relate to specific characteristic given in column II. Match each term with
its specific character and select the correct answer by using the codes given below.
Column I Colum n II
(a) Collenchyma (i) Thick walled tissues having deposition of lignin
(b) Complex tissues (ii) Water conducting tissues
(c) Parenchyma (iii) Thick walled sclerenchymatous cells, providing mechanical support
(d) Sclerenchyma (iv) Thick walled cells having thickenings of cellulose and pectin
(e) Phloem fibres (v) Storage of food
a b c d e
(1) (v) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
(2) (i) (ii) (v) (iv) (iii)
(3) (ii) (i) (v) (iv) (iii)
(4) (iv) (ii) (v) (i) (iii)
1 0 0 . The given figure shows a specific muscle fibre. Identify it.

(1) Cardiac muscle fibre (2) Striated muscle fibre

(3) Smooth muscle fibre (4) Skeletal muscle fibre

ANSWERS
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Que . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans . 3 1 1 3 4 4 1 1 2 3 1 3 3 3 1 4 3 3 1 4
Que . 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans . 1 1 4 4 1 1 4 2 2 3 3 2 2 4 4 1 4 4 1 1
Que . 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans . 1 1 1 1 2 2 4 4 2 4 1 4 4 4 4 3 2 4 3 4
Que . 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans . 1 1 2 1 3 4 2 4 1 1 2 4 2 2 3 3 4 4 2 2
Que . 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans . 3 1 1 4 4 1 4 4 4 2 2 1 3 3 4 3 4 2 4 1

54