LITERARY CRITICISM

GREEK CRITICS
Major Key Terms / Critical Notes /
Critic Core Ideas/Theories
Works Quotes Contributions
- First philosopher to
- Mimesis: Art as
- “Art is thrice theorize about art and
imitation, a copy of a copy
removed from the poetry
Plato (c. Republic, (thrice removed from truth)
truth” - Believed poetry
427–347 Ion, - Art appeals to emotions
- “Poetry feeds and should serve moral and
BCE) Phaedrus and misleads reason
waters the educational purposes
- Poet as a threat to rational
passions” - Banished poets from
society
his ideal Republic
- Mimesis: A natural
human activity; imitation - Systematized literary
as a mode of learning criticism
- “Tragedy is the
- Catharsis: Purging of - Valued plot over
imitation of an
Aristotle pity and fear through character
Poetics, action…”
(384–322 tragedy - Defended poetry
Rhetoric - “Poetry is more
BCE) - Six elements of tragedy: against Plato’s attack
philosophical than
Plot, Character, Thought, - His Poetics became
history”
Diction, Melody, Spectacle foundational in Western
- Hamartia, Peripeteia, criticism
Anagnorisis

ARISTOTLE'S POETICS
Title of the
Poetics
Work
Author Aristotle
Publication
4th century BCE (circa 335 BCE)
Year
- Mimesis (imitation)
- Catharsis
Key Concepts / - Tragedy and its elements
Themes - Unity of plot
- Hamartia (tragic flaw)
- Anagnorisis (recognition) and Peripeteia (reversal)
Summary / Aristotle's Poetics is the earliest surviving work of literary theory. It primarily
Main Argument focuses on tragedy as the highest form of drama. He defines tragedy as an
 Title of the
Poetics
Work
imitation of a serious action that arouses pity and fear to achieve catharsis. He
analyzes the structure of tragic plots and outlines six essential elements: plot,
character, thought, diction, melody, and spectacle—with plot being the most
important. The unity of plot, cause-and-effect structure, and the moral purpose
of literature are central concerns.
- Foundational text in Western literary criticism.
- First systematic analysis of literature, especially drama.
Significance in
- Introduced enduring concepts like mimesis and catharsis.
Literary
- Influenced neoclassical and modern literary theories.
Criticism
- Remains essential for understanding classical notions of tragedy and
representation.

POETICS
Concept Meaning / Explanation Role in Poetics
Literature (especially tragedy) imitates
Mimesis Imitation of life or nature in art human action, not just by copying, but by
representing universals
Emotional purification or Tragedy arouses pity and fear to cleanse
Catharsis
purgation of pity and fear these emotions in the audience
The protagonist’s error or flaw leads to
Hamartia Tragic flaw or error in judgment
downfall, making the audience empathize
A turning point in the plot where the hero’s
Peripeteia Reversal of fortune
fortune changes drastically
The hero moves from ignorance to
Anagnorisis Recognition or discovery knowledge, often revealing truths about
themselves or others
A coherent and logically connected
Unity of Plot structure with a beginning, middle, Essential for a well-constructed tragedy
and end
Plot is most important; spectacle is least
Six Elements of Plot, Character, Thought, Diction,
important—focus is on the internal
Tragedy Melody, Spectacle
structure of drama

ROMAN CRITICS
 Key Terms / Critical Notes /
Critic Major Works Core Ideas/Theories
Quotes Contributions
- Poetry must teach and
- Guide for poetic
delight (docere et
- “Poets aim to craft
delectare)
instruct or to - Influenced
Horace (65– - Emphasis on decorum
Ars Poetica delight” Neoclassical ideals
8 BCE) (suitability of content and
- “The golden - Valued harmony,
style)
mean” discipline, and
- Advocated moderation,
proportion
unity, clarity
- Eloquence is essential in
oratory and literary - Blended philosophy
expression with rhetoric
- “To speak well
Cicero (106– De Oratore, - Ideal orator: wise + - Key influence on
is to speak
43 BCE) Orator, Brutus articulate Renaissance
wisely”
- Advocated rhetorical humanism and
education and ethical rhetorical style
speaking
- Focus on aesthetic
- Sublimity uplifts the soul - “Sublimity is
experience
- Five sources: greatness of the echo of a
Longinus - Emotion, grandeur,
thought, strong emotion, great soul”
(1st century On the Sublime and inspiration >
figures of speech, noble - “The true
CE) technique
diction, dignified sublime uplifts
- Forefather of
composition the soul”
Romantic ideals
- Created a full
educational system
- Orator must be a morally based on rhetoric
- “A good man
Institutio good man - Blended moral
Quintilian skilled in
Oratoria (The - Rhetoric is a moral and philosophy with
(c. 35–100 speaking” (vir
Orator's educational force literary training
CE) bonus dicendi
Education) - Emphasized practice, - Influential in
peritus)
character, and clarity Renaissance
education and
rhetorical studies

Title of the
An Apology for Poetry (aka The Defence of Poesy)
Work
Author Sir Philip Sidney
Publication
Written ~1580; Published posthumously in 1595
Year
Summary / Sidney defends poetry against attacks by Puritan critics (especially Stephen
Main Argument Gosson), who saw it as morally corrupt and frivolous. Sidney argues that
poetry is a noble art because it combines the philosophical with the imaginative
—it teaches and delights. He positions poetry above philosophy and history
 Title of the
An Apology for Poetry (aka The Defence of Poesy)
Work
because it can depict ideal forms and inspire virtue. Sidney outlines a humanist
defense rooted in classical traditions, praising poetry as the "monarch of the
sciences" for its ability to move people toward moral action through delight.
Key Concepts /
See detailed breakdown below
Themes
- First major work of literary criticism in English
Significance in
- Foundation for Renaissance humanist views on literature
Literary
- Bridges classical and modern defenses of imaginative writing
Criticism
- Influential in asserting poetry's moral and educational role

AN APOLOGY FOR POETRY

Concept Meaning / Explanation Role in the Text
Poetry as Central defense: poetry persuades
Poetry both instructs (like philosophy)
Teaching and people to virtue more effectively than
and delights (like fiction)
Delight abstract reasoning
Poet is a creator, or maker, akin to a Elevates the poet above historian and
Poet as Maker
god-like figure who imagines ideal philosopher by imagining what ought
(Vates)
worlds to be, not just what is
Poetry vs. Philosophy teaches abstractly; history
Poetry is superior because it moves
Philosophy and teaches by example; poetry does both
the reader emotionally and morally
History while inspiring the will
Rooted in Aristotelian tradition, but
Mimesis Poetry imitates nature, but also improves
with a Renaissance moral and
(Imitation) upon it by imagining ideal forms
aesthetic twist
Argues that moral transformation
Moral Function Good poetry makes people better by
through beauty and imagination is
of Poetry inspiring virtue
more effective than through rules
Divine (religious), Philosophical All are valuable, but the first two
Three Kinds of
(moral/educational), and Popular support his main argument for
Poetry
(entertainment) poetry's noble role
Critique of
Criticizes immoral content in poetry, but Distinguishes between the abuse of
Misuse, not the
not poetry itself poetry and its proper use
Art

Title of the
On the Sublime
Work
Author Traditionally attributed to Longinus (exact identity debated)
Publication
1st century CE (approximate)
Year
 Title of the
On the Sublime
Work
On the Sublime is a seminal treatise on aesthetics and literary criticism that
explores what gives literature its greatness and emotional power. Longinus
argues that sublimity in literature is a quality that elevates the soul of the
Summary / reader, evoking awe and transporting them beyond rational thought. The work
Main Argument analyzes both natural genius and technical skill as sources of the sublime, and
critiques writing that is too artificial or bombastic. Longinus provides examples
from Homer, Plato, and others to illustrate how true sublimity combines
grandeur of thought with effective expression.
Key Concepts /
See detailed breakdown below
Themes
- Pioneered aesthetic theory and the concept of the sublime
- Influential during the Renaissance and 18th-century Romanticism
Significance in
- Inspired writers like Edmund Burke and Kant in their theories of beauty and
Literary
sublimity
Criticism
- Shifted focus from formal rules to emotional and imaginative power in
literature

ON THE SUBLIME
Concept Meaning / Explanation Role in On the Sublime
A quality of greatness in thought or Central idea; the sublime transcends
Sublimity expression that uplifts the soul and ordinary speech and moves the audience
inspires awe emotionally and spiritually
Five principal sources:
1. Grandeur of thought
Sources of the 2. Strong emotion These components work together to create
Sublime 3. Proper use of figures sublime effects in literature
4. Noble diction
5. Elevated composition
Grandeur of Greatness of mind and elevated Comes from a lofty soul; cannot be taught,
Thought ideas only cultivated through noble ideals
Passion / Genuine and intense emotional Sublimity arises when deep emotions are
Emotion expression conveyed naturally and powerfully
Figures of Rhetorical devices like metaphor, Must be used appropriately; forced or
Speech amplification, asyndeton, etc. artificial figures weaken sublimity
Choice of dignified, appropriate
Noble Diction words, including poetic and archaic Contributes to the grandeur of style
language
Elevated Arrangement and rhythm of words Style must match the dignity of thought;
Composition to enhance effect rhythm and balance elevate the impact
Failures of Over-ornamentation, bombast, or Longinus warns against excessive style
Sublimity lack of genuine feeling without substance or sincerity
MEDIEVAL CRITICS
Key Terms / Critical Notes /
Critic Major Works Core Ideas/Theories
Quotes Contributions
- Literature should
serve religious truth
- Merged classical
- Advocated
rhetoric with Christian
allegorical - “All teaching
St. On Christian theology
interpretation of should promote
Augustine Doctrine, - Major influence on
texts love of God and
(354–430) Confessions medieval hermeneutics
- Language is neighbor”
(biblical/literary
imperfect, meaning
interpretation)
must be interpreted
spiritually
- Explores fate, free
- Preserved classical
will, and divine order
thought during Dark
- Introduced - “True
Boethius (c. The Consolation Ages
Neoplatonism to the happiness comes
480–524) of Philosophy - Bridged Platonic
Middle Ages from within”
thought with Christian
- Saw philosophy as a
ideology
guide for moral clarity
- Literature is a path to
moral and spiritual
- Merged poetic art
The Divine enlightenment - “Poetry is a
Dante with Christian doctrine
Comedy, De - Advocated for the fiction
Alighieri - One of the first to
Vulgari vernacular language containing
(1265–1321) defend vernacular
Eloquentia - Used allegory, hidden truth”
literature over Latin
symbolism, and
theological themes
- Integrated
Aristotelian
philosophy with
- Influential in
Christian theology
scholasticism
Thomas - Distinguished
Summa - “Truth cannot - Laid the foundation for
Aquinas between literal and
Theologica contradict truth” symbolic reading of
(1225–1274) spiritual senses of
texts in medieval
texts
criticism
- Truth is accessible
through both reason
and revelation

Title of the
An Apology for Poetry (aka The Defence of Poesy)
Work
Author Sir Philip Sidney
 Title of the
An Apology for Poetry (aka The Defence of Poesy)
Work
Publication
Written ~1580; Published posthumously in 1595
Year
Sidney defends poetry against attacks by Puritan critics (especially Stephen
Gosson), who saw it as morally corrupt and frivolous. Sidney argues that
poetry is a noble art because it combines the philosophical with the imaginative
Summary /
—it teaches and delights. He positions poetry above philosophy and history
Main Argument
because it can depict ideal forms and inspire virtue. Sidney outlines a humanist
defense rooted in classical traditions, praising poetry as the "monarch of the
sciences" for its ability to move people toward moral action through delight.
Key Concepts /
See detailed breakdown below
Themes
- First major work of literary criticism in English
Significance in
- Foundation for Renaissance humanist views on literature
Literary
- Bridges classical and modern defenses of imaginative writing
Criticism
- Influential in asserting poetry's moral and educational role

AN APOLOGY FOR POETRY

Concept Meaning / Explanation Role in the Text

Poetry as Central defense: poetry persuades
Poetry both instructs (like philosophy)
Teaching and people to virtue more effectively than
and delights (like fiction)
Delight abstract reasoning
Poet is a creator, or maker, akin to a Elevates the poet above historian and
Poet as Maker
god-like figure who imagines ideal philosopher by imagining what ought
(Vates)
worlds to be, not just what is
Poetry vs. Philosophy teaches abstractly; history
Poetry is superior because it moves
Philosophy and teaches by example; poetry does both
the reader emotionally and morally
History while inspiring the will
Rooted in Aristotelian tradition, but
Mimesis Poetry imitates nature, but also improves
with a Renaissance moral and
(Imitation) upon it by imagining ideal forms
aesthetic twist
Argues that moral transformation
Moral Function Good poetry makes people better by
through beauty and imagination is
of Poetry inspiring virtue
more effective than through rules
Divine (religious), Philosophical All are valuable, but the first two
Three Kinds of
(moral/educational), and Popular support his main argument for
Poetry
(entertainment) poetry's noble role
Critique of
Criticizes immoral content in poetry, but Distinguishes between the abuse of
Misuse, not the
not poetry itself poetry and its proper use
Art

ENLIGHTENMENT / NEOCLASSICAL CRITICS

 Critic / Core Key Terms / Critical Notes /
Major Works
Thinker Ideas/Theories Quotes Contributions
- Advocated - Founder of
classical rules modern English
- “Imitation of
John Dryden An Essay of - Literature reflects criticism
nature is the aim
(1631–1700) Dramatic Poesy rational nature - Balanced French
of poetry”
- Preferred French order with English
neoclassicism vitality
- Synthesized
- Literature must
classical and
adhere to rules, wit, - “True wit is
Alexander Enlightenment
An Essay on decorum nature to
Pope (1688– values
Criticism - Nature is the advantage
1744) - Key voice of
standard via dressed”
Augustan poetic
classical models
taste
- Emphasis on
- “General nature - Elevated
Samuel Preface to moral truth, human
is the proper Shakespeare,
Johnson Shakespeare, Lives nature
object of focused on
(1709–1784) of the Poets - Favored flexibility
imitation” practical criticism
over rigid rules
- Brought criticism
- Literature should
to the common
Joseph improve taste and
- “Enliven reader
Addison The Spectator essays manners
morality with wit” - Advocated
(1672–1719) - Art promotes
tasteful
social virtue
refinement
- All human action - Saw art as
is self-interest rhetorical and
Thomas - “Life is solitary,
driven persuasive
Hobbes (1588– Leviathan poor, nasty,
- Imagination is - Anticipated
1679) brutish, and short”
mechanical, not materialist
divine aesthetics
- Basis of
- Knowledge comes
empiricism in
Essay Concerning from experience
John Locke - “No innate aesthetics
Human - Tabula rasa
(1632–1704) ideas” - Influenced
Understanding (mind as a blank
sensibility in
slate)
literature
- Forerunner of
- History and
modern
language shaped by
historicism and
Giambattista myth and
- “Poetic wisdom” cultural criticism
Vico (1668– The New Science imagination
(sapienza poetica) - Emphasized
1744) - Rejected
myth, metaphor,
Enlightenment
and collective
rationalism
imagination
 Critic / Core Key Terms / Critical Notes /
Major Works
Thinker Ideas/Theories Quotes Contributions
- Distinguished
- Major influence
sublime (awe,
A Philosophical on Romantic
terror) from - “Terror is in all
Edmund Enquiry into the aesthetics
beautiful (grace, cases… the ruling
Burke (1729– Origin of Our Ideas - Preceded
harmony) principle of the
1797) of the Sublime and Longinian ideas
- The sublime sublime”
Beautiful with psychological
evokes stronger
depth
emotions
- Turned history
- Merged literary - “History is little
into literary art
narrative with more than the
Edward The History of the - Influenced the
historical analysis register of the
Gibbon (1737– Decline and Fall of historical
- Critiqued religion crimes, follies,
1794) the Roman Empire imagination in
using reason and and misfortunes of
Romantic and later
irony mankind.”
thought
- Moral judgment
- Influenced the
arises from
sentimental
The Theory of Moral sympathy - “The man within
Adam Smith tradition
Sentiments, The - Taste is rooted in the breast” (inner
(1723–1790) - Bridged ethics,
Wealth of Nations moral and moral observer)
economics, and
emotional
aesthetics
experience

Title of the
Preface to Fables
Work
Author John Dryden
Publication Year 1700
This Preface serves as an introduction to Dryden’s translations of works by
Chaucer, Ovid, and others. It is both a literary manifesto and a comparative
analysis of poetic traditions. Dryden defends the art of translation and literary
Summary /
imitation, praises Chaucer as the "father of English poetry," and outlines his
Main Argument
views on the evolution of literature. He balances admiration for classical
models with national pride in English writers. He emphasizes the poet's
creative freedom while upholding clarity, decorum, and moral purpose.
Key Concepts /
See detailed breakdown below
Themes
- Important in the development of Neoclassical literary theory in England
Significance in
- Elevates Chaucer as a canonical English poet
Literary
- Offers critical insight into translation theory
Criticism
- Shapes 18th-century notions of taste, decorum, and poetic refinement

PREFACE TO FABLES
 Concept Meaning / Explanation Role in the Text
Dryden outlines three types of translation:
Translation involves both
Translation as metaphrase (word-for-word), paraphrase (sense-
fidelity to the source and
Creative Art for-sense), and imitation (free adaptation). He
creative adaptation
prefers paraphrase/imitation.
Chaucer is praised for
Defense of naturalness, wit, Dryden argues Chaucer's genius surpasses even
Chaucer storytelling, and the classical poets despite his archaic language
character portrayal
Style and content should
Doctrine of A core neoclassical principle—Dryden upholds
suit the genre, audience,
Decorum clarity, moderation, and appropriateness
and moral tone
Good poetry imitates
Continues the classical ideal of art as "nature
Nature and Art nature, but nature refined
methodized" (echoing Horace and Pope)
by the rules of art
Poetry as
Poets must both teach Echoes Horace’s Ars Poetica—literature must be
Instruction and
and please morally instructive and aesthetically pleasing
Delight
Modern writers benefit
Comparison of
from classical Dryden is progressive—he admires the ancients
Ancient and
foundations, but can but believes in literary evolution and improvement
Modern Writers
surpass them
Unity and Order Poetic structure must be Reflects neoclassical emphasis on symmetry,
in Poetry harmonious and balanced order, and logical progression
Moral Function of Literature should Poetry must reflect moral truths and guide readers
Poetry promote virtue toward ethical understanding

Title of the
Preface to Shakespeare
Work
Author Samuel Johnson
Publication
1765
Year
In this preface to his edition of Shakespeare's plays, Johnson defends
Shakespeare's enduring popularity and literary greatness. He acknowledges
Shakespeare’s faults (especially his weak plots and disregard for classical
Summary / unities) but argues that his strengths lie in his profound understanding of
Main Argument human nature, realistic characters, and universal appeal. Johnson emphasizes
that Shakespeare's works are not bound by time or place—they speak to the
permanent aspects of human experience. He elevates Shakespeare above other
dramatists for his moral insight and dramatic vitality.
Key Concepts /
See detailed breakdown below
Themes
Significance in - Landmark of 18th-century literary criticism
Literary - Balances neoclassical standards with modern realism
 Title of the
Preface to Shakespeare
Work
- Establishes Shakespeare as a central figure in English literature
Criticism - Introduces a critical method based on close reading, moral analysis, and
historical context

PREFACE TO SHAKESPEARE
Concept Meaning / Explanation Role in the Text
Johnson sees Shakespeare’s characters
Realism and Shakespeare portrays universal
as true to life—they speak and behave
Human Nature human emotions and actions
like real people
His appeal lies in his ability to depict
Timelessness of Shakespeare’s works transcend
permanent features of the human
Shakespeare their historical moment
condition
Acknowledges lack of plot
Faults of Johnson is honest about flaws but argues
discipline, weak endings, and
Shakespeare they are outweighed by strengths
coarse language
Johnson defends this by prioritizing
Neglect of the Shakespeare disregards unity of
dramatic truth and audience engagement
Classical Unities time, place, and sometimes action
over rigid structure
Johnson praises Shakespeare for not
Moral Purpose of Literature should reflect and
making virtue always rewarded, but for
Literature instruct moral truths
portraying moral complexity
Echoes neoclassical ideals but with a
Nature as Source True art imitates nature, not
focus on realism and psychological
of Art artificial rules
depth
Johnson critiques Shakespeare’s Still values moral clarity, even if real life
Poetic Justice failure to always deliver poetic (and Shakespeare’s plays) do not always
justice reward virtue
Johnson models critical fairness—
Balance of Praise Sets a standard for later literary criticism
he praises greatness while pointing
and Criticism that is both analytical and appreciative
out imperfections

ROMANTIC CRITICS
Critical Notes /
Critic / Poet Major Works Core Ideas/Theories Key Terms / Quotes
Contributions
William Preface to Lyrical - Poetry is “emotion - “Poetry is the - Revolutionized
Wordsworth Ballads recollected in spontaneous poetic form and
(1770–1850) tranquility” overflow of powerful subject
- Valued common feelings” - Rejected
language and rural Neoclassical
 Critical Notes /
Critic / Poet Major Works Core Ideas/Theories Key Terms / Quotes
Contributions
artificiality
life - Advocated
- Imagination = democratic
spiritual vision language in
poetry
- Distinguished
between - Theorist of
Imagination Romantic
(creative) and Fancy - “Imagination is the imagination
Samuel Taylor
Biographia (mechanical) living power and - Unified poetic
Coleridge
Literaria - Poetry = fusion of prime agent of all theory and
(1772–1834)
emotion and intellect human perception” philosophy
- Defended - Argued against
Shakespeare’s rigid rules
organic unity
- Poet is an
unacknowledged - Saw poetry as
legislator of the ethically
- “Poets are the
Percy Bysshe world powerful
A Defence of unacknowledged
Shelley (1792– - Imagination = force - Advocated for
Poetry legislators of the
1822) of moral and social aesthetic
world”
transformation freedom and
- Art refines human revolution
sympathy
- Emphasized - Mystic + artist
visionary - Merged poetry,
Songs of - “If the doors of
imagination politics, and
Innocence and of perception were
William Blake - Rejected religion
Experience, The cleansed, everything
(1757–1827) rationalism and - Influenced
Marriage of would appear to man
industrialism symbolist and
Heaven and Hell as it is: infinite”
- Art reveals visionary
spiritual truth traditions
- Advocated organic - Major German
development of art Romantic and
Johann
Faust, Wilhelm - Synthesized - “A man sees in the universal
Wolfgang von
Meister’s emotion and form world what he carries humanist
Goethe (1749–
Apprenticeship - Pioneered idea of in his heart” - Influenced
1832)
World Literature European
(Weltliteratur) literary theory
Victor Hugo Preface to - Defended - “Form and content - Manifesto of
(1802–1885) Cromwell Romantic drama must reflect the French
over Neoclassical complexity of nature” Romanticism
rigidity - Supported
- Argued for mixing emotional truth
 Critical Notes /
Critic / Poet Major Works Core Ideas/Theories Key Terms / Quotes
Contributions
sublime and
grotesque
and dramatic
- Art must reflect life
freedom
in all its
contradictions

Title of the
Preface to Lyrical Ballads
Work
Author William Wordsworth
Publication Year 1802 (expanded preface to the original 1798 Lyrical Ballads)
Wordsworth's Preface outlines a new poetic vision that departs from the
artificiality of 18th-century poetic conventions. He defends the use of everyday
language, common subjects, and rural life in poetry. Wordsworth argues that
Summary /
poetry should express genuine emotion recollected in tranquility and come
Main Argument
from sincere personal experience. He redefines the poet as a “man speaking to
men,” not as a remote figure of genius. The preface is both a literary manifesto
and a cornerstone of Romantic literary theory.
Key Concepts /
See detailed breakdown below
Themes
- Marks the birth of English Romanticism
Significance in
- Challenges neoclassical ideals of decorum and poetic diction
Literary
- Redefines the role of the poet and the purpose of poetry
Criticism
- Influenced later poets like Coleridge, Shelley, and Keats

PREFACE TO LYRICAL BALLADS

Concept Meaning / Explanation Role in the Text

Poetry as “emotion True poetry arises from a deep Central Romantic idea—poetry is
recollected in emotional experience, reflected on internal, personal, and emotionally
tranquility” in calmness sincere
Rejects ornate diction of earlier
Language of common Poets should use simple, everyday
poetry; promotes accessibility and
men language
authenticity
Subjects from humble Poetry should focus on ordinary Wordsworth sees these as closer to
life people and rural life nature and authentic emotion
The poet is not elevated above Redefines the poet as someone
The Poet as a “man
others but is someone with deeply attuned to human emotion
speaking to men”
heightened sensitivity and nature
Spontaneity and Good poetry arises from natural Emphasizes organic creation over
Simplicity expression, not rigid form classical rules and ornamentation
Purpose of Poetry: Poetry should give pleasure but also Links aesthetic beauty with moral
Delight and Truth deepen understanding of human and emotional insight
 Concept Meaning / Explanation Role in the Text
experience
Imagination shapes feeling and
Role of Imagination Poetry becomes a way to explore
perception; nature is a moral and
and Nature the self and the natural world
emotional guide
Proposes a more emotional,
Critique of Rejects mechanical adherence to
subjective, and democratic
Neoclassical Tradition rules, decorum, and wit
approach to poetry

Title of the
Biographia Literaria
Work
Author Samuel Taylor Coleridge
Publication
1817
Year
Biographia Literaria is part autobiography, part philosophical treatise, and part
literary criticism. Coleridge reflects on his intellectual development and
defends his poetic principles. He critiques Wordsworth's theories from the
Preface to Lyrical Ballads, especially the use of common language in poetry.
Summary /
Drawing on German idealist philosophy (especially Kant and Schelling),
Main Argument
Coleridge emphasizes the creative role of the imagination in poetic
composition. He distinguishes between primary and secondary imagination and
argues that poetry is the reconciliation of opposites: reason and passion,
intellect and emotion, self and nature.
Key Concepts /
See detailed breakdown below
Themes
- Introduces German philosophical ideas into English criticism
Significance in
- Offers a deep psychological and metaphysical theory of imagination
Literary
- Critically redefines Romantic poetics beyond Wordsworth
Criticism
- Establishes poetry as a synthetic, philosophical, and spiritual activity

BIOGRAPHIA LITERARIA

Concept Meaning / Explanation Role in the Text

Primary The living power of perception; the Universal faculty in all humans;
Imagination unconscious act of forming reality reflects God’s creative power
Conscious, poetic imagination; The key poetic faculty; it dissolves
Secondary
reshapes and recombines sensory data and re-creates, transforming the real
Imagination
creatively into the ideal
Mechanical association of ideas; Distinguished from imagination; lacks
Fancy
memory-based and superficial creative depth
Aesthetic principle that the parts of a
Poetic form should arise organically,
Organic Unity poem must grow naturally from the
not by artificial rules
whole
Reconciliation of Poetry unites contradictory elements: Central Romantic idea: poetry
 Concept Meaning / Explanation Role in the Text
harmonizes tensions within the human
Opposites reason with passion, nature with mind
spirit and world
Not merely a knack for rhyme or
True poetic talent involves deep
Poetic Genius language, but a spiritual and
imagination and philosophical insight
intellectual power
Argues that poetic diction cannot be
Critique of Partially disagrees with Wordsworth’s
identical to the speech of common
Wordsworth views on language and poetic subjects
people
Poetry is not just emotional—it is also
Poetry as Poets reveal universal truths through
reflective, metaphysical, and
Philosophical imaginative insight
intellectually rich

Title of the
A Defence of Poetry
Work
Author Percy Bysshe Shelley
Publication
Written in 1821, published posthumously in 1840
Year
Written as a response to Thomas Love Peacock’s satirical essay The Four Ages
of Poetry, Shelley’s Defence argues that poetry is not outdated but essential to
civilization. He presents poets as the unacknowledged legislators of the world
Summary /
—visionaries who shape moral and imaginative life. Shelley defines poetry
Main Argument
broadly, not just as verse but as the creative impulse behind all art and
knowledge. He champions the role of imagination in expanding empathy,
challenging tyranny, and revealing truth through beauty.
Key Concepts /
See detailed breakdown below
Themes
- Romantic-era manifesto for the spiritual and political power of poetry
Significance in
- Elevates imagination over reason
Literary
- Bridges aesthetic, moral, and philosophical concerns
Criticism
- Envisions poets as transformative forces in society

A DEFENCE OF POETRY

Concept Meaning / Explanation Role in the Text

Poetry is the record of the best Poetry captures the ideal and
Poetry as Universal
and happiest moments of the best emotional truths that define
Expression
minds humanity
Central to human progress—poetry
Imagination as Moral Imagination fosters empathy and
cultivates compassion and connects
Force moral sensitivity
individuals
Poets as Poets shape society’s moral and Suggests that poetry has deep
Unacknowledged emotional direction without influence on culture, politics, and
Legislators holding power ethical awareness
 Concept Meaning / Explanation Role in the Text
Rejects rationalism alone as
Poetry as Synthesis of True poetry unites intellect with
incomplete—imagination reveals
Reason and Emotion feeling, science with spirit
deeper truths
Echoing Romantic ideals, Shelley
Poetic beauty is not mere ornament
Beauty as Truth sees beauty as revealing moral
—it expresses profound insights
and metaphysical truths
Poetry is a living, vital force that Expands the idea of poetry beyond
Poetry as Creative
drives all human innovation and verse—includes myth, art, even
Energy
enlightenment science at its most imaginative
Poetry transcends historical eras Counters the claim that poetry is
Timelessness of Poetry
and political regimes obsolete or backward-looking
Challenges the notion that only Defends poetry’s spiritual and
Critique of
practical or material knowledge is ethical necessity in contrast to
Utilitarianism
valuable industrial rationalism

Title of the Work A Vindication of the Rights of Woman

Author Mary Wollstonecraft
Publication Year 1792
Wollstonecraft argues that women are not naturally inferior to men, but
appear so only because of a lack of education and social opportunity. She
critiques the patriarchal system and the sentimental idealization of women as
Summary / Main weak, dependent, and emotional. Instead, she demands that women be
Argument treated as rational beings, capable of moral and intellectual development.
Education is central to her argument—she believes equal education would
empower women to contribute equally to society, both in public and private
life.
Key Concepts /
See detailed breakdown below
Themes
- One of the earliest works of feminist theory
Significance in - Lays the foundation for gender criticism and feminist literary studies
Literary & - Critiques Enlightenment thinkers (like Rousseau) for excluding women
Cultural Criticism - Advocates reason, virtue, and autonomy for women—ideas that influenced
Romantic and feminist writers alike

A VINDICATION OF THE RIGHTS OF WOMAN

Concept Meaning / Explanation Role in the Text

Women should be educated to use
Rational Education Education is key to women's
reason and develop intellect, not
for Women empowerment and equality
just to attract husbands
Critique of Rejects the ideal of women as
Challenges 18th-century stereotypes of
Sentimental purely emotional, passive, and
"feminine virtue"
Femininity charming
 Concept Meaning / Explanation Role in the Text
Argues for equal moral and social
Equality of the Men and women are equally
standing through access to rights and
Sexes capable of reason and virtue
opportunities
Virtue should not differ between Contradicts the belief that women’s
Virtue as Gender-
men and women—it is based on virtue lies only in modesty or
Neutral
reason and moral autonomy obedience
Disagrees with Rousseau’s view Counters Enlightenment gender bias
Critique of
that women should be educated for with Enlightenment values themselves
Rousseau
the pleasure of men (like reason and liberty)
Women should be active, rational
Women as Citizens Not just mothers or wives—women
participants in civic and domestic
and Moral Agents have public responsibilities and rights
life
Marriage and Marriage often reduces women to Advocates partnerships based on
Dependency dependence and limits freedom mutual respect, not subordination
Asserts women’s autonomy and Influenced writers like Virginia Woolf,
Foundations of
lays groundwork for later feminist Simone de Beauvoir, and modern
Feminist Thought
theories gender theorists

Victorian and Transitional Literary Critics

Critic / Key Terms / Critical Notes /
Major Works Core Ideas / Theories
Thinker Quotes Contributions
Matthew The Function of - Criticism should be - Father of modern
- “Sweetness and
Arnold Criticism, disinterested, cultural, English criticism-
light”- “High
(1822– Culture and moral- Literature = “a Balanced literature,
seriousness”
1888) Anarchy criticism of life” ethics, and culture
- Social thinker &
John - Art must express
Modern Painters, aesthetic theorist-
Ruskin truth and morality- - “All great art is
The Stones of Influenced Gandhi,
(1819– Critiqued capitalism praise”
Venice Proust, and the Pre-
1900) and industrial art
Raphaelites
- Key to Aestheticism
Walter - Art valued for
- “Burn always and Decadence-
Pater The Renaissance, aesthetic intensity-
with a hard gem- Precursor to
(1839– Appreciations Art for art’s sake, not
like flame” Modernist
1894) morality
subjectivism
Thomas - Literature as spiritual - Moral seriousness +
Sartor Resartus, - “Poets are the
Carlyle prophecy- Hero- critique of
Heroes and prophets of the
(1795– worship as cultural materialism- Romantic
Hero-Worship world”
1881) foundation idealism
George The Principles of - Realism, clarity, - “Art is the - Advocated realism
Henry Success in psychological depth- expression of man's and intellectual
Lewes Literature Literature shaped by delight” responsibility-
(1817– Partner of George
scientific thought
1878) Eliot
Essays in - Literature must show - “The greatest - Pioneered
George
Westminster moral complexity- benefit we owe to psychological
Eliot
Review, novels Advocated the artist is the realism- Blended
(1819–
like sympathetic extension of our fiction with ethical
1880)
Middlemarch imagination sympathies” and critical reflection
- Bridged art,
- Critiqued
Friedrich philosophy, and myth-
The Birth of rationalism, revived - “We have art so
Nietzsche Inspired
Tragedy, Beyond Dionysian art- Art that we may not
(1844– existentialism,
Good and Evil affirms life through perish by truth”
1900) psychoanalysis,
tragedy, conflict
modernism
- Innovator of rhythm
G.M. - Emphasized inscape
(sprung rhythm)-
Hopkins Notebooks, (unique inner essence)- - “Inscape” and
Combined Romantic
(1844– Letters, Poems Poetic form expresses “instress”
mysticism +
1889) spiritual perception
Victorian devoutness
- Literature as artistic
- “The only reason
Henry consciousness- - Defined the novel as
for the existence of
James The Art of Psychological realism art- Influential for
a novel is that it
(1843– Fiction & moral ambiguity- Modernist narrative
does attempt to
1916) Form and perspective form
represent life”
matter
- “The poet is not a
- Advocated
personality to
Tradition and the impersonality in art- - Bridged Victorian
express, but a
T.S. Eliot Individual Criticism should moralism and
medium to
(1888– Talent, The evaluate works in Modernist formality-
channel”-
1965) Metaphysical historical context- Led New Criticism
“Tradition…
Poets Belief in “objective movement
cannot be
correlative”
inherited”

Title of the
The Poetic Principle
Work
Author Edgar Allan Poe
Publication
1850 (published posthumously)
Year
Poe argues that the primary aim of poetry is to produce an aesthetic effect—
specifically, a sensation of beauty. He rejects didacticism and moralizing in
poetry, insisting that true poetry should not teach or preach but instead evoke
Summary /
emotion, particularly through beauty. Poe emphasizes brevity as a necessary
Main Argument
condition for sustaining the emotional intensity of a poem. He positions poetry
as separate from science, logic, or politics, and champions musicality, rhythm,
and imagination as core elements.
 Title of the
The Poetic Principle
Work
Key Concepts /
See detailed breakdown below
Themes
- A major statement of aestheticism and "art for art's sake"
Significance in
- Rejects utilitarian and moralistic functions of poetry
Literary
- Influenced Symbolist and Decadent movements in Europe
Criticism
- Advocates emotional purity, beauty, and precision in poetic form

THE POETIC PRINCIPLE

Concept Meaning / Explanation Role in the Text

Poe defines poetry not by form but by the
Poetry as the Beauty is the sole legitimate
emotion it evokes—specifically, the
Pursuit of Beauty province of the poem
elevation of the soul
A poem must be short to Long poems dilute emotional intensity; thus,
Brevity as
maintain unity of emotional the epic is incompatible with Poe’s idea of
Essential
effect true poetry
Poe critiques poets who turn verse into
Rejection of Poetry should not aim to teach
sermons—art should be pleasurable, not
Didacticism moral lessons
preachy
Truth appeals to the intellect;
Poetry vs. Truth / He insists on keeping poetry distinct from
poetry appeals to the soul and
Logic science, politics, or instruction
emotions
Musicality and Melody, rhythm, and euphony Poetry must sound beautiful as well as
Sound are integral to poetic beauty convey beauty in thought
The imagination helps the poet reach
Imagination and Poetry springs from imaginative
beyond mundane reality into emotional or
Idealism and idealistic impulses
spiritual transcendence
Every element in a poem must This concept aligns with his theory of the
Unity of Effect contribute to a single emotional short story—Poe believed in total aesthetic
effect control
Poetry should exist for its own Prefigures aesthetic movements of the late
Art for Art’s Sake beauty, not for external 19th century, including Baudelaire and the
purposes Symbolists

1. THE STUDY OF POETRY

Aspect Details
Author Matthew Arnold
Publication
1880
Year
Summary / Arnold argues that poetry will replace religion as a source of spiritual insight in
 Aspect Details
Main modern life. He calls for a high standard in poetry and insists that only the
Argument “best” poetry, like that of Homer, Dante, and Shakespeare, can nourish the soul
and shape culture. He critiques contemporary poets for lacking seriousness and
moral depth.
- Positions poetry as a civilizing force
- Introduces the idea of poetry as a “criticism of life”
Significance
- Establishes literary standards for judging poetry
- Lays the groundwork for moral formalism in criticism

📙 2. SWEETNESS AND LIGHT (FROM CULTURE AND ANARCHY*, 1869)*

Aspect Details
Author Matthew Arnold
Publication
1869
Year
In this cultural essay, Arnold defines “culture” as the pursuit of human
Summary / perfection through knowledge, beauty (sweetness), and reason (light). He
Main critiques Victorian society’s emphasis on materialism and narrow-mindedness,
Argument calling instead for an ideal balance of intellectual, moral, and aesthetic
development.
- Establishes the critical value of culture
- Introduces enduring phrase “sweetness and light”
Significance
- Opposes “Philistinism” (anti-intellectualism)
- Influential in liberal humanist tradition of criticism

ARNOLD’S CRITICAL THOUGHT

In Which
Concept Explanation
Work
Poetry as Criticism of Poetry must reflect serious moral and intellectual The Study of
Life content Poetry
Judging poetry by comparing it to timeless, great lines The Study of
Touchstone Method
of classic poets Poetry
Great poetry must display emotional depth, moral The Study of
High Seriousness
earnestness, and intellectual weight Poetry
Culture is the fusion of beauty (sweetness) and Culture and
Sweetness and Light
intelligence (light) Anarchy
The narrow-minded, materialist mindset opposed to Culture and
Philistinism
cultural development Anarchy
Culture as Human True culture develops all aspects of humanity—not just Culture and
Perfection wealth or power Anarchy
 In Which
Concept Explanation
Work
Literature is judged by moral seriousness and formal Present in both
Moral Formalism
excellence works
Classicism over Preference for restraint, balance, and discipline in The Study of
Romanticism poetry Poetry

THE ART OF FICTION — HENRY JAMES

Aspect Details
Author Henry James
Publication
1884 (published in Longman's Magazine)
Year
James defends the novel as a legitimate form of art, arguing that it should be
judged by the same standards as painting or poetry. He emphasizes freedom in
Summary / form and subject, opposing rigid rules about what a novel should be. James
Main Argument believes that the only obligation of the novelist is to be interesting and to
represent life with truthfulness, complexity, and imagination. The best
novels, for James, show life as it is, filtered through the artist's consciousness.
- Major defense of the novel as an art form
Significance in - Anticipates modernist values: depth of consciousness, subtle form, and
Literary psychological realism
Criticism - Rejects formulaic genres and moralistic constraints
- Paves the way for later novelists like Woolf, Joyce, and Proust

THE ART OF FICTION

Concept Explanation Role in the Text

The novel is not just entertainment or
Counters critics who treat fiction
Fiction as Art moral instruction—it is an art equal to
as trivial or morally suspicious
any other
There should be no rules about Challenges critics like Walter
Freedom of Form and
subject or structure; anything that can Besant who advocated for
Content
be imagined can be a novel prescriptive guidelines
The writer must absorb life deeply Good fiction is grounded in real,
Experience and
and translate it with subtle observed, and deeply felt human
Observation
observation and insight experience
Novels should reflect the complexity
Opposes simplistic or
Truth to Life of life and human character truthfully
romanticized storytelling
—not idealized versions
What matters is how the artist sees Precursor to stream-of-
Consciousness of the
and interprets the world—their unique consciousness and modernist
Artist
vision interiority
 Concept Explanation Role in the Text
Metaphor suggesting that each Emphasizes perspectivism—truth
"The House of
novelist sees through a different is shaped by individual
Fiction"
"window" into the world consciousness
Advocates artistic harmony and
A novel should produce a coherent
Unity of Impression integration of all elements in the
emotional and intellectual effect
narrative
"To be interesting is Art must engage the reader, not Highlights aesthetic autonomy
the first duty of art" follow doctrine over didactic purpose

TRADITION AND THE INDIVIDUAL TALENT — T.S. ELIOT

Aspect Details
Author T.S. Eliot
Publication
1919 (first published in The Egoist)
Year
Eliot challenges the Romantic idea of poetry as a purely personal expression of
emotion. He argues that great poetry involves impersonality and a deep
Summary / engagement with the tradition of literature. A poet must possess a historical
Main Argument sense and recognize their place within the continuity of literary history.
Originality is not innovation in isolation but a contribution to and
transformation of tradition.
- Foundational to New Criticism
Significance in - Emphasizes text over author
Literary - Introduces the idea of impersonality in poetry
Criticism - Influences formalist and structuralist approaches to literature
- Redefines “originality” through the idea of historical consciousness

TRADITION AND THE INDIVIDUAL TALENT

Concept Explanation Role in the Text

Not a blind following of the past, but The poet must write with the
Tradition an awareness of and engagement with consciousness of what has been
the entire literary canon written before
A poet must have a sense of the past Originality comes from knowing
Historical Sense as well as the present to create tradition and contributing to its
meaningful new work evolution
Poetry is not the expression of The poet must “surrender”
Impersonality of
personality, but a process of themselves to the work—not impose
the Poet
depersonalization their ego or emotions
Poetry as an True art is not about expressing
Counters Romanticism’s confessional
Escape from personal feelings, but transforming
or autobiographical tendencies
Emotion emotion into objective form
 Concept Explanation Role in the Text
The poet facilitates a reaction
The poet is like a chemical catalyst—
between tradition and experience
Poet as Catalyst unchanged but essential in creating
without inserting their own
new poetic combinations
personality
Past and present works modify one Literary history is not static but
Coexistence of Past
another in the tradition—they are in a reshaped by each new significant
and Present
dynamic relationship work
Criticism and Understanding tradition and
Eliot links the roles of the critic and
Creation evaluating form are part of the
the poet
Interlinked creative process itself
The emphasis is on the structure,
Key idea that influenced close
Artistic Objectivity form, and meaning in the work, not on
reading and formalism
the author’s biography

MODERN FICTION — VIRGINIA WOOLF

Aspect Details
Author Virginia Woolf
Publication
1919 (revised 1925)
Year
Woolf critiques Edwardian writers like H.G. Wells, Arnold Bennett, and John
Galsworthy for focusing too much on material and surface details—what she
Summary / calls “the fabric of things.” Instead, she calls for a new kind of fiction that
Main Argument captures the inner life of characters—their thoughts, impressions, and
consciousness. She champions writers like James Joyce and Chekhov who
explore the subjective experience of reality.
- A Modernist manifesto
Significance in - Advocates stream of consciousness technique
Literary - Argues for form and experimentation in the novel
Criticism - Critiques material realism and promotes psychological depth
- Pivotal to the evolution of 20th-century narrative technique

MODERN FICTION

Concept Explanation Role in the Essay

Woolf’s symbolic characters—used to Highlights how old forms fail to
“Mr. Bennett and
critique the gap between Edwardian capture the evolving, complex nature
Mrs. Brown”
realism and modernist depth of individual experience
Materialist writers focus on externals; Woolf aligns with “spiritual” writers
Materialism vs.
spiritual writers explore the inner like Joyce, who capture
Spiritualism
workings of the mind consciousness instead of just surfaces
Life is not a series Critiques the artificial ordering of Argues that real life is chaotic, fluid,
 Concept Explanation Role in the Essay
and must be represented as such in
of gig-lamps reality in Victorian fiction
fiction
A technique that attempts to render Woolf doesn’t use the term here, but
Stream of
the continuous flow of thoughts and she advocates for its use in modern
Consciousness
feelings in the mind fiction
Subjectivity and Emphasis on the psychological and Central to Woolf’s aesthetic theory of
Inner Reality emotional inner world of characters fiction
Writers should not follow rigid rules Literature must evolve to reflect the
Freedom in Form
or conventions complexity of modern life
Writers must be true to their vision—
The modern writer’s duty is
Artistic Integrity not please public taste or conform to
innovation, not imitation
tradition
Woolf praises Chekhov’s ability to Seen as a model of “modern fiction”
Influence of
capture mood, uncertainty, and inner that focuses on subtleties rather than
Chekhov
life strong plots

A ROOM OF ONE’S OWN — VIRGINIA WOOLF

Aspect Details
Author Virginia Woolf
1929 (based on lectures delivered in 1928 at Newnham and Girton colleges,
Publication Year
Cambridge)
Woolf argues that for a woman to write fiction, she must have a room of her
own and money—that is, economic independence and personal space. The
Summary / text explores the historical, social, and institutional barriers that have prevented
Main Argument women from writing and entering the literary canon. Woolf blends fact and
fiction (inventing characters like Judith Shakespeare) to reveal how patriarchy
has marginalized women’s intellectual and creative contributions.
- Landmark in feminist literary theory
Significance in - Introduced key ideas about gender, space, authorship, and economics
Literary - Critiques literary history for ignoring women writers
Criticism - Anticipates later feminist critics like Elaine Showalter, Sandra Gilbert &
Susan Gubar

A ROOM OF ONE’S OWN

Concept Explanation Role in the Text

Symbolizes the material Argues that women have lacked the
“A room of one’s own
independence required for artistic conditions necessary to write and
and £500 a year”
creation think freely
Judith Shakespeare Imaginary sister of Shakespeare, Demonstrates how systemic gender
 Concept Explanation Role in the Text
equally talented but denied education
bias destroys female genius
and opportunity
Ideal creative mind is neither male
Argues for fluidity in gendered
Androgynous Mind nor female—it fuses masculine and
thinking and creativity
feminine qualities
Material Conditions Economic and spatial freedom are Links class and gender oppression
of Writing essential for literary production to creative suppression
Calls for re-reading and re-writing
The Canon and Traditional literary history excludes
the canon to include women’s
Erasure or devalues women writers
voices
Patriarchy and Power Societal systems have deliberately Challenges both overt and subtle
Structures suppressed women's intellect forms of male domination
Blends essay and narrative to make
Fiction as a Vehicle Uses fiction and metaphor to explore
feminist ideas more vivid and
for Truth real socio-political inequalities
persuasive
Female authorship has often been Advocates for new literary forms
Women and Literary
shaped or constrained by male and voices unique to women’s
Identity
models experience

THE NEW CRITICISM: PRO AND CONTRA — RENÉ

WELLEK
Aspect Details
Author René Wellek
Publication
1960 (included in his essay collections and lectures)
Year
Wellek offers a balanced critique of New Criticism. He defends its core
principles—close reading, the autonomy of the text, and the emphasis on
Summary / structure and form—but also critiques its limitations, especially its rejection of
Main Argument history, biography, and broader cultural context. He argues for a more
synthetic approach that integrates the intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of
literature.
- Summarizes key features and flaws of New Criticism
Significance in
- Transitional text bridging New Criticism and later theories
Literary
- Advocates for methodological pluralism
Criticism
- Reasserts the importance of literary theory beyond formalism

The New Criticism: Pro and Contra

Concept Explanation Wellek’s Position

Close Reading Detailed analysis of the text’s language, Supports as essential to
 Concept Explanation Wellek’s Position
understanding the text’s complexity
structure, and form
and unity
The belief that the text contains all
Textual Partially supports, but warns against
meaning within itself—independent of
Autonomy total isolation from history or context
author or context
Coined by Cleanth Brooks, the idea that Acknowledges its insight but
Heresy of
reducing a poem to its paraphrasable suggests meaning can also benefit
Paraphrase
content is reductive from external frameworks
Sympathetic, but allows for
Intentional Rejects using the author’s intention as a
historical awareness when
Fallacy basis for interpretation
appropriate
Critiques its rigidity—says affect
Avoids evaluating a work based on its
Affective Fallacy can’t be wholly removed from
emotional impact on the reader
literary appreciation
Neglect of Criticizes—advocates reintroducing
New Criticism's tendency to ignore the
History and historical and biographical
sociocultural and historical contexts
Society knowledge for fuller interpretation
Synthetic Combining formalist techniques with Strongly advocates for it as a more
Approach contextual/historical analysis holistic method
Intrinsic vs. Intrinsic = within the text; Extrinsic =
Wants to integrate both rather than
Extrinsic external factors like history, biography,
exclude either
Analysis society

✅ Pros and ❌ Cons of New Criticism (According to Wellek)

Pros Cons
Overly dismissive of historical and cultural
Emphasis on textual integrity
context
Promotes disciplined, rigorous reading Ignores authorial intent and reader response
Helps establish literary study as a serious
Can become too formalistic or mechanical
academic field
Narrow view of literature’s function and
Encourages appreciation of structure and unity
meaning

THE WORK OF ART IN THE AGE OF MECHANICAL

REPRODUCTION — WALTER BENJAMIN
Aspect Details
Author Walter Benjamin
Original Written 1935–36, first published in French in 1936; German version
Publication published in 1955
 Aspect Details
Benjamin argues that modern technologies (like photography and film)
change the nature of art by making it reproducible and widely accessible.
This destroys the “aura” of a work—the uniqueness tied to its authenticity,
Summary / Main
time, and place. However, he sees political potential in this democratization
Argument
of art, especially in film, which he believes can awaken the masses and
challenge fascist aesthetics. The essay mixes Marxist, aesthetic, and
technological perspectives.
- Foundational in media studies, aesthetic theory, and Marxist criticism
Significance in - Influenced thinkers like Adorno, Barthes, and Derrida
Literary and - Key critique of capitalist commodification of culture
Cultural Criticism - Offers a radical political lens on mass media and the public’s reception of
art

The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction

Concept Explanation Role in the Essay

The unique presence, authenticity, and Reproduction diminishes or destroys
Aura historical rootedness of a traditional aura, especially in photography and
work of art film
Mechanical Technological duplication of artworks Changes the social function of art—
Reproduction (e.g., printing, photography, film) shifts it from ritual to politics
Reproducibility undermines
Loss of Copies cannot retain the originality
traditional notions of genius,
Authenticity tied to time, space, and creator
originality, and sacredness
Old art served ritualistic (cult) Modern media favors exhibition—
Exhibition Value
purposes; modern art serves display accessible, democratic, potentially
vs. Cult Value
(exhibition) and mass viewership politicized
Opposes aestheticization of politics
Politicization of Modern technologies allow art to
seen in fascism (e.g., Nazi
Art become a tool for political awakening
propaganda)
Film, unlike traditional art, works Encourages critical engagement
Shock and
through rapid montage, breaking with media—film as a medium of
Distraction
passive contemplation consciousness alteration
Art becomes part of the social and
Film and photography strip art of
Art for the Masses political fabric—not just an object of
elitism and mystique
reverence
Fascism aestheticizes politics Ends with a warning: fascism makes
Fascism vs.
(spectacle), communism politicizes art politics beautiful; art must resist by
Communism
(critique) being political

⚖️Contrasts Benjamin Draws

 Traditional Art Modern (Mechanical) Art
Unique, with aura Mass-produced, aura-less
Fixed in time and space Portable, duplicated
Tied to ritual (cult value) Tied to politics (exhibition value)
Contemplative experience Distractive, kinetic experience
Controlled by elites Democratized for the masses

THE STORYTELLER: REFLECTIONS ON THE WORKS

OF NIKOLAI LESKOV — WALTER BENJAMIN
Aspect Details
Author Walter Benjamin
Original
1936, in Orient und Okzident
Publication
Works of Russian author Nikolai Leskov, used as an exemplar of
Focus Text
storytelling tradition
Benjamin laments the decline of storytelling in the modern world, arguing
that storytelling, once rooted in lived experience and passed down through
oral tradition, has been eroded by the rise of the novel, print culture, and
Summary / Main
information. He contrasts the wisdom and communal value of storytelling
Argument
with the isolating and abstract nature of modern communication. The
storyteller, once a transmitter of collective memory and experience, has
become a relic.
- Influential in narrative theory, folklore studies, and philosophy of
Significance in history
Literary & - Explores the crisis of meaning, memory, and transmission in modernity
Cultural Criticism - A foundational text for theorists like Paul Ricoeur, Roland Barthes, and
literary modernists

The Storyteller

Concept Explanation Role in the Essay

Storytelling is timeless, slow, Benjamin mourns the loss of depth,
Storytelling vs.
reflective; information is fast, factual, wisdom, and experience in modern
Information
and quickly outdated communication
Erfahrung = lived, accumulated True storytelling comes from
Erfahrung vs.
experience; Erlebnis = fleeting, Erfahrung, not fragmented modern
Erlebnis
subjective impression Erlebnis
Stories were once shaped by and for
Communal Modernity isolates the individual,
communities, passing down values and
Wisdom breaking this tradition
survival knowledge
Death and True storytellers are closely associated In modern society, death is hidden,
Storytelling with death—they give form to life and storytelling suffers as a result
 Concept Explanation Role in the Essay
through narrative
Vital to storytelling—both personal Mechanized society erodes memory,
Memory and collective memory sustain reducing the capacity for deep
narrative traditions narrative
Leskov represents the traditional
Leskov as Model His stories preserve the form
storyteller: oral, anecdotal, rooted in
Storyteller Benjamin sees as endangered
cultural memory
The storyteller once shaped meaning,
Loss of Narrative Reflects the fragmentation and
but the novelist and journalist no
Authority alienation of the modern world
longer hold that power
Stories were once a form of counsel— Storytelling’s decline is linked to the
Story as Counsel offering wisdom, guidance, and moral loss of moral and spiritual
clarity orientation

📉 Contrasts Benjamin Draws

Traditional Storytelling Modern Narrative Forms

Rooted in oral tradition Rooted in print and media
Based on shared experience (Erfahrung) Based on fleeting events (Erlebnis)
Offers wisdom and counsel Offers facts or entertainment
Engages the listener Consumes the reader
Tied to death, memory, and community Tied to distraction and depersonalization

THE GREAT TRADITION — F.R. LEAVIS

Aspect Details
Author F.R. Leavis (Frank Raymond Leavis)
Publication Year 1948
Leavis argues that English fiction has a central “great tradition” of novelists—
Jane Austen, George Eliot, Henry James, and Joseph Conrad—who
Main
exemplify moral seriousness and artistic excellence. He dismisses others (e.g.,
Argument /
Dickens, Sterne) as lacking depth or maturity. Leavis’s criticism is formalist
Summary
and ethical, concerned with literature’s ability to cultivate moral awareness
and intelligence.
- Key text in canon formation and the moral tradition of English studies
- Central to Cambridge criticism
Significance in
- Provoked later challenges from feminist, Marxist, and postcolonial critics for
Literary
its exclusivity
Criticism
- Emphasized the “life-enhancing” value of literature over pleasure or
entertainment
The Great Tradition

Concept Explanation Role in the Text

Great literature must be ethically and Core criterion for inclusion in the
Moral Seriousness
intellectually serious tradition
A select group of novelists who
The Great
represent the pinnacle of English Austen → Eliot → James → Conrad
Tradition
fiction
Rejection of Leavis criticizes writers like Dickens Based on their perceived lack of
Popular Novelists and Fielding as inferior complexity or seriousness
A novel's form should arise naturally
Values structural integrity that aligns
Organic Form from its content and moral
with ethical vision
engagement
Literature as Moral Reading great fiction refines our Literature seen as shaping and
Education sensibility and moral perception elevating the individual and society
Builds on Eliot’s idea of literary
T.S. Eliot’s Leavis shares Eliot’s emphasis on
value grounded in tradition and
Influence tradition and judgment
coherence
Opposes emotional excess or
Views Romanticism as a potential
Anti-Romanticism aestheticism ungrounded in moral
threat to moral seriousness
vision
Leavis’s broader project of cultural
Aimed at resisting popular culture
Scrutiny Movement and literary renewal through critical
and literary mediocrity
rigor

✅ Novelists in “The Great Tradition” (According to Leavis)

Included Why
Jane Austen Irony, balance, moral clarity
George Eliot Intellectual depth, moral reflection
Henry James Psychological realism, subtle moral complexity
Joseph Conrad Ethical engagement with modern consciousness
Excluded Why

Charles Dickens Too emotional, moral simplification

Laurence Sterne Fragmentary, unserious

Thomas Hardy Pessimism seen as artistically limiting