CHAPTER-1

ABOUT PROJECT

Like a jewel washed ashore Easton Fiera multistory freehold residential development stands tall
and resplendent in the heart of the city.
Falcon View spread over 28.5 acres of lush green majestic location at 66A. Mohali combines all
the urban essentials.
Falcon View is an architectural landmark in the making, for the stylish and cosmopolitan
lifestyle of the modern urban dweller. Marked by distinction in every aspect of development
ideals, the forte lies in the mastery in creating residences of unimaginable prestige reserved for
the exclusive few. Exemplifying supreme quality in designs and craftsmanship, the project is
fused with status elevating elements unique in their own way.
Surpassing benchmarks through impeccable architectural masterpieces, it's an awesome
inspiring project highly sought after. Where living is harmonized between the perfect resonance
of utmost luxury and unprecedented serenity. Everything is made in the best of your own ship.

1
COME HOME TO RENEW, REVIVE, REJUVENATE AND RESTORE

Our forte lies in creating marvels of perfection featuring fine detailing, distinguished
finishes as well as fixtures and fittings with the designer finesse, be it your living room,
kitchen and bathrooms will keep you mesmerized day and night. This is true luxury
living like no other.
Come home to a living that truly defines you and the life style you embrace. You will
find everything from design to fittings complementing your discerning taste and
accommodating your cosmopolitan lifestyle.

The lush green landscaped gardens are all set to heighten the level of relaxation. Be with
your family or friends catch the cool breeze filled with fragrance of the most adorable
colors of flora around. Spend your evenings in the embrace of nature and be taken over
with its arresting beauty.

2
 Salient Features

● Designed by internationally renowned architect Hafeez Contractor

● Luxury of over 17 acres of lush green lawn and landscaped green under the building
blocks
● Green Area with walkways free from vehicular movement
● Double Height 5 star grand Entrance Lobbies in each tower
● Wheel chair ramps to cater to the needs of aged and differently abled
● Rain water harvesting system to recharge aquifer and use of treated water for
flushing and horticulture
● Privacy with four distant apartment entrance doors per floor
● Gated complex secured with a multi-tiered security system
● The Building is designed with NBC mandated fire control norms
● Majority of Car park in the basement
● 2 car parks per unit
● Earthquake resistant structure
● 2 passenger and 1 service lifts for each block
● 24 hour water supply and power back up
● Servant room and servant toilet in each unit

● Separate entry for servant room

● Optimum utilization of natural daylight in each apartment with full height windows
● Dry and wet kitchen concept with dedicated store for kitchen
● Clean elevation with out of view earmarked AC outdoor units and cloths drying lines
location

3
 CHAPTER-2
LOCATION

SECTOR -115, Santé Majra S.A.S NAGAR (MOHALI), PUNJAB

4
BENIFITS OF LOCATION

 As of today the site is accessible through out 200 ft existing roads which, very soon

will be connected to Upcoming International Airport on one side & also to a bye-pass

on the other side connecting to major cities like Delhi, Ambala. Patiala, Ludhiana .

Kullu – Manali & J&K. It lies in the heart of the city bordering Sector 67-

68(residential sectors).

 Near upcoming Chandigarh-Mohali International Airport about 25.2km.

 Adjoining kharar Railway Station about 1.5km.

 BEFORE GMADA "Acrocity"(1200 Acres) about 10km.

 Near Mohali Bus Terminal, Sector 66-A(Proposed)

 Near PCA Cricket Stadium and Fortis Hospital

 40min. drive from ISBT-43, Chandigarh

5
 CHAPTER-3
SITE PLAN

6
 CHAPTER-4
ELEVATION

⮚ IT HAS 16 FLOORS + GROUND FLOOR+BASEMENT

⮚ Top Floor 15th and 16th are Penthouse
⮚ IT has 3BHK & 4BHK
⮚ Tower Height is 52meters, excluding basement

7
 CHAPTER-5
FLOOR PLANS

3BHK FLOOR PLAN

8
4BHK FLOOR PLAN

9
 DETAL OF FIELD STUDY

There were number of works progressing simultaneously at the time we joined there for our
industrial training. A brief introduction to the works we saw at JLPL as in the sequence of:

 Construction work at V&W Towers

o Column Construction

● Column reinforcement
● Column starter
● Column shuttering
● Column casting
● Removal of shuttering
● Curing of the column

o Beam & Slab Construction

● Shuttering placement
● Reinforcement
● Concreting
● Curing
● Removal of shuttering

o Brick Work
● Layout
● Laying of bricks
● Curing of bricks

o Staircase Work
● Shuttering Work
● Reinforcement Work
● Casting Work
● Curing Work

o Water-proofing at basement of Falcon View

10
SEQUENCE OF STRUCTURE WORK

● Site Clearance. The very first step is site clearance which involves removal of
grass and vegetation along with any other objections which might be there in the
site location.
● Demarcation of Site- The whole area on which construction is to be done is
marked so as to identify the construction zone. In our project, a plot was chosen
and the respective marking was done.
● Positioning of Central coordinate and layout- The Centre point was marked
with the help of a thread and plumb bob as per the grid drawing. With respect to
this center point, all the other points of columns were to be decided so its exact
position is very critical.
● Surveying and Layout-In our project, an arbitrary system of grids was often
established so as to correspond to the rows of columns and the major load-
bearing walls of the building. The grids were identified alphabetically in one
direction, and numerically in the other direction.

The grids are usually but not necessarily perpendicular, and are often but not necessarily
evenly spaced. Floors and basement levels are also numbered. Structures, equipment or
architectural details may be located in reference to the floor and the nearest intersection
of the arbitrary axes.

When there were column being raised upwards from lower to upper floor, a grid line
provided during survey was followed as parent ordinates. All other ordinates and
positions were based on this grid points.

11
 ● Excavation- Excavation was carried out both manually as well as
mechanically normally 1-2 earth excavators (JCB's) were used for
excavating the soil. Excavation is carried out providing adequate side
slopes and dressing of excavation bottom.

● Laying of PCC-Plain Cement Concrete -After the process of

excavation, laying of plain cement concrete that is PCC is done ,A layer of
4 inches was made in such a manner that it was not mixed with the soil. It
provides a solid base for the raft foundation and a mix of 1:5:10 that is, 1
part of cement to 5 parts of fine aggregates and 10 parts of coarse
aggregates by volume were used in it.

Plain concrete is vibrated to achieve full compaction. Concrete placed below ground
should be protected from falling earth during and after placing Concrete placed in
ground containing deleterious substances should be kept free from contact with such a
ground and with water draining there from during placing and for a period of seven days.

When joint in a layer of concrete are unavoidable, and end is sloped at an angle of 30 and
junctions of different layers break joint in laying upper layer of concrete. The lower
surface is made rough and clean watered before upper layer is laid.

12
 CHAPTER-6
COLLUMN CONSTRUCTION

Column is a vertical member which takes complete load of the beam, slabs and the entire
structure and the floor and other area of the building is adjusted as per the requirement of the
client or owner. The size of the columns, quantity of cement sand and aggregate to be mixed,
the number of steel bars to be placed, spacing between the stirrups is all mentioned in the
structural drawing which is designed by structural designer as per the actual load on the
column and considering the factor of safety.

Construction Methods of RCC Columns

Construction of RCC columns involve following four steps:

● Column layouts
● Column reinforcement work
● Column formwork
● Pouring of concrete

13
Layout of Columns
Column layouts are done by laying rope in the grid lines and mark the location of columns.

14
Column Reinforcement

Column reinforcement works needs following

checklist on site:

 Check the numbers and diameter of

vertical bars

 Spacing between vertical bars

 Check Development length which depends

on diameter of bar

 Lapping in alternate bars should come at

same height.

 Lapping should not come inside beam or

slab.

 Lapping should be at l/3 or 2l/3 of column

as per structural notes
● Spacing between stirrups is as per the drawing

● Hook should be bend properly at 135* angles.

● Check the stirrups corner. Vertical bar should come at right angle edge of stirrup properly
bound with binding wire.

15
Column reinforcement Detail At JTPL:

16
10th floor Column specification at JTPL

Column no – C406a

⮚ Size of Column= 750X400mm

⮚ Nominal Cover= 40mm

⮚ Dia of Bar=16mm

⮚ No. of bars each face longer side= 7No’s

⮚ No. of bars each face shorter side= 2No’s

⮚ Dia of Stirrup bar =8mm

⮚ Spacing of stirrups=100mm c/c

⮚ No. of Stirrups= 5No’s

⮚ No. of Hooks= 5No’s

⮚ No. of Stirrups along length of Column

= 30+1=31

⮚ Concrete = M30

17
Column Formwork
Columns carry the load of structure
and hence they are critical. It is
important to align them for verticality
so that load is transmitted properly.
The column shuttering should be
strong enough to take the pressure of
fresh concrete and remain in position
during concreting.

Some Guidelines on column shuttering

● To hold the concrete shuttering firmly in place and for proper alignment a
concrete pad called starter is cast before fixing the shuttering. The thickness is
about 45 mm to 60 mm and dimensions are precisely the same as the dimensions
of proposed column. The starter should be cured for a day or 2 so that it is hard
enough to fix the shuttering around it.
● Column box or shuttering for columns is made of plywood sheets or steel
sheets fabricated with adequate stiffeners.
● A thin films of oil or grease should be applied to inner surface of the shuttering
to enable easy removal of the column after the concrete hardens.

18
● Shuttering should be properly aligned to its verticality and diagonals to be
checked to ensure accuracy in dimensions.
● Formwork has to be thoroughly supported with props size before pouring the
concrete so that it does not moves horizontally or vertically during concreting.
● The gaps near the shuttered joints should be sealed with plaster or a
piece of wood to prevent any leakage of slurry.
● Appropriate space is to be provided in the inner face of the shutter
and reinforcement by fixing cover blocks of about 40mm.
● It is preferable to remove shutters after 24 hrs. of casting and if they
need to be removed earlier, it should not be removed within sixteen
hours.
● The removal of shutters has to be done gently without jerks so that
edges of columns are not damaged.
● Care should be taken regarding fixing and supports of column
shuttering to prevent it from movement during concreting.
● Diagonals of the shuttering to be checked to ensure dimensional
accuracy.

19
Concreting of RCC Column

Concreting of an RCC column can be done

● Manually

● With the help of machine or pump

Following points to be followed during and after

concreting:

● For less quantity machine mix

concrete is done and for larger
quantity ready mix concrete (RMC) is
ordered.
● Approval of placing concrete
whether by pump or manually has to
be taken from client.
● Concrete should be poured up to slab
bottom; the remaining column gets
concreted during pouring of slab & beam.

● Mechanical vibrator to be compulsorily used in the column but excess

vibration can cause segregation. Each layer should be thoroughly
compacted.
● Target slump to be 160 mm.
● Height of pouring concrete should not exceed 1.5 m.
● Construction joint should be avoided in the column.
● Proper cover as per structural drawings to be maintained.
● Temperature should be below 30 degree while pouring concrete.
● After the pouring of concrete and vibrating it with the help of a vibrator the
horizontality and verticality of column to be checked

20
 CHAPTER – 7
SLAB & BEAM
SLAB

Slab is the concrete structural elements of the modern buildings. Slab on the floors
should be thick and it helps to construct another floor on the floor.
The thickness of the slab is different on different place i.e. 125 mm thickness in the
Room, 115 mm in bathroom area , 135 mm in the walking area or dining area , 175 mm
thickness is given in the Balcony.

Slabs are of two types:-

 One Way Slab: -

One way Slab is the slab which is supported by the beams on the two opposite sides to
carry the load along one direction. There is the crank on the one side of the span.

OR
The ratio of longer span to the ratio of shorter span is equal to or greater than 2

 Two Way Slab: -

Two way slab is the slab which is the supported on the four sides and the load will be
carried in both the directions. The crank in the slab should be on all the sides of the slab.

The ratio of longer span to the ratio of shorter span is less than 2 is called as two way
slab.

21
Role of Reinforcement in slab:

There are different types of bars present in the slab with their individual purposes and roles.
They are classified as:

● Main Bar
● Distribution Bar
● Temperature Bar
● Extra Bar

Main Bar
The reinforcement bars that are placed in the tension zone of the slab to resist the bending
moment & to transfer the superimposed loads to the supports that are provided for the slab
are called main bars.

There are two types of main bars.

1. Straight Bar
2. Crank Bar

22
Distribution Bar

Distribution bars placed on top of the main bar. Main Reinforcement Bars are used to transfer
the bending moment developed at the bottom of the slab.
Distribution Bars are used to hold the slabs on either way and to resist the cracks and shear
stress developed at the top.

Temperature Bar

Steel rods placed horizontally in concrete slabs for prevention of cracks due to temperature
changes or drying; placed parallel to the reinforcing rods. The steel rods are placed at right
angles to the main reinforcing bars.

Extra Bar

The extra bar is provided at the bottom of Cranked bars to maintain the framework of the slab.
The length of Extra bar is L/4. Steps to calculate the Reinforcement required for Slab:- Deduct
the cover for finding length of bar. Evaluate the length of the distribution bar.

23
BEAM

A Beam is a horizontal structural element that runs horizontally to withstand vertical load
coming off the building frame. The beam takes the load & distributes it to ends and
transfers it to columns, walls, and posts on both sides of the beam. It only withstands
laterally applied loads on the axis of the beam.

24
Different types of beams are used in the construction of buildings and structures.

● Simply Supported Beam

It is one of the simplest structural elements that both ends rest on supports but is free to
rotate. It contains pinned support at one end and a roller support at the other end. Based
on the assigned load, it sustains shearing and bending.

● Fixed Beam
It is supported at both ends and fixed to resist rotation. It is also called a built-in
beam. The fixed ends produce moments other than the reactions.

25
● Cantilever Beam
If a beam is fixed at one end and set to be free at the other end, it is termed as a
cantilever beam. The beam distributes the load back to the support where it is forced
against a moment and shear stress. Cantilever beams allow the creation of a bay window,
balconies, and some bridges.

● Continuous Beam
A continuous beam has more than two supports distributed along its entire length.

26
1. Reinforced Concrete Beams
It is constructed from concrete and reinforcement as shown in Fig. 5. Sometimes
reinforced concrete beam is concealed in reinforced concrete slabs and it is called hidden
beam or concealed beam

2. Steel Beams
It is constructed from steels and used in several applications.

27
 3. Elements of a Beam
The beam mainly consist of steel reinforcement and the concrete. These two component are
the reasons making the beam able to resist all of the bending, shear and earthquake forces.

4. Concrete :

Reinforcement:
The concrete is weak in tension thus we need to provide reinforcement in the beams.

Types of Reinforcement in Beams:

Generally a beam consists of following steel reinforcements:

● Longitudinal reinforcement at tension and compression face.

● Shear reinforcements in the form of vertical stirrups and or bent up longitudinal bars.
● Side face reinforcement in the web of the beam provided when the depth of the
web in a beam exceeds 750 mm.

● Distribute minimum 0.1% of the web area equally on two faces at a spacing not
exceeding 300 mm or web thickness, whichever is less.

28
Name of bars in the beams:

● Top bars
● Bottom bars
● Curtail bars
● Extra bars
● Stirrups
● Side reinforcement

29
Photos during Slab Casting

30
 CHAPTER-8
BRICK WORK

A brick is a type of block used to build walls, pavements and other elements in masonry
construction. Properly, the term brick denotes a block composed of dried clay, but is now also
used informally to denote other chemically cured construction blocks. Bricks can be joined
using mortar, adhesives or by interlocking them. Bricks are produced in numerous classes,
types, materials, and sizes which vary with region and time period, and are produced in bulk
quantities.

Bricks are laid in courses and numerous patterns known as bonds, collectively known as
brickwork, and may be laid in various kinds of mortar to hold the bricks together to make a
durable structure.

31
Layout of Bricks at site:

Brick layout is a process of transferring the layout of bricks from the plan drawings to the
ground or floor at site. This process is done by measurements from the corners or the column.

32
Laying of Bricks

The first brick should be laid at one end and tapped slightly to 'bed in'. The next brick should
be 'buttered up' with mortar spread onto each end before being placed to abut the first brick.
The trowel should be used to cut away excess mortar that is squeezed out from underneath or
in between the bricks.

33
34
Curing of Bricks:

In case you are using cement sand mortar, you should cure the brick wall for at least 7 days.
And, if the brick wall is constructed with the help of rich mortar with the ratio of 1:4 then it is
best to cure the wall for at least 10 days.

Methods of Curing

Depending on the climatic conditions efforts should be made to stop drying of cement due tothe
sun and faster wind.

1. Wet covering method: The wet covering method is suitable for curing vertical and
sloping surfaces and works best for brick walls. The method allows keeping the
walls wet throughout the curing period. In this method, curing is done with the help
of wet gunny bags and hessian that is kept wet every time.
2. Sprinkling method: For larger structures, it is not possible to provide a wet covering
every Thus sprinkling method is another easy way to cure vertical surfaces like a
brick wall. In this method, water is sprinkled on the surface within definite intervals.

35
 CHAPTER –9
STAIR CASE

A stair is a set of steps leading from one floor of a building to another, typically inside the
building. The room or enclosure of the building, in which the stair is located is known as
staircase. The opening or space occupied by the stair is known as a stairway.

Types of Staircase:
Straight Flight Stair
A straight staircase can be defined as one
having a single, straight flight of stairs like a
ladder that connects two levels or floors in a
building.

Quarter Turn Stairs

A quarter-turn staircase consists of two straight
rows of stairs and a one quarter turn of 90°.
With this type of staircase, from the base to the
top, the steps and the person on them turn 90.

36
Dog-Legged Stairs
It resembles the shape of a dog's leg in the sectional
elevation. The dog- legged staircase also ensures
less costly utilization of the available space. Hence,
they are extensively used in residential, public as
well as commercial buildings.

Open Well Staircases

This type of stair consists of two or more flights

arranging a well or opening between the
backward and forward flights. When all the steps
are difficult to arrange in two flights, a short third
flight of 3 to 5 steps may be provided along the
direction perpendicular to the hall.

37
Spiral Stairs
Spiral stairs give you flexibility when it
comes to your access points. They can fit
into tighter spaces than a traditional stair,
but they can also be maneuvered to reach
many different access points. The custom
rotation makes it possible for you to control
the entry and exit points of your spiral
staircase.

Bifurcated Stairs

This type of stair is commonly used in public

buildings at their entrance hall. The stair has a
wider flight at the bottom, which bifurcates into
two narrower flights, one turning to the left and
the other to the right, at the landing.

Bifurcated stairs are commonly used in public

building at their entrance hall.

38
Shuttering of Staircase
At JTPL RCC Dog-legged staircase was constructed.

For the construction of staircase:

Firstly we place the shuttering for the waist slab of the staircase over which the staircase
reinforcement is placed. The reinforcement in the waist slab should be according to the
staircase R/F drawing. It should be at proper angle.

After the slab R/F the mould for the steps is placed over the slab. The mould is needed to be held
in place with welding of bars. The mould should be at proper level from level line or thread.

39
Casting of Staircase
Pouring of concrete into the formworks is started from the below part to above. The concrete
mix plays an important role in strength and durability of stairs. It is recommended to use a
concrete vibrator while pouring the concrete to completely fill the gaps of the stairs and to avoid
the honeycomb formation.

This work is to be carried out with great care and patience, as any sudden movements can
disturb the alignment of the formworks or even collapse the formwork. It is always
recommended to pour the concrete ceiling and stairs in the same day, as to create a strong bond
between these components.

40
Element of Staircase

The Various Parts of a Staircase are as Follows:

01. Step:
This is a portion of a stair which is comprised of the tread and riser, and permits ascending or
descending transitions from one floor to another.

02. Curtail Step:

It is the starting step of the staircase,
which projects out of the string. The
curtail step can be constructed in a
variety of designs.

03. Tread:
It is a top horizontal part of a step on
which foot is placed, while transiting
in ascending or descending order.

04. Riser:
This is a vertical member between two treads. Riser provides a support to the treads.

05. Rise:
Rise is a vertical distance between the upper faces of any two consecutive steps.
06. Going:
Going is the width of the tread between two successive risers. In other words, it is
horizontal distance between the faces of any two consecutive risers.

07. Flight:
A continuous series of steps without any break or landing is known as flight.

08. Landing:

Landing is a platform provided between

two flights. A landing extending to full
width of staircase is known as half spaced
landing and the landing extending to only
half across a staircase is called as quarter
space landing.

41
09. Nosing:
Nosing is the outer projecting edge of a tread. This
is generally made rounded to give more pleasing
appearance and makes the staircase easy to
negotiate.

10. Line of Nosing:

An imaginary line touching the nosing of each treads parallel to the slope of the stair is known
as line of nosing.
11. Winders:

Winders are the tapering steps used for changing the direction of the stair.

12. String or Stringers:

String is a sloping member which supports the steps in a stair.

13. Newel Post:

Newel post is a vertical post placed at the top and bottom ends of flights supporting the
handrails.

14. Soffit:

Soffit is the underside of a stair.

15. Baluster/Spindle:

Baluster is a vertical member or filling in

between handrail and base rail. It is
provided for safety and aesthetic purpose.

16. Balustrade:

The combined framework of handrail and baluster is known as balustrade.

17. Railing:

This is a framework of enclosure supporting a handrail and serves as a safety barrier.

18. Handrail:

This is a protective bar placed at a convenient distance above the stairs for support. Elderly
people can rest their hands on handrail to climb stairs easily.

42
 CHAPTER-10
WATER PROOFING

Waterproofing is one of the behind-the-scenes stuff that benefits everybody, from babies to the
elderly. Reports have shown that waterproofing only accounts for 1% of a building’s
construction costs but when ignored, it can be responsible for almost 90% of the damage
Waterproofing system provides protection to the structure from water ingress. The practice of
waterproofing dates back to ages where the different techniques used were bituminous, metallic
sheet, polyurethane based and so on.

Areas of Waterproofing is Needed

1. Basement of the building

2. Kitchen, Toilet and Bathroom

3. Balcony areas

4. Roof /Terrace

5. Swimming Pool

6. Water Tank

43
Different Types Of Waterproofing

● Cementitious Waterproofing

Cementitious products are probably the easiest waterproofing materials to use. They’re readily
available from suppliers of masonry products, and they’re easy to mix and apply. If you plan to
use this material, a long-handled brush will make your life easier. Also, spend the extra money
to buy acrylic additive (a white, milky liquid) to mix in with the cement product. You’ll get
better bonding and a more solid, durable coating.

The chief disadvantage is that cementitious products have no give to them probably because
cement just doesn’t stretch to any degree worth mentioning. They will stand up fine to a head of
water, but will tolerate almost no joint or crack movement.

Cementitious waterproofing is used in the following type of structures:

● Water Treatment Plants

● Sewage Treatment Plants
● Bridges
● Dams
● Railway & Subway Systems
● Marine Cargo Ports & Docks
● River Locks/Channels & Concrete Dykes
● Parking Structures & Lots
● Tunnels

● Liquid waterproofing membrane

Liquid Roofing is the process of waterproofing a roof by the application of a specialist liquid
roof coating. It is suited to all types of roof, including flat, pitched, and domed. Liquid roofing
involves the application of a monolithic, fully bonded, liquid based coating to a roof. The
44
coating cures to form a rubber-like elastomeric waterproof membrane, capable of stretching and
returning to its original shape without damage. Such coating systems are usually reinforced with
secondary materials such as glass-reinforced plastic to provide additional tensile strength. The
coatings can be applied over most traditional roofing materials, including felt, asphalt, bitumen,
and concrete. The process of liquid roofing provides a cost-effective method of making a new or
existing roof waterproof. It can deliver up to 25 years performance depending on the coating
system employed. It is estimated that liquid roofing is 70% less expensive than overall roof
replacement in refurbishment situations.

● Bituminous waterproofing

Bituminous waterproofing systems are designed to protect residential and commercial buildings.
Bitumen (asphalt or coal-tar pitch) is a mixed substance made up of organic liquids that are
highly sticky, viscous, and waterproof. These systems are sometimes used to construct roofs, in
the form of roofing felt or roll roofing products.

Bituminous Coating Waterproofing Method

Bituminous coating is a type of coating used for waterproofing and flexible protective coating. It
is an excellent protective coating and waterproofing agent, especially on surfaces such as
concrete foundations.

Bituminous Membrane Waterproofing Method

Bituminous membrane waterproofing is a popular method used for low- sloped roofs due to their
proven performance.

45
 Waterproofing By Injection Grouting

Injection grouting is the method of filling the cracks, open joints, voids, or honeycombs, in
concrete or masonry structural members. This is done under pressure with a grout material that
cures in place to produce the desired results like strengthening a structure and preventing water
ingress.

Grout is a flow able plastic material and should have negligible shrinkage to fill the gap or voids
and should remain stable without cracking, delamination, or crumbling.

There are different types of grouts used for the repair and strengthening of concrete and masonry
structural members. The selection of the type of grout for the particular type of concrete or
masonry repair work should be based on the compatibility of the grout with the original
material.

There are five types of injection grouting used in structures, each of them is explained below.

46
 ● Polymer Injection Grouting

Polymer injection grouting is done with polymers like polyester epoxy, vinyl ester,
polyurethane, and acrylic resins. The polymer is a widely used epoxy grout. The polymer
injection grouting is available as grout materials such as liquid resin content, curing agent and
aggregate.

These types of injection grouting are suitable for concrete repairing work. The polymer injection
grouts can be made suitable for repair works by adding modifiers to basic resins and curing
agents to achieve the desired properties. There are three types of polymer-based injection
grouting available.

⮚ Epoxy-Based Injection Grouting – it is non-shrinkable, effective in sealing the cracks,

and has good bonding with every construction material. It is non-resistant to ultraviolet
exposure and high temperatures.

⮚ Acrylic Polymer Based Injection Grouting – it comes with tensile properties and also
resistant to cracking, segregation, and imperviousness. It is chemical-resistant and rapid
setting.

⮚ Lignosulfonate Based Injection Grouting – it helps to compensate for drying and

plastic shrinkage.

● Fiber-Reinforced Injection Grouting

Fibers such as polypropylene, steel, or glass fibers are generally used for Portland cement to
repair and strengthen the structural members. Fiber-reinforced injection grouting is resistant to
impact and offers good flexural strength and ductility. Its application includes repairing the
concrete structures as well as masonry structural members. This type of injection grout
requires expertise skills to avoid the segregation of fibers.

47
 ● Gas-forming Injection Grouting

Gas-forming injection grouting works on the principle that the gas bubbles expand the grout to
compensate for shrinkage of grout after its application. These types of gas Bubbles will develop
ingredients with the cement slurry. It requires correct confinement to develop good strength and
volume stability. The reaction forming the gas bubbles is very fast and it will complete before
placing the grout. This type of grouting is very sensitive to temperature so that it cannot be used
for the places where the temperature is very high.

● Cement-Sand Injection Grouting

The cement, sand grouting method required a higher amount of water and cement content. The
use of cement sand grouting will result in shrinkage and cracking of grouting at the hardening
stage. It is very easy to use and readily available in the market and used where strength
enhancement of the structures is not essential. It is applied for the repair of concrete and
masonry structures.

● Sulfo-aluminate Injection Grouting

Sulfo-aluminate Injection Grouting works on the principle of shrinkage compensation. In these

types of grouting, the shrinkage compensating cement or anhydrous Sulfo-aluminate expensive
additives are used.
This helps to produce expansion after the grout has set. The expansion of such grouts requires
post-hardening curing and it will not be effective if moist curing is not available.

48
1)
 CHAPTER-11
METHODOLOGY

The very first step for a construction project is to raise funds to acquiring land to hire designers
for designing the plan layout and then execution of the work on the site.

There are various methods and processes used to complete an project of construction on site
after the mile-stone for the project has been established. Therefore the various methodologies on
site are as follows:

● Layout execution: this is the first step on the site to establish the limits for the structure
to be constructed. This is done by a reference points which has been pre-established.
The distances from these points are taken and for one single point there has to be more
than one reference points. After measuring the required distances the points are marked
either by chalk powder, weights, nails etc. the plotting of the plan on ground is an very
important step as it will give the structure its permanent orientation thus it should be
performed very carefully under supervision.

49
● Formwork:
Formwork is one type of temporary mold in which concrete is poured to cast the required
shape of concrete. Formworks are made from timber or steel, the surface in contact with
the concrete being selected to give the required finish. The formwork and its associated
false work must have sufficient strength to support the weight of the wet concrete
without significant distortion.

Importance of Formwork in Construction

⮚ No doubt formwork is essential for any construction; its main advantage is
that it can’t be replaced with any other technology.
⮚ Using formwork concrete structures can be constructed quickly and in the
most affordable way.
⮚ During all construction work period,
a formwork offers appropriate access and working platforms that considerably enhance workers’
scaffold safety.
⮚ Formwork helps in lowers the timeline and costs of the project by lowering the floor-to-
floor construction cycle time, which means more projects can fulfill their budgetary
demands.
⮚ Formwork facilitates construction managers to offer exact on- time shuttering and de–
shuttering of formwork resources, which results in improving project effectiveness and
resource usage.
⮚ It provides good structural safety by offering solutions against all overlay
loads, producing exceptionally safe and practical structures.

50
 ● Steel reinforcement
Steel reinforcement are steel bars that are provided in combination with plain cement concrete
to make it reinforced concrete. Hence these structures form steel reinforced cement concrete
structure (R.C.C). Steel reinforcement is commonly called as ‘rebars’.

Plain concrete is weak in tension and strong in compression. Tensile property for concrete
structures is obtained by incorporating steel reinforcement. The steel reinforcement is strong in
both tension and compression. The tensile property provided by the steel reinforcement will
prevent and minimize concrete cracks under tension loads.

1. Hot Rolled Deformed Bars

Hot rolled deformed bars are most

commonly used steel reinforcement for
R.C.C structures. As the name says,
the hot rolling of the reinforcement is
undergone leaving certain
deformations on its surface in the form
of ribs. These ribs help to form a bond
with the concrete.
The typical yield strength of hot-
rolled deformed bars is 60000psi.

2. Cold Worked Steel Bars

A cold worked reinforcement bar is obtained by letting the hot rolled steel bars to undergo cold
working. In the cold working process, the bars will undergo twisting and drawing. The process
is performed at room temperature. The cold worked steel bars do not undergo a plastic yield
thus have less ductility when compared with hot rolled bars.

51
3. Mild Steel Plain Bars

The mild steel plain reinforcement bars do not have ribs on their surface. They have a plain
surface. These bars are used for small projects where the major concern is the economy. The
tensile yield strength of these bars has a value of 40000psi.

4. Pre-stressing Steel Bars

The prestressing steel reinforcement are steel bars used in the form of strands or tendons.
Multiple strands are employed in concrete in order to perform the prestressing action. The
strands are made of multiple wires either 2 or 3 or 7 wire strands. The wires used here are cold
formed and have a high tensile strength ranging from 250000 – 270000 psi. This high strength
helps to effectively prestress the concrete.

52
Advantages of Steel Reinforcement

Steel reinforcement is a reinforcing choice compared to other reinforcing materials due to its
unique advantages. They are:

1. Compatibility with Concrete: The fresh concrete is placed on the formwork mold
already prepared with reinforcement. The steel reinforcement won’t float in concrete
during the concrete placing procedure. Hence, steel reinforcement does not demand
special tying up with formworks.

2. Robustness of Steel Reinforcement: The steel bars are robust in nature that they have
the ability to withstand the rigors, the wear and tear during the construction activities.

3. Bent Property of Steel Reinforcement: The steel bars once manufactured to standard
size, it can be bent to the required specifications. Hence fabricated steel bars are
delivered easily at the site.

4. Recycling Property: The steel reinforced left over after the service life of a
structure is recycled again and used for new construction.

5. Easily Available: Every region of a country will have a steel supplier or

manufacturer. Hence steel reinforcement is easily available.

Disadvantages of Steel Reinforcement

The main disadvantages of steel reinforcement are mentioned below:

1. Reactive Nature of Steel Reinforcement: In concrete structures where the cover is

small and subjected to external moisture and salt action, the reinforcement undergoes
reaction and starts to corrode. These can lessen the strength of concrete and finally to
failure.

2. Expensive: The cost of steel reinforcement in high. This will increase the cost of
construction

3. Melts at high temperature: At higher temperatures, the steel reinforcement may melt.
This is the reason why the steel reinforcement are tied up and not welded.

53
 ● Concreting/Casting
This is the processes in which the prepared wet concrete is poured or placed on the formwork
and the concrete surface is given the required finish. The concrete is given the required strength
so that it can bear the load coming on it.

In its simplest form, concrete is a mixture of paste and aggregates, or rocks. The paste,
composed of Portland cement and water, coats the surface of the fine (small) and coarse (larger)
aggregates. Through a chemical reaction called hydration, the paste hardens and gains strength
to form the rock-like mass known as concrete.

Steps to prepare Concrete:

Proportioning

The key to achieving a strong, durable concrete rests in the careful proportioning and mixing of
the ingredients. A mixture that does not have enough paste to fill all the voids between the
aggregates will be difficult to place and will produce rough surfaces and porous concrete. A
mixture with an excess of cement paste will be easy to place and will produce a smooth surface;
however, the resulting concrete is not cost- effective and can more easily crack.

The quality of the paste determines the character of the concrete. The strength of the paste, in
turn, depends on the ratio of water to cement.

The water-cement ratio is the weight of the mixing water divided by the weight of the cement.
High-quality concrete is produced by lowering the water-cement ratio as much as possible
without sacrificing the workability of fresh concrete, allowing it to be properly placed,
consolidated, and cured.

A properly designed mixture possesses the desired workability for the hardened concrete.
Typically, a mix is about 10 to 15 percent cement, 60 to 75 percent aggregate and 15 to 20
percent water. Entrained air in many concrete mixes may also take up another 5 to 8 percent.

54
Other Ingredients

Almost any natural water that is drinkable and has no pronounced taste or odor may be used as
mixing water for concrete. Excessive impurities in mixing water not only may affect setting time
and concrete strength, but can also cause efflorescence, staining, corrosion of reinforcement,
volume instability, and reduced durability. Concrete mixture specifications usually set limits on
chlorides, sulfates, alkalis, and solids in mixing water unless tests can be performed to determine
the effect the impurity has on the final concrete.

Aggregates comprise 60 to 75 percent of the total volume of concrete. The type and size of
aggregate used depends on the thickness and purpose of the final concrete product

Relatively thin building sections call for small coarse aggregate. In addition, aggregates should
be clean and free from any matter that might affect the quality of the concrete.

Hydration Begins

Soon after the aggregates, water, and the cement are combined, the mixture starts to harden. All
Portland cements are hydraulic cements that set and harden through a chemical reaction with
water call hydration. During this reaction, a node forms on the surface of each cement particle.
The node grows and expands until it links up with nodes from other cement particles or adheres
to adjacent aggregates.

Once the concrete is thoroughly mixed and workable it should be placed in forms before the
mixture becomes too stiff.

● Curing

Curing begins after the exposed surfaces of the concrete have hardened sufficiently to resist
marring. Curing ensures the continued hydration of the cement so that the concrete continues to
gain strength. Concrete surfaces are cured by sprinkling with water fog, or by using moisture-
retaining fabrics su The process of protecting the moisture of concrete surface and enhancing the
55
hydration of cement is known as curing. The physical properties of concrete totally depend on
the hydration of cement. If curing is not done properly concrete will be failed to acquire its full
strength. Improper curing may also lead the concrete to crack.

The process of protecting the moisture of concrete surface and enhancing the hydration of
cement is known as curing. The physical properties of concrete totally depend on the hydration
of cement. If curing is not done properly concrete will be failed to acquire its full strength.
Improper curing may also lead the concrete to crack.

Purpose Of Curing:

i) To complete the hydration process between cement and water.

ii) To achieve the maximum strength of concrete.

iii) To prevent the concrete structure from cracking.

56
Methods Of Concrete Curing:

1. Shading:

By this method, the evaporation of water is locked in the concrete surface. It also protects the
surface from heat, wind, etc. In cold climates, it prevents the concrete from freezing by
preserving the heat of hydration of cement.

2. Covering The Surface:

In this method, the concrete surface is covered with wet gunny bags or waterproof papers to
avoid water loss and to protect the concrete from further damage. This method gives
satisfactory results for concrete slabs and pavements.

57
1. Sprinkling Water:

In this method, water is sprayed on the concrete with the help of nozzles at proper intervals. This
method is not so effective due to the difficulty of keeping the concrete surface be moist all the
time.

2. Ponding:

Ponding is the most common method that is adopted for curing concrete floors, slabs,
pavements, etc. In this method, the concrete surface is first covered with a moist wrapper for 24
hours.

After that, the covers are then removed and a small amount of clay puddles are constructed
around all the area. Then water is filled for final curing.

58
Minimum Concrete Curing Time:

The curing period should be as long as practical. Atmospheric temperature plays an important
role in the process of curing as it affects the hydration process which is an exothermic reaction.

Maintaining proper temperature is also essential as it also determines the curing time. For most
concrete structures, the curing period at temperatures above 5º C should not be less than 7 days
or until 70% of the specified compressive or flexural strength is achieved.

The period could be reduced to a minimum of 3 days if high early strength cement is used and
the temperature is above 10ºC.

As per IS 456 – 2000, concrete should not be cured less than 7 days for OPC, & 10 days for
concrete with mineral admixtures or blended cement.

In case of hot weather and dry temperature conditions, the minimum curing period should be
10 Days for ordinary Portland cement and 14 days for concrete with mineral admixtures and
blended cement.

The curing time depends on the following factors:

1. Types of structural members.
2. Size and Shape of the member.
3. Type of cement used,
4. Mixture proportions,
5. The required strength of concrete.
6. Grades of concrete.
7. Atmospheric temperature.
8. Method of curing.

● Finishing Work

Miscellaneous works included all other minor works which can be carried out after all the above
mentioned works. Miscellaneous works include fixing doors and windows frames along with
lintels, Wiring for electrical purposes, Plastering, Flooring and tiling work, Painting and Final
Completion and handing over the project. All these works require special attention as they are
time consuming too. Wiring for electrical purpose requires experienced workers. Plastering.
Painting and Flooring provides beauty to the interior of the project. So these works must be

59
carried out safely and responsibly as in case of residential apartments, it has to look
undisputedly like what was shown in the drawings.

CHAPTER -12
MACHINES & EQUIPMENT’S

● Transit Mixer
Transit mixer is a multipurpose device that used to transport concrete mortar from a concrete
batching plant. The transit mixer is loaded with dry material and water; The transit mixer
consists of a drum with a spiral blade which has the ability to move in two directions.

The mixing drum has a speed of 14/min, the water pump has a pressure of 3.5bars, and has the
capacity to supply 250 liters of water per minute.

The mixing drum can be rotated either clockwise or anticlockwise and the speed can be
controlled. This helps keep the concrete at the bottom of the mixer drum during transit while
also maintain the optimal composition..

● Tower Crane
Tower cranes are used to move the required material from one place to other in site both
vertically and horizontally. The tower cranes can withheld the wind force up to height of 30m,
beyond which they need to be clamped to nearby column of building for support.

60
 ● Concrete Pump
A concrete pump is a machine used for transferring liquid concrete by pumping. There are
different types of concrete pumps.

61
A common type of concrete pump for large scale construction projects is known as a boom
concrete pump, because it uses a remote- controlled articulating robotic arm (called a boom) to
place concrete accurately. It is attached to a truck or a semi-trailer.

The second main type of concrete pump, commonly referred to as a "line pump" or trailer-
mounted concrete pump, is either mounted on a truck or placed on a trailer. This requires steel or
flexible concrete placing hoses to be manually attached to the outlet of the machine and feed the
concrete to the place of application.

● Concrete Vibrator
A concrete vibrator is a machine used for construction-based purposes. Some are small and run
strictly on battery power, while others are much larger with a primary power source stemming
62
from electric power cords.

Using vibration to assist concrete during its settling period has proven a worthwhile method that
aids in long-term durability. As wet concrete is poured, air bubbles become trapped within the
mixture creating cavities or honeycomb-like spaces. Vibrators force the trapped air out of the
mixture leaving the final product a more compact and level slab.

Over-vibration creates the problem of segregation in which the denser aggregates settle to the
bottom while the lighter cement paste tends to move upwards.

An insertion time of 5 to 15 seconds will

usually provide. Another general rule of
thumb is to allow the vibrator to sink under its
own weight and then remove the vibrator at a
rate of about 3 seconds per vertical foot.

● Back-Hoe & Excavator

A Backhoe is a machine which is used for excavating the earth and to move the earth. It has a

63
bucket attached with an arm, the bucket dig the earth towards the machine. This is a very
good machine to excavate for a good depth depending upon the arm length and the size of
bucket being used. I is provided with rubber tiers so that it can move efficiently on the road as
well.

64
 ● Dumpers & Tractor Dumper
A Dumper is a vehicle designed for carrying bulk material, often on building sites.

A Tractor Dumper is an vehicle which can be used to move materials and other equipment’s
by connecting them to the trailer hook.

65
 CHAPTER -13
LAB & BATCHING PLANT
The Lab is a part of the construction for Quality Assurance & Quality Control of the materials
before they are being used in the construction and to check the strength of the concrete during its
strength gaining period.
In the Lab the quality and strength of various building materials like cement, sand, aggregates,
water are tested using various testing machines and apparatus like

● Vicat apparatus
● Compression testing machine
● Flakiness and elongation index gauges
● Volume measuring jars
● Digital Weighing Scale (20kg max. and 2gm accuracy)
● Sample collection trays
● Pycnometer

66
● Batching Plant
A concrete plant, also known as a batch plant or batching plant or a concrete batching plant,
is equipment that combines various ingredients to form concrete. Some of these inputs
include water, air, admixtures, sand, aggregate (rocks, gravel, etc.), fly ash, silica fume, slag,
and cement.

67
 CHAPTER -14
SAFETY EQUIPMENT’S

Working in construction is an inherently hazardous activity, with a high risk of accidents on-
site, as well as increasingly complex health and safety risks and hazards off-site. The
construction work site presents numerous risks for employees, the first and foremost being
the risk of falling.
Helmet, Safety Glasses, Hand Protection Gloves, Safety Vests, Respiratory Protection,
Safety Harness etc.

68
 CONCLUSION

Overall this training gives us the exposure of the real life engineering problems and as
Engineering students we must know the difficulties that an engineer faces and how he solves
them.

It was a wonderful learning experience at the site during the training period. The friendly
welcome from all employees was appreciating.

They shared their experience and knowledge which they have gained in the long journey of
their work. We hope this experience will help us in future and also our my career.

At the site we learnt how to study the structural drawings So, at last we must thank everyone
who gave us guidance at construction site and at the JTPL office. We must also thank to our
teachers for their support.

69