Identity In Adolescence

Adolescence is known to be a period of exploratory self-analysis and self-evaluation ideally

culminating in the establishment of a cohesive and integrative sense of self or identity. This process
involves the exploration and testing of alternative ideas, beliefs, and behaviours, marking this period
as one of both dramatic change and uncertainty. Erikson provided perhaps the most widely recognised
theoretical framework for conceptualising the transformation of the self during adolescence. This
framework provides for the development of a sense of one’s individuality (self-sameness) and
continuity with significant others.
Identity is a new way of thinking about oneself that emerges during adolescence. Identity involves a
sense of self-unity, accompanied by a feeling that the self has continuity over time. A firmly
established identity also provides a sense of uniqueness as a person. According to Erikson’s
psychosocial model of development, identity must be perceived by the individual, but also recognised
and confirmed by others.
Thus, the process of establishing an identity involves “Integrating into a coherent whole one’s past
experiences, ongoing personal changes, and society’s demands and expectations for one’s future” The
process of developing an identity begins with the infant’s discovery of self, continues throughout
childhood, and becomes the focus of adolescence. Erik Erikson, identified the goal of adolescence as
achieving a coherent identity and avoiding identity confusion. Identity is multidimensional and may
include physical and sexual identity, occupational goals, religious beliefs, and ethnic background.
Adolescents explore these dimensions, and usually make commitments to aspects of their identity as
they move into early adulthood.
Identity development begins with children’s awareness that they are separate and unique individuals.
First indications of this awareness are evident in infancy when children begin to recognise themselves.
They recognise the reflected image as themselves. Also, the words “me,” “I,” and “mine” emerge very
early in children’s language. These findings are consistent with Erikson’s psychosocial stage of
autonomy versus shame and doubt, when infants establish their identity as independent persons.
During childhood, self-awareness grows and changes. Preschoolers describe themselves in terms of
observable characteristics and behaviours, including physical attributes (“I have brown eyes”),
preferences (“I like to ride my bike”), and competencies (“I can sing ‘Itsy, Bitsy Spider”’). Between
ages six and twelve, children begin to include less concrete aspects of the self in their descriptions.
School-aged children talk about their feelings (“I love my dog”) and how they fit into their social
world (“I’m the best fielder on my team”). During Erikson’s stage of initiative versus guilt children
explore their skills, abilities, and attitudes and incorporate the information into their view of self.
As children edge closer and closer to adulthood, it seems they reach a point where they want to be
defined by anything BUT their parents. They stop wanting to spend time with family, and may even
detest being seen with their parents. “Please drop me off a block from school, Mom. I want to walk
the rest of the way.” These words are painful to a mother who has devoted many years of her life to
meeting all of her teenage son’s needs. Suddenly, he’s embarrassed to be seen in the same car with
her. The process of separation from parents is a natural one. Erik Erikson was the first major
psychological theorist to develop the notion of an adolescent “identity crisis.” In his view, all of the
earlier crystallisations of identity formed during childhood come into question during adolescence
with the overwhelming combination of physical changes, increased sex drive, expanded mental
abilities, and increasing and conflicting social demands. To develop a sense of identity amidst the
confusion, Erikson stated in Identity: Youth and Crisis that adolescents need to try on a variety of
roles and “must often test extremes before settling on a considered course.” At this stage, adolescents
often reject their parents, and all that they stand for so that they can make a clean break from
childhood as they attempt to form an identity of their own. They are hungry for role models and can
be rather indiscriminate about where they find them. With their sense of identity in flux, teens will
often turn to peer groups for that missing sense of belonging. This explains some of the cult-like
tendencies amongst early adolescents to worship the same heroes (movie stars, singers), wear the
same clothes and “rebel” against traditional authority. The interesting thing about this so-called
Eshita Das (M.Sc. App. Psychology, NET Qualified) 7003059214
rebellion is that it’s often actually another form of conformity — Gina wants a tattoo or a navel ring
because everyone else is getting them. Everyone has platform shoes so she’ll feel like an outcast if
she’s not wearing them. At this stage of development (usually early teens), role models can make a
critical difference in choices adolescents make, choices that could affect the course of their lives. At
this age, teens have a strong need to idealize others, especially those who are older and more worldly,
qualities they desperately want to possess. They can be as easily awed by an older (that is, 18- or 19
year-old) guy who drives a fancy car and pushes drugs, as by a sports hero who espouses clean living,
hard work and dedication.
The physical, cognitive, and social changes of adolescence allow the teenager to develop the identity
that will serve as a basis for their adult lives. During Erikson’s stage of identity versus role confusion,
adolescents’ description of self expands to include personality traits (“I’m outgoing”) and attitudes (“I
don’t like stuck-up people”). The emergence of abstract reasoning abilities allows adolescents to think
about the future and experiment with different identities.
Identity development involves two steps. First, the adolescent must break away from childhood
beliefs to explore alternatives for identity in a particular area. Second, the adolescent makes a
commitment as to their individual identity in that area. Some aspects of identity, especially among
young adolescents, may be foreclosed. The foreclosure status is when a commitment is made without
exploring alternatives. Identity achievement during adolescence serves as a basis for our adult
expectations and goals for us. As individuals enter early adulthood they use their current
understanding of whom they are to develop a lifespan construct which serves as the link between the
identity developed in adolescence and the adult self. The lifespan construct is an integration of an
individual’s past, present, and culture.
Identity Crisis
Are you unsure of your role in life? Do you feel like you don’t know the ‘real you’? If you answer yes
to the previous questions, you may be experiencing an identity crisis. Theorist Erik Erikson coined the
term identity crisis and believed that it was one of the most important conflicts people face in
development. An identity crisis is a term in an epigenetic and social psychological theory in which an
individual loses a sense of personal sameness and historical continuity. The term was coined by the
psychologist Erik Erikson.. According to Erikson, an identity crisis is a time of intensive analysis and
exploration of different ways of looking at oneself.
According to Erikson, an identity crisis is a time of intensive analysis and exploration of different
ways of looking at oneself. Erikson’s interest in identity began in childhood. Erikson described
identity as “a subjective sense as well as an observable quality of personal sameness and continuity,
paired with some belief in the sameness and continuity of some shared world image. As a quality of
unself-conscious living, this can be gloriously obvious in a young person who has found himself as he
has found his communality. In him we see emerge a unique unification of what is irreversibly given—
that is, body type and temperament, giftedness and vulnerability, infantile models and acquired
ideals—with the open choices provided in available roles, occupational possibilities, values offered,
mentors met, friendships made, and first sexual encounters.” In Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial
development, the emergence of an identity crisis occurs during the teenage years in which people
struggle between feelings of identity versus role confusion. Researcher James Marcia (1966, 1976,
1980) has expanded upon Erikson’s initial theory.
James Marcia argued that identity could be viewed as a structure of beliefs, abilities and past
experiences regarding the self. “The better developed this structure is, the more individuals appear to
be of their own strengths and weaknesses. The less developed this structure is, the more confused
individuals seem to be about their own distinctiveness from others and the more they have to rely on
external sources to evaluate themselves.” Identity is a dynamic, not static psychological structure. The
formation of identity in adolescence sets the stage for continual changes in the content of identity
through the adult years.

Eshita Das (M.Sc. App. Psychology, NET Qualified) 7003059214

Marcia’s Identity Statuses: James Marcia refined and extended Erikson’s work on identity. In
Marcia’s model, identity involves the adoption of 1) a sexual orientation, 2) a set of values and ideals
and 3) a vocational direction. A well-developed identity gives on a sense of one’s strengths,
weaknesses, and individual uniqueness. A person with a less well-developed identity is not able to
define his or her personal strengths and weaknesses, and does not have a well articulated sense of self.
Marcia (1966) operationalised the stage progression theory of identity development proposed by
Erikson by identifying four identity statuses: diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement.
Through the use of a semi structured interview, an individual could be assigned an identity status on
the basis of the evidence of crisis and commitment in the domains of occupation, religion, and
politics. Since its inception, Marcia’s interview has stimulated a wide range of research in the area of
identity formation.
To better understand the identity formation process, Marcia conducted interviews with young people.
He asked whether the participants in his study (1) had established a commitment to an occupation and
ideology and (2) had experienced, or were presently experiencing, a decision making period
(adolescent identity crisis). Marcia developed a framework for thinking about identity in terms of four
identity statuses. It is important to note that these are NOT stages. Identity statuses should not be
viewed as sub stages in a sequential or linear process.
i) Foreclosure: These people have made commitments to an occupational future, but have not
experienced an identity crisis. They have conformed to the expectations of others concerning their
future. For example, an individual may have allowed a parent to decide what career they will pursue.
These individuals have not explored a range of options (experience an “identity crisis”).
ii) Diffusion: The young person has not made a commitment, and may or may not have experienced
an identity crisis. He or she appears to have given up any attempt to make the commitments needed
for developing a clear sense of identity as Marcia defines the term.
iii) Moratorium: Individuals in moratorium are actively exploring alternative commitments, but have
not yet made a decision. They are experiencing an identity crisis, but appear to be moving forward
toward identity formation, making commitments.
iv) Achievement: The individual has experienced an identity crisis and has made commitments
necessary for building a sense of identity as described above. The core idea is that one’s sense of
identity is determined largely by the choices and commitments made regarding certain personal and
social traits. The work done in this paradigm considers how much one has made certain choices, and
how much he or she displays a commitment to those choices. Identity involves the adoption of 1) a
sexual orientation, 2) a set of values and ideals and 3) a vocational direction.
A well-developed identity gives on a sense of one’s strengths, weaknesses, and individual uniqueness.
A person with a less well-developed identity is not able to define his or her personal strengths and
weaknesses, and does not have a well articulated sense of self.
Self Concept And Self Esteem In Adolescence
The self-concept is the accumulation of knowledge about the self, such as beliefs regarding
personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals, and roles. In adolescence, the self-
concept becomes more abstract, complex, and hierarchically organised into cognitive mental
representations or self-schemas, which direct the processing of self-relevant information. Self-
concept-the way in which one perceives oneself-can be divided into categories, such as personal self-
concept (facts or one’s own opinions about oneself, such as “I have brown eyes” or “I am attractive”);
social self-concept (one’s perceptions about how one is regarded by others: “people think I have a
great sense of humor”); and self-ideals (what or how one would like to be: “I want to be a lawyer” or
“I wish I were thinner”). Self-concept or self-identity is the sum total of a being’s knowledge and
understanding of his or her self. The self-concept is different from self consciousness, which is an
awareness of one’s self. Components of the self-concept include physical, psychological, and social
attributes, which can be influenced by the individual’s attitudes, habits, beliefs and ideas. These

Eshita Das (M.Sc. App. Psychology, NET Qualified) 7003059214

components and attributes can not be condensed to the general concepts of self-image and the self-
esteem.
Self-concept refers to self-evaluation or self perception, and it represents the sum of an individual’s
beliefs about his or her own attributes. Self concept reflects how an adolescent evaluates himself or
herself in domains (or areas) in which he or she considers success important. An adolescent can have
a positive self-concept in somedomains and a negative self-concept in others. Teachers,
administrators, and parents commonly voice concerns about students’ self- esteem. Its significance is
often exaggerated to the extent that low self esteem is viewed as the cause of all evil and high self-
esteem as the cause of all good. Promoting high self-concept is important because it relates to
academic and life success. Although the terms self-concept and self-esteem are often used
interchangeably, they represent different but related constructs. Self-concept refers to a student’s
perceptions of competence or adequacy in academic and nonacademic (example, social, behavioural,
and athletic) domains and is best represented by a profile of self-perceptions across domains. Self-
esteem is a student’s overall evaluation of him- or herself, including feelings of general happiness and
satisfaction Self-concept and academic achievement: Self-concept is frequently positively correlated
with academic performance, but it appears to be a consequence rather than a cause of high
achievement. This is a common assumption that an individuals high academic performance results in
their self concept. Whereas, the high academic performance is the result of individual’s self concept.
Signs of Negative Self Concept in Adolescents
Several signs may indicate that an adolescent has a negative self-concept. These may include one or
more of the following:
• Doing poorly in school;
• Having few friends;
• Putting down one self and others;
• Rejecting compliments;
• Teasing others;
• Showing excessive amounts of anger;
• Being excessively jealous;
• Appearing conceited; or
• Hesitating to try new things.
Strategies that can be used to improve an adolescent’s self-concept include providing praise for
accomplishments, praising effort, working with the individual to encourage improvement in areas
where he or she feels deficient, and refraining from using negative feedback.
Self esteem is the one important factor required by anybody to succeed in life. It is a well proven
concept that if you can build self esteem at your adolescent period it will last all through your life.
Adolescence is one period in which boys and girls faces with many problems and issues. It is
necessary that adolescent self esteem to be atop to face the problems faced with adolescent period.
Many teenagers will have low self esteem and it is imperative to know major reasons for low self
esteem and find out ways and means to combat the low self esteem. It is highly advisable to make
dedicated efforts to bring up the self esteem. There are many causes for the lack of self esteem. Let us
review some of them.
• Hereditary is a main factor for low self esteem. If the parents are introverts and they never mingle
with people for fear of their inability, the chances that children have low esteem are more.
• The living conditions: The surrounding in which you live also affects the lack of self esteem. If
the child is brought up in a poor environment without giving proper attention to make him excel
in his fields or deprived of doing good activities, the low self esteem at the adolescent stage is
possible.

Eshita Das (M.Sc. App. Psychology, NET Qualified) 7003059214

• Lack of proper education: is another factor affecting the self esteem. Uneducated children will
develop lack of self esteem as they will face problems in interacting with the educated of their
age.
• Physiological: Adolescence is a period when major physical changes occur in boys and girls. The
gender hormones start the functioning in full swing during this period. Many children face
problems during this change unable to cope with the changes occurring in their body and
behaviour.
• Societal implications: During the adolescent stage of a child, society put many restrictions in their
behaviours and attitudes. Girls will be automatically tempted to move away form the boys and
boys are restricted to mingle with girls during the period. This makes them feel that there are
some things to be afraid. This will automatically make them fear in a natural interaction.
• Fear about future: During the late periods of adolescence, the children will seriously think about
their future and in many cases they will get depressed of their future. Unemployment, dating
problems, insecurity, lack of financial backgrounds and many such factors make the adolescents
afraid of facing the world.
• Diseases and other physical ailments: These children will be thinking that they are debris in the
world. These thinking processes make them to keep away from others and they can become
agitated.
There are many such reasons for low self esteem of adolescents. If proper care is not given, the low
self esteem gradually will lead to many physical and mental ailments. It is important to bring up the
adolescents with high self esteem.
Egocentrism in Adolescence: An important aspect of the psychological development contributing to
the adolescent period is adolescent egocentrism. According to Elkind (1967), adolescent egocentrism
includes a belief system carried by adolescents that makes them consider themselves as special and
unique. This feeling is accompanied by the acquisition of many new psychological abilities.
Adolescent egocentrism is also characterised by an imaginary audience with an increased self
consciousness. They consider that their people around them especially peers observe their activities
and may comment on them. They are extremely conscious of what others think of them, their
appearance and everything related to them selves. This way they perceive themselves as seen by them
contributing to the development of self confidence.
Adolescence and Risk Behaviour
Several theories have been proposed as to why adolescents engage in risky behaviours. One theory
stresses the need for excitement, fun, and novel, intense sensations that override the potential dangers
involved in a particular activity. Another theory stresses that many of these risk behaviours occur in a
group context and involve peer acceptance and status in the group. A third theory emphasizes that
adolescent risk taking is a form of modelling and romanticizing adult behaviour. In other words,
adolescents engage in some behaviour, such as cigarette smoking and sex, to identify with their
parents and other adults. In considering these theories, it should be kept in mind that teenagers are not
all alike and that they may have different reasons for engaging in the same risk behaviour.
For some youths, risk-taking behaviour may signal a problem that can threaten their Well being in
both the short and long term. It is very important that professionals understand the difference between
normal experimentation and signs of troubled or high-risk youth so they can make appropriate
referrals to mental health professionals when needed. The adolescent’s behaviour is determined by
their own moral and behavioural code.
The parents should guide rather than directly control the adolescent’s actions. Adolescents who feel
warmth and support from their parents are less likely to engage in risky behaviours. Also, parents who
convey clear expectations regarding their adolescent’s behaviour and who demonstrate consistent
limit setting and monitoring are less likely to have adolescents who engage in risky behaviours. The
major problem areas of most concern for high-risk adolescents are alcohol and drug abuse; pregnancy
and sexually transmitted diseases; school failure and dropping out; and crime, delinquency, and

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violence. Information about what is known regarding the risk factors for each of these problems is
briefly summarized in the following sections.
Common Behavioural Problems of Adolescence
• Drug and Substance Abuse
Substance use among adolescents occurs on a spectrum; from experimentation to dependence.
Experimentation with alcohol and drugs during adolescence is common. Unfortunately, teenagers
often do not see the link between their actions today and the consequences tomorrow. They also have
a tendency to feel indestructible and immune to the problems that others experience. Alcohol is the
biggest culprit in this regard.
Moreover,unlikedruguse,themoderateuseofalcoholisconsideredperfectlyacceptable in most adult social
circles. Teens see their parents enjoying a function or parties or at dinner.
Using alcohol and tobacco at a young age has negative health effects. While some teens experiment
and stop, or continue to use occasionally, without significant problems. Others will develop a
dependency, moving on to more dangerous drugs and causing significant harm to themselves and
possibly others. Teenagers at risk for developing serious alcohol and drug problems include those:
with a family history of substance abuse, those who are depressed, those who have low self-esteem,
and who feel like they do not fit in or are out of the mainstream. The majority of adults who smoke
cigarettes begin smoking during adolescence. If an adolescent reaches the age of 18 to 19 years
without becoming a smoker, it is highly unlikely that he will become a smoker as an adult.
• Stress and Depression
Stress and depression are serious problems for many of the adolescence. Stress is characterized by
feelings of tension, frustration, worry, sadness and withdrawal that commonly last from a few hours to
a few days. Depression is both more severe and long lasting. Depression is characterized by more
extreme feelings of hopelessness, sadness, isolation, worry, withdrawal and worthlessness that last for
two weeks or more.
Young people become stressed for many reasons. The most common of these are: Break up with
boy/girl friend, increased arguments with parents, trouble with brother or sister, increased arguments
between parents, change in parent’s financial status, serious illness or injury of family member, and
trouble with classmates.
In addition, Childrenfromsingleparentsorbrokenhomesaresubjectedtoanearharrowingexperience which
brings about Stress and Depression. These stress inducing events are centred in the two most
important domains of a teenager’s life: home and school.
• Bullying or Ragging
Bullying is the act of intentionally causing harm to others, through verbal harassment, physical
assault, or other more subtle methods of coercion such as manipulation. Bullying in school and the
workplace is also referred to as peer abuse. In India we are more accustomed to the word ragging. The
harassment can be verbal, physical and/or emotional. Every day, thousands of teens wake up afraid to
go to school. Bullying is a problem that affects millions of students of all races and classes.
Bullying has every one worried, not just the kids on its receivingend.Yet because parents, teachers,
and other adults do not always see it, they may not understand how extreme bullying can get. Studies
show that people who are abused by their peers are at risk for mental health problems, such as low
self-esteem, stress, depression, or anxiety. They may also think about suicide more. Bullying is
violence, and it often leads to more violent behaviour as the bully grows up.
• School Problems
The School constitutes a large part of an adolescent’s existence. Difficulties in almost any area of life
of ten manifest as school problems. School problems during the adolescent years maybe the result of
Eshita Das (M.Sc. App. Psychology, NET Qualified) 7003059214
rebellion and a need for independence. Less commonly, they may be caused by mental health
disorders, such as anxiety or depression. Substance use, abuse, and family conflict also are common
contributors to school problems.
Sometimes, inappropriate academic placement—particularly in adolescents with a learning disability
or mild mental retardation that was not recognized early in life— causes school problems. Particular
school problems include fear of going to school, truancy, dropping out, and academic
underachievement. Problems that developed earlier in childhood, such as attention
deficit/hyperactivity disorder(ADHD) and learning disorders may continue to cause school problems
for adolescents.
• Unwanted Pregnancy and Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
This is as much a problem for the male adolescent as it is for the female but generally, the girls stand
a greater risk of this. Due to the development of secondary sexual characteristics following
adolescence, teens feel a great push to explore and experiment with their bodies. This will create lot of
emotional problems to the adolescence. Teens Who live in low-income, socially disorganized
communities, from emotionally deprived family etc. are more prone to this.
• Delinquency
Juvenile delinquency means the antisocial or illegal behaviour by children or adolescents. Rapid
population growth, the unavailability of housing and support services, poverty, unemployment and
underemployment among youth, the decline in the authority of local communities, overcrowding in
poor urban areas, the disintegration of the family, and ineffective educational systems are the
fostering factors of juvenile delinquency in our country.
Influencing factors of Adolescence
The behaviour of adolescence is greatly influenced by the environmental factors. The nature and
relationship with the parents, peers, teachers, siblings etc...will have an effect on the behavioural
development.
• Parent-child Relationships
The relationship between the parents and children are vital to adolescent well-being. It can be clear
from the following sub points.
• Relationships: Teens who have warm, involved, and satisfying relationships with their parents
are more likely to do well in school, be academically motivated and engaged, have better
social skills, and have lower rates of risky sexual behaviour than their peers. Conversely,
teens with poor relationships with their parents are more likely to have psychological and
other problems.
• Modelling: Teens whose parents demonstrate positive behaviours on a number of fronts are
more likely to engage in those behaviours themselves and teens whose parents take part in
risky behaviours are more likely to do the same. So the parents should be vigilant to not to be
bad models for their children.
• Monitoring/Awareness: Parents who know about their children’s activities, friends, and
behaviours, and monitor them in age-appropriate ways, have teens with lower rates of risky
physical and sexual behaviours, as well as lower rates of drug, alcohol, and tobacco use than
their peers. And teens who perceive that their parents are taking on this monitoring role are
more likely to do well academically and socially.
• Approach to Parenting: Teens whose parents are supportive and caring, but who also
consistently monitor and enforce family rules, are more likely to be motivated and successful
in school, as well as psychologically and physically healthy. In contrast, adolescents whose
parents are overly strict and do not give them any
independencearemorelikelytoengageinriskybehaviours.Similarly,whenparents are warm but
permissive, adolescents tend to be impulsive and engage in risky behaviours.
Eshita Das (M.Sc. App. Psychology, NET Qualified) 7003059214
 • Peer group: Many adults think peers can only be negative influences, but the adolescents
often influence each other positively, by either modelling behaviours or pressuring each other
to behave in certain ways or adopt certain attitudes and goals. However, the direction of this
association is not as obvious as is often thought. For example, “bad kids” seem likely to seek
out other “bad kids,” while “good kids” seem more likely to seek out other “good kids.” In
addition, peer acceptance is probably more likely for teens whose attitudes and behaviours
correspond to those of the group. Teens whose friends smoke, drink alcohol, take drugs,
engage in other deviant behaviours, and engage in sexual intercourse are more likely to take
part in those behaviours themselves, while adolescents whose friends have high educational
aspirations, achieve academically, and engage in other positive and healthy behaviours tend to
behave similarly.
• Siblings:Siblingscanactasmodelsforpositivebehaviours,suchasphysicalactivity, and negative
behaviours, such as drug use. Sibling relationships are also a good Training ground for
conflict resolution and negotiation skills necessary in other parts of adolescents’ lives.
• Teachers: Teachers can offer friendship, guidance, and assistance, as well as serve as positive
role models. Teachers can also teach social skills that are useful in a variety of settings.
• Adults: Adults who act as surrogate family members can also serve as role models, teach
social skills, and provide support that may not be available at home.
Adolescence as a period of stress and storm
This period is marked by three important elements.
Conflict with parents: Contemporary studies have established that conflict with parents increases in
early adolescence, compared with preadolescence, and typically remains high for a couple of years
before declining in late adolescence (Laursen, Coy, & Collins, 1998; Paikoff & Brooks-Gunn, 1991;
Smetana,1989).
Mood Disruptions: In general, studies that have assessed mood at frequent intervals have found that
adolescents do indeed report greater extremes of mood and more frequent changes of mood, compared
with preadolescents or adults. Also, a number of large longitudinal studies concur that negative affect
increases in the transition from preadolescence to adolescence (Buchanan et al., 1992)
Risk behaviours: Contemporary research confirms that in the United States and other Western
countries, the teens and early twenties are the years of highest prevalence of a variety of types of risk
behavior (i.e., behavior that carries the potential for harm to self and/or others). This pattern exists for
crime as well as for behavior such as substance use, risky automobile driving, and risky sexual
behavior (Arnett,1992; Moffitt, 1993). Rates of risk behavior peak in late adolescence/ emerging
adulthood rather than early or middle adolescence (Arnett, 1999). Rates of crime rise in the teens until
peaking at age 18, then drop steeply (Gottfredson & Hirschi,1990).
A midlife crisis is a transition of identity and self-confidence that can occur in middle-aged
individuals, typically 45 to 65 years old. The phenomenon is described as a psychological crisis
brought about by events that highlight a person's growing age, inevitable mortality, and possibly lack
of accomplishments in life. This may produce feelings of intense depression, remorse, and high levels
of anxiety, or the desire to achieve youthfulness or make drastic changes to their current lifestyle or
feel the wish to change past decisions and events. The term was coined by Elliott Jaques in 1965.
Academic research since the 1980s rejects the notion of mid-life crisis as a phase that most adults go
through. Personality type and a history of psychological crisis are believed to predispose some people
to this "traditional" midlife crisis. People going through this suffer a variety of symptoms and exhibit
a disparate range of behaviours.
It is important to understand the difference between a mid-life crisis and a mid-life stressor. Mid-life
is the time from years 45–64 where a person is often evaluating his or her own life. However, many
mid-life stressors are often labelled as a mid-life crisis. Day-to-day stressors are likely to add up and
be thought of as a crisis, but in reality, it is simply an "overload". Both women and men often

Eshita Das (M.Sc. App. Psychology, NET Qualified) 7003059214

experience multiple stressors because of their simultaneous roles as spouses, parents, employees,
children, etc.
Many middle-aged adults experience major life events that can cause a period of psychological stress
or depression, such as the death of a loved one, or a career setback. However, those events could have
happened earlier or later in life, making them a "crisis," but not necessarily a mid-life one Studies
indicate that some cultures may be more sensitive to this phenomenon than others; one study found
that there is little evidence that people undergo midlife crises in Japanese and Indian cultures, raising
the question of whether a mid-life crisis is mainly a cultural construct. The authors hypothesized that
the "culture of youth" in Western societies accounts for the concept there.

Eshita Das (M.Sc. App. Psychology, NET Qualified) 7003059214