WEEK 3: CLASSIFICATION/ FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
OBJECTIVES
1. Write reports, minutes, memos and various business
correspondences
2. Explain the circumstances under which written form of
communication may be the most appropriate to use.
3. Be able to explain the advantages and disadvantages of using
written communication.

Media /Means of communication

Non-verbal
Verbal

Oral Written Sign Language Body Language

Visual Signs Audio Signs

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
The power of words inspires change, evokes emotions, and fosters
connections
Written communication is any written message that two or more
people exchange.
-the art of transmitting messages, thoughts, and ideas through the written
word.
Effective writing involves careful choice of words, their organization in
correct order in sentences formation as well as cohesive composition of
sentences.
Written communication includes letters, memorandum, reports, abstract,
minutes, articles and press releases.
Writer’s communication has advantages in that it provides a written
record and evidence of dispatch and receipts; it is also capable of
relaying complex ideas; provides analysis evaluation and summary,
can confirm, interpret and clarify oral communication and also forms the
basis of contract agreement.
A message constitutes written communication when it is put in “black
and white.”
It is a formal type of communication.
The sender of the message or his representative constitutes the writer.
Written communication is usually considered binding on business
organizations and is often used as evidence.
Technological advancement has enlarged the gamut of written
communication through email and other such facilities.

MERITS OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

i) Precise and Accurate: Written communication is generally
prepared with great care and precision.
The very prospect of writing makes a person conscious.
You have to be very serious and organized while
communicating in the written form, because written
communication is open to verification.
ii) Easily verified: Since written communication is on paper etc., it
can be read and re-read.
It also offers itself to verification.
There is also, thus, less chance of someone twisting the
message to his or her own advantage.
iii) Permanent record: Written communication constitutes a
permanent record it also acts like evidence.
It proves very useful for future reference as it can be
preserved for years.
For example, old orders and decisions can serve as basic for
new ones.
iv) Suitable for lengthy and complicated messages: Lengthy and
complicated messages can be understood better when they are in the
written form rather than in the oral. There is less chance of
misinterpretation and misunderstanding. Also, the language used in lea
subject to change.
iv) Responsibility can be easily fixed: In written communication,
responsibilities of sender and receiver can be fixed easily.
People have the tendency of shifting responsibilities for
mistakes, but this is difficult if the onus is obvious in black
and white.
iv)Has legal validity: Written communication is acceptable as a legal
document.
Written communication has been used as evidence since time
immemorial.

DEMERITS OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

(i) Slower method of communication: Written communication
can be time- consuming since it may take even two or even
three days to reach the receiver (by letters, for instance).
By contrast, oral communication is immediate.
(ii) Further delay if clarification is required: Written
communication hampers quick clarifications.
The receiver may write back for clarifications and wait for a
reply, making the process tedious.
 Even if clarification is not needed, there is still a delay
between the time the sender writes a message and the
receiver receives it.
(iii) Leads to too much of paperwork: Since written communication is
basically done on paper, one may tend to use it as an escape mechanism
paper- free offices remain a dream.
(v) Costly in terms of money and man- hours: Written letters is a
costly process not only because you need to spend money on postage,
but also because several persons are involved in the process of sending
out a letter from an organization.
Their time costs organization money.
While oral communication can be short and quick, written
communication because of its very nature, tend to be lengthy.
(vi) No flexibility: The written word is not subject to instant change
after communication.
Therefore, conveying an after-thought may proves very lengthy, and,
at times, even impossible.
(vii) Literacy essential: It goes without saying that in written
communication, the sender as well as the receiver should be literate.
Literacy also means literacy in the language of the message.
The receiver should know the language in which a message has been
written: it is no use receiving a message in English if you are not
conversant with that language.
Notwithstanding its limitations, it can be safely concluded that written
communication remains the spine of an organization.
Almost all formal communication is in the written form.

SAMPLES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

1.Curriculum Vitae (C.V)
This is a summary of an individual, covering among other areas person
details, education, experience, skills, career objectives, hobbies etc.
-It is a comprehensive document that showcases your education, skills,
achievements, and experience to potential employers.
- it is aimed at showing the reader what you are capable of doing.
Preparations
Ask yourself questions
i) What is your ideal position? (Here think about your perfect job,
what you like about it, do you like a variety or repetitive jobs.
ii) What kinds of things do you like doing? Think about hobbies,
what do you do at home or leisure
iii) Think about your favorite job in the past. What was it you
liked about so much?
iv) Are there gaps in your employment?
v) What are your reasons for leaving each position (remember at
some point your employer will contact your former employer)?
Content
a). Personal details
Name: Your official names (as they appear in your official documents
such as academic certificates, National Identification card)
Date of birth: state the date / month/ year of birth
Contacts: (Telephone, e-mail address. Postal address etc.)
Marital status: state whether married or single
ID No: state your identification/ passport number
Nationality: state your nationality (Kenyan or--)
Languages spoken: list the languages you can fluently communicate in
b) Career Objectives: State your objectives in relation to career, what
do you aim for in your career

c) Personal Attributes: Attributes are the qualities that describe who

you are. E.g. Honesty, Confidence, adaptability, Integrity etc.
They may also include your attitude, character traits and even include
some soft skills.
Some attributes may naturally be part of your personality, and others are
learned and developed throughout your life.
Your personal attributes influence how you interact with others, handle
challenges and approach tasks.

d) Professional training: state the trainings you have had related to the
profession particularly those offered by professional bodies e.g. CPA,
Marketing society of Kenya, IHRM, Pharmacy and Poisons Board,
Kenya Medical Association

e) Work experience:
Date- Organization: -what experience/duties done- start from the recent
to the earliest.

f) Academic qualification: Date- Institution: - qualification attained -

starting from the highest

g) Referees: Names, Contacts: -Address, phone, e-mail etc.

NB Referees must be people who know you very well, not your
relatives and should always be contacted before including them in
your C.V

Do’s of C. Vs
Keep to one page depending on experience
Describe your main functions, what you did incidentally
Emphasize those duties that are most relevant to your present
application
Include any specific recognition, accomplishment or projects you
were involved with.
Describe your former/current employer include the size of the
company and type of industry
Write about yourself in a positive light (favorable aspects, desirable
aspects) rather than focusing on negative or unfavorable aspects
Strive to be concise and target your information to the employer.

C.V’s Don’ts
Try to fit too much information on the page
Use personal information such as race, ethnicity
Leave suspicious gaps in your working history
Do not include any health information unless requested to do so
Include reasons for leaving the previous jobs
Include referees on the same page (Referees should always be on a
separate page unless otherwise advised)
NB Your C.V must stand out

Remember to show your strengths and minimize weak points

Front your key selling points
Start with personal details, careers statement your education, work
experience start with the most relevant and work through to others
Turn your skills around to show how relevant they are to the job.
Your C.V should display eagerness to learn and high degree of
motivation.
Employers look for someone eager to learn.
C.V are tailor-made, done for specific needs

2.LETTERS
Writing a letter is a timeless form of communication that conveys
thoughtfulness, sincerity, and personal touch.

Broadly letters are classified as personal or non-personal letters

otherwise known as formal and informal letters or official and friendly
letters respectively.
Business/ non-personal letters/ official/ formal letters.
Functions of a business letter:
i). Making a lasting impression.
Oral communication, whether in face to face or over the phones are
rarely remembered in full because its impact is felt mainly
during the time it is being heard.
Once the next oral communication is taken up, the effect of the
previous one is reduced.
However, a letter makes a lasting impression on the reader’s mind
because it stays with him, goes with him and does its work
effectively every time it is read.

ii). Widening the approach.

 Frequently, a businessman finds it difficult to send his
representatives to all the places of his business connections.
It is the letter that reaches any place at whatever distance.
In its effect, a business letter helps widen the area of operation.
Only letters can send the goods of a businessman to places
thousands of miles away, even across the country.

Executives, professionals, politicians, etc. are difficult to be

approached in person.
But a letter can find easy access to one and all.
A letter knows what is the right time to reach different persons
and it enjoys the advantage of being able to wait till the reader
has leisure and inclination to turn to it.
iii). An authoritative proof.
A commitment in writing binds the parties concerned to the text
of writing.
A letter, signed by a responsible person, is an authoritative proof of
what is said in it.
It can even be treated as a valid document that can be produced
as evidence in a court of law in case of dispute.
Action can be taken, responsibilities can be fixed and mistakes can
be pointed out only if communications over the phone or
telegraphic communications are confirmed in writing.
iv). Building goodwill.
An important purpose of a business letter is to sell the good
reputation and friendliness of a company.
It aims at building goodwill in the customer –company
relationship, holding present customers and capturing new
ones, reviving inactive accounts and inviting customers to buy
more and varied products.
NB: Building goodwill refers to the process of cultivating a
positive and favorable attitude or reputation among customers,
clients, partners, or stakeholders.
The underlying purpose of all letters is to create customers in
order to make profits.

Thus business letters are an indispensable means of

communication for industry and commerce.
Business letters represent the firm just as much as the
personality of the firm’s sales man and the quality of its goods
or services. Therefore, business letters must try to make the best
possible impression on those who receive them.
Their function must go beyond those of presenting information
clearly and courteously. They must make friends, build goodwill
and add to the company’s prestige.
Types of Business Letters.
Business letters may be classified into the following kinds: -
i) Letters of Enquiry
These are simple letters for information prices, literature and
favours.
This type of letter is also written to order goods or services.

ii) Letters Answering Request

These are replies to inquiries.
Some of these letters are difficult to write because sometimes the
answer being given is negative.
They are therefore the most important letters to write and they
require utmost tact and courtesy.
iii) Claim Letters
Claim letters are those written by inconvenienced or offended
customers or persons.
They are actually letters of complaints.
iv) Adjustment Letters
These are letters written in response to clients’ complaints.
When the adjustment asked for is not granted, in refusal the writer
has to give satisfactory reasons for refusal.
 These letters are most difficult to write and hence require special
understanding of people and of the company which the writer
represents.

v). Credit Letter

A large percentage of business transactions is carried on credit
basis letters have to be written in request for credit.
When credit is denied because the applicant is not “credit
worthy”, then this requires tactfulness.

v) Sales Letter
These are also known as introductory letters, which aim at
promoting goodwill and public relations it does not attempt to
sells goods or services directly, but first make friends and in the
long run increase purchase.

vi) Employment Letters

Such letters include applications for vacancies, resignation letters
and even letters for thanking an employer for an interview.
vii) Social Letters
There are some letters meant for maintenance of friendly
relationships with customers and business acquaintances.
 These social business correspondence includes letter of
congratulations, letters of sympathy, invitations, letters of
friendships and thank you letters.
They do a great deal to build goodwill.
Vii). Collection letters.
These are letters written to remind those who do not clear their
debts in time.
Sometimes they have to be threatened before they will pay what they
owe.
These are known as collection letters and are the most difficult and
challenging to write.
Their effectiveness is measured by the amount of money they bring in
from careless customers.

Parts of a business letter:

a) Heading
b) Inside Address
c) Salutation
d) Reference/Subject
e) Body of the letter
f) Signature
g) Enclosures (Optional depending on situations)
h) CC (optional depending on situations)
Heading:
Most firms have letterheads which will state the name of the company,
address, telephone number, fax numbers and a short description of the
firm’s business.

Date
It also bears some space for the date.

Reference
This is printed on the same line as the date. Sometimes we have both
OUR REF………….. and YOUR REF………………..

b) Inside Address
This is the address of the firm or the recipient of the letter.
If the letter is being directed to a particular person or official.
The phrase “For the attention of” is used.

c) The Salutation
A salutation in a letter is a greeting or introduction that sets the tone for
the rest of the correspondence.
It starts the letter, and precedes the message.
It would be written below the inside addresses (or attention of……) and
should start first with the left margin and with a comma.

d). Subject and Reference

This is a brief one-line mention of the major theme of the letter
right in the beginning and adds to its clarity.
The usual forms of mentioning the subject and reference are; -
Sub: Overdraft facilities for………………….
Ref: Your letter dated/No…………………….
Or
Ref: Your order dated……………….

e). Body of the letter

Opening paragraph: -
German proverb- A good beginning is half the battle won.
It applies doubly when it comes to writing successful business letters.
This is where the reader should be enticed to go ahead with interest
and concentration.
The letter should open with expression of pleasure, gratitude or
acknowledgement or with reference to the action you have taken in
response to the readers’ previous letter if any.
Secondly a reason for writing this letter should be given.
Thirdly the essential names dates locations or other data to put the
message of

The middle paragraph (s): develops detailed messages.

At this stage the detailed data which comprises the letter’s message is
logically, briefly clearly set down.
In complex letters several middle paragraphs may in turn deal with
one principal aspect of an involved message.
This will make it easier for the reader to grasp.
The closing paragraph: It states action needed.
The paragraph states simply and clearly what action the writer needs
from the recipient.
Since the action statement is the entire reason for writing letters other
than informational ones, the requirement or request for action appears
virtually at the end of the letter and, thus reminding the recipient of
the action to be taken.

Complementary close
This is merely a polite way of ending a letter.
- also known as a valediction, is a polite and courteous sign-off used to
conclude a business letter.
The choice of close depends on the tone, purpose, and level of formality
desired
Each form of salutation has an equivalent complementary close.

For example,

Dear Sir (s)……. Yours faithfully

Dear Madam….

Dear Mr.…………
Dear Miss………. Yours sincerely
Dear lord, lady
Dear Tom Sincerely
Dear Mary In regards
NB: It is more work to write a good short letter than a long one. Busy
decision makers appreciate the extra effort.

MEMORANDUM
A memorandum is a written form of communication that is similar to a
letter but it is used for internal communication purposes only.
This includes other branches of an organization.
 In a large organization, it may be necessary to pass brief items of
information from one office to another or from one department to
another.
This is usually done on a memorandum (simply called memo in short or
internal memo).
An internal memo has the following features:
 Name of the person sending out the memo.
 Name of the person(s) the memo is being sent to.
 Reference number (optional).
 Date.
 Subject (information heading).
 Body- for brief information- not detailed communication.
 Sender’s signature or initials—at the bottom of the main text.

A memo is basically used for sending messages which are brief in

nature.
Such messages are used for information only and not for decision
making.
Only used for internal communication and it is also known as loose
minutes.
A memo does not include a salutation

When to use a memo to communicate:

To issue instructions to staff.
To communicate decisions and policy changes to staff
To give or seek suggestions
To request help or information
To confirm a decision arrived at on telephone etc.
To send messages or very brief reports
Introduce a topic, a person
Enquire about certain matters/information
Remind members of an organization any important matters
A memorandum has different features from a letter e.g. it has no
salutation, no complementary close, has internal address only. It has a
reference, a date and subject.
A memorandum should be brief and to the point. The structure of a
memorandum may vary from one organization to another.

Heading
The heading section includes the name and address of the company,
which is already printed in the case of a letterhead.
Just below the address section or the letterhead, the word” Memo” or”
Memorandum” appears to make it clear that the message is being
communicated through a memo.

Sender
This section specifies the name, designation and department of the
person writing the memo. For example,” From: T. Jones, Assistant
Manager, Sales.

Recipient
This section identifies the recipients. For example, if you are writing a
memo to all the employees of the marketing department, it should say”
To: All Employees of the Marketing Department.”

CC or additional recipients
These are the recipients whom you do not directly address in the To
section but to whom you send a copy of the memo for the sake of
information.

Date
All memos must invariably include the date of writing the memo.

Subject line
The subject line gives the recipients a quick idea about the content of the
memo.
It should be brief and precise.
For example,” Subject: Training session for employees of the SEO
department.”

Message body
This section states the message in one, two or three short paragraphs.
The body should first state the purpose of writing the memo, then move
on to the message.
If the content of this section is long, you may also want to include a
summary of the message.
The message should conclude with a clear call to action, i.e., what action
the recipients are expected to take.

Structure of a Memorandum
There are various types of memorandum formats e.g.-

From………………...
Date…………………………….

To………………………….
Subject…………………………...
OR
Date…………………………………………………………………..
From…………………………………………………………………..
To …………………………………………………………………….
Subject…………………………………………………………….

Initials or signature of writer

C Business Reports
A business report is an orderly presentation of facts about specific
business activity as programme.

A report is a basic management tool used in decision making.

In large scale organizations, top executives can’t keep a personal watch
over all the activities, so they have to depend on reports from the
heads of various departments.
A report is a communication from someone who has some information
to someone who wants to use that information.

Types of reports.
Reports are of different kinds.
They depend upon the organization’s business situations.

Broadly, they can be classified as:

Routine/ Periodic/Progress reports.

These are the most common types of reports written at regular intervals.
These may be weekly reports from the sales/ production/operations/
customer service personnel.
The reports facilitate the monitoring of work and decision making.

Informational reports.
These are reports that examine business situations/ problems and provide
factual information.

Justification reports with recommendations.

Often managers have to justify a decision that arises out of the facts
gathered and relevant to the problem.
In such cases, managers offer recommendations based on the analysis
and the interpretation.

Situational reports.
Managers are also expected to submit reports about their office trips,
conferences, and seminars to keep organization informed about what
they have gained from these activities.

Such reports do not follow a formal order.

Since they are informal in nature, letter/ memo format is generally used.

Feasibility reports.
All business projects may not appear profitable.
Therefore, based on analysis and interpretation of cost, benefits,
disadvantages, and future possibilities, managers have to point out
whether it is feasible to proceed with the project.

Research reports.
Research is the backbone of an organization.
Decisions about growth depend so much on research that it has to be
continuously carried out.
Often, business houses commission research studies that must examine
the real problem objectively and completely.

Business plan/ proposal.

These are persuasive reports that attempt to secure new business.
They answer all the basic questions that the investor might want to
know.
The report writer must write convincingly.

Reports can be written in:

Letter format
Memo format
Formal/ manuscript format

Characteristics of a good report

1. Precision.
In a good report, the writer is very clear about the exact purpose of
writing it.
His investigation, analysis and recommendations are directed by
this central purpose.
Precision gives a kind of unity and coherence to the report and
makes it a valuable document.
2. Accuracy of facts.
The scientific accuracy of facts is very essential to a good report.
Since reports invariably lead to decision making, inaccurate facts
may lead to disastrous decision.
3. Relevance.
The facts presented in a report should be not only accurate but
relevant also.
While it is essential that every fact included in a report has a
bearing on the central purpose, it is equally essential to see that
nothing relevant has escaped inclusion.
Irrelevant facts make a report confusing; exclusion of relevant
facts render it in complete and likely to mislead.
4. Reader-orientation
A good report is always reader-oriented.
 While drafting a report, it is necessary to keep in mind the
person[s] who is[are] going to read it.
A report meant for the layman will be different from another
meant for technical experts.
5. Objectivity of recommendation.
If recommendations are made at the end of a report, they must be
impartial and objective.
They should come as logical conclusion to investigation and analysis.
They must not reveal any self-interest on the part of the writer.
6 Simple and unambiguous language.
A good report is written in a simple and unambiguous language.
It is a kind of scientific document of practical utility; hence it
should be free from various forms of poetic embellishment like
figures of speech.
7. Clarity.
A good report is absolutely clear.
Clarity depends on proper arrangement of facts.
The report writer must proceed systematically.
He should make his purpose clear, define his sources, state his
findings and finally make necessary recommendations.
He should divide his report into short paragraphs giving them
headings, and insert other suitable sign posts to achieve greater
clarity.
8. Brevity
A report should be brief.
It is difficult to define brevity in absolute terms.
Nor brevity be laid down as a rule.
All that can be said is that a good report should be as brief as
possible. Brevity should not be achieved at the cost of clarity.
Nor should it be at the cost of completeness.
Sometimes the problem being investigated is of such importance that
it calls for a detailed discussion of facts.
Then a decision should not be evaded.
Brevity in a report is the kind of brevity one recommends for a précis.
Include everything significant and yet brief.
9. Grammatical accuracy.
The grammatical accuracy of language though listed at number 9
in the characteristics of a good report is of fundamental
importance.
It is one of the basic requisites of a good report as any other piece of
composition.
Who is going to read a report if its language is faulty?
Besides, faulty construction of sentence makes the meaning obscure
and ambiguous.

PREPARING THE REPORT.

Once you are clear about the purpose of writing a report, the
following five steps are suggested to write a report.
[i] Investigating the source of information.
[ii] Taking notes
[iii] Analyzing the data
[iv] Making an outline; and
[v] Writing report
Investigating the source of information.
Investigating the sources of information is a kind of spadework.
It is to be done right in the beginning.
The extent of investigation will of course, depend on the length and
importance of the report.
Major sources of information are company files, personal
observation, interviews, letters, questionnaires, library research.

Taking notes.
In the course of investigations, the writer keeps taking notes of
anything that appears to be related to the subject.
Then there is no time to analyze them and determine how they will be
of help in the final report.
But as the writer keeps turning them in his mind over and over again,
a kind of pattern starts emerging and he begins to be clear about what
is relevant and what is not.
It is very general kind of pattern but it gives the writer at least a
starting point.
Analyzing the data.
Now is the time to analyze the collected data in the light of the pattern
that has evolved.
A lot of data will have to be rejected while a need might be felt to
collect more data.
The final pattern will emerge at the stage. The writer should never
hurry through this stage, since this is the most important stage in
writing a report.

Making an outline.
Once the final pattern of the final report has taken shape in the
writer’s mind, he should prepare an outline to write the report. In this
outline, the problem is stated, the facts are recorded, they are briefly
analyzed, and the logical conclusions are arrived at.
An outline is note essential, but it should be found extremely helpful
in writing a systematic report.

Writing the report.

The last stage is that of writing the report.
It will need a complete shutting between the outline and the notes.
First a rough draft of the report is prepared.
Then it is revised, pruned and polished.
If the writer has some more time at his disposal, he will find it
advantageous to come back to his rough draft after, say, a couple of
days.
This short interval will make his revision work really meaningful.
The writer should also be careful that the language of the report is
simple, unambiguous and free from grammatical errors.
It is now to type it out in a proper form and submit it.

Organization of a Report
There are three ways in which a report can be organized:
1. Letter form
2. Memorandum form
3. Letter-text combination form.

1. Letter form
In case of brief, informal reports, the arrangement followed in
business letters is adopted.
Its main parts are the heading or the title, date, address, salutation,
the body, complimentary close and signature.
It is usually written in the first Person-I or We.
The body of the letter can be further divided into the following
parts:
 [i] Introduction-The introductory paragraphs present the terms of
reference and the subject to study.
Here the writer states the problem confronting him in the light of
the terms of reference and the relevant circumstances.
[ii] Findings-The next few paragraphs present the findings of the
investigation.
1v) conclusion- It should logically relate to the findings
[iii] Recommendations- Recommendations that logically follow
the findings are given in the last paragraph of the body.

2. Memorandum form.
Adopting the memorandum form is a simpler way of presenting the
reports, since here the formalities of the letter are done away with.
The title of the subjects is stated on the top.
This is followed by the name of the writer of the report, the date,
the actual text and the conclusion.
As in the letter form, the text of the report is divided into
paragraphs with headings and sub-headings.
Large business houses have different types of printed forms so
send reports.
This simplifies the procedure and ensures uniformity of style.
3. Letter-text combination.
Long reports are usually written in the letter text combination
form. A complete report in this form includes three major parts:
1. Introductory material;
2. The body of the report;
3. Addenda.
The complete outline of such a report is as follows:
1. Introductory parts
A Letter of transmittal or letter of presentation.
B Title page
C Contents page
D Summary.

2. Body of the report

A Definition of the problem
B Methods of procedure
C Findings
D Conclusions and recommendations
3. Addenda.
A Bibliography
B Appendix
C Index.

It is not essential that a report contains all these parts.

 Long reports containing most of these parts are generally
submitted in a book form.
Letter of transmittal or letter of presentation.
A letter of transmittal is a routine letter written to transmit the report
from the writer to the reader.
It performs several important functions:
[i] It provides a permanent record of transfer.
[ii] It shows the date on which the report was submitted
[iii] It states the name and the position of the writer of the
report
[iv] It also states when and by whom the report was
authorized.
[v] It may invite the reader’s comments and suggestions.
A letter of presentation is slightly different from a letter of transmittal.
In addition to giving information contained in the letter of transmittal, it
usually states the purpose and scope of the report, refers to the writer’s
sources of information, and highlights special features’.
If a letter of transmittal is written, the additional matter put in the letter
of presentation is included in the first part of the body under the heading
‘Definition of the problem’.
Title page
 The title page gives the title or heading of the report, the person [s]
to whom it is submitted, the date of submission and the name of
the writer [s].
Contents page.
This page gives the title and the page number of each chapter. If
the report contains illustrations, the contents page may also contain
a table of illustrations with their page numbers.
Summary
In case the report is very lengthy, it is advisable to include a
summary or synopsis of the report for ready reference.
Definition of the problem
This is the first part of the body of the report.
Here the terms of reference, the subject of the study and its importance
and scope are stated.
Method of procedure (Methodology)
This explains how the investigations were made and what the sources of
information were.
Findings.
It’s the main part of the report.
It contains the facts found out by the writer along with his comments.
It may include charts, graphs, statistical tables and even excerpts from
other published reports.
Conclusions and recommendations
Based on facts and findings, the writer draws some definite conclusions.
He puts forward some concrete suggestions or recommendations or
recommendations.

Bibliography.
If the writer of the report consulted some other materials, a list of
references and bibliography should be included.
Appendix.
These are statistical data, charts and diagrams that are incorporated in
the main body of the report.
Index.
In case of lengthy reports, an index of the contents of the report may be
included.
Signature. A report must be dated and signed by the person(s)
submitting it.
In case of a report prepared by a committee, the signature of the
chairman is sufficient

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. It is important for the sender of a message to conduct
audience analysis in order to choose the right form, media,
time among other aspects of communication.
In the light of the above describe the right audience for a
written message
2. Explain a memo as a form of written communication.
3. Outline the key components of a report