🏛️ Institutions and Governance
📘 1. Structure and Functions of the State (Chapter 3)
The state is the central concept in political science—it refers to a political organization with a
government that has authority over a specific territory and its people. The state has four essential
elements: a defined population, a specific geographic area, a functioning government, and
sovereignty, which means it has the ultimate authority to rule without interference. The state
performs several important functions to maintain order and serve its people. These include making
laws that everyone must follow, enforcing those laws through police and courts, collecting taxes to
fund public services, and defending the country through the military and diplomacy. For instance,
Germany’s government provides free education and healthcare using taxpayer money, while the
United States enforces national laws through a combination of federal and state police forces.
Understanding how the state works helps us grasp how power is used and how citizens interact
with their government.
🗳️ 2. Electoral Systems, Parties, and Legislatures (Chapters 10–12)
These chapters explore how political leaders are chosen, how political parties operate, and how
laws are made. Electoral systems are the methods used to count votes and determine winners. In
a First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) system, like in the UK or India, the candidate with the most votes in a
constituency wins—even if they don’t get a majority. In contrast, Proportional Representation (PR),
used in countries like Sweden, allocates seats based on the percentage of votes each party
receives. Some countries, like Germany, use a mixed system that combines both. Political parties
are organized groups with similar beliefs and goals, aiming to gain political power by winning
elections. In Bangladesh, for example, the Awami League and BNP are the two major parties.
Legislatures, such as parliaments or congresses, are bodies where elected representatives debate
and pass laws. These can be unicameral (one house), like in Bangladesh, or bicameral (two
houses), like the U.S. Congress. These systems affect how representative and fair a government
is.
🏛️ 3. Types of Governments and Power Structures (Federal vs. Unitary Systems)
Governments can be structured in different ways depending on how power is distributed. In a
federal system, power is shared between a central (national) government and regional (state or
provincial) governments. Each level has its own responsibilities, laws, and authority. The United
States is a good example, where individual states have their own constitutions, while also being
part of the national system. On the other hand, a unitary system gives most power to the central
government, with local governments carrying out decisions made at the top. France and
Bangladesh follow unitary systems, where most decisions are made by the national government.
Federal systems tend to work better in large or diverse countries, as they allow regions more
control, while unitary systems can be more efficient and unified, but may ignore local needs.
Understanding these systems helps us compare how different countries are governed.
💼 4. Corruption and Political Accountability (Chapter 5)
Corruption occurs when government officials misuse their power for personal gain—this includes
bribery, embezzling public funds, giving jobs to friends or family (nepotism), or manipulating
elections. Corruption undermines trust in government and harms the economy, especially when
resources meant for education, health, or infrastructure are stolen. For example, South Africa’s
former president Jacob Zuma faced serious allegations for using state money to renovate his
private home, while in many developing countries, corruption in public services often affects the
poor the most. Political accountability is the process of making sure leaders are held responsible
for their actions. This can happen through free and fair elections, investigative journalism, judicial
systems, and organizations like Transparency International, which expose and track corruption.
When citizens have access to information and the power to vote or protest, leaders are more likely
to act responsibly. Accountability strengthens democracy and helps ensure governments serve the
people fairly.
🌐 Democracy & Political Systems
Terms: Democracy, Direct democracy, Representative democracy, Democratic Peace Theory,
Populism, Polarization, Representation, Governance, Regime transition
1. Democracy places ultimate political authority with the people either directly or through
elected representatives.
2. Direct democracy involves citizens voting on laws and policies themselves rather than
through proxies.
3. Representative democracy entrusts decision-making to officials elected by the populace.
4. Democratic Peace Theory suggests that democracies are less likely to engage in armed
conflict with one another.
5. Populism arises when leaders claim to embody the unified “will of the people” against
perceived elites.
6. Polarization describes growing ideological distance and social division among a society’s
members.
7. Representation refers to the mechanisms by which elected officials reflect and act upon
public preferences.
8. Governance encompasses the processes, norms, and institutions through which authority
is exercised.
9. Checks and balances distribute power among branches to prevent abuses and ensure
accountability.
10.Electoral competition incentivizes politicians to respond to citizen demands through regular
elections.
11.Civil society organizations and free media support transparency and keep officials
answerable.
12.Corruption and clientelism undermine democratic legitimacy and erode trust in institutions.
13.Regime transition covers shifts between authoritarian and democratic systems, often
through revolution or reform.
14.Election fraud, weak rule of law, or external interference can stall or reverse democratic
transitions.
15.Sustaining democracy requires robust institutions, active civic engagement, and adherence
to the rule of law.
🧠 Political Theories and Ideologies
Terms: Classical liberalism, Conservatism, Socialism, Communism, Legitimacy, Power, State
formation, Realism, Institutionalism
1. Classical liberalism prioritizes individual rights, private property, and limited government
intervention.
2. Conservatism emphasizes tradition, social order, and gradual, cautious policy change.
3. Socialism advocates collective ownership of resources to achieve economic equality and
social welfare.
4. Communism envisions a classless society where the means of production are commonly
owned.
5. Legitimacy is the broadly accepted right of a government to rule and make binding
decisions.
6. Power describes the capacity of actors—individuals or institutions—to influence political
outcomes.
7. Hard power uses coercion or force, while soft power leverages attraction and persuasion.
8. State formation theories explore how political entities emerged through conquest, consent,
or necessity.
9. Institutionalism focuses on how formal rules and structures shape political behavior over
time.
10.Ideologies offer normative blueprints for organizing society and guiding policy choices.
11.Marxist theory links economic relations and class struggle to the distribution of political
power.
12.Realism in international relations views states as rational actors seeking security and
survival.
13.Liberal institutionalism argues that international organizations facilitate cooperation and
peace.
14.Ideological competition drives party formation, electoral strategies, and policy debates.
15.Mastery of these theories is essential for analyzing governmental systems and predicting
political behavior.
🏛️ Institutions and Governance
Terms: State structure, Federal system, Unitary system, Separation of powers, Bureaucracy,
Political accountability, Electoral system, Political parties, Corruption
1. State structure defines how executive, legislative, and judicial powers are allocated and
constrained.
2. Federal systems divide authority between central and regional governments, allowing local
autonomy.
3. Unitary systems concentrate decision-making power at the national level without
constitutionally guaranteed regions.
4. Separation of powers prevents concentration of authority by assigning distinct functions to
each branch.
5. Legislatures create laws, executives implement policy, and judiciaries interpret legal
disputes.
6. Bureaucracies consist of career civil servants who administer government programs and
regulations.
7. Political parties organize collective action, aggregate interests, and recruit candidates for
office.
8. Electoral systems translate votes into seats using formulas like first-past-the-post or
proportional representation.
9. Proportional representation encourages multiparty systems and coalition governments.
10.First-past-the-post often produces two dominant parties and clearer legislative majorities.
11.Political accountability ensures officials answer to the public through elections, oversight,
and media scrutiny.
12.Independent judiciaries and free press serve as checks on executive overreach and
corruption.
13.Corruption and rent-seeking weaken institutions and erode citizens’ trust in governance.
14.Institutional design influences policy stability, adaptability, and government effectiveness.
15.Strong, transparent, and accountable institutions are vital for democratic legitimacy.
📊 Methodology and Empirical Approaches
Terms: Scientific method, Hypotheses, Case studies, Comparative analysis, Polling, Sampling
error, Public opinion, Quantitative analysis, Qualitative analysis
1. The scientific method in political science involves systematic observation, measurement,
and hypothesis testing.
2. Researchers formulate hypotheses to explain relationships between political variables.
3. Case studies provide in-depth examinations of specific historical events or political
environments.
4. Comparative analysis identifies patterns by systematically comparing multiple cases or
countries.
5. Quantitative analysis applies statistical techniques to test theories and measure variable
correlations.
6. Qualitative analysis interprets textual, interview, or observational data to capture context
and meaning.
7. Public opinion research uses surveys to gauge citizen attitudes, preferences, and
behaviors.
8. Sampling techniques aim to select representative subsets of populations to minimize bias.
9. Sampling error quantifies the uncertainty inherent in estimating population parameters from
samples.
10.Poll design must address question wording, ordering effects, and respondent
comprehension.
11.Experimental methods, including field experiments, test causal relationships under
controlled conditions.
12.Content analysis systematically categorizes media, speeches, or documents to detect
patterns.
13.Mixed-methods research combines quantitative and qualitative approaches for richer
insights.
14.Longitudinal studies track changes over time to assess trends and causal dynamics.
15.Rigorous methodology is crucial for producing valid, reliable, and generalizable findings in
political science.
🌍 International Relations & Global Politics
Terms: Sovereignty, Realism, Liberalism (IR), Balance of power, International institutions,
Globalization, State interests, Democratic Peace Theory, Soft power
1. Sovereignty denotes a state’s ultimate authority over its territory and domestic affairs.
2. Realism views international relations as driven by competition among self-help states
seeking power.
3. Liberalism emphasizes cooperation through international norms, law, and organizations like
the UN.
4. Balance of power theory asserts that peace is maintained when no single state can
dominate others.
5. International institutions facilitate negotiation, conflict resolution, and collective security
arrangements.
6. Globalization intensifies interdependence through trade, communication, migration, and
technology.
7. State interests—security, economic welfare, and prestige—guide foreign policy decisions.
8. Democratic Peace Theory argues that democracies rarely fight each other due to shared
norms and accountability.
9. Soft power, or attraction-based influence, complements military and economic coercion in
diplomacy.
10.Non-state actors, including NGOs, corporations, and terrorist groups, shape the global
agenda.
11.Security dilemmas occur when defensive measures by one state are perceived as threats
by others.
12.Collective security arrangements aim to deter aggression via mutual defense commitments.
13.Economic sanctions provide non-military means to influence state behavior in the
international arena.
14.Regional organizations, such as the EU or ASEAN, can integrate policies and pool
sovereignty.
15.Mastery of IR theories enhances understanding of why states cooperate, compete, or resort
to conflict.
💰 Political Economy
Terms: Government spending, Welfare state, Taxation, Market regulation, Economic inequality,
Redistribution, Public goods, Neoliberalism, Austerity
1. Political economy studies how political institutions shape economic policies and resource
distribution.
2. Government spending finances public goods like infrastructure, education, and national
defense.
3. Welfare states provide social safety nets such as healthcare, unemployment benefits, and
pensions.
4. Taxation systems, progressive or regressive, determine how burdens and benefits are
shared across society.
5. Market regulation addresses failures like monopolies, externalities, and information
asymmetry.
6. Economic inequality measures gaps in income and wealth among different social groups.
7. Redistribution policies use taxes and transfers to reduce inequality and support vulnerable
populations.
8. Public goods are non-excludable and non-rival, requiring collective provision funded by
taxpayers.
9. Neoliberalism favors deregulation, privatization, and free-market reforms to spur growth.
10.Austerity policies cut spending and raise taxes to reduce government deficits and debt.
11.Ideological debates over state intervention shape the scope of welfare and regulatory
policies.
12.Trade agreements and tariffs reflect competing priorities of economic efficiency and
protectionism.
13.Financial crises, such as the 2008 meltdown, demonstrate the political ramifications of
economic shocks.
14.Populist movements often capitalize on public discontent over perceived economic
injustices.
15.Understanding political economy is key to analyzing how wealth distribution influences
power and policy.
🗳️ Elections, Parties, and Public Opinion
Terms: Electoral systems, Voter behavior, Party systems, Campaign strategies, Media influence,
Public opinion, Realignment, Turnout, Political socialization
1. Electoral systems determine how votes are aggregated and allocated to winners or seats.
2. Voter behavior studies why individuals select certain candidates or parties in elections.
3. Party systems describe the number, strength, and interaction of political parties within a
polity.
4. Campaign strategies include targeting demographics, message framing, and
get-out-the-vote efforts.
5. Media influence shapes issue salience and candidate images through coverage and
commentary.
6. Public opinion reflects the collective views and preferences of a population at a given time.
7. Realignment theories explain how long-term shifts alter party coalitions and voter loyalties.
8. Voter turnout measures the proportion of eligible citizens who cast a ballot in an election.
9. Political socialization is the lifelong process by which individuals acquire beliefs, values,
and norms.
10.Issue salience affects which topics become central in electoral debates and voter decisions.
11.Electoral laws, such as registration requirements, influence participation and
representativeness.
12.Negative campaigning can depress turnout or shift voter support by attacking opponents.
13.Opinion polls guide campaign tactics but risk creating self-fulfilling bandwagon effects.
14.Sociodemographic factors like age, race, and education often correlate with voting patterns.
15.Understanding these dynamics is essential for predicting election outcomes and democratic
health.
